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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Expansive soils are highly fertile for agriculture purposes but they are treacherous for the
pavements, runways, embankments and light to medium loaded residential buildings resting
on them due to high swelling and shrinkage potentials of these soils caused by the moisture
fluctuations. This swelling shrinkage behaviour causes damage to the foundation systems,
structural elements and architectural features. The reason for this behaviour is the presence of
heaving mineral known as montmorillonite which possess an expanding lattice structure. This
clay mineral expands when it comes in contact with moisture. Those areas that have surface
deposit of clay, and climate characterised by alternating periods of rainfall and draught, causes
significant instability because of their wetting and drying cyclic process.Soils rich in these
minerals occur in many places all over the world especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Those areas that have surface deposits of clay, and climates characterized by alternating periods
of rainfall and draught, cause significant instability because of their wetting and drying cyclic
process. As a result of this cyclic, swelling and shrinkage, the cracks and deformations can be
observed in the structures established at these zones. Determination of swell potential of
expansive soils is generally done by one cycle of wetting although it has been shown that
behavior of expansive soils is considerably affected by the number of wetting-drying cycles.
One should take the effects of number of cycles on the swelling and shrinking behavior of
expansive soils into consideration since continuous wetting-drying cycles are observed in soils
in nature as a result of environmental effects (Tawfiq and Nalbantolu, 2009). Changes in the
swelling behavior of natural expansive soils due to wetting-drying cycles are well documented
but studies performed to see the influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behavior
of chemically stabilized soils are insufficient. The long-term behavior of foundations and earth
structures should be assessed, employing chemically stabilized soils, by performing such a
study (Rao et al., 2001).
Ground improvement methods such as stabilization by chemical additives, pre-wetting,
squeezing control, overloading, water content prevention are general applied method for the
solution of swelling problems. The stabilization, especially with lime and flyash, is a common
applied method among the others due its effective and economic usage. The findings from the
previous studies show that when lime and flyash is added to clay soils in the presence of water,
reactions including cation exchange, flocculation and pozzolanic reaction take place which is
responsible for modification of engineering properties.
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
Expansive soils are the soils which expand when the moisture content of the soils is increased.
The clay mineral montmorillonite is mainly responsible for this expanding nature. This
expanding nature causes severe movements in the soil. Structures built on such soils may
experience cracking and damage due to differential heave. When the water content is reduced,
it shrinks and cracks will develop. These cracks may develop into deep ground. Presence of
these cracks increases the permeability which will provide pathways for the water to enter into
deep soil.
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
can bond with negatively charged ions such as oxygen (O2-) or hydroxyl (OH-), as shown in
Figure 2.1(a). The relative sizes of the silicon and oxygen atoms cause this structural unit to
assume the shape of a tetrahedron. The alumino-magnesium octahedron consists of aluminium
or magnesium atoms surrounded by hydroxyls, as shown in Figure 2.1(d). These atoms are
arranged such that they can be thought of as forming an octahedral shape.
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Figures 2.1c and 2.1f show schematic symbols that represent the building blocks that are used
to depict the crystalline structure of the different clay minerals. By varying the manner in which
these two building blocks are arranged, a variety of different clay minerals can be created. A
number of different minerals are depicted in Mitchell and Soga (2005). The various minerals
are classified into groups according to the stacking sequence of the sheets. Following are the
three basic minerals:
1. Kaolinite
2. Illite
3. Montmorillonite
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagrams of structure: (a) kaolinite; (b) illite; (c) montmorillonite.
The bonding between the different building blocks plays a very important part in the behaviour
of the different minerals.
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
a) Effect of valence of cations: The lower valences of cations result in increase in DDL
thickness. Thus, for the same soil mineralogy, more swelling would occur in a sample having
exchangeable sodium (Na+) cations than in a sample with calcium (Ca2+or magnesium Mg2+)
cations (Nelson and Miller,1992).
Figure 2.3 Double Layer of Clay Minerals (after Oweis and Khera, 1998)
b) Effect of concentration of cations: The high concentration of cationsnear the surface of clay
particle creates a repulsive force between the diffuse double layer system (Chen, 1975). In
general, a thicker DDL and greater swelling are associated with lower cation concentrations
(Mitchell, 1976).
c) Effect of temperature: An increase in temperature cause an increase in DDL thickness, thus
temperature change has effect on strength, compressibility and swelling of soils (Mitchell and
Soga, 2005).
d) Effect of pH: Hydroxyls (OH)- are exposed on the surfaces and edges of clay particles. The
tendency for hydroxyls to dissociate in water, SiOHSiO + H is strongly influenced by pH.
The higher pH, the greater is the tendency for H to go into solution, and the greater the effective
negative charge of the particle. Alumina, exposed at the edges of clay particles, is amphoteric
(capable of functioning either as an acid or a base), and it ionizes positively at low pH and
negatively at high pH. As a result, positive diffuse layers can develop at the edges of some clay
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
particles in an acid environment which promotes a positive edge to negative surface interaction,
often leading to flocculation from suspension (Mitchell and Soga, 2005).
CEC (meq/100g)
Kaolinite
3-10
Illite
20-30
Montmorrilonite
80-120
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Low (1959) explained the swelling based on the double layer theory and Vant Hoffs law. The
swelling of clays is due to the difference in osmotic pressure between the mid plane between
adjacent particles and external solution. In clay-water system, the electric field of clay particles
serves the purpose of semi permeable membrane which allows water to enter into the zone of
high ion concentration near particle surface but not the cation and causes clay to swell.
According to Ladd (1959) osmotic pressure can act in clays since there exists difference in
solute concentration in double layer and outside solution and osmotic pressure concept can
satisfactorily explain a good portion of swelling for samples compacted wet of optimum. On
dry side of optimum, swelling is influenced by other factors in addition to osmotic pressure.
As referred by Mitchell (1993), Low (1961) described five possible mechanism of soil-water
interaction that would in turn influence volume change behaviour. These include hydrogen
bonding, hydration of exchangeable cations, attraction by osmosis, dipole attraction and van
der wall forces. Bolt (1956) considered the swelling pressure as equal to the difference between
the osmotic pressure in the central plates and the osmotic pressure in equilibrium solution.
As referred by Agrawal (1977), Seed et al. (1962) have classified the conditions that give rise
to swelling tendency into two general categories(viz.) which are physio-chemical and
mechanical. Physio-chemical factors are functions of interparticle electrical forces, particles
structure, and pore fluid composition. Mechanical factors include the effect of elastically
deformed particles and the compression of air in voids during imbibition of water.
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Table 2.2 Soil Properties that influence shrink-swell potential (Nelson and Miller, 1992)
Montmorillonites, vermiculites, and some mixed layer minerals
Clay Mineralogy
Soil Suction
Plasticity
of moisture content and that have high liquid limits have greater
potential for swelling and shrinking. Plasticity is an indicator of
swellpotential.
Flocculated clays tend to be more expansive than dispersed
clays. Cemented particles reduce swell. Structure are altered by
Soil Structure
Dry Density
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Conditioning
Climate
Groundwater
water sources
Vegetation
Permeability
Temperature
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
In Situ Conditions
Loading
Soil Profile
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
shrinkage index. There are numerous guidelines posted in the literature; however, the ones
presented in this section are the major highlights that have been made throughout the past 50
plus years. Regardless of the swell potential classifications, it was found that once the swell
potential is considered medium or marginal, the potential for a geotechnical hazard is
significant.
In 1948, Skempton proposed a methodology to classify expanse potential for all types of soil.
His methodology uses the percent of clay fraction (percent passing 0.002 mm) and the plasticity
index. Shown in Figure 2.4 is the swell potential related to the plasticity index and the clay
fraction.
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
% swell
Colloidal
Plasticity Index
Shrinkage Limit
content
Low
<10
<15
<18
>15
Medium
20
13-23
15-28
10-16
High
30
20-31
25-41
7-12
Very high
>30
>28
>35
<11
Prior to the 1959 USBR method for determining the swell potential of questionable soils, Holtz,
R.D. and Gibbs, H.J., in 1956, developed a method. This method was the basis of the USBR
method. The Holtz and Gibbs swell potential criteria is shown in Table 2.6
Table 2.6: Swell Potential Criteria per Holtz and Gibbs 1956.
Swell
% Swell under
Colloidal
Plasticity
Shrinkage
Potential
1 PSI
content
Index
Limit
Low
<10
<17
<20
> 13
Medium
20
12-27
12-34
8-18
High
30
18-37
23-45
6-12
Very High
>30
27
>32
<10
In 1955, Altmeyer had major criticisms of USBR method for classifying expansive soils and
suggested a new method based on correlations between the linear shrinkage, shrinkage limit
and the percent swell. His recommendations are shown in Table 2.7
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Shrinkage limit
Probable Swell
Degree of Expansion
<5
>12
<0.5
Non critical
5-8
10-12
0.5-1.5
Marginal
>8
<10
>1.5
Critical
In 1965, Ranganathan and Satyanarayana were the first researchers to use the concept of the
shrinkage index (i.e. SI = LL-SL) (Snethen et al. 1977). There suggestions for potential swell
classification based upon the shrinkage index are shown in Table 2.8
Table 2.8: Swell Potential per Ranganathan and Satyanarayan 1965.
Shrinkage Index
<20
Low
20-30
Medium
30-60
High
>60
Very high
In 1967, Terzaghi and Peck tried to relate the swell potential of an expansive soil with the
plasticity index of the soil. There results were determined by analysing the results found from
Seed, Woodword, and Lundgren 1962. The Terzaghi and Peck swell potential criteria is located
in Table 2.9
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Table 2.9: Swell Potential Criteria per Terzaghi and Peck 1967.
Plasticity Index
Swell Potential
0-15
Low
10-35
Medium
20-55
High
55 and greater
Very high
In 1973, Dakshanamurthy and Raman proposed another method to predict swell potential
using the same methodology that Casagrande outline back in 1948. Nevertheless,
Dakshanamurthy and Raman used engineering judgment and posted literature values to
generate the swell potential per the plasticity index liquid limit chart. The chart that
Dakshanamurthy and Raman proposed is shown in Figure 2.5
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Figure 2.5: Swell potential per the plasticity chart (Dakshanamurthy and Raman 1973)
As one can see the, the guidelines for swell potential ranges are different for the different
authors as well as the engineering index property that is correlated to the swell potential.
Nevertheless, these are the guidelines that have been set forth by the various authors have been
used in by different agencies. The underlying factors that have been used for correlation include
the Atterberg limits, the shrinkage limit up until the late-seventies and after the late seventies
the matric suction of the soil was added. It is interesting to note that when the suction was
added, the suction limit that as selected for the high classification is located near the air entry
value for expansive clays.
2.5.3 Pre-Wetting
The principle of pre-wetting is based on the assumption that if soil is allowed to swell by
wetting prior to construction and if the high soil moisture content is maintained, the soil volume
will remain essentially constant, achieving a non-heave state; therefore, structural damage will
not occur. Pre-wetting is usually done by method of ponding. Some successful and
unsuccessful application of this method are reported (Mc Dowell, 1965; Blight and Wet, 1965;
Williams, 1965; Bara, 1969; Gromco, 1974; Datye, 1977; SubbaRao and Satyadas, 1980) and
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
it is generally felt that a great deal of time is required to stabilise the required thickness of
highly impermeable expansive soil bed ( Snethen, 1979; Chen, 1988). In order to quicken the
process and to facilitate wetting with depth, a grid of boreholes can be installed before ponding
(Blight and Wet, 1965; SubbaRao, 1986).
It has also been felt that it is possible to change the swelling characteristics of expansive soils
by means of flooding a given site with proper choice of electrolyte solution of expansive soils
by means of flooding a given site with proper choice of electrolyte solution. (Katti, 1966; Ho,
1968; Frydman, 1977; SubbaRao, 1994).
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
are used as admixtures. Physical and chemical conditions of the natural soil, workability of
agent, economic and safety constraints, and specific conditions of the construction are the
factors that affect the application of these agents (Fang, 1991).
The replacement of univalent sodium (Na+) and hydrogen (H+) ions of soil with divalent (Ca2+)
calcium ions of lime results in cation exchange and flocculation-agglomeration reactions. Clay
content and plasticity is bound by these reactions. Agglomeration reaction of lime and soil is
used to destroycollapsible characteristics of some silts (Fang, 1991).
Soil-lime pozzolonic reactions are the ones which occur between lime, water, and soil silica
and alumina to form cementing material types. In nature, sources of alumina and silica may
possibly be clay minerals, quartz, feldspars, micas, and other silicates or alumino-silicate
minerals, either crystalline or amorphous. The clay minerals are crucial sources because lime
is effective as a stabilizer only in soils which contain clay. Sufficient addition of lime to a soil
results in an increase in the pH of the soil-lime mixture. Hence, the solubility of silica, alumina,
and clay minerals is also increased. Therefore, these materials become available for reacting
with lime. A simplified qualitative representationof some typical soil-lime reactions is
presented below. (Walker et al, 1992).
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+ + 2 OH
CSH
CAH
2.5.5.2 Carbonation
Carbonation is seen when the lime added to soil draws CO2 from air or soil to form CaCO3
instead of reacting with soil. This situation is observed when excessive amount of lime is added
or insufficient amount of pozzolonic clay presents in the soil. CaCO3 is a plastic material and
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
increases the soil plasticity. It also binds lime so that reactions between lime and
pozzolonicmaterials cannot occur. Therefore, beneficial results are not produces in thecase of
addition of excessive lime (Fang, 1991).
Types of lime
Lime, produced by burning the limestone in kilns at elevated temperatures, is a product which
is used for stabilization of highly expansive soils. The quality of lime depends on the parent
material and the production process. Types of lime used for stabilization purposes are quick
lime and hydrated lime.
Quick lime is more effective as stabilizer than the hydrated lime; but the latter is more safe and
convenient to handle. Generally, the hydrated lime is used which is also known as slaked lime.
The higher the magnesium content of lime, the less is the affinity for water and less is the heat
generated during mixing. Quick lime is used extensively for subgrade stabilization of heavy
clays.
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Class F: Production of Class F fly ash is typically made by burning bituminous coal or
anthracite. It can also be produced from lignite and subbituminous coal. Pozzolonic properties
are exhibited by this class offly ash but it has no self-cementing properties. This material can
be used for many soil stabilization applications by adding some activators (lime etc.) into fly
ash to obtain cementitious properties.
Class C: Typically, burning of lignite or subbituminous coal results in Class C type of fly
ash. This class can also be produced from anthracite or bituminous coal. Total calcium content,
expressed as calcium oxide (CaO), of this type of fly ash is more than 10%. In addition to
having pozzolonic properties, Class C fly ash also has some cementitious properties.
In this study, Fly Ash taken from Soma Thermal Power Plant is used.
Cokca (2001) showed that the swelling potential of expansive soils was reduced by
approximately 68 percent when Class C fly ash was added. Puppala, Punthutaecha,
andVanapalli (2006) showed that treatment with Class F fly ash reduced the swelling pressures
of expansive soils by as much as 65 percent.
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
the flocculated structure of clay and formation of more expansive and permeable soil having a
dispersed structure.
In the study performed by Al-Homoud et al, (1995), expansive characteristicsof soils which
were exposed to swell-shrink cycles were investigated. Tests were conducted on six different
soils with liquid, plastic, and shrinkage limits varying between 65-90%, 15-40% and 10-20%,
respectively. During the experiments full swell-partial shrink method were used. The results
showed that as the number of cycle increases, swell potential decreases. Furthermore, it was
noted that first cycle caused the maximum reduction in swelling potential and swell percent
reached to equilibrium after conducting 4-5 cycles. The authors explained the swell reduction
with the soil particles rearrangement.
Basma, (1996) studied on four different soils to determine the effect of cyclicswellshrink on
expansive soils. Both partial and full shrink methods were applied. For partial shrink, samples
were allowed to dry at room temperature, and for full shrink, samples were exposed to sunlight.
The results of the experiments showed that an increase in the swell potential was observed after
full shrink and a decrease was seen after partial shrink. Swell potential came to a constant value
at the end of 4-5 cycles. Apart from the other researchers, Basma (1996) performed ultra sound
investigation test on samples, and found out that void ratio of samples that were exposed to full
shrink cycles increased and that of ones which were exposed to partial shrink cycles decreased.
Doostmohammadi et al, (2009) investigated the effect of cyclic wetting drying on swelling
potential and swelling pressure of mudstone composed of sediments with silt and clay sized
particles. Full swell-full shrink tests were applied on samples and the results showed that both
swell potential and pressure increased. The tested samples were taken from an area where the
hydroelectric power plant called Masjed-Soleiman had been constructed. Power house of that
project intersected with mudstone interlayers. In order to monitor the swell pressure on
concrete linings, during construction of the power house, total pressure cells were installed
behind linings. Records were taken during six-year period to evaluate the cyclic swell-shrink
behaviour of mudstone. The results of the laboratory and field tests were consistent in showing
an increase in swell potential after cyclic wetting-drying.
Tawfiq & Nalbantolu, (2009), studied the effect of the cyclic wetting anddrying on the
swelling behaviour of a natural expansive soil with liquid limit and plasticity index values of
64% and 36%, respectively. During the experiments both full swell-full shrink and full swellpartial shrink methods were applied. Results of the experiments showed that swell potential
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
increased after full swell-full shrink cycles and decreased after full swell-partial shrink cycles.
Authors explained the swell potential increase after full shrink cycles with the decrease in the
water content and development of macro cracks at the end of the second cycle that allowed
water to penetrate into soil pores. Also, swell potential decrease due to partial shrink method
was explained by the high water content existing before the wetting procedure. For the full
swell full shrink and full swell-partial shrink cycles swell potential come into equilibrium
after the fifth and the first cycle, respectively.
Figure 2.6 Effect of full swell-full shrink and full swell-partial shrink on swell
potential of an expansive soil (Tawfiq & Nalbantolu, 2009)
Tripathy& Rao, (2009) carried out cyclic swellshrink tests under 50 kPa of surcharge
pressure on a compacted expansive clay with liquid limit and plasticity index of 100% and
58%, respectively. In this study, both of theshrinkage methods were used as that of
Tawfiq&Nalbantolu, (2009) studies. Increase in swell potential was observed after full
shrink cycles even after the first cycle and swell potential decreased for partial shrink cycles.
Swell potential came into equilibrium after five or more cycles.
Turkoz, (2009) conducted tests on an expansive soil obtained by mixing different percentages
of bentonite with high plasticity Silty Clay to determine the effect of wetting-drying on
microstructure. Samples were allowed to swell fully and then dried to shrinkage limit. Only the
swell values were presented in the study. Swell percentages could not be presented due to the
deformations occurred on the surface of samples during drying. The results showed that after
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
each cycle, swell amount decreased. The reduction was explained by the flocculation of
particles.
In addition to these researchers, the studies of Popesco (1980) and Osipov et al. (1987) on
non- stabilized soils showed that full swell-full shrink cycles caused an increase in the swelling
potential of soils and also the studies of Chen (1965), Chen et al. (1985) and Blumel (1991)
showed that reduction occurred in swelling potential of expansive soils that exposed to full
swell-partial shrink cycles (Basma, 1996).
Figure 2.7 Effect of wetting-drying cycles on plastic limit of lime treated soils (Rao,
2001)
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Another study was also performed by Rao et al, (2001) on lime-treated expansive soils. This
time,the effect of cyclic wetting drying cycles on swell potential of lime treated expansive
soils was investigated. Full swell-full shrink method was used as in the previous study. The
results of the experiments indicated that the effect of lime treatment was partially reduced after
four wetting-drying cycles.
Guney et al, (2007) also conducted cyclic swell shrink tests to determine the long term
behaviour of lime-treated clayey soils. During the tests, samples were dried to their initial
moisture content. Tests were carried out on three different soils. During the study two different
proportions of lime; 3% and 6%, were used. At the end of the tests, swell potential of untreated
Soils reduced in the first cycle and reached to equilibrium after the fourth cycle. However,
swell potentials of 3% and 6% lime treated soils increased(fig 2.8).
Figure 2.8 Change of Swell Percent for Soil A and lime treated Soil A (Guney et al,
2007)
The beneficiary effect of lime stabilization in controlling the swelling potential of lime treated
soil is partially lost on subjecting them to cycles of wetting and drying. Author explained that
this behaviour is a result of cyclic wetting and drying, which leads to gradual destruction of
pozzolanic reaction of lime treated specimens and partial breakdown of inter-particle
cementation.
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Rao A. & Rao M., (2008) investigated the effect of cyclic drying-wetting on the swelling
behaviour of expansive soil stabilized by using fly ash cushions that were treated with cement
and lime. Full swell-full shrink procedure was applied during the tests. Reduction in swell
potential was observed at the end of the tests. The reduction in swell potential increased with
an increase in cushion thickness. Also fly ash cushions treated with cement showed more
reduction in heave compared to the ones treated with lime. Swell potential reached to
equilibrium after three and four cycles for the fly ash cushions treated with cement and lime,
respectively.
In the study performed by Akcanca & Aytekin, (2011), effects of wetting drying cycles on
the lime treated samples prepared by mixing sand and bentonite in different percentages were
investigated. Only swell pressure testswere performed and samples were allowed to dry until
their moisture content reaches to a value slightly smaller than their initial moisture content.
Test results showed that there was a partial loss of the beneficiary effect of chemical treatment.
Figure 2.9: Cyclic swell-shrink behavior of samples containg 20% bentonite treated
with lime (Akcanca & Aytekin, 2011) Kalkan,
Kalkan, (2011) studied the effect of cyclic swell-shrink on natural expansive clay samples
stabilized by silica fume. During the experiments full swell-partial shrink procedures were
applied. An improvement in the durability of treated samples against wetting-drying was
observed at the end of the tests. Furthermore, the results of the experiments showed that as the
percent of the stabilizer increased, swell potentials of samples reached to equilibrium more
rapidly.
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTATION AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 General
This chapter deals with the materials used and detailed experimental procedures adopted in the
laboratory.
Soil Properties
Specific Gravity
2.64
Gravel
Sand
3.6
Silt
45.4
clay
51
Liquid Limit
76%
Plastic Limit
22%
Plasticity Index
54%
IS Soil Classification
CH
Compaction Properties
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
1.64
19%
135%
3.2.2 Lime
Calcium Oxide (lime) was purchased in local market, Hanumakonda, which is having 95% purity
of CaO and remaining 5% impurities.
3.2.3 Flyash
The fly ash used in the present study was brought from NTPC Ramagundam power plant in
Telangana. The flyash was classified as Class F with CaO percentage of 3.14 (which is less
than 10%) by conducting EDAX test in NFTDC Hyderabad. Further, it was having the
following chemical composition.
Table 3.2: Chemical composition of fly-ash
S.No.
Components
Composition (%)
1.
SiO2
61.5
2.
Al2O3
10.27
3.
Fe2O3
3.12
4.
CaO
3.14
5.
TiO2
0.99
6.
MgO
0.42
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
4. Atterbergs Limits
5. Standard Proctor Compaction
6. Swell Potential test
7. Swell Pressure test
8. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Swelling Pressure - The pressure which the expansive soil exerts ifthe soil is not allowed to
swell or the volume change of the soil is arrested.
Swelling potential and swelling pressure for soil samples is carried out in accordance with
IS.2720 Part 41(1977). The method used was consolidometer method.
3.4 Methodology
The index and engineering properties of the black cotton soil were analysed. From the index
and engineering properties soil was found to be very expansive. Soil stabilization with
chemicals was chosen in order to improve the properties of soil. The methodology is described
below
Preparation of Test Samples
Samples were obtained by mixing soil with different percentages of Fly Ash varying from 10%
to 20% and lime changing between 2% and 8% (by dry weight of soil). Before the preparation
of samples, soil was air-dried, grounded and then oven-dried at 110 C for one day. After that
the materials were sieved through 2mm sieve. Then predetermined amount of each material
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
was put into bowl and mixed with a plastic spoon. After dry mixing, they were mixed with
optimum amount of water. After mixing with water, materials that sticked to each other were
separated by hand.
Finally, the sample was put into plastic bag and allowed to wait one day in desiccator to have
homogeneous water distribution. For the cured samples, samples that were prepared according
to above procedure, were kept 7 days and 28 days in the desiccators.
Phase 1: Index properties
The lime was thoroughly mixed by hand in different composition (2%, 4%, 6%,
8%)until homogeneity was reached, and the mixture was quickly stored in a large plastic bag
to prevent loss of moisture content. All lime-treated soil specimens were tested compaction
characteristics. The same is done with fly-ash mixed samples (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%) and limeflyash mixed samples (6% lime and varying fly-ash content) at different proportions.
Atterbergs limits test were carried out after 1-day curing period and optimum lime
34
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Deflection values were recorded at least until the primary swell was completed (3-4 days)..
After the completion of swelling, the water in the cell was poured out and the oedometer was
dismantled. Then the sample was taken and weighed.
35
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 GENERAL
In this chapter a detail discussion on the results obtained from various laboratory tests are
presented.
LL/PL/PI (%)
flyash mix.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
LL
PL
PI
LIME (%)
36
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
60
LL/PL/PI
50
LL
40
PL
30
PI
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
Flyash (%)
37
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
BC+ 0% Lime + 0 % FA
76
22
54
BC+ 6% Lime + 0 % FA
56
27
29
BC+ 6% Lime + 10 % FA
52
28
24
BC+ 6% Lime + 15 % FA
51
30
21
50
31
19
38
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
39
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
OMC (%)
MDD (g/cc)
BC+ 0% Lime + 0 % FA
20
1.64
BC+ 6% Lime + 0 % FA
25
1.31
BC+ 6% Lime + 10 % FA
28
1.28
BC+ 6% Lime + 15 % FA
30
1.24
31
1.24
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
Lime
10
15
20
Flyash
L=0 0 10
15 20
Lime(6)-flyash
40
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
The improvement is due to the following two basic reactions: short-term reaction including
cation exchange and flocculation and long-term reaction including pozzolanic reaction.
The fly ash has potential to provide multivalent cations (Ca2+, Al3+, Fe3+, etc.), which promote
flocculation of clay particles by cation exchange (Mitchell 1993). As a result, the specific
surface area and water affinity of the samples decrease, which implies a reduction in the values
of swelling.
Adding a small amount of lime (6%, by dry weight of soils) in addition to the fly ash decreases
the swell potential further This may be attributed to the presence of quick lime, which ensures
a quick pozzolanic reaction leading to the formation of a cemented matrix.
8
7
6
L=0
L=2
L=4
L=6
L=8
1
0
cycles
Fig 4.6 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 1-day curing
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
41
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.7 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 1-day curing
9
8
7
6
L=0
L=2
L=4
L=6
3
L=8
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.8 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 7-day curing
42
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.9 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 7 days curing
9
8
7
6
L=0
L=2
4
L=4
L=6
L=8
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.10 Swell potential of lime stabilised soil with 28 days curing
43
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
L=0
L=2
1.5
L=4
L=6
L=8
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.11 Swell pressure of lime stabilised soil with 28 days curing
The wettingdrying cycling effect on swelling potential and swelling pressure for all Soil of
samples are given in Figs. 4.5 to 4.10, respectively. From these figures, it can be seen that both
of the swelling potential and swelling pressure decrease with increasing number of cycles, for
untreated soil sample. The most reduction is recorded after the first cycle and the reduction
gradually reaches to equilibrium at the fourth cycle. On the other side, the lime-stabilized soil
samples, show a gradual increase in swelling percent and pressure from the first cycle to the
fourth cycle. One of the reasons of the low swell potentials of lime-treated samples is their
chemical stabilization. It notably reduces the swell potential and pressure of the expansive soil
samples. Because of short-term lime modification, the swell potentials lime-treated expansive
soil samples reduced remarkably. The increment of swell potential and pressure for the limetreated clayey soil samples, probably suggests partial breakdown of cemented soil aggregates
due to cyclic wetting and drying process. This could also be responsible for the small to
moderate swelling.
4.5.2 Flyash stabilised samples
Flyash was added to the soil in proportions varying from 10% to 20%. The swell potential and
swelling pressure tests were conducted on optimum mixes which were obtained from standard
44
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
proctor compaction tests. The swelling behaviour of samples at different curing period are
shown in following figs.4.12 to 4.17.
9
8
Swell Potential(%)
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.12 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
FA=0
FA=10
1.5
FA=15
1
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.13 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
45
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
9
8
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
1
Cycles
Fig 4.14 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
FA=0
1.5
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.15 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
46
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
9
8
Swell potential(%)
7
6
5
FA=0
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
2
1
0
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.16 Swell potential of flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Swell pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
2
FA=0
1.5
FA=10
FA=15
FA=20
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.17 Swell pressure of flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Variation in swell potential and swell pressure with no of cycles for soil treated with different
stabilizers are presented in graphical form and shown above. It was observed that the swell
potential and swell pressure increases with number of cycles for stabilised samples. The
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
decreased values of swell potential and pressure in first cycle is due to flocculation and
aggregation. This aggregate bond breaks with application of number of cycles causing increase
in swelling.
4.5.3 Lime-flyash stabilised samples:
The optimum lime content was found to be 6% from liquid limit testing of the lime stabilised
soil samples. For the samples of lime-flyash stabilised soil, the optimum lime content,6% is
mixed with different percentage of flyash, 10%, 15%, 20%. The swelling behaviour results are
shown in figures below from fig. 4.18 to fig.4.23, for different curing period.
9
8
7
6
5
L=6 FA=10
L=6 FA=15
L=6 FA=20
L=0 FA=0
1
0
I
II
III
IV
cycles
Fig 4.18 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
Swell Pressure(kg/cm2)
3
2.5
2
L=6 FA=10
1.5
L=6 FA=15
L=6 FA=20
L=0 FA=0
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycle
Fig 4.19 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 1-day curing
48
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
9
8
7
6
5
L=0 FA=0
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
3
L=6% FA=20%
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.20 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
2.5
2
L=0 FA=0
1.5
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
0.5
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.21 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 7 days curing
49
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Swell potential(%)
7
6
5
L=0 FA=0
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
2
1
0
I
II
III
IV
Cycles
Fig 4.22 Swell potential of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
Swell pressure(kg/cm2)
2.5
L=0 FA=0
1.5
L=6%, FA = 10%
L=6%, FA=15%
L=6% FA=20%
0.5
0
1
Cycles
Fig 4.23 Swell pressure of lime- flyash stabilised soil with 28 days curing
50
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
4.5.4 Effect on swelling after fourth cycle on one day cured samples
6
Swelling potential(%)
Lime
10
15
20
Flyash
L=0
10
15
20
Lime(6)-flyash
Fig. 4.24 Effect of four cycles on stabilised samples for 1-day curing
It was observed that after fourth cycle, swelling potential of lime stabilised samples decreases
with increase in lime content. It means that lime stabilised soil is still effective after breakdown
of cemented soil aggregates. But in case of flyash, after fourth cycle, the swelling of 10% flyash
is more than swelling of soil after fourth cycle. And swelling values of other flyash content is
also high. It means that it has lost the stabilisation effect due to breaking of bonds. But in case
of lime-flyash samples, the swelling values are very low. It means the pozzolanic effect of lime
and flyash is preserved in this case.
51
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
8.3
8.1
7.8
LIME=2
0.8
0.7
LIME=4
0.53
0.45
0.41
LIME=6
0.35
0.28
0.25
LIME=8
0.26
0.21
0.18
FLYASH =0
8.3
8.1
7.8
FLYASH =10
4.5
3.4
FLYASH =15
3.8
3.4
2.8
FLYASH =20
2.5
1.9
1.7
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
0.35
0.28
0.25
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
0.25
0.2
0.16
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
0.1
0.08
0.07
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.08
0.08
0.079
It was observed that there was decrease in swell potential of the soil with increase in curing
period. The percentage decrease of swell potential in case of lime was between 15% -20%. And
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
that in case of flyash stabilised samples was between 25% to 35%. The decrease in swelling
potential due to curing can be attributed to the time-dependent pozzolanic and self-hardening
properties (formation of cementitious compounds) of fly ashes.
The percentage decrease in lime-flyash mixes was observed to be 1% to 36%.
Table 4.4 Effect of curing on swell potential of last cycle
Swell Potential(%)
Amount of stabilizer(%)
1-day
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
4.9
4.9
4.8
LIME=2
3.5
2.9
2.7
LIME=4
2.25
2.1
LIME=6
2.66
2.2
LIME=8
2.5
1.9
1.9
FLYASH =0
4.9
4.9
4.8
FLYASH =10
5.4
5.1
4.2
FLYASH =15
4.6
4.4
3.7
FLYASH =20
3.6
3.3
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
2.66
2.2
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
2.47
1.99
1.46
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
1.45
1.23
1.2
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.67
0.51
0.49
53
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
The percentage decrease in swell potential of lime treated samples after fourth cycle was
observed to between 20% to 30%, and in flyash, it was 15% to 20%. The effect in case of limeflyash mixed samples were h, between 15% to 40%.
The main reason for this is pozzolanic reaction, which is time and temperature dependent.
During this period, high pH in the treated soils causes dissolution of silica and alumina from
the structure of the clay minerals and combine with calcium to produce new cemented chemical
compounds, calcium silicate hydrates (CSH), and calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), which
mainly contribute to the increase in the long-term shear strength of expansive soils.
54
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Fig. 4.25 XRD comparison of untreated soil and lime treated soil
Fig. 4.26 XRD comparison of untreated soil and fly ash treated soil
In figure 4.27, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 10 (Lime-Fly ash treated soil) in shown.
It can be observed that lime treated soil contains Quartz (Peaks at 3.34, 4.25 and 1.81 []),
Calcite (Peaks at 3.02, 1.87 and 2.28 []) and Illite (Peaks at 20.02, 35.02 and 24.29 []).
Since soil is treated with fly ash, hence presence of Calcite is traced and presence of Illite
indicating the reduction in swelling.
55
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
Fig. 4.28 XRD comparison of untreated soil before cycles and after fourth cycle
In figure 4.29, X-ray diffraction pattern of soil sample 12 (Lime = 6% Fly ash = 15% without
cycle) and sample 11 (Lime = 6% Fly ash 15% and after 4 cycle) have been compared. X-ray
diffraction pattern shows that sample 12 contains Volkonskoite (Peaks at 4.49, 2.56 and 15.0
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
[]) and Quartz (Peaks at 3.34, 4.25 and 1.81 []); and sample 11 shows presence of
Nontronite (Peaks at 4.48, 2.56 and 15.2 []) and Halloysite (Peaks at 10.10, 4.46 and 3.4 []).
Nontronite and Halloysite, both are swelling minerals confirming the increase in swelling of
sample 11 more than sample 12.
Fig. 4.29 XRD comparison of lime-flyash treated soil before cycles and after fourth cycle
Table 4.5 is showing swelling potential for 1-day, 7 days and 28 days cured soil sample with
amount of stabilizers.
Table 4.5 Swelling potential for 1-day, 7 days and 28 days cured soil sample
Swell Potential(%)
Amount of stabilizer(%)
1-day
7-days
28-days
LIME=0
8.3
8.1
5.5
4.9
7.8
5.4
4.9
4.8
LIME=2
0.8
2.8
2.9
0.7
2.5
2.7
2.7
1.9
2.1
LIME=4
LIME=6
2.1
2.2
0.25
1.5
LIME=8
1.8
1.9
0.18
1.3
1.8
1.9
0.45 2.3
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IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
FLYASH =0
8.3
8.1
5.5
4.9
7.8
5.4
4.9
4.8
FLYASH =10
4.5
4.9
5.1
5.1
3.4
4.2
4.2
FLYASH =15
3.8
3.4
4.1
4.3
4.4
2.8
3.4
3.7
3.7
FLYASH =20
2.5
1.9
2.9
3.2
3.3
1.7
2.5
2.7
LIME=6, FLYASH=0
2.1
2.2
0.25
1.5
LIME=6, FLYASH=10
1.8
LIME=6, FLYASH=15
0.1
0.9
LIME=6, FLYASH=20
0.08 0.5 0.56 0.67 0.08 0.45 0.5 0.51 0.079 0.43 0.48 0.49
1.1
58
1.2
IMPACT OF CYCLIC WETTING AND DRYING ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF LIME-FLYASH STABILISED SOIL
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn based on the laboratory studies carried out in this
work.
1. The swelling potential and swelling pressure of black cotton soil treated with lime and
flyash is decreased effectively with increase of lime, flyash and lime-flyash content.
However, the value of swelling potential and swelling pressure became almost 0 after
addition of lime 6%-flyash 15% and lime 6%-flyash 20%.
2. On application of number of cycles, the swelling behaviour of lime stabilized, flyash
stabilized and lime-flyash stabilized samples increases.
stabilized samples was very high, the beneficial effect of stabilization in controlling the
swelling potential of treated samples is partially lost, on subjecting them to cycles of
wetting and drying.
3. When the swelling behavior of soils were compared for different curing period, 1day,7days and 28 days, there was significant decrease in the swelling behavior of the
treated soil in 28 days as compared to the 1-day swelling.
4. The X-Ray diffraction studies have shown that formation of Calcium Aluminium
Silicates and Calcium Sulphate Hydrate minerals, which evidence the formation of
cementing agents, which are responsible for reduced swelling of soil.
59