Unit-1

Front axle and steering system

Axle
An axle is a shaft used in wheeled vehicles to carry weight of vehicle, support its components and may or may not
transmit torque to the wheels.
Axle

Front axle
Live axle
Dead Axle

Rear Axle
Fully floating axle
Semi floating axle

The classification of axles is also related to the type of suspension. In fact suspensions can be classified as rigid axle
suspension, independent wheel suspension and semi-rigid axle suspension. Similarly, the steering linkages are can also be
classified as steering linkages for rigid front axle and steering axle for independent front axle.

Front axle
Front wheels mount on front axle.

Requirement of front axle

The following is expected from a front axle.

To support the weight of the vehicle on the front end of the vehicle.
To provide a platform for other components such as the wheels and the suspension system.
To withstand bending and torsional stresses during the ride and when the brakes are applied.
In a four wheel drive it also transmits the power to the vehicle.

Types of front axle

1.

Dead front axle: These axles do not transmit power (i.e. they do not rotate). They only support the
weight of vehicle. Most of the cars (except the all wheel drives) have a dead front axle.

2.

Live front axle: They also transmit power while supporting the weight of the vehicle

Construction details (mostly with reference to front dead axle)

The front axle must withstand bending and twisting action (or moments) arising from vehicle driving and braking.
Bending (in horizontal direction) action occurs while braking.
Bending in vertical direction occurs due to load of the vehicle.
Twisting action occurs in the region between stub axle and spring seat.
It is generally drop forged in the form of an I section.
Also known a swivel pin. It is
The center portion is lowered to give a low chassis height.
a pin around which stub axle
pivots.

The axle shown here is a rigid axle, and

wheels are not independently
suspended.

Circular cross-section is chosen for beam to make it withstand the twisting action better.
Generally made up of 0.4% carbon steel or 1-3 nickel steel.
On the front axle points are provided to seat or attach the elements of suspension systems and stub axles.

Attachment between front main axle and stub axle

King Pin connection in Ford ModelPicture

T courtesy: Wikipedia
In earlier days of automobiles, a member known as the Kingpin was used to connect main axle to the wheel or stub axle. In
modern vehicles this member is seldom present. The Kingpin is, now a days, not physically present, but a line passing through
the pivot points of the steering knuckle which are located on the stub axle is considered as a virtual Kingpin.

Stub Axles
They form the link between wheels and front axle.
At one end, they are attached to main axle by a kingpin, and at the other end they are attached to wheels.

Stub axles are also forged. They are made of 3% nickel steel or alloy steels (with chromium and vanadium)

Types of Stub Axle

1.
2.
3.
4.

Elliot.
Reversed Elliot.
Lemoine.
Reversed Lemoine.

Major types of stub axles

Refer to the figure in book.

Front wheel drive shaft with rack and pinion steering gear and MacPherson strut independent suspension
Connection to differential
in transaxle

Tie rod inner end Tie rod outer end

In this figure, the front wheels

are independently suspended.

Picture courtesy: 4mechtech.blogspot.com

Inboard CV Joints: They are sliding or plunging joints. They move in

and out and thus allow the length of the shaft to change as the wheel
move up and down, or steer right or left. (Tripod joints)

Outboard CV Joint: They are fixed

joints. They only permit the angle of
the drive to change (Rzeepa joints)

Front live axle for a front wheel drive

The vehicles equipped with front

drive axles having unequal drive
shafts suffer from a problem of
torque steer, i.e. the tendency of
the vehicle to pull to one side
during heavy acceleration. The car
is pulled towards the side of
longer shaft.
This is because of unequal
distribution of torque between
both wheels.

Universal joint (Cardan joint). It is

a universal, but not a constant
velocity joint.
A double Cardan joint is, however,
a constant velocity joint.

Right and left driveshafts

can also be referred to as
halfshafts. The halfshafts
could be tubular or solid.

Purpose of steering system (or functions of the steering system)

To control the direction of vehicle when it is in motion by converting the rotary movement of steering wheel to
angular turn of front wheels.
To reduce the input force required by the driver to turn the vehicle.
i.e. the steering system provides the driver with a mechanical advantage. This mechanical advantage is provided
by steering gear. This results in a large steering force at wheels for a small force applied by the driver.
To reduce the wear caused to the tires (Angles of wheel alignment).
To facilitate its self-returning when a turn has been completed.
To work in consonance with the suspension system to prevent transmission of shocks and vibrations from road to
steering wheel.
To help ensuring perfect rolling motion of wheels at all times.
To convey to the driver or provide him with the feedback about the state of movement of vehicle (i.e. if the vehicle
is going straight or not). The driver can feel a moment or torque if any other forces are acting on the vehicle.

Requirements of a good steering system

It should be accurate
Easy to handle
It should be irreversible to some extent.

Basic components of a steering system

Steering wheel (Human interface): Manufactured from steel
Steering shaft
The steering shafts connects the steering wheel to the steering gearbox. The shaft is housed in a steering column.
Both steering column and steering shaft are made from steel.
Steering gear
It changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel to angular motion at front wheels.
Steering arm
It connects the tie rods to the wheels.

Types of steering system

1. Manual steering
2. Power steering: Provides assistance when the steering wheel is turned.

Hydraulic power steering

Electric power steering

Steering Mechanism

For perfect steering: All the wheels should rotate about an Instantaneous center (I).
This is the instantaneous center of zero velocity whose velocity at a particular instant
is zero.

Steering gearboxes
1. Recirculating-ball steering gear (suitable for both vehicles with rigid and independent front
axle)
This type of steering gearbox is generally used by heavier vehicles such as trucks, large cars and commercial vehicles.

Construction (major details)

From steering wheel to output shaft of gearbox

Worm shaft
Worm gear
Ball nut
Sector gear
Pitman arm shaft (or sector shaft), also known as drop arm

Q: What is sector gear?

A: A sector gear is a section of gear teeth from the gear wheel.
Q: What is pitman arm shaft?
A: It is the output shaft of the gearbox

Recirculating-Ball steering gear (case of independent front suspension)

Part of steering
knuckle

Ball joints (connecting

pitman arm to relay rod)
Kripal Singh can
also be referred
for the diagram.

Relay rod (also known as track rod).

This rod is in three parts; one
center part (relay rod) and two side
parts (tie rods). Tie rods also move
about ball joints.

For information on ends of tie rods and joints involved therein

https://www.blauparts.com/vw/vw_passat_tie_rod/vw_passat_tie_rod_ends/vw_passat_tie_rod_end.shtml

Cutaway view of steering gearbox

The rotation of steering shaft
rotates the worm (or worm gear)
which forces the balls to roll in
grooves of ball nut.
The rolling balls force the ball nut
to move up and down the worm.
In this gearbox each ball
recirculates from one end of the
ball nut to the other.
As the balls reach the end groove
of the nut, it returns through the
return guide.
The balls move between the nut
and worm, and hence friction is
very low.

Automobile engineering (Kripal Singh) can be referred to for a simple diagram of recirculating ball steering gear.

This steering gear has a bulky construction. It is more expensive than a Rack-and-Pinion steering gear system. It is difficult
to place in front wheel driven cars with independent suspension.

Advantages of Recirculating ball type steering gear

This type of steering gear system can be used with rigid axles also.
It can transfer higher forces in comparison to the Rack-and-Pinion steering gear.

2. Rack-and-Pinion steering gear

This gearbox is generally used by smaller vehicles.
Pinion gear meshes with a flat toothed rack..
The movement of steering rotates the pinion which
moves the rack to the right or left.
The motion of the rack shaft is transmitted to the tie
rod which moves the steering arms.
The steering arms turn the steering knuckle and
wheels.
Ball stud (at tie rod ends)

Part of steering
knuckle

Configurations
1. Pinion gear located at the sides (either
left or right) and not at center. Tie rods Ball joint (allows wheel to
rise and fall of the tie rod)
screwed to the rack (side take-off).
2. Pinion gear at the center and tie rods
at sides.
3. Pinion gear at the sides, but tie rods at
the center (center take off).
For information on ends of tie rods and joints involved therein
https://www.blauparts.com/vw/vw_passat_tie_rod/vw_passat_tie_rod_ends/vw_passat_tie_rod_end.shtml

3. Worm and worm wheel

This type of gearbox has square threads on the lower end of the steering shaft.
These threads mesh with a worm gear.
The worm gear is keyed on a square shaft to which a pitman arm (or drop arm) is also keyed.
Sometimes, instead of an entire worm wheel, a sector gear is only used.
This type of gearbox is quite common in tractors.

For figure refer to Kripal Singh

Steering ratio
It is the number of degrees that the steering wheel must be turned to turn the wheels one degree. For example, if
the steering ratio is 20:1 the driver must turn the steering wheel 20 deg to turn the wheel by 1 deg.
With power steering, the steering ratio could be as less as 24:1.
Higher the steering ratio, the more the steering wheel has to be turned to produce the desired effect. The steering
of vehicle, however, requires more effort.
Lower the steering ratio, the less the steering the wheel has to be turned to produce the desired effect. The steering
of vehicle, however, requires more effort.
The steering ratio can be determined by considering two factors;
1. Gear ratio.
2. Steering linkage ratio (in case of steering with pitman arm).
For steering gear with pitman arm (such as recirculating ball steering gear), the ratio is also determined by the relative
length of the pitman arm to steering arm.

Variable ratio steering

Steering gears can be designed to provide variable ratio steering. In such gearboxes, steering ratio varies as the steering
wheel moves away from straight position.
For example, the steering ratio can vary from 16:1 to 13:1. The higher steering ratio remains constant for up to say steering
rotation of 40 deg. Later the steering ratio decreases to 13:1. In such an arrangement higher steering ratio is useful for
highway driving and lower steering ratio is useful for city driving where sharp corners might have to be maneuvered.

 Out of these three gearboxes, the rack and pinion steering gearbox is most popular for cars. This is because of the fact
that the steering forces are light. It is also used for fast cars and medium sized vehicles (such as light vans).
The diameter of the pinion gear in case of rack and pinion steering gearbox is small. This restricts the mechanical
advantage offered by the gearbox.
In large cars and commercial vehicles such as trucks and buses this can prove to be a disadvantage, and therefore
other gearboxes such as recirculating ball type are used in them.
The rack and pinion gearbox is, however, the simplest of all in construction and operation. It provides negligible
damping from road shocks and vibrations.

Advantages of Rack-and-Pinion steering gear over recirculating ball type steering gear

It is simple in construction and operation.

It is more compact than the recirculating ball gear.
It is easier and more economical to manufacture than the other.
Less no of components in steering linkage (no idler arm, no pitman arm).
In this gear mechanism it is easier to limit the steering rack travel and hence steering angle.

References
Automobile engineering by R.K. Rajput
Automotive mechanics; by Crouse and Anglin
Theory of machines by Khurmi and Gupta