Gallant music of Europe and

its impact on the German

Baroque lute

Hana Alivodic
Zrich, 01/09/2015

Index
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A brief History of the German Baroque lute
1.2 Tunings, Technique and Ornamentation
1.3 Repertory in Germany, Bohemia and Austria
2. INTERWEAVING STYLES OF ITALY AND FRANCE
2.1 Italian contribution
2.2 French influence
3. GERMAN BAROQUE LUTE MUSIC IN THE 18TH
CENTURY
3.1 Silvius Leopold Weiss
3.2 The Court of Bayreuth
3.3 Habsburg territories
3.4 Empfindsamer Stil and Galant Style
3.5 Decline of the lute
4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1

A brief History of the German Baroque lute

In the early beginnings of the 18th century, France as the center of lute music has been
replaced with Germany and Bohemia. Lute makers were gradually adding more bass lines
which had transformed the French 11 course lute into a 13 course lute by the year of 1719. In
pictorial evidence one can see two types of 13 course lutes, one as a converted 11 course lute
with an extra peg box on the top of the head and another one made of a single piece of wood
with a double peg box. The most important makers of that time were as well violin makers
such as Sebastian Schelle in Nuremberg, Martin Hoffmann in Leipzig, Joachim Tielke in
Hamburg and in Augsburg Thomas Edlinger and his son Thomas who later moved to Prague.
Gut strings and movable gut frets were still in use. The theme of placing the frets has always
been very intriguing, important and complex to both players and theoreticians since the
variety of intonations depend on the adjusting of the frets. German baroque lute uses equal
temperament which gives a variety of right intervals without further adjusting of the frets,
with a help of small wooden pieces, and easy left hand positions.

1.2

Tunings, Technique and Ornamentation

Todays normal baroque tuning in D minor becomes standard only in the second half of the
17th century. The basses were tuned diatonically and the lower basses would be adjusted for
the key of each piece. The first six courses of a lute tuned in D minor would be: A-d-f-a-d-f.
Even if this tuning had a very limited range of keys the left hand position was easy and
comfortable disregarding the size of the instrument.
Throughout time the technique of playing the instrument changed greatly and it was related to
the constant extending in size and basses of the instrument. Both hands (especially the right
hand) had to adjust to accommodate larger instrument which resulted in a right hand position
similar to todays guitar technique. Composers and players started reflecting on tone colors,
different and more complex arpeggiating and different right hand strokes.

Lute music cant be imagined without ornamentation, it is an essential part of it and players
are expected to add embellishments even if not written in the tablature. More ornaments were
especially used in slower movements to cover the lack of sustaining notes. In the 17th and
18th century composers would explain required ornamentations in the prefaces of their works
which give us a better perspective and diversity of the subject as we can see in the following
table.

Ex.1 -

1.3

Repertory in Germany, Bohemia and Austria

The greatest lutenist of the German speaking world was Silvius Leoplod Weiss (1686-1750)
luckily, a wide range of his writings survived. He calls his pieces sonata and they are
formed of multiple movements based on French suites. Some pieces are extremely
challenging and virtuous with an impressive harmonic structure with a three part texture.
Many of his later works can be very long, up to even 30 minutes. S. L. Weiss was the leader
of a promising new generation of lutenists that were about to come in the next years such as
Adam Falckenhagen (1697-1754), Ernst Gottlieb Baron (1696-1760).
Johan Sebastian Bach also loved and wrote for the lute. The demanding obbligato parts of St
John Passion and St Matthew were not the only written things for this instrument by Bach. He
also devoted BWV 997 and BWV 998 while the suite BWV 1025 was an arrangement of
Weisss sonata.
Around 1740s the three part texture evolved into a two part texture, and less or no trace of
French influence can be found. Lute was flourishing and composers were not only writing
solo pieces but also lute duets; trios for lute, violin and bass (J. B. Hagen among many others)
and even technically ambitious lute concertos with string ensemble. I should mention as well
Karl Kohaut (1726-1782) a lutenist from Vienna who wrote several lute concertos in a style of
Haydn and the last solo lute piece written by Christian Gottlieb Scheidler (1752-1815)
inspired by the first performance of Mozarts Don Giovanni in Prague, which was a set of 12
variations. Ernst Gottlieb Baron (1696-1769) was a composer and writer on music, his
Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten published in 1727, is one of the most important
lute treatises in the history of the instrument. It is a mine of information concerning lute makers, composers, players, technique, history and performance practices.

2. INTERWEAVING STYLES OF ITALY AND

FRANCE
2.1

Italian contribution

Undoubtedly Italy was the cradle of innovations and revolutions. I have to mention the 17th
century in Italy regarding instruments and repertoire. The liuto attiorbato (the classic form of
the instrument has 14 courses, all double with 7 courses on the fingerboard) was used
additionally to other instruments to accompany singers and smaller ensembles, as well as the
Italian theorbo (large lute with an extended neck and a second pegbox), archilute (an
instrument smaller than the theorbo tuned as the renaissance lute, either in g minor or a minor)
and many more variations of the lute itself. Music in that period and in that region asked for
experimenting and novelties. In the lute collections of the 17th century we can see expressive
Italian toccatas using sometimes not expected dissonances, changes of rhythm and lots of
parts meant to show the abilities of the performer. Alessandro Piccinini (1566-1638) well
known for his Intavolatura di Liuto et di Chitarrone, libro primo (Bologna, 1623) includes a
long preface on the manner of performing. He and Giovanni Zamboni (1664-1721) wrote for
the archilute, while the German born Giovanni Girolamo Kapsberger (1580-1651) wrote for
lute, chitarrone and theorbo.
In the 18th century Italy tablature was almost out of use and pieces were written in staff
notation.
I can conclude that instruments from the lute family used in Italy during the 17th and 18th
century were mostly used for accompaniment. Therefore the instruments grew in size in order
to have more substantial sound. Theorbos were used in chamber, orchestral music and operas
while archilutes were mainly solo instruments during the 17th century and later on were
played side by side with theorbos.

1.1

French influence

After a period of experimenting, in the second half of the 17th century the French baroque lute
established its final tuning and construction shape. In 1638 the first lute tablatures with a new
tuning appeared. That was the Nouvel accord ordinare (NAO = f1 d1 a f d A) commonly
called in English the D minor tuning, which will become the tuning for the Baroque lute. The
instrument gained popularity at the court and in salons and it was played both by women and
men; it was also one of the most popular instruments of the time often used as inspiration for
the playing style for harpsichords.
French lute music is recognizable not only for extensive use of ornaments but also for the stile
brise which means broken style used for lute, viol and harpsichords. The illusion of
polyphony is made with overworked braking of chords; the music its very idiomatic and can
be played only for the instrument its written for. Different techniques are presented to
underline dynamics such as Aspiration and Suspension; notes inegales are used and the
importance of embellishment is defined. Music can be characterized as sensitive, light, breezy
and intimate.
In musical society lutes played two important roles: perfect for solo and ensemble
performance but the manner of performing was different; continuo playing was more rough
and indented to underline the bass line rather than the filling notes; on the other side solo
music had a certain mystical touch achieved with different techniques, ornamentation and free
rhythmical interpretation that differs from the Italian and German way. Solo playing with the
new playing techniques evolved to make a full use of the resonance of the instrument. The
change depends on the hands position and the explorations of tonal potentials.
Important sources and lute collections of that time are left behind from Ennemond Gaultier
(1575-1651) Denis Gaultier (d.1672), Jacques Gallot(1625-1690) Charles Mouton (16261710) and Robert de Visee (1655-1732). Those composers developed the well known
tombeaux as well as musical portraits.
Instruments, technique and style together with the tradition of salons were exported to the rest
of Europe and were fashionable especially in Germany. The transmission of French music
outside the borders was possible thanks to the Frenchmen living abroad and to the nobility
that had the chance to travel. Musicians mobility was also very important and crucial for

spreading music and art in general. Musician would travel in order to get better education,
best possible training, visit important musical centers and find a dignifying employment.
During the French best years for the lute almost no composer or lute player went abroad, they
were working and teaching at home.

3.GERMAN BAROQUE LUTE MUSIC IN THE 18TH

CENTURY
3.1 Silvius Leopold Weiss

Silvius Leopold Weiss was born in Grottkau in 1687. His father, Jonathan Jacob taught him
how to play the instrument since he himself was a prolific musician. S.L.Weiss worked in
different courts. First he was by the Count Karl Philipp of Palatinat-Neuburg residing in
Breslau and Brieg. In the year 1707 Karl Philipp moved to Innsbruck, sadly there is no proof
if Weiss accompanied him there.
Probably from 1710 Weiss was in service of the Polish Prince Alexander Sobieski, who lived
in exile in Rome. When his Prince Sobieski died in 1714 Weiss left Italy but it was evident
that the country's influence was strong and would leave a mark on his works.
1718 he was appointed chamber musician for the Prince Elector of Saxony who had been
King of Poland since 1697.
This highly prized position was based in Dresden which was the center for science and arts.
At the time, the court at Dresden was able to show off many important names such as the
flutists Buffardin and Quantz and the violin players Pisendel and Francesco Veracini. Opera
in Dresden came to life with Johann Adolf Hasse and his wife Faustina Bordoni who was a
singer.
In 1736 Weiss refused to join the court in Vienna and decided to stay in Dresden where the
musical environment was of excellent quality. 3 years later Weiss met J.S.Bach. I should
mention the interesting story about the challenge between the two heavenly musicians to play
fugues and fantasies.
This lute maestro was admired by many. E.G.Baron dedicated him many pages in his
published lute study in 1727; Wilhelmine de Bayreuth wrote about Weiss in her memoires;
Charles VII's widow mentioned in a letter to her daughter the exquisite compositions of
Weiss. Weiss could be called the Father of the Lute and it was no secret that he could
perfectly handle such a complicated and gentle instrument and with his death in 1750 the
world lost the (probably) best lute player and lute composer ever.

His solo lute suites, that he called Suonate, followed the pattern: Allemande, Courante,
Sarabande and Gigue with the addition of Bouree and Menuet. The Weissian style was deeply
rooted in the music for the lute. He insisted on one affect describing one movement and his
motifs would be consistent and rational yet able to surprise everyones ears using deceptive
progressions. Weiss was and still is the composer who successfully and easily brought change
in the lute world. The instrument was once again in the center of attention, able to narrate any
kind of emotion, using the full potential of the strings and instrument body. His pieces are
interesting to perform and listen to. Weisss special writing style is easily recognizable and
definitely he served as inspiration, model and standard for the musicians to come.

3.2. The court of Bayreuth

The court of Bayreuth takes a special place among European courts. The Hohenzollern
supported art and music so the court benefited from the exchange of artists and it became a
meeting center for musicians from all over Europe. The family considered the support as a
development of intellectual life. Musicians from the court were as well composers and their
pieces can be found in musical centers of Europe like Paris, Vienna and London. There were
important guest composers from other courts such as Johann Adolf Hasse who was extremely
important for the Bayreuth Court Opera. Initially there were performed Italian and German
operas as well as Tafelmusik, background music for different use, ball music and weddings.
Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia, daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia was the patron for
cultivation of lute music. Adam Falckenhagen, Paul Charles Durant and Bernhard Joachim
Hagen made the last florescence of the instrument. After the death of the Margrave couple the
court musicians remained in office, but the singers, the French comedian and the ballet were
dismissed.
Sadly we dont know much about Adam Falckenhagens biography besides that he was a lute
and harpsichord player and composer who traveled from court to court finally to settle in
Bayreuth where he hold his position until his death in 1754. His works: 6 Sonatas for Lute,
Op. 1 ; 6 Partitas for Lute, Op. 2 ; 6 Concertos for Lute and Flute Op. 3 ; Preludio Nel quale
Sono contenuti tutti i Tuoni Musicali.

Joachim Bernhard Hagen was empolyed at the same court as a lutenist and violinist.
There are assumptions that Falckenhagen and Durant were his teachers. His skills at both
instruments were recognized and admired. The perfect balance between the lute and violin in
his trio's are the reflection of a good composer who brings out the best of both instruments.
The dialog is clear and gentle and the game of instrument priority is efficient so the lute can
be heard as the leading and filling instrument. Make no mistakes, his lute solo parts as well as
his Sonatas for lute solo are extremely challenging and shaped by the Empfindsamer Stil. In
the time when lute has started to slowly disappear, J.B.Hagen brings virtuosity and elegance
unifying the musical taste of that period with the maximum of the instrument capacities.
His music (33 known pieces) is saved in a single manuscript in Augsburg, among them are:
12 Sonatas for lute solo; 6 Trions for Lute, Violin and Cello; 2 Lute concerti etc. Example of
Hagen's Allegro and Gustoso from his f minor suite for lute solo from the Augsbourg
manuscript.

3.3. Habsburg territories

From the mixture of the French and Italian style which had been imported by musicians and
nobility a new style evolved. In Breslau professional musicians and middle class families who
cultivated lute playing was living side by side exchanging knowledge. In Prague there were a
couple of lute lovers and players like Anthon von Adlersfeld who owned one major source
from Weiss. A number of lute players were also in Graz especially in the monasteries around
the cities. The lute and other plucked instruments were as well cultivated in the imperial city
of Vienna, where continuo and solo music was often played. Solo lute music was greatly
influenced by the French school. Interestingly enough there were people employed at the
court as accountants but they were are and are known nowadays as lute composers, such as
Weichnberger or Hinterleithner.
After the Thirty Years War until 1700 lute music was mainly for solo performance or played
in duets. After 1700 the lute was used as an obligato instrument and a large number of lute
concertos were written.
Wolff Jakob Lauffensteiner (16761754) was born in Steyr. By the year 1709 he obtained a
position as a lute player in Graz and in 1712 he was in service of the Bavarian court where he
earned the pension. Lauffensteiner wrote Suites for solo lute, and chamber music including
concerts and lute duets. He is no innovator or avant-garde composer. His music has a lot of
French influence and in some pieces is also quite similar to Weisss music.
Johann Georg Weichenberger (1676-1740) is another composer worth mentioning. He was a
court accounted and lute player. Even though music wasnt his first job Weichenberger left
many quality pieces behind and was well known in the Austro-Bohemian region of the 18th
century.
After Weichenbergers gallant musical writings Karl Ignaz Augustin Kohaut (1726-1784)
opened the instrument to a pre-classical language. The lute has virtuoso parts that are very
challenging especially in the faster movements where the player has to have excellent
techniques in order to play fluently and graciously. Unfortunately the instrument itself is
bulky and difficult to handle, the vast number of strings and a relatively big body dont make
the lute an adequate instrument for the century and style to come; that is one of the reasons
why the lute, even if once the King of instruments, was sentenced to death and failure.
Nevertheless, Ernst Ludwig Gerber in his Musicalischen Lexikon from 1790 described

Kohaut as the biggest lutenist of his time. Example of Kohauts Concerto for lute and strings
in A major from Augsburg Tonk 2, Hs Fasc III/1-2

3.4 Empfindsamer Stil and Galant Style

Galant was a word frequently used in the 18th century describing a set of positive traits and
manners. Galant music with its elegance, immediacy of appeal and wicked simplicity was the
opposite from the grandious and majestic Baroque style. Foreshadowed by Archangelo
Corelli and other composers who wanted to simplify the Italian Baroque style the Galant style
flowered in Naples in the 1720s and it spread quicly and widely defining almost the whole
century. In this free style the composer doesnt have to follow strict grammatical rules.
Certain dissonances can be allowed to enter unprepared, they might even last longer that the
following consonances. Embelishments of various kinds can be used with the addition of
diverse passing tones and there is an excessive use of modulations.
In order to identify the style one can use as a references two cadences that became frequent.
The most common, known as the cadence galante, has a simple harmonic form I IV V I
ending decorated with caracteristic slide in the trebel melody. The second has a bass rising by
step from the I to the V and the descending trebel.

Ex.2

The Empfindsamer Stil translated would be the sensitive or tender style, was expected to
express true simple feelings, sensitivity and personal emotions. Those qualities were
connected with the philosophy of that time. This north Germany style can be seen as a branch
of the wider Galant Style. Dramatic passages, dynamic contrast, change of register and
extreme expressiveness are the features of this style. Unlike the Galant Style, Empfindsamer
Stil tends to avoid luxurious ornamentation. Carl Philip Emanuel Bach, Wilhelm Friedmann
Bach and Johan Joachim Quantz are just some representatives of that style.

3.5 Decline of the Lute

The aristocratic lute was slowly declining making space for new instruments. Different
developments in different time period were happening. There were citterns played by the
lower rural population, English guitars and guitars in Spain. If we look at the development of
the guitar from 1700 on we see the 6 course instrument used in Spain and a 6 course lyreguitar in France. Guitars were louder, easier to make, maintain, carry and play and were used
almost everywhere. Musicians had to adapt to changes and eventually trade their customary
instruments for the more popular once.
Another reason was the move away from tablature as the only notation for this instrument.
Music for the newly emerging plucked instruments was written in mensural notation and the
lute could not keep up with that. Playing the lute from normal notation would be a problem
especially regarding the Baroque lute. Tablatures were used in order to make the lute playing
available to a big market making easier to learn the instrument. This kind of notation is
actually representing the exact place where the player is supposed to place the finger, saving
the trouble of calculating fingerings. Tablatures notates music which doesnt to any part
structure or concept of voice, so one the piece is transcribed in grand staff the notes may be
displaced.
With the usage of fewer strings tablatures were not necessary anymore and mensural notation
took precedence. The lute corpus wasnt totally forgotten during the second half of the 18th
century because we can still find guitars in a lute form. In Naples around the end of the 18th
century a new age began the golden age of the guitar.

4. CONCLUSION

By the 18th century the center of lute music shifted to Germany; influenced by Italian and
French musicians and composers, the best representative of that time Silvius Leopold
Weiss added 2 more pair of strings on a 11 course French baroque lute, creating the 13
course instrument called German Baroque lute. This new instrument was the inspiration
for many composers to come. Even if greatly influenced by the French school, German
speaking composers successfully made the German baroque lute music recognizable and
respectable.
Not only French lute music had its influence on German, Opera and ensemble pieces had
their part as well. Famous composers and players like Hasse who left a deep imprint in
Dresden, Quantz who dominated the evening chamber, Carl Philip Emanuel Bach who
was the most important and prolific keyboard composer in northern Germany;
successfully influenced lute composers. Although the instrument itself wasnt conceived
for the changes to come, composers and players accommodated the technique and music
in order to follow the trends. The lute wasnt anymore seen as an introvert, relatively
lethargic and quiet instrument, it was rather associated with concertos were it had a lead
and virtuous pieces reminding Arias from Operas.
German lute music was played from the 16th century up to the end of the 18th century and
the term German baroque music unites pieces written in the baroque, gallant and preclassical style which makes difficult to speak of a single style. German lute music
combines different styles with changes on the instrument that occurred during time,
producing a new style able to assimilate to the taste and new musical development.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Farstad P.K. (2000): Bernhard Joachim Hagen (1720-87): Some New Biographical
Information, in: The Lute. Journal of the Lute Society, Vol. 40, p. 1-11
Gjerdingen R. O. (2007). Music in the Galant Style, Oxford: University Press
Heartz D. (2003). Music in European Capitals the Galant Style 1720-1780, New York:
W.W.Norton & Company, Inc.
Schlegel A. & Ludtke J. (2011) The Lute in Europe 2, Menziken: The Lute Corner
Smith D.A. (1973): Baron and Weiss contra Mattheson: in Defence of the Lute, JLSA
Rolfhamre.R. (2010): French Baroque Lute Music from 1650-1700, Kristiansand, Agder
University
Yisrael M. (2008): Method for the Baroque lute, Bologna: Ut Orpheus Edizioni S.r.I.