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1. INTRODUCTION
More and more chimneys are required to carry vertically and discharge to the atmosphere gaseous products of combustion,
chemical waste gases, exhaust air, etc.
There are several types of steel chimneys
self-supporting chimney
guyed chimney
stayed chimney (on a supporting column)
bracketed chimney (on a nearby building).
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This lecture covers only self-supporting chimneys. The principles of calculation which are given here would have to be
modified for application to other types of chimney.
There are also several types of self-supporting chimney
In double-skin or multi-flue chimneys, it is recommended that the liners are allowed to deform independently from the
structural shell. If they are not independent the effects of structural deformations of the structural shell on the behaviour of
the liners should be studied.
The mechanical properties and the chemical composition of structural steels should comply with the European Standard EN
10025 [1].
For high temperatures, the yield stress and the Young's modulus of steel are modified as shown in Section 2.5.
In order to limit the corrosion allowances (see Section 2.6) stainless or alloy steels should be used. Ordinary stainless steels
have poor corrosion resistance in the presence of condensing sulphuric or other acids and are therefore not recommended in
chimneys burning fuels containing sulphur under conditions of medium or high chemical load. They are acceptable when
steel temperature is less than 65C and acid concentration is less than 5%.
Where it is not possible to avoid high chemical loads, the use of high nickel alloy steels is a solution.
2. ACTIONS
2.1 Permanent Load
The permanent load includes the weight of all permanent parts, i.e. shell, fittings, linings, flues, and insulation and any
permanent equipment.
2.3 Wind
The calculation of the wind actions is described according to the Model Code for Steel Chimneys edited by CIC.IND [2].
2.3.1 Basic wind speed Vb
The basic wind speed, corresponding to the chimney site, is defined as the mean hourly speed at 10m above ground level in
open country which occurs once every 50 years. Although steel chimneys are normally replaced after a shorter period than
50 years, the basic recurrence period is taken as 50 years and the factor of safety is determined according to a design life
period (20 years for instance).
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The determination of the factor of safety according to a design life period is not discussed further in the present lecture.
2.3.2 Design wind speed
The design wind speed at level z above ground is obtained from the basic wind speed Vb multiplied by three factors:
V (z) = Vb k(z) kt ki... (m/s)
where
* k(z) is the height factor: k(z) = max [1 , (z/10)]
is equal to 0,14 if the chimney is erected in open terrain or projects well above the surrounding buildings.
* kt is the topographical factor:
kt is generally fixed by the contract. The following method for the determination of kt is valid for situations in
which the chimney (height h above its foundation) is erected on a hill or escarpment which is described by:
u : the upwind slope 0,05
d : the downwind slope 0,05
U : the horizontal length of upwind slope
Then kt = 1 + 1,2 E [1 - x/UE - h/UE] 1
where:
x is the distance of the chimney from the crest of the escarpment
E = u and UE = U if u < 0,3
E = 0,3 and 3,3 UE = U u if u > 0,3
* ki is the interference factor:
- if the height of the interferance object is less than half the chimney height: ki = 1
- if the interference object is an almost cylindrical structure:
ki = 1,25 - a (0,15/9d') for 6d a 15 d
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ki = 1 for a > 15 d
where
a is the distance of chimney from the interference object
d' is the diameter of the interference object
- if a 6 d, ki should be determined by a wind tunnel test.
2.3.3 Mean hourly wind load in the direction of the wind
The mean hourly wind load per unit length of shell is:
Wm (z) = a [V(z)]2 CD d (z) / 2 ... (N/m)
where is the density of air: a = 1,25 - (h1/8000) .. (kg/m3)
h1 is the altitude of the chimney site (m)
d (z) is the outside diameter of the chimney at height z (m)
CD is the shape factor which depends on Reynolds number Re:
Re = 6,9.104 V(z) d(z)
CD = 1,2 if Re 3.105
CD = 1,2 - 1,36 (log Re - 5,48) if 3.105 Re 7.105
CD = 0,7 if Re 7.105
For chimneys with vanes (see Section 2.3.7), CD = 1,4 applied to the outer diameter of the chimney in the vaned part and
not to the outer dimension of the vanes.
For attachments (such as ladders), the area presented to the wind is factored by 1,2 for circular members and by 2 for other
shapes.
2.3.4 Design wind load in the direction of the wind
W (z) = Wm (z) G ... (N/m)
where
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G is the gust factor which represents the influence of the fluctuating part of wind actions.
G=
(1 + 2 g i)
with T =
=
if connections are executed by ordinary bolts:
=
if a lining is continuously attached to the shell:
=
where
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St 0,1 + 0,1
If a is smaller than 6d, wind tunnel tests are necessary.
Vortex shedding can be neglected if the critical wind speed exceeds 1,2 times the maximum design speed at the top of the
chimney.
If not, the amplitude y of the movement of the top of the chimney in the cross-wind direction is calculated as follows:
= F (K)
where:
d1 is the diameter of shell averaged over the top third of its height
K=
with mo =
where
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Table 1 Values of
= F (k)
0,47
0,70
Re < 6.105
-0,23 K + 0,565
6.105 Re 3.106
-0,28 K + 0,565
3.106 < Re
-0,24 K + 0,285
0,86
1,27
- 1,33 K +
1,723
- 1,465 K + 1,585
-0,609 K +
0,458
0,032
0,032
0,032
Bending moments are calculated from the first mode shape normed on y at the top of the chimney
2.3.6 Ovalling
The uneven wind pressure distribution around the circumference of a circular cylinder causes bending moments in vertical
cross-sections of the shell:
Mmax = 0,09 W5 sec (z) d2 (z) ... (N)
where
W5 sec is the pressure averaged over 5 seconds:
/ 2 ... (N/m2)
To avoid ovalling vibrations caused by vortex excitation resulting in amplified bending moments, the use of stiffening rings
is suggested.
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Cross-wind vibrations usually can be reduced by aerodynamic stabilizers. The useful effect of three helical vanes has been
proved; the radial width of the vanes is 10% of the diameter, the pitch of vanes is 5d and the vanes are fitted over the upper
third of the height of the chimney.
The extra wind drag must be considered.
If there is no object causing interference to the wind flow within an effective distance, cross-wind actions on a fitted
chimney can be neglected. In other cases, e.g. where there are nearby chimneys, the fitting of aerodynamical stabilizers
remains beneficial but cannot be calculated.
fy.T = fy
When a chimney is restrained from adopting a distorted shape under differential expansion, bending stresses are introduced
in the shell.
Stresses are high when a single unlined chimney carries gases from several sources at different temperature or when a single
side entry source introduces gases at high temperature. In addition, the resulting differential steel temperature introduces
secondary thermal stresses. Typically restraint occurs in bracketed, stayed or guyed chimneys.
For bare steel chimneys, the metal temperature can be assumed to be midway between ambient air temperature and that of
the flue gas over the range of flue gas velocity 5 - 15m/s.
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contact with flue gases is below the estimated acid dew point + 20C:
(1) For a S03 content of 15 ppm, the chemical load is low if n 25, medium if 25 < n 100, and high if n > 100
(2) For a different S03 contents, limit values of n vary inversely with S03 content.
(3) Where chlorides or fluorides are present in the flue gas, chemical load is high if n 25.
Depending on the degree of chemical load, thickness of the steel shell is increased by an internal corrosion allowance as
follows:
Temperature of metal in
contact with flue gas
Chemical load
< 65C
high
not recommended
65C - 345C
low
1mm
1mm
medium
2mm
4mm
high
not recommended
low
1mm
> 345C
Design life
10 yrs
20 yrs
1mm
The thickness of steel shell is, in the same way, increased by an external corrosion allowance as follows:
Exposure
Design life
10 yrs
20 yrs
nil
1mm
nil
1.5 mm
1,5mm
3mm
1mm
2mm
nil
nil
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(3) a fatigue check which is carried out if the loads due to vortex shedding cannot be neglected.
=
N and M are in relation with maximal imperfection Wmax of the shell (see Section 5)
, then:
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N =
N =
M = 0,189 + 0,811 N
and 0,08
, then:
(2)
<
where x* = N* + M*
y* is the factored bending stress due to ovalling
T* is the factored shear stress.
exceeds 0,6,
The deflection due to vortex shedding should not be greater than 0,3 d from centreline.
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R = 1,10 if the steel temperature is less than 200C;
R = 1,32 if temperature is more than 200C.
R is given by the following equation:
log R = -
log N + C
where A = 3,5
Vcr is the critical wind speed for vortex shedding
Vh is the design wind-speed at the top of the chimney
m = 3 for N 5.107 and m = 5 for N > 5.107
C = log [cat] + 2,1
where [cat] is the category number of the constructional detail for which the fatigue check is required, see Eurocode 3 [3].
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6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
There are several types of steel chimney, the main ones being self-supporting, guyed, stayed (on a supporting
column) and bracketed (on a nearby building).
Self-supporting chimneys may consist of a bare steel shell, a double skin in which the steel is internally covered with
a liner, or multi-flue chimneys in which the steel shell contains several liners.
Actions which have to be taken into account in the design of self-supporting chimneys include permanent and dust
loads, wind loads including vortex shedding and ovalling, earthquake loading and thermal and chemical effects.
In some cases the effects of uneven wind pressure distribution and vortex shedding may have to be limited by the use
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of stiffening rings or aerodynamic stabilisers. Chemical effects require the use of an appropriate corrosion allowance
on the thickness of the steel shell.
Verification of design requires checks of load resistance (strength and stability), serviceability and fatigue.
Specific consideration in the detail design is required concerning connections, large apertures and anchors at the base.
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS EN 10025, 1990, Hot Rolled Products of Non-Alloy Structural Steels and their Technical Delivery Conditions,
British Standards Institution, London.
[2] Model Code for Steel Chimneys
CIC.IND (Comit International des Chemines Industrielles).
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
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