Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
FOR
PROCESS ENGINEERS
Revised 8/2002
Edited by H. R. Hunt
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
SEPARATION ...................................................................................................................1-1
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
A.
LIQUIDS
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Condensers ................................................................................................................................................................2-16
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Cooling Towers.........................................................................................................................................................2-18
M.
Insulation ...................................................................................................................................................................2-19
N.
O.
P.
Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat Exchanger: .............2-24
TREATING.........................................................................................................................3-1
A.
Dehydration................................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
FLUID FLOW.....................................................................................................................4-1
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
FRACTIONATION.............................................................................................................5-1
A.
B.
Columns........................................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
COMBUSTION ..................................................................................................................6-1
A.
Flare............................................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
B.
C.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
General:........................................................................................................................................................................ 8-5
REFRIGERATION ............................................................................................................9-1
A.
B.
C.
D.
10 MISCELLANEOUS........................................................................................................ 10-1
A.
B.
C.
Economics ..................................................................................................................................................................10-3
D.
Hydrates .....................................................................................................................................................................10-4
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
Kinetics .......................................................................................................................................................................10-6
P.
Q.
Pipeline Volume:......................................................................................................................................................10-6
R.
S.
T.
U.
V.
1
A.
SEPARATION
B.
C.
1-1
1-2
E.
Solid/Liquid Separations
Recommended Feed Solids Content for Separation Processes
Feed Solids Content in Vol %
Max 25
Max 4
Max 10
Max 0.2
Max 20
Max 15
15-20
40
10
Max 5/10
Max 25
Max 40
25-40
30-50
15-40
10-20
10-30
20-40
20-40
20-40
20-40
2-30
10-40
20-40
Decanter centrifuge
Self-cleaning separator
Disc-nozzle centrifuge
Tube centrifuge
Conical hydrocyclone
Circulating bed hydrocyclone
Tables and spirals
Cone concentrator
Heavy media cyclone, jigs
Clarifiers/thickeners
Hydroseparators
Bowl classifiers
Upstream classifiers
Rake/spiral classifiers
Filter press
Vacuum disc filter
Vacuum drum
Vacuum band
Horizontal filters
Sieve bends
Vibro screen
Basket/peeler centrifuge
Pusher centrifuges
Screen (scroll) centrifuges
Vibro screen centrifuges
F.
20-40
UNIT OPERATION
CYCLONING
PRODUCT PARAMETER
SOLID IN
LIQUID IN
WASH
LIQUID
SOLIDS
POSSIBILITIES
STREAM
STREAM
FAIR TO
GOOD
GOOD
GOOD
FAIR TO
POOR
LOW
EXCELLENT
EFFICIENCY
FAIR
POOR
FAIR TO
EXCELLENT
POOR
POOR
POOR
SCREENING
POOR
POOR
HIGH/MEDIUM
ULTRAFILTRATION
EXCELLENT
POOR
LOW
FILTRATION
SEDIMENTATION
CENTRIFUGATION
POOR TO
FAIR
POOR TO
FAIR
1-3
HIGH/MEDIUM
MEDIUM/LOW
MEDIUM/LOW
LOW/MEDIUM
LIGHT, COURSE TO
MED. FLOC. FINE
DENSE, MEDIUM OR
FLOCCULATED FINE
DENSE, FINE
DENSE, COURSE TO
MEDIUM
COURSE TO
MEDIUM
VERY FINE
G.
D1 = 0.82 Sp. Gr. X 62.3 #/Cu. Ft. (H2 0) = 51.0 #/Cu. Ft.
W = 1100 .333(51.0 .333)
= 1100v16.9
= 4520 #/hr./Sq. Ft.
Gas Flow = 158,311 MPD x 29.423 #/Mol = 194,000 #/hr.
Cross Section Area Required = 194,000 #/hr.
= 43 Sq. Ft.
4520 #/hr/Sq. Ft
Dia . = 43x 4 / = 7.4Ft.
Use 8 Ft. Diameter Scrubber
H.
1-4
4. If the vane type is used in corrosive service (hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or
oxygen with water wet gas), the vanes should be 316 stainless steel. Experience has
shown that a small amount of corrosion with carbon steel vanes roughs the surface
and solids tend to accumulate and plug the vanes rapidly.
5. For retrofit or sometimes new applications, it is possible to use a smaller dia meter
vessel for the vane type as it may be fitted in different orientations to limit the
velocity to acceptable ranges. The pad type is usually installed horizontally.
6. It is usually cheaper to retrofit vessels with the pad type as both would have to be cut
and match marked to fit through an 18 or smaller manway and reinstalled inside the
vessel. The vane type usually has boxing that must be welded together inside the
vessel while the pad type can usually be bolted.
7. The vane type may be used for small in- line applications where the pad type usually
can not.
8. If the pad type plugs with solids or hydrates, the pressure drop will likely dislodge the
mist extractor and plug downstream piping or equipment.
9. For tough separation applications where it is necessary to remove mist particles
smaller than 10 microns (such as inlet to glycol or amine systems where the foreign
liquid may cause foaming or chemical contamination), often a combination of pad
type (for coalescing) and vane type (for mist removal) is used.
1-5
Separation References
1-6
2-1
Recommended shellside and tubeside liquid velocities for various tube materials are
summarized as follows: Permissible tubeside velocities for dry gases range from 50 to
150 feet/sec. The recommended minimum shellside liquid velocities are 1.5 feet/sec.
TUBE
Material
Velocity
(FT/SEC)
4 TO 8
2 TO 4
5 TO 10
6 TO 12
6 TO 15
Shellside baffle tip and average crossflow velocities should not exceed 80% of
the calculated Connors Critical Velocity in order to avoid fluidelastic instability
tube vibration.
The vortex shedding-to-tube natural frequency ration should not exceed 0.50 to
avoid vortex shedding tube vibration.
2-2
HOT FLUID
COLD FLUID
WATER
AMMONIA
MEA OR DEA
FUEL OIL
FUEL OIL
GASOLINE
HEAVY OIL
HEAVY OIL
REFORMER STREAM
LIGHT ORGANICS
MEDIUM ORGANICS
HEAVY ORGANICS
GAS OIL
GASES
GASES
CONDENSING STEAM
CONDENSING STEAM
CONDENSING STEAM
CONDENSING STEAM
CONDENSING STEAM
STEAM
LIGHT ORGANICS
MEDIUM ORGANICS
HEAVY ORGANICS
CRUDE OIL
GASOLINE (CONDENSING)
WATER
WATER
WATER
WATER
OIL
WATER
WATER
HEAVY OIL
REFORMER STREAM
WATER
WATER
WATER
WATER
WATER
GASES
WATER
LIGHT ORGANICS
MEDIUM ORGANICS
HEAVY ORGANICS
PROPANE (BOILING)
GASES
LIGHT ORGANICS
MEDIUM ORGANICS
HEAVY ORGANICS
GAS OIL
CRUDE OIL
2-3
OVERALL U
BTU/HR-FT2-F
250-500
250-500
140-200
15-25
10-15
60-100
15-50
10-40
50-120
75-120
50-125
5-75
25-70
2-50
2-25
200-700
100-200
50-100
6-60
200-300
5-50
40-75
20-60
10-40
80-90
20-30
LIQUIDS
Oils, 20 API
200 F average temperature
300 F average temperature
400 average temperature
Oils, 30 API
150 F average temperature
200 F average temperature
300 F average temperature
400 F average temperature
Oils, 40 API
150 F average temperature
200 F average temperature
300 F average temperature
400 F average temperature
Heavy Oils, 8-14 API
300 F average temperature
400 F average temperature
Diesel oil
Kerosene
Heavy naphtha
Light naphtha180
Gasoline
Light hydrocarbons
Alcohols, most organic solvents
Water, ammonia
Brine, 75% water
VAPORS
Light hydrocarbons
Medium HCs, organic sol.
Light inorganic vapors
Air
Ammonia
Steam
Hydrogen 100%
Hydrogen 75% (by volume)
Hydrogen 50% (by volume)
Hydrogen 25% (by volume)
SHELL
TUBE SIDE
40-50
70-85
80-100
15-25
20-35
65-75
70-85
80-100
110-130
130-155
20-35
50-60
95-115
120-140
80-100
120-140
150-170
180-200
50-60
115-135
140-160
175-195
20-30
0-50
115-130
145-155
145-155
180
200
250
200
700
500
10-20
20-30
95-115
140-150
130-140
10 psig
25
25
14
13
14
15
40
35
30
25
200
250
200
700
500
VAPORS CONDENSING
Steam
Steam, 10% non-condensables
Steam, 20% non-condensables
Steam, 40% non-condensables
Pure light hydrocarbons
Mixed light hydrocarbons
Gasoline
Gasoline-steam mixtures
Medium hydrocarbons
Medium hydrocarbons with steam
Pure organic solvents
Ammonia
LIQUIDS BOILING
Water
Water solutions, 50% water or more
Light hydrocarbons
Medium hydrocarbons
Freon
Ammonia
Propane
Butane
Amines, alcohols
Glycols
Benzene, tolune
1,500
600
300
200
400
700
400
400
300
200
200
2-4
500 psig
200
220
120
100
110
135
420
340
310
270
NOTES:
1. Where a range of coefficients is given
for liquids, the lower values are for
cooling and the higher are for heating.
Coefficients in cooling, particularly, can
vary considerably depending upon actual
tube wall temperature.
2. Tube side coefficients are based on
3
/4in diameter tubes. Adjustment to
other diameters may be made by
multiplying by 0.75/actual outside
diameter. Shell side coefficients are also
based upon 3/4in diameter. Precise
calculations would require adjustment to
other diameters. The accuracy of the
procedure does not warrant it.
3. Coefficients can vary widely under
any one or combination of the following:
a. Low allowable pressure drop.
b. Low pressure condensing applications,
particularly where condensation is not
isothermal.
c. Cooling of viscous fluids particularly
with high coefficient coolants and large
LMTDs.
d. Condensing with wide condensing
temperature ranges 100 F and larger.
e. Boiling, where light vapor is generated
from viscous fluid.
f. Conditions where the relative flow
quantities on shell and tube sides are
vastly different (usually evidenced by
difference in temperature rise or fall on
shell and tube sides ).
g. Wide temperature ranges with liquids
(may be partly in streamline flow).
TABLE 3
EXCHANGER
SERVICE
FOULING
(HR-FT2-F/BTU)
LESS 125 F
GREATER 125F
COOLING TOWER WATER
0.001
0.002
BRACKISH WATER
0.002
0.003
SEA WATER
0.0005
0.001
BOILER FEEDWATER
0.001
CONDENSATE
0.0005
STEAM
0.0005
COMPRESSED AIR
0.001
NATURAL GAS & LPG GAS
0.001 - 0.002
ACID GASES
0.002 - 0.003
REFORMER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS
0.0015
HYDROCRACKER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS
0.002
HDS FEED-EFFLUENT GAS
0.002
MEA AND DEA SOLUTIONS
0.002
DEG AND TEG SOLUTIONS
0.002
HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS
0.002
PROPANE AND BUTANE
0.001
GASOLINE
0.002
KEROSENE, NAPTHA, & LIGHT DISTILLATES 0.002 - 0.003
LIGHT GAS OIL
0.002 - 0.003
HEAVY GAS OIL
0.003 - 0.005
HEAVY FUEL OIL
0.005 - 0.007
VACUUM TOWER BOTTOMS
0.010
NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
0.005
2-5
and floating head bundles are required when thermal expansion, shellside
mechanical cleaning, and tube bundle removal provisions must be made. Fixed
tubesheet exchangers should be considered if shellside-to-tubeside inlet temperature
differences are less than 100F. Fixed tubesheet exchangers having shell expansion
joints should be avoided. U-tube and floating head exchangers are required when
fixed tubesheet units cannot meet above requirements, with U-tube bundles being
preferred over floating head bundles if tubeside mechanical cleaning is not required.
Split-ring floating head bundles are preferred over pull-through floating head
bundles in general refinery service because of higher thermal performance and lower
cost. Outside packed floating head exchangers are not recommended.
11. Shellside Baffle Types
Baffles types recommended for Phillips plant services include single-segmental
plate-baffles, double-segmental plate-baffles, no-tube-in-window(NTIW) baffles,
and RODbaffles. Single-segmental plate baffles, having a single chordal cut, are
preferred for single-phase services where higher shellside pressure losses (15 psi)
may be tolerated. Double-segmental plate baffles, having two chordal cuts, are
preferred for single-phase and condensing services, where modest shellside pressure
losses (10 psi) are allowed. RODbaffles are preferred for single-phase and twophase services, where low shellside pressure losses (5 psi) are required or where
flow- included tube vibrations are likely in plate-baffle exchangers. Triple segmental
disk-and-doughnut, and orifice baffles are not recommended. NITW baffles may be
used as an alternate to RODbaffles where economics are favorable.
12. Tube Type, Size, and Layout
The preferred tube size for shell-and-tube heat exchangers in medium to heavy
tubeside fouling service (.001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu or greater) is 1.00 inch O.D. For light
tubeside fouling services (less than .001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu), 0.750 inch O.D. tubes are
preferred. Generally 30 or 60 degree triangular layouts are preferred for clean,
single-phase services (<.001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu) in which chemical cleaning maybe used.
For medium or heavy fouling services (> .001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu) in which mechanical
cleaning is required, 90 square or 45 rotated square layouts are preferred. Minimum
TEMA tube pitch-to-diameter ratio is 1.25. For kettle and internal reboiler services
and all RODbaffle exchangers, 90 square layout is required.
13. Recommended Material
Tubes: Inhibited Admiralty tubes are strongly recommended for non-chromate
containing, cooling water services where tubewall temperatures range from 145F to
450F. Inhibited Admiralty tubes are also recommended for conventionally treated
cooling water service for tubewall temperature between 165F and 450F. Do not use
admiralty or other copper bearing alloys when cooling tower water may become
contaminated with ammonia or where copper is incompatible with the process fluid.
Carbon steel tubes are recommended for cooling water services where tubewall
temperature is below 165F. Low-chrome steel tubes are recommended for hightemperature, sulfur-bearing streams. Austenitic stainless steel alloys are
2-6
recommended for low temperature services (below - 150F). Monel tubes are
recommended for HF acid-containing streams above 160F, while Titanium tubes are
recommended for brackish and sea water services. Welded, fully killed carbon steel
(ASTM A-214) should be avoided in low pH water soluble hydrocarbons, furfural,
phenol, sulfuric acid, amine service, HF alkylation, and in final overhead crude
tower coolers. Seamless carbon steel tubes (A-179) should be used where welded
tubes are not permitted. Duplex 2205 tubes should be used instead of austenitic
stainless tubes in high chloride services. The table below contains recommended
tube wall thicknesses.
Material
Inch OD
Wall
Thickness
1 Inch OD
Wall
Thickness
Carbon Steel
.083
.109
Non-Ferrous
(Inhibited
Admiralty)
.065
.083
.065
.083
.065
.083
Baffles, Tie Rods, & Spacers : should be constructed of minimum quality material
compatible with tube and tubesheet material.
Tube Sheets: must be compatible with service conditions. In services requiring
welded tube-to-tubesheet joints, strength welds a re preferred over seal welds.
Shell & Channels : must be compatible with service conditions. Specify TEMA A
type heads when access to the tube ends is desirable or when frequent tubeside
cleaning is expected.
Direct question about material suitability should be directed to Engineering
Materials and Services.
14. U-Bend Support
U-tube exchangers having bundle diameters greater than 36 inches should have Ubend tube supports. I designing a new U-tube exchanger, it is preferred to specify a
full support baffle at the U-bend tangent, and avoid flowing through the U-bend
entirely.
15. Nozzles, Impingement Plates, and Annular distributors
Momentum criteria (pv2 ) above whic h shellside impingement plates and annular
distributors and tubeside solid distributor plates should be used are summarized in
Table 4. Impingement rods can be utilized in lieu of a solid impingement plate. Rod
2-7
diameter should be identical to the tube O.D. Perforated impingement plates should
not be used.
B.
2-8
NOZZLES
TABLE 4
FLUID
MAXIMUM (Pv 2 )
(LB/FT 2_SEC2)_
SHELLSIDE
NOZZLES
SHELLSIDE
NOZZLES
SHELLSIDE
NOZZLES
TWO-PHASE
MIXTURES,
SATURATED VAPORS,
ALL OTHER GASES
AND VAPORS
IMPINGEMENT PLATE
OR ANNULAR
DISTRIBUTOR
BUNDLE/SHELL
ENTRANCE & EXIT
ALL FLUIDS
4000
TUBESIDE
CLEAN, NONCORROSIVE
NON-ABRASIVE
LIQUIDS
6000
TUBESIDE
TWO-PHASE
MIXTURES,
SATURATED VAPORS,
ALL OTHER GASES
AND VAPORS
2-9
1500
500
3. Kettle Reboilers
Kettle reboilers consisting of multiple tubepass, U-tube bundles, installed inside
enlarged TEMA K type shells, are preferred for medium viscosity fluids in
moderately heavy fouling services, where large surface areas are required.
Limit Design Heat Flux < 70% of Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux Pr < 0.2
Consider inlet tubeside distribution baffles for cases where two-phase process
streams enter exchanger
subcooling requirements, as shown in the logic diagram Fig. 3 at the end of this
section.
2. Horizontal Shellside condensers
Horizontal TEMA E shellside condensers are preferred for noncorrosive, low
pressure and vacuum service, where the single-phase tubeside cooling medium must
be placed in on the tubeside because of high fouling deposition. In low shellside
pressure loss services, TEMA J Shell, divided- flow, condensers containing
RODbaffle bundles are preferred. TEMA G shell condensers may be considered in
cases where temperature pinch problems occur in E or J type shell. H and K type
shells are not recommended for use in horizontal condensers..
2-12
2-13
D.
LENGTH
AREA
VOLUME
MASS
FORCE
BY
0.039370
3.2808
0.083333
TO OBTAIN
in
ft
ft
SPECIFIC
HEAT
in
ft
ft
25.400
12.000
0.30480
mm
in
m
THERMAL
W/m C
0.57779
CONDUCTIVITY cals/s cm C 241.91
Btu/hr ft2F/in 0.083333
m2
cm2
in 2
10.764
0.15500
0.0069444
ft 2
in 2
ft 2
m2 / m
ft 2 /ft
ft 2
3.2808
0.30480
0.092903
ft 2/ ft
m2 / m
m2
m3
In 3
ft 3
gal
35.315
0.00057870
0.028317
0.13368
ft 3
ft 3
m3
ft 3
gal (IMP)
litter
kg
lb
N
kp
lbf
kp
1.2009
0.26417
2.2046
0.45359
0.22481
2.2046
32.1740
9.80665
PRESSURE Pa
kPa
kPa
kp/m2
in of water
in of water
lbf/in 2
in of water
0.09370
0.24864
0.036063
0.0024539
in of water
kPa
lbf/in 2
atmospheres
3.2808
3.2808
ft/s
ft/min
mi/hr
ft/s
ft/min
1.4667
0.30480
0.016667
ft/s
m/s
ft/s
kg/s
7936.6
lb/hr
kg/hr
2,2046
lb/hr
VELOCITY m/s
m/min
MASS
DYNAMIC
VISCOSITY
gal (US)
gal (US)
gal
kg
lbf
lbf
lb ft/s 2
N
0.0040218
4.0218
0.14504
0.039441
mm of water
in of water
in of water
in of water
MASS
FLOW
Table 5
MULTIPLY
mm
m
in
KIMEMATIC
VISCOSITY
ENERGY
POWER
HEAT FLUX
THERMAL
2-14
MULTIPLY BY
kj/kg C
0.23885
kcal/kg C
1.0000
Btu/lg F
4.1868
TO OBTAIN
Btu/lb F
Btu/lb F
kj/kg C
Btu/hr ft F
Btu/hr ft F
Btu/hr ft F
Btu/hr ft F
kcal/hr m C
W/cm C
1.7307
0.67197
57.779
W/m C
Btu/hr ft F
Btu/hr ft F
Pa s
cP
kg/hr m
2419.1
2.4191
0.67197
lb/hr ft
lb/hr ft
lb/hr ft
lb/s ft
lbf s/ft 2
lb/hr
lb/hr ft
3600.0
115827.0
0.00041338
0.41388
lb/hr ft
lb/hr ft
Pa s
cP
m2 /s
cSt
m2 /s
kj
KWhr
kcal
ft lbf
hp hr
38750.0
0.038750
10000.0
0.94782
3412.1
3.9683
0.0012851
2544.4
ft 2 /hr
ft /hr
Stokes
Btu
Btu
Btu
Btu
Btu
Btu
Btu
Btu
J
1.0551
0.0002931
0.25200
0.00027778
kj
kWhr
k cal
W hr
W
kcal/hr
ft lbf/hr
Hp
3.4121
3.9683
0.0012851
2544.4
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
0.29307
0.25200
W
kcal/hr
W/m2
Kcal/hr m2
W/cm2
0.31700
0.36867
3170.0
Btu/hr ft 2
Btu/hr ft 2
Btu/hr ft 2
Cal/s cm2
Btu/hr ft 2
Btu/hr ft 2
13272.0
3.1546
2.7125
Btu/hr ft 2
W/m2
kcal/hr m2
m2 C/W
5.6783
hr ft 2 F/Bt
FLOW
VOLUME
FLOW
MULTIPLY BY
lb/s
3600.0
lb/hr
0.45359
m3 /s
ft 3 /s
ft 3/ min
MASS
kg/s m2
VELOCITY kg/hr m2
lb/s ft 2
DENSITY
TO OBTAIN
lb/hr
kg/hr
RESISTANCE
2118.9
ft 3 /min
60.000
ft 3 /min
0.00047195 m3 /s
MULTIPLY BY
hr m2 C/kj
20.442
hr m2 C/kcal 4.8824
TO OBTAIN
hr ft 2 F/Bt
hr ft 2 F/Bt
s cm2 C/kcal
Cm2 C/W
hr ft 2 F/Btu
0.00013562 hr ft 2 F/Bt
0.00056783 hr ft 2 F/Bt
0.17611
m2 C/W
0.20482
0.17611
0.048919
hr m2 C/W
Btu/hr ft 2 F
Btu/hr ft 2 F
737.34
020482
3600.0
lb/hr ft 2
lb/hr ft 2
lb/hr ft 2
HEAT
TRANSFER
hr ft 2 F/Btu
W/m2 C
kj/hr m2 C
lb/hr ft 2
4.8824
kg/hr m2
COEFFICIENT
kcal/hr m2 C
0.20482
Btu/hr ft 2 F
kg/m3
g/cm3
lb/in 3
lb/ft 3
0.062428
62.428
1728.0
16.018
lb/ft 3
lb/ft 3
lb/ft 3
kg/m3
cal/s cm2 C
W/cm2 C
Btu/hr ft 2 F
Btu/hr ft 2
7373.4
1761.1
5.6783
4.8824
Btu/hr ft 2 F
Btu/hr ft 2 F
W/m2 C
kcal/hr m2 C
TEMPERATURE
1.8c + 32 = F
(f-32)/1.8 = C
C + 273.15 = K
F + 459.69 = R
METRIC EQUIVALENTS
Pa = w/m2 = kg/s 2 m
N = kg m/s 2
J = Ws
Liter = dm3
Kp = kgt
2-15
E.
Condensers
1. Be aware when condensing pure components such as propane that the limiting
temperature occurs when the desuperheating stops and condensing starts.
2. For water cooling, try to cool no further than a 10 F approach to the warm cooling
water leaving the condenser. Use 4 to 8 ft/sec velocity for water through the tubes.
Restrict cooling water return temperature to maximum of 125 F.
G.
3. For water cooled propane condenser design, generally use 10 F temperature rise on
cooling water through the exchanger.
Reboilers and Chillers
1. Many failures occur because the pressure on the condensate return header is higher
than the low pressure steam at the reboiler.
2. About 50 F delta T is all that can profitably be used. Limit the approach
temperature of the gas to the refrigerant in gas chillers to 10 F. Less than 10 F delta
T requires excess exchanger surface area.
3. Usually design reboilers for a conservative heat flux of 8,000 to 12,000 BTU/ft2 and
reduce pressure of steam to prevent film boiling.
4. Submergence of Bundle Level generally controlled at top of bundle.
5. For thermosiphon and side reboiler designs for demethanizer columns, limit the
vaporization of the reboiler liquid stream to a maximum of about 35% by volume.
2-16
H.
Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with the thermosiphon
flow.
Sizing Plate Heat Exchangers
A method for calculating plate heat exchangers is presented in Plate-Type Heat
Exchangers by F. J. Lowry, Chem. Eng., 66, 89-94, June 29, 1959. Generally,
accurate sizing of [late heat exchangers must be done by the manufacturer.
I.
J.
2-17
K.
Mount coolers high enough from the ground to avoid high inlet air approach
velocities. Consider mounting them on pipe lanes or provide at lease a fan
diameter clearance between the ground and the plenum.
Locate large banks of coolers with the banks long axis perpendicular to the
prevailing summer wind direction.
Do not mix forced and induc ed draft coolers in close proximity and do not
locate coolers of different heights in close proximity.
Fired Heaters
1. Maximum recommended heat flux for a direct fired Triethylene Glycol regenerator
in a TEG Dehydration Unit is 8000 BTU/ft2 of fire tube surface area. The
recommended heat flux for maximum fire tube life is 6000 BTU/ft2 .
2. For most process heaters, assume a thermal efficiency of 75 to 80% when calculating
fuel requirements.
Where: % Thermal Efficiency = (Heat Transferred/Heat Released)*100.
3. Organic Heat Transfer Fluids
A. Fired heaters for organic heat transfer fluids are usually designed with average
radiant heat fluxes ranging from 5000 to 12,000 BTU/hr-sq ft. Actual allowable
heat flux is usually limited by fluid maximum allowable film temperature. Film
temperature is dependent on:
a. Maximum fluid bulk temperature
b. Velocity of the fluid across the heat transfer surface
c. Uniformity of heat distribution in the furnace
d. Heat transfer properties of the heat transfer fluid
B. If too high film temperature results, too much fluid is vaporized and the heat
transfer surface is blanketed with vapors. The heat transfer coefficient is rapidly
reduced and dangerously high surface temperatures can develop resulting severe
fluid degradation and mechanical fa ilure.
L.
C.
High surface temperatures may also cause the fluid to carbonize forming carbon
scale on the heat transfer surface which may lead to over heating and tube metal
failure.
D.
All other things being equal, any organic heat transfer fluid degrades in
proportion to its temperature. Operation at approximately 100 F below vendors
maximum recommended bulk fluid operation temperature may extend the life of
the fluid by 10 times.
Cooling Towers
2-18
1. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and the temperature differential. For each 10 F temperature drop across the
tower, 1% of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate in
gpm.
2. Windage losses for cooling towers:
Spray ponds 1.0 to 5.0% of circulation
Atmospheric Cooling Towers 0.3 to 1.0% of circulation
Forced Draft Cooling Towers 0.1 to 0.3% of circulation
Evaporation Losses for Cooling Towers:
Evaporation Losses are usually 0.85 to 1.25% of the tower circulation rate. An
evaporation loss of 1% of tower circulation per each 10 degrees F temperature drop
across the tower can be assumed for estimating purposes.
3. Cooling Water System Feasibility Design:
Feasibility designs for cooling water systems may be completed by setting the water
temperature rise across all exchangers, usually 15 to 20 F rise, (or at a 10 F
approach to the process outlet temperature if the assumed rise results in a
temperature cross for some exchanger), and setting the inlet water temperature to the
exchangers to the site wet bulb temperature plus 8 F.
4. Cooling Water System Fluid Flow and Piping:
For preliminary sizing branch offs with different flowrates from the main header, the
following rule of thumb equations may be used.
D2 = Summation di2
qi/di2 = Q/D2
M.
Insulation
1.
2-19
100 F
38 C
200 F
(93 C)
calcium
silicate
0.033
0.037
0.041
cellular glass
0.039
0.047
0.055
fiberglass
0.026
0.030
0.034
magnesia,
85%
0.034
0.037
0.041
Polyurethane
0.016
0.016
0.016
500 F
(260 C)
600 F
(316 C)
0.046
0.057
0.060
0.064
0.074
0.085
0.044
Material
Asbestos-cement boards
Asbestos
Kaolin brick
Kaolin firebrick
Petroleum coke
Molded pipe covering
Mica
Aluminum
Iron
Steel
N.
Thermal Conductivity
Btu/hr- ft-F
0.43
0.090-0.129
0.15-0.26
0.050-0.113
3.4
0.051
0.25
117
30
26
For thermosiphon reboiler and side reboiler designs for demethanizer columns, limit
the vaporization of the reboiled liquid stream to a maximum of about 35% by
volume. Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with
thermosiphon flow.
2-20
2.
O.
For aluminum plate fin reboilers, methanol may tend to accumulate in the reboiler
and eventually log off the exchanger limiting thermosiphon flow. It can usually be
cleared if a drain is provided on the lower header of the exchanger.
Cooling Water Systems For Preliminary design for cooling water systems, use a
cooling water temperature rise of 15 to 20 F through the heat exchangers. In most
cases a process stream temperature approach of 10 F to the cold water to the
exchanger is reasonable.
2.
For Aluminum Plate Fin Core in Shell evaporator heat exchanger design use a 2 to
4 degree temperature approach to shell side evaporating fluid temperature. Use a
maximum evaporation of 25% of the thermosiphon circulated fluid in the
evaporator when preparing preliminary core specifications.
3.
4.
2-21
2-22
5.
Steel
Brick
Refractory
Paint
Polished
Oxidized
Polished
Polished cast
New cast
Rusted
Polished
Oxidized
Rough plate
Poor
Good
Black matte
Black lacquer
White lacquer
Aluminum
2-23
Emissivity
0.040
0.11-0.19
0.14-0.38
0.21
0.435
0.685
0.52-0.56
0.79
0.94-0.97
0.93
0.65-0.75
0.80-0.90
0.91
0.80-0.95
0.80-0.95
0.27-0.67
P.
Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat
Exchanger:
1. From the process simulator output for the process, determine the required UA rate
for the gas/gas exchanger.
Assume U = 60 BTU/Hr Ft F
A = UA = UA
U
60
Assume a 20 ft long exchanger with OD tubes on a 15 /16 triangular pitch.
Go to a Tube Count Table and read the number of tubes required for the Area A and
unit diameter and/or number of units.
You now have a feasibility estimate which includes:
1. Exchanger Area (Ft2 )
2. Number of tubes
3. Unit length, diameter, and number of units.
2-24
Start
Surface
A>150 ft2
Yes
Q Recovery
@ T > 1000F
No
No
Q Removed
@ T> 140F
No
Yes
Yes
Exotic
Alloy
Yes
Q Recovery
Economical
Yes
Yes
No
Close dT
Approach
T > 350F
P > 200 psi
Yes
No
No
Yes
Double
pipe
Exchanger
No
RODBaffle
Exchanger
Vibration
Low dP
No
Plate
Baffle
Exchanger
Figure 1
Heat Exchanger Selection
2-25
PlateFrame
Exchanger
Air
Finned
Exchanger
Heavy Duty
Finned
Surface
Start
Fouling
Service
Extent
of Fouling
Low to
Moderately
Heavy
Very
Heavy
Viscosity
Low To
Moderately
High
Very
High
Pressure
Less Than
Atmospheric
Kettle
Reboiler
(Finned Tubes)
Pump-Through
Reboiler
Relatively
Clean
Service
Fluid Fouling
Characteristics
Pump-Through
Reboiler
(Critical
Operations)
Area
Required
Greater Than
Atmospheric
Small To
Moderate
Vertical
Thermosyphon
Horizontal
Thermosyphon
Pump-Through
Reboiler
Kettle
Reboiler
(Finned Tubes)
Figure 2
Reboiler Selection
2-26
Internal
Reboiler
Vertical
Thermosyphon
Large
Kettle
Reboiler
Horizontal
Thermosyphon
Start
Corrosive
High
Pressure
Yes
No
Mechanical
Cleaning Tubeside
Coolant
Yes
Change Design
To Reduce
Condensing dP
Yes
Very
Low
Allowable
Condensing
dP
Use Large
Diameter
Tubes
Yes
Large
Condensing
Range
No
Yes
Boiling
Coolant
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Internal/
Kettle
Reboiler
No
Yes
Vertical
E Shell
Shear
Control
At Exit
Yes
Yes
Large
Subcooling
Yes
No
Shellside Condensers
Horizontal
E Shell
No
No
No
No
Low
Medium
Temperature
Cross
Allowable
Condensate dP
Very
Low
Low
Large
Subcooling
No
Yes
Med-High
Bioling
Coolant
ShellSide
Condensation
Required
No
Horizontal
J Shell
RODBaffle
Tubeside Condensers
Horizontal
RODBaffle
J Shell
Vetical Downflow
Single Pass
Figure 3
Condenser Selection
2-27
Horizontal
Single Pass
or U Tube
2-28
2-29
3
A.
TREATING
Dehydration
1. Dehydrate gas to 60% of the saturation water content at the conditions of lowest
saturation.
Sulfur Recovery Units
A. Thermal zone will produce 55-65% of the sulfur and is a function of the H2 S
content of the feed. Catalytic region makes the rest.
B. If the acid gas feed is less than 30% H2 S then flame stability in the reaction
furnace is a potential problem. Minimum temperature for effective operation is
1700 F.
C. Temperature in catalyst beds should be kept below 800 F.
D. SRU steam production will be approximately 6700 lbs of steam per long ton of
sulfur produced.
E. Glossy carbon deposits on catalyst indicates amine carryover.
F. Sulfur fog is caused by too much cooling capacity. Sulfur mist can be caused by
excessive velocity in the condenser.
G. Ferrules should extend at least 6 inside the tubesheet. Refractory lining is
usually 2 12 - 3" thick on the tubesheet.
H. Mass velocity in waste heat exchanger and sulfur condenser tubes should be 2-6
lbs/sec-ft2 .
I. Space velocity through catalyst beds should be 700-1000 SCFH of gas per cubic
foot of catalyst. Lean streams, lower value and rich streams, higher value.
J. Sulfation of catalyst caused by SO3 . Oxygen combines with SO2 to form SO3
which is chemisorbed on alumina surface.
K. Velocity in process piping should not exceed 100 ft/sec.
L. Liquid sulfur solidifies at 246 F and becomes very viscous above 320-350 F
M. Approximate Stack Gas Flow, scfm:
SGF = (Sulfur Production, LT/D) x (100)
2. Glycol Dehydration
3-1
a. TEG Dew point depression ranges 80-140 F. Degree of dehydration which can
be obtained depends on amount of water removed from glycol in the reboiler &
circulation rate. Minimum circulation rate to assure good glycol gas contact is
approx. 2 gal. glycol for each pound of water to be removed. Max is 7 gal. and
standard is 3 gal.
b. Stripping Gas-Approx. 3-8 scf/gas of glycol circ.
c. Glycol will absorb 1 scf of gas/gallon of glycol. Glycol contactor For best
scrubbing of overhead gas install Mist Pad on the face of Vane Type mist
extractor.
d. Estimate total reboiler duty from 2000 BTU/US gal of TEG circulation rate. Note
that the use of glycol/glycol heat exchangers will reduce the total reboiler duty.
e. Estimate glycol loss from 0.1 gal TEG/MMSCF.
f. Packing-Minimum of 4 in any gas-glycol contactor.
g. Triethylene Glycol Dehydration Unit-Maximum recommended heat flux for a
direct fired TEG regenerator is 8000 BTU/square foot of fire tube surface area.
The recommended heat flux for maximum fire tube life is 6000 BTU/ft2 .
3. Trouble shooting
B.
Black, viscous solution indicates that heavy hydrocarbons have been carried over
with the gas. Sweet, burnt sugar smell accompanied by low pH and a dark, clear
solution signals that thermal degradation is occurring.
Amine Treating
1. Amine Circulation: 3 cu.ft acid gas/gal amine
Reboiler Steam Rate: 1.2 lbs steam/gal amine
MEA gpm = 41.0 * Q*X/Z
DEA gpm = 45.0 * Q*X/Z (conventional)
DEA gpm = 32.0 * Q*X/Z (high load)
Where Q = Gas, MMscfd
X = Acid Gas, volume percent
Z = Amine Concentration, wt.%
2. Max acid gas pickup not more than 0.35 mols/mol of MEA. Normal value around
0.3.
3. Amine treating processes tend to be troubled by the same problems regardless of the
type amine used.
3-2
Wt%
15 - 20
25 30
50 55
13. Recommended loading in the lean circuit to minimize acid gas flashing are:
Amine
MEA
DEA
MDEA
* These loadings should be easily achieved with a 1.0-2.0 M/M stripper reflux ratio.
14. Recommended Minimum Water Quality Standards for Make- up Water fo r Amine
Plants:
3-3
<100 ppm
<3 grains/gal
<2 ppm
<3 ppm
<3 ppm
<10 ppm
C.
Maximum
5:1
4:1
3-4
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
3-5
1. Vessels
a. Amine contactor, flash tank, stripper, surge tank, accumulator, inlet scrubber, and
outlet scrubber shall be carbon steel and stress relieved with corrosion allowances
as shown in 1.C.
b. Trays for the contractor and stripper should be 304 stainless.
c. Corrosion Allowances for MEA and DEA Systems
C02 /H2 S<20
Inches
1/8
1/8
1/16
1/8
1/8
3/16
1/8
1/8
1/4
0
1/16
1/8
1/8
Inlet Scrubber
Amine Contactor
Outlet Scrubber
Flash Tank
Cross Exchanger
Amine Stripper
Reflux accumulator
Reboiler
Reclaimer
Surge Tank
Piping
Amine Cooler*
Stripper Overhead Condenser*
*Corrosion allowance applies to shell side exchangers with water cooling in the
tubes.
2. Heat Exchangers
a. Shells carbon steel and stress relieved
b. Tubes 12 gauge minimum, carbon steel, seamless
c. Reclaimer element carbon steel, 2- inch schedule 80 tubes. Amine temperature
in reclaimer should not exceed 310 F.
d. Temperature of amine in reboiler should not exceed 250 F.
e. U-bends of U-tube carbon steel bundles shall be stress relieved.
3. Pumps
a. The amine circulation and stripper reflux pumps shall be carbon steel with 316
stainless trim.
4. Piping
3-6
a. Piping should be carbon steel. The weld and heat affected zone of piping
containing H2 S and H2 0, with or without amine, shall have hardness no greater
than Brinnell hardness number 235.
b. Velocities in the rich and lean solution piping should be limited to 2-3 ft/sec. for
MEA solution, and to 7 ft/sec. for DEA solution.
c. Piping from the letdown valve to the flash tank and from the letdown valve to the
stripper should be 304 stainless with the letdown valves of 316 stainless.
5. An inert gas blanket should be maintained on the fresh amine storage and amine surge
to prevent oxygen contact with the amine.
6. No copper-bearing materials such as Admiralty, Monel, etc., should be used
anywhere in amine units.
When the C0 2 /H2 S ratio is greater than 20, the following exceptions to the above
requirements should be used.
7. The exchanger tubes in the reboiler, stripper overhead condenser, lean-rich cross
exchanger, and amine cooler should be 304 stainless. Those exchangers with water in
the 304 stainless tubes should have a minimum water flowrate of 5 ft/sec. Limit
amine velocity in tubes to 5 ft/sec.
8. The stripper vessel head and shell down through the top 3 trays should be 304
stainless clad or solid 304 stainless.
9. The stripper overhead piping from the stripper to the accumulator should be 304
stainless. The reflux piping from the accumulator back to the stripper can be either
thin wall 304 stainless or carbon steel with 1/16 corrosion allowance.
I.
10. The vapor line from the reboiler to the stripper should be 304 stainless.
H2S Gas Toxicity
ppm gr./100scf
10
0.65
100
6.48
200
12.96
500
32.96
J.
3-7
K.
L.
2.
3.
4.
Any natural gas stream used for feed to a gas liquefaction plant will likely
contain measurable amounts of mercury.
2.
Elemental mercury amalgamates (forms an alloy) with the surface layer of the
aluminum being corroded.
3.
It is probable that liquid water must be present for the corrosion or attack to
occur. It follows that the temperature of the system must be above 32 F for
the corrosion to take place.
4.
5.
It is not known at what levels of mercury in the inlet gas problems may occur.
However, it is likely most of the mercury entering with the feed in a cryogenic
LNG plant with no liquid draws will remain within the plant equipment until
defrost. A number of studies associated with the Skikda failure have
suggested a threshold mercury content of 0.01 micrograms/Nm3 which should
not be exceeded at the inlet to the cryogenic plant.
6.
Mercury can exist in the feed gas co-currently with H2 S as evidenced from an
LNG plant feed gas in Sumatra, Indonesia which contains 200 to 330
micrograms/Nm3 mercury and 60 to 70 ppm of H2 S.
3-8
B.
7.
8.
There is more risk of mercury induced failure on the cycle gas (refrigerant)
side of the exchangers, and more risk in general with a mixed refrigerant plant
than a cascade cycle since a cascade system uses no refrigerant heavier than
propane. (This assumes refrigerants are derived from the mercury
contaminated feed gas).
9.
10.
The pipeline system feeding the LNG plant is an excellent trap as mercury
tends to be absorbed by the pipe metal. The initial mercury front progress
towards the plant slowly until pipeline saturation is reached. This is a good
reason to test the plant feed gas at least annually.
Treating Systems:
Mercury Removal with sulfur Impregnated Ca rbon:
Following are Vendor provided design rules of thumb for mercury removal beds:
1. Design for minimum gas/carbon contact time of 10 seconds.
2. Design for a maximum superficial velocity of 50 ft/min.
3. Maximum temperature is 150 F. Above this the sulfur impregnate is boiled off.
4. C02 and other sulfur compounds do not effect the beds performance.
5. Water vapor or free water present in the gas stream being treated will reduce the
mercury removal capacity of the beds as much as 75%.
6. Liquid hydrocarbons will rapidly deplete the bed mercury removal capacity as the
liquids dissolve the sulfur impregnated on the carbon.
7. L/D (actual carbon bed height to vessel diameter) ratios of 1.0 to 1.5 are preferred
for charcoal beds to prevent channeling. Minimum acceptable L/D is about 0.6.
8. Mercury removal efficiency is better for dry gas than for water saturated gas.
9. Mercury removal efficiency is better for lower feed gas temperatures.
3-9
10. Maximum attainable mercury removal efficiency is not effected by inlet mercury
content or inlet gas pressure.
11. Can be designed to remove feed gas mercury down to less than 1 nanogram/Nm3
(0.001 microgram/Nm3 ).
12. Vendors report that bed capacity is not affected if the bed becomes saturated with
gas phase heavy end hydrocarbons (as long as no free liquid is allowed to contact
the bed). In fact vendors often presaturate the beds with hydrocarbons for
ethylene service to prevent high temperatures resulting from initial adsorption in
beds at start- up.
13. Removal mechanism is as follows: elemental mercury physically adsorbs onto
the activated carbon surface inside the pores of the carbon. Then the mercury
chemically reacts with the sulfur impregnate to form mercuric sulfide. For
organic mercury compounds; Vendor 1: the systems function similarly except the
mercury compounds much break down to elemental mercury and organic
compounds first. Vendor 2: the organic mercury compounds are physically
absorbed on the carbon. This organic mercury criteria sets the minimum 10
second contact time.
3-10
TREATING REFERENCES
GPSA Engineering Data Book Tenth Edition 1987
Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. 4, Gas and Liquid Sweetening, Campbell Petroleum
Series, 1982
Chemical Engineers Handbook, Perry & Chilton, Fifth Edition
Gas Purification, Kohl & Riesenfeld, Fourth Edition 1985 Gulf Publishing Company
Acid and Sour Gas Treating Processes, 1985, Gulf Publishing
Gas Conditioning Conference Proceedings, 1954-1992
Linde Molecular Sieves, Union Carbide
Gas Treating, Gas/SPEC Dow
Corporate Engineering Process, Gas Section Reference, Files,
GR1020, GR1180, GR1559, GR1800, GR1802, GR1820, GR1870, GR7047
Sulfur Recovery, Paskall & Sames, 1988, Western Research
Oil & Gas Journal, Dec 1, 1980, pg 135-138 Liquid Liquid contractors need careful attention
Considerations For Mercury in LNG Operations by W. W. Bodie, A. Attari Institute of Gas
Technology R. Serauskas Gas Developments Corporation
Mercury-LNGs Problems by J. E. Leeper Hyrocarbon Processing November, 1980
Causes and Remedies of The Corrosion of Cryogenic Exchangers By Mercury by Tewfik
Hasni February, 1978
Phillips Metallurgist Hisham Hashim
Calgon HGR Sulfur Impregnated Activated Carbon
Pinion (Alcoa/NUCON) Mersorb Activated Carbon Adsorbent
3-11
4
A.
FLUID FLOW
Misc.
1. Absolute pressure of atmosphere at height H above sea level:
P = P1 (1-0.00000687H)n
n = 5.256
Where: P1 = pressure at sea level, psia
Density: W = W1(1-0.00000687H)n
n = 4.256
Where: W1 = density of air at sea level
P = e[2.6876 0.0000368 (H)] psia
Where H is height, ft above sea level
Borger- 13.2 psia: Woods Cross- 12.4 psia
2. Acoustic Velocity Va = 80.53 (P/)
where: P = psia
= density lb/ft3
Va = ft/sec
3.
Vortex Breaker
Vortex Breaker is needed if flow is greater than 1.9 ft/sec.
B.
Liquid Service
Pressure Drop
4-1
Velocity
(Psi/100 FT)
0.4
1.5 3.0
--0.4
---
(FT/Sec)
2.0 4.0
7.0 - 10.0
3.0 5.0
--2.5 9.0 **
Pump Suction
Pump Discharge
To Reboiler
Gravity Flow
Water
High Viscosity to 200 CP
Pump Suction
0.5 1.0
0.25 0.5
Pump Discharge
10.0 1.0
1.0 1.5
** Water with high CO2 , seawater, etc requires lower maximum velocities, linings, or
special material.
For preliminary vapor piping sizing, the following table may be used as a guide.
Vapor
Pressure Drop
Velocity
Total Allowable
Service
(PSI/100 FT)
(FT/Sec)
Pressure Drop (PSI)
Tower
0.5
--1.0
Overhead
On Plot
0.5
----Gas
Comp.
0.3
5-150
1.5
Suct
Comp.
0.5
1y00
4.0
Disc
Steam
--100
4.0
C.
Piping
1. Initial maximum fluid velocities for line sizing:
Most liquids:
10 ft/s
All vapors:
50 ft/s
Raw sea water:
11.5 ft/s (CuNi piping)
Gravity drains
1.5 ft/s
Steam condensate
1.0 ft/s
2. Fluid velocity for vapor and two-phase flows should not exceed the erosional
velocity. Estimate erosional velocity from Ve = 100/ where Ve = erosional velocity
in ft/s and = fluid density in lb/ft 3 .
Limiting Velocities Liquids: (Another source)
Normal limiting velocities (highest normal design velocities) in process lines are
given by the following formula:
100
V=
4-2
3. Compressible gases (i.e. HC, air, steam) can be treated as incompressible when the
pressure loss for the segment in question is less than 10% of the inlet pressure.
Maximum Operable Velocities:
When rating existing liquid and/or gas piping systems, it is sometimes desirable to
determine the limiting fluid velocity for the system. This may be estimated as
follows:
a. For liquids:
Limiting velocity u m =
48
kZT 2
( /3 sonic velocity)
m
D.
Liquid velocities above 20 to 30 ft/sec can cause noise. As a rule, a velocity head less
than 1.3 psi avoids excessive noise.
Physical Fan Laws
1. The following relations are characteristic of fans operating in a given system with
constant air density:
a. With constant fan size and varying fan speed:
(1) Volume (CFM) varies directly as the fan speed.
CFM 2 RPM 2
=
CFM 1 RPM 1
(2) Static Pressure Varies directly as the square of the RPM.
SP 2 RPM 2
=
SP1 RPM 1
3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the cube of the fan speed.
HP 2 RPM 2
=
HP 1 RPM 1
4-4
CFM 2 DIA 2
=
CFM 1 DIA 1
(2) Static Pressure Varies directly as the square of the fan speed
SP 2 DIA 2
=
SP1 DIA 1
(3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the fifth power of size.
HP 2 DIA 2
=
HP 1 DIA 1
2. The following relations are characteristic of a fan of a given size delivering a constant
mass of air of varying density. (Density varies directly as absolute temperature and
inversely as the atmospheric pressure.):
a. Volume, fan speed, and total pressure vary inversely as the density.
b. Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies inversely as the square of the density.
3. Fan Horsepower varies directly as the product of the volume (ACFM) and the total
pressure (inches W.G.) divided by the constant 6370 times the total aerodynamic
efficiency.
Actual Fan Horsepower =
E.
Control Valves
1. Pumped Circuit
Allocating Pressure Drops to Control Valves:
In a pumped circuit, the pressure drop allocated to the control valve should be 33% of
all other friction losses in the system at pump rated flow (exclusive of the valve
pressure drop itself) or 15 psi whichever is greater.
Valid for < 750 GPM & < 150 psi pump delta p
Valid for > 300 GPM & 150 to 275 psi pump delta p
If outside these ranges, pressure drop allocated may be 25% of system dynamic losses
at pump rated head, or 15 psi whichever is greater.
In both cases above, use no more than 90% of valve's Cv .
4-5
F.
For valves handling a flashing mixture, the allocated pressure drop should be equal to
0.9 times the difference in between the absolute inlet pressure and the absolute
saturation pressure if flowing temperature is more than 5 F below the saturation
temperature. If less than 5 F below the saturation temperature, the pressure drop
should not be greater than 0.06 times the absolute inlet pressure.
Two Phase Flow:
For the seven types of two phase flow patterns in pipes, some guidelines on liquid and
vapor superficial velocities (LSV and GSV respectively) which can be used to make
initial predictions on the type of flow pattern are given below.
1. Horizontal Pipes:
a. In DISPERSED FLOW PATTERN, nearly all the liquid is entrained as spray by
the gas. This occurs at GSV > 200 ft/sec.
b. In ANNULAR FLOW PATTERN, liquid forms a film around the inside wall of
pipe and gas flows at a high velocity as a central core. This occurs at GSV > 20
ft.sec.
c. In BUBBLE FLOW PATTERN, bubbles of gas move along at about the same
velocity as the liquid. This occurs at LSV of 5 to 15 ft/sec, and GSV of 1 to 10
ft/sec.
4-6
d. In STRATIFIED FLOW PATTERN, liquid flows along the bottom of the pipe
and gas flows over the smooth liquid gas interface. This normally occurs for
LSV< 0.5 ft/sec, and GSV of 2 to 10 ft/sec.
e. In WAVE FLOW PATTERN, the interface is disturbed by waves moving in the
direction of flow; otherwise it is similar to stratified flow pattern. This occurs for
LSV < 1 ft/sec and GSV of about 15 ft/sec.
f. In SLUG FLOW PATTERN, waves are picked up periodically in the gas stream
and form a slug which moves at much greater velocity than average liquid
velocity. Slugs can cause severe vibration due to impact on fittings such as return
bends.
g. In PLUG FLOW PATTERN, alternate plugs of liquid and gas move along the
pipe. This occurs at LSV < 2 ft/sec and GSV < 3 ft/sec.
2. Upflow Vertical Pipes:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
4-7
4-8
5
A.
FRACTIONATION
2. H2 O
Behaves with volatility similar to ethane but causes hydrates with light
hydrocarbons and CO2 .
3. H2 S
B.
5. Ethyl
Behaves with a volatility less than propane. Used as stench for odorizing
Mercaptan commercial propane. In propane refrigeration systems, collects with the
oil in the propane chiller and is removed with the oil.
Columns
1. Rules of Thumb on Sequence
a. Get rid of troublesome components first. N2 , H2, H2S, CO2 , H2O.
b. Take successive cuts, lightest to heaviest.
c. Do easy separations first, i.e., where KLt key/KHv key is greatest.
d. Try to get distillate. (Mole basis)
e. Take a finished product as distillate.
2. All light hydrocarbon distillation columns should be controlled with floating pressure.
3. Heuristic for distillation: In a multicomponent mixture, it is usually best to remo ve
components one at a time beginning with the lightest.
4. Heuristic for separations: The next separation in a sequence is the one that can be
done the cheapest.
5. In large diameter (greater than 2 feet) packed distillation columns, liquid distribution
is the key element to separation efficiency.
6. Do not design a process based on an UNCONVERGED simulation!
7. For optimum economy, in terms of minimum column diameter and maximum tray
efficiency, distillation columns should be designed with 5 to 10 percent entrainment.
5-1
Bl
Log
D
hB
h
N min =
Log
R min =
1 D 1 (1 D1 )
1 F 1
(1 F 1)
5-2
For a column with a partial condenser, sufficient vapor space must be left above high
level for vapor/liquid separation. This can be roughly estimated for light hydrocarbon
systems as:
Area vapor, reqd (ft 2 ) = (Vapor flow rate, ft3 /sec) /0.7
This vapor cross sectional area should be added to the total cross sectional area of the
vessel to obtain the diameter. Even if the condenser is a total condenser, the high
liquid level should be 6 to 8 inches below the top of the vessel.
11. Estimating column diameter (low pressure columns only).
The active area of a trayed column can be fairly accurately estimated. The
downcomer areas can also be reasonable estimated. (Downcomer area should never
be less than 5% of the total area of the column.) Therefore a rough estimate of the
diameter can be readily obtained.
Area active =
W
1.6 v
5-3
5-4
FRACTIONATION REFERENCES
FRI Fractionation Tray Design Handbook, Vol 1, 2, & 5
PPCo Data Input Guide for Program 6180
H. L. Walker: Factors to be considered in the Design of Fractionation Equipment.
PPCo. 1980.
OConnell, H. E.: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 42, 741 (1946)
5-5
A.
COMBUSTION
Flare
1. Flare tip velocities
Open pipe flare: 0.5 MACH emergency flaring
0.2 MACH continuous flaring
Proprietary flare tips: 0.5 0.7 MACH (max)
2. Limit flare piping velocities to 0.7 MACH in laterals and to 0.5 MACH in headers.
3. Flare stacks and headers must be continuously purged.
4. Flare tips shall be provided with gas seals to reduce purge gas requirements.
5. Sound level from flare tip shall not exceed 100db for 15 minutes.
6. Limit flare radiation to adjacent flares and other equipment to 1,500 BTU/Hr/Sq.Ft.
7. Flare pilots shall be monitored.
8. At all times headers shall maintain a positive pressure.
9. No relief/depressurizing streams containing oxygen shall be tied into flare header.
10. Laterals and headers shall not have low places to collect liquids & corrosion products.
11. Laterals to enter headers at top and at 45 degree angle in direction of header flow.
12. Slope laterals to drain to headers.
13. PSV bypass shall have a minimum opening equal to the PSV orifice, no less than 2.
14. Normally limit PSV back pressure to: 10% Conventional Relief Valves
30% Bellow Relief Valves
15. Estimate final temperature of gas remaining inside vessel following depressurization
to flare from mid-point between resulting temperature calculated by isenthalphic
(JT) and isentropic (turboexpander) expansion.
B.
6-1
C.
Fuel Requirements
For determining fuel requirements for process equipment, always use the net heating
value of the fuel rather than the gross heating value.
6-2
COMBUSTION REFERENCES
Furnace operations by Robert D. Reed, Gulf Publishing Co. Copyright 1973
Steam/Its Generation, Babcock & Wilcox 161 East 42nd Street, New York, NY 10017,
Copyright-1972, thirty-eighth edition
Consult API RP t521 Guide For Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring System For Flare Sizing
Calculations
6-3
7
A.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Standard Conditions
Standard conditions for the U.S. refining industry are 1 atmosphere and 60F for both
gases and liquids. Other standards apply at different international sites.
At standard conditions, 1 lb- mole of gas occupies 379 cubic feet
B.
API =
141.5
131.5
sp.gr .
Distillation Curves
Distillation curves are obtained by distilling a standardized volume of sample a
defined rated. The distillation curve is a plot of the cumulative volume of the
condensed distillate vs. the vapor temperature. GC methods are also available the
produce distillation curves.
ASTM methods include: D-86, D-1160, D-2887, D-3710. The D-86 method is
the simplest and most common. A D-86 curve for distillate is below. The D-2887
and D-3710 methods are GC methods and commonly referred to as simulated
distillations or a SimDist.
7-1
Vapor Temperature, F
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Volume Distilled, %
C.
Compound
Specific Heat,
Btu/lb-F @ 60F
Density, lb/gal
@ 60F
Viscosity, cP
@60F
IsoButane
n-Butane
IsoPentane
n-Pentane
Octane
Decane
0.57
0.57
0.54
0.54
0.53
0.52
158
166
148
145
131
120
11
31
82
97
258
345
4.70
4.88
5.22
5.27
5.90
6.20
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
Benzene
Toluene
0.41
0.40
191
156
176
231
7.36
7.28
0.7
0.6
Gasoline
Diesel
0.50
0.47
125
105
100-440
378-670
6.32
7.18
0.6
4.0
0.45
0.44
0.44
----------
7.00
7.18
7.43
4.6
9.2
38.4
Methanol
Ethanol
0.59
0.57
472
364
148
173
6.66
6.63
0.6
1.3
Water
1.00
974
212
8.32
1.7
7-2
7-3
3. Specific Gravity
7-4
4. Thermal Conductivity
7-5
5. Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity, , is measured in centistokes, and is equal to viscosity in cP
divided by specific gravity or =
sp.gr
7-6
6. Vapor Pressure
7-7
D.
Hydrogen
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
3.404
0.526
0.407
0.281
0.293
3.451
0.578
0.487
0.305
0.316
0.005
0.042
0.079
0.116
0.153
0.129
0.0262
0.0175
0.0151
0.0135
0.0104
0.0135
0.0115
0.0102
0.0093
Hydrogen Sulfide
0.239
0.246
0.090
0.0110
0.0157
Air
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Water Vapor
Helium
0.239
0.248
0.217
0.249
0.200
0.445
1.647
0.239
0.248
0.217
0.250
0.219
0.451
1.647
0.076
0.074
0.084
0.074
0.116
0.047
0.011
0.0183
0.018
0.0185
0.0174
0.0133
0.0137
0.0104
0.0218
0.0210
0.0246
0.0209
0.0184
0.0125
0.0232
7-8
7-9
2. Thermal Conductivity
7-10
7-11
3. Viscosity
7-12
E.
7-13
F.
programs are to be used for different types of solids prediction. For cryogenic
hydrocarbon systems, the multiphase flash program from DTH is currently the best
option, the GPA Kohn-Luks program is also usually a good option for these systems.
Dale Embry is Phillips expert on these programs. The OLI software is the best
available for prediction of chemical salt and hydrate formation. Contact Dale Embry
for more information about this program.
Separations involving other chemicals or other thermodynamic properties should be
reviewed by a physical property and/or separations specialist before any designs are
finalized.
Simulation Techniques for Characterization of Oils
Most of the time, data about oils are provided as some sort of curve. However, most
simulation programs are designed to work with pure components that have one value
for a property. So we take portions of the curve and treat it as though it were a pure
component. These fractions are commonly referred to as "pseudocomponents". The
number of pseudocomponents needed for accurate simulations is as much a function
of the process being simulated as the type of oil being characterized. The number of
pseudocomponents needed for an accurate simulation increases as the tightness of
separation increases and the number of unique products increases. Narrow cuts, cuts
having a boiling range of 25 to 50 F (10C to 25C) are needed at the boundaries of the
unique products, larger cuts can be used further away from the product boundaries.
For most field gas/oil separation calculations there are between one and three
relatively broad separations being performed in the butane to octane boiling range.
These simulations are well characterized by using standard components through
hexane and then using between 4 to 10 pseudocomponents with increasingly broad
boiling ranges. Often 5 cuts with the ranges of C7, C8, C9-C10, C11-C14, C15+ will
adequately model the separator performance and the oil properties.
For refinery simulations, as many as 40-50 pseudocomponents may be needed to
characterize a whole crude as it is being split into its various products. One often uses
25F cuts for the 200-800 F boiling range materials, 50F cuts for the 800-1000F
boiling range materials and 100F cuts for the 1000+ materials. If only single phase
properties are needed, it is very likely that a single pseudocomponent with a 100 to
200F boiling range can be used for a stream.
7-14
7-15
8
A.
Reciprocating Compressors
1. Limit compression ratio to get a maximum temperature of 300 F discharge
temperature. This is generally less than a compression ration of 3.7 per stage.
2. Horsepower required is usually a maximum at a compression ratio of 2.0.
3. For reciprocating propane compressor calculations, add 10% to the final Horsepower
calculated by conventional means and 10 F to the final discharge temperature for
preliminary design.
4. To avoid excessive vibration, the mass of the foundation must be approximately 5
times the mass of the unit.
B.
Compressor Quickies
1. 1 lb- mole (ideal) gas occupies 379 SCF. Thus mass flow in lb/min =
MMSCFD*MW/(1440*379).
2. Least flow through a centrifugal compressor is 175 ACFM (300 m3/hr) discharge
volume.
ACFM = MMSCFD*106 *14.7*T*Z/ (1400*P*520) (T-temperature in R)
To achieve a reasonable compressor efficiency with a centrifugal compressor, the
suction acfm needs to be above 1500 to 2000. Avoid applications at lower acfm.
3. Centrifugal compressor head
1
P d
Z 1545 T S
1
H a=
MW
1 P s
4. Discharge temperature
P
Reciprocating T d =T s d
Ps
Centrifugal
P p
T d=T s d
Ps
p = Polytropic efficiency
8-1
= Cp /Cv
5. Maximum allowable discharge temperature for associated gas (i.e. gas from crude oil
wellhead separation) compression is 300 F (150 C).
Recommended maximum discharge temperature for centrifugal compressor is 350 F.
Absolute maximum discharge temperature for centrifugal compressor is 400 F.
High temperature seals are absolutely necessary to operate at the absolute maximum
temperature.
6. Head for a centrifugal compressor is really energy imported to the gas. Feet head
is in fact ft- lb force/ft- lb mass. SI expresses it as kiloJoule/kilogram.
Conversion: 1000 ft- lbf/ft-lbm = 2.989 kJ/kg
Other expressions such as me ters head (converting feet into meters) are
meaningless as they do not take the gravitational constant into account.
C.
7. For centrifugal compressors, a 20% surge margin from the design operating point is
recommended, 30% is preferred. Absolute minimum acceptable is 10%.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
D.
E.
If compression ratio is increased from 8:1 to 10:1 a 5% reduction in fuel rate and a 9%
increase in brake horsepower results (assumes 1000 Btu fuel & minimum octane of 115).
Octane Number:
C1-120
iC4-97.6
nC5-80.2
C2-100.7
nC4-89.1
C6-26.0
C3-98.1
iC5-61.9
C7-0.0
Fuel consumption
F.
2.
8-2
G.
Lean gas
Rich gas
H.
Turboexpander
0.06
0.1
JT-valve
0.03
0.05
Pump sizing
Example Size The Lean Oil Pump
Suction Conditions 145 psig @ 90 F
Discharge = 485 psig
Capacity = 700,000 GPD @ 60 F
SP. GR. @ Pump Temp. = 0.805
700,000
GPM @ Pump Temp. = 1440 min/Day
= 486
0.815
0.805
.815
.805
8-3
I.
Pumps
1. Suction Specific Speed:
When selecting centrifugal pumps, the suction specific speed (N SS) for the pump
should be le ss than 11,000. Experience has indicated that pumps operating with
suction specific speeds above 11,000 have a much higher failure frequency.
N SS =
RPMx GPM
( NPSHR )0.75
Where: n is pump speed in rpm and subscripts 1 & 2 indicate initial and final conditions.
3. Axial Compressors
1. Axial compressors cannot be used with side loads.
2. Maximum discharge pressure is around 300 psia.
8-4
J.
General:
1. Maintenance costs for gas engine driven reciprocating compressor units is about 6
times those of gas turbine driven centrifugal compressor units.
For 1993: Reciprocating = $30/HP Yr
Centrifugal
= $ 5/HP Yr
8-5
8-6
9
A.
REFRIGERATION
Condensers
For water cooling with propane condensers, try to maintain no greater than a 10 F
approach to the warm cooling water leaving the condenser. Use a velocity of 4 to 8 ft/sec
for the water through the tubes. Restrict cooling water return temperatures to a maximum
of 125 F.
B.
C.
D.
9-1
REFRIGERATION REFERENCE
GPSA Engineering Data Book, Section 14
Bechtel Process Engineers rule of thumb and CE Process checks
9-2
10
A.
MISCELLANEOUS
10-1
At 122 F (50 C) and above, the corrosion rate in agitated seawater is greater
than 50 mils/year.
At velocities over 15 ft/sec, turbulence may greatly accelerate the corrosion rate
by eroding away the protective film. This occurs frequently at heat exchanger
tube inlets, U bends, and piping elbows.
At more extreme velocities, erosion corrosion will occur. At 39 ft/sec, the
corrosion rate reaches over 200 mils, year.
B. For Seawater Waterflood systems:
Typical specifications to prevent formation plugging with solids, downhole
corrosion, and bacteria growth are as follows.
1. Solids Remove 97% of all solids greater than 5 microns size.
2. Oxygen Remove to a maximum level of 10 ppb(wt)
3. Sterilization Chlorination and/or UV sterilization required.
4. Portable Water systems:
a. Based on Ekofisk experience, provide the following potable water quantities for
preliminary design:
1.
200 to 250 liters (53 to 66 gallons) per day per person for personnel who live
on the platform.
2.
100 to 150 liters (26 to 40 gallons) per day per person for day workers and
visitors who do not live on the platform.
2.
10-2
Module type
Wellhead
B.
Area Ratio*
Set by well pattern/drilling
requirments
Separation
0.20 0.40
Gas Compression
0.15 0.20
Water Injection
0.20 0.25
PowerGeneration
0.20 0.30
Utilities
0.15 0.20
*Ratio of Major Equipment footprint area to total module area.
Water and Steam Systems
1. Approximate break point for steam pressure at which silica becomes a problem with
vaporization and deposition on turbine blades is at 500 psig.
2. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and temperature differential. For each 10 F temperature drop across the
tower, 1 % of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate is gpm.
C.
Economics
1. Capex Ratio Exponents
For Processing Plants and Ancillaries
Same No. of Units
COST 2=(SIZE OR CAPACITY 2/SIZE OR CAPACITY 1)0.5(COST1)
Unit number change required for new capacity.
USE 0.6 exponent
Infrastructure (Camps, Warehouses, Maintenance facilities)
USE 0.3 exponent
2. Capex Factors From Major Equipment Cost
Installed Cost
Onshore 2.5 x (Major equipment cost)
Offshore 5.0 x (Major equipment cost)
(excludes deck and jacket costs)
3. Annual Operating Costs
[excludes fuel and depreciation]
Onshore; 3% of Capital cost
Offshore; 5% of Capital Cost
4.
10-3
D.
E.
F.
G.
Instrument air As a preliminary estimate for instrument air requirements for feasibility
study design, use 0.5 to 0.75 scfm per control instrument.
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
1. For preliminary estimates of LNG plant design inlet volume for a premised LNG
delivery to ships for transport, use a 93 plant availability factor.
H.
I.
10-4
J.
1.
2.
3.
K.
4. BS&W 0.5 vol% maximum ; 0.1 vol% average (sales spec to pipeline)
Wind Loadings
L.
M.
Orfice
Steam
Size
Wasted/mo.
1
/2
835000
3
/8
470000
1
/4
210000
1
/8
52500
1
/16
13200
1
/32
3400
Composition of Air
N.
10-5
O.
Kinetics
P.
For a second order reaction in a constant volume reactor, if 95% of the reactants react in
one time, it will require 20 more time units to react 95% of the remaining reactants.
Storage, Vessel Capacity
Q.
A.
Vessel Capacity: Capacity (gallons)=(Diameter, ft)2 +2) x Length, inches.
Pipeline Volume:
R.
S.
T.
Economic L/D ratios for pressure vessels generally fall in the 2 to 5 range where L =
shell seam length and D = inside diameter, both in feet.
NACE Requirements
Material shall be selected to be resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) or the
environment should be controlled if the gas being handled is at a total pressure of 65 psia
or greater and if the partial pressure of H2 S in the gas is greater than 0.05 psia."
Pressure Waves (e.g. water hammer)
magnitude of PW in lbs f/in2 psi
PW = a x d x vd/(144 x g)
a = velocity of sound in the fluid fps
d = density of fluid, lb mass/ft3
vd = velocity decrease, i.e. velocity
before change less the velocity after change, FPS
g. = conversion factor = standard acceleration due to gravity, 32.174 fps2
10-6
U.
Insulation Types
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/ (( hr ft 2 F)/in)
Insulating
Material
-100
Temperature
200
500
Other
range, F
Flame-spread Index
Fibrous Glass
0.20
0.26
0.50
-20 to 850
<25
Mineral Wool
0.35
0.52
60 to 1,900
Noncombustible
0
Noncombustible
<5
Cellular Glass
0.27
0.42+
Polyisocyanur
ate
Polystyrene
0.18
Polyurethane
0.14
Granular
Calcium
Silicate
Perlite
<50
Water
Absorbed
(submersion),
% by Volume
65 (high)
70 (high)
0
0
-290 to 1,200
0.14 at 75 F
-290 to 300
0.23 at 75 F
-40 to 275
Combustible,
although sometimes
self-extinguishing
- (low)
0.25
-100 to 220
1.6 (low)
0.42+
0.55
60 to 1,500
Noncombustible
0
Noncombustible
0
0.47+
0.65
Smokedeveloped
Index
0.58
60 to 1,500
0.2
(considered
none)
0.7 (low)
75 (high)
16 (medium)
+Manufactures data
V.
10-7
Comments
Must have vapor barrier
in cold service, since it
is water absorbent.
General material.
Good workability
Deteriorates in a
alkaline
solution (e.g. 10%
NaOH). Poor abrasion
resistance.
Significant deterioration
in acids and in various
organics. Generally, is
replacement for
Excellent workability at
low temperatures
(below freezing point
of water)
Significant deterioration
in acids and various
organics,
but resists water and
vapors.
Excellent workability.
High water absorbency,
but will dry out. Good
workability
Good workability
MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES
Process Design Handbook, Section 1.6.6, 1.6.7, Table 1.6.1 Pages 4 of 7, 5 of 7, 6 of 7.
GPSA Engineering Data Book, Section 13
J.M. Campbell, Gas Conditioning and Processing, Norman
Pressure Vessel Design For Process Engineers
Hydrocarbon Processing, May 1979, pg 181-191
How to Select Materials, Chemical Engineering, Nov 3, 1980, pg 86 to 131
PPCoN Process Personnel
NACE MR0175 Std Mal. Reg.
10-8
ONLINE VERSION