STRUCTURES

Structures are al around you. Structures support, protect and enclose spaces
or objects. People must fulfill the three basic needs of food, clothing and shelter in
order to survive. In this page you will learn about structures that shelter us.

“Houses fulfill our basic need for shelter”

A. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

Structures can be classified into three groups:

1. FRAME STRUCTURES.

Consists of many rigid rods or bars that are joined together by joints. They are
also called skeletal structures or space frames.

E.g crane roof

2. SHELL STRUCTURES

The shape spreads the loads throughout the structures. They rely on their
shapes for strength.

e.g.
 Hat car

3. MASS STRUCTURES

Consists of similar materials that are piled together to form a whole.

e.g

Pyramids mountains

A. FORCES EXERTED ON STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS.

Force is a push or a pull.

EXTERNAL FORCES:

• Static or dead load: is a permanent force acting on a structure. This

includes the weight of the structure itself and the stationary parts it
supports.
• Dynamic: is a changing, non-permanent force that acts on structures.
• Tension: Forces stretch the material by pulling its ends apart.
• Compression: forces crush a material by squeezing it together.
• Bending force: is a combination of tension and compression. It acts at
an angle to a structural member causing it to bend unless the causing it
to bend.
• Torsion: forces twist a material by turning the ends in opposite
directions.
• Shear force: bend or tear a material by pushing and pulling different
parts in opposite directions at the same time.

A. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS.

Members are the parts that make up a structure.

Tent. Pillars.
Suspension bridge

All these figures above are all different; some of their structural
members are similar.

Arches: (stone and iron)

From the roman times until the beginning of the industrial revolution in the early
1700, the arch was the main type of bridge to be built.

These bridges were built of stones because stone has good compressive
strength and many of these antique arches can still be seen today. Stone arches
bridges had gradually improved so that longer, lower arches could be built.
Fewer arches were needed to cross a river. There were different types of arch
bridges- over, through and under.

Buttresses:

Struts:

Triangles which hold a structure in place by pushing (pressing) against

it.

Guys:

Ropes or cable to hold a structure in place by pulling on it.

Stay:
 A guy or rope supporting, a pole, flagpole or other poles.

Tie:

A rod or beam holding parts of a structure together by pulling on it.

B. TRIANGULATION

It is a process used to stiffen a frame. Extra pieces of material are added to form
triangles. When bridges, tower, large buildings, etc. are designed, extra
strengthening is needed.

Alternatively a frame structure can be rigid by the use of gusset plates. A

gusset is simply a piece of material used to brace and join the members in a
structure. Triangular gusset plates have been used in this structure.

C. REINFORCING STRUCTURES:

There are different ways of reinforcing structures. Steel is a very strong metal.
To build structures like cards, Lorries, etc. thin steel sheets are used to build the
bodies. These sheets are reinforced to make it stronger. Many modern
structures have a steel framework.

At first, steel was the only material used for the frames of tall buildings and for
large bridges. Many large buildings were built on steel frames.

D. MATERIALS USED TO MAKE DIFFERENT STRUCTURES

WHERE DO MATERIALS COME FROM?

All materials originally come from the earth and are called raw materials. Raw
material comes from primary industries. Some primary industries are mining,
farming, lumber industries (logging), fishing and so on.

Raw materials are usually sold to secondary industries where they either sold as
they are or they are processed into industrial materials. Industrial materials are
used to make products. Wood, metal, plastic, cement, paper, cardboard and so on
are all industrial materials.
 E. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

It is important that when you design a product, you must first choose the material
that will allow your product to function properly.

ELASTICITY

Is the ability of the material to return to its original shape after it has been
deformed by force.

e.g spring

PLASTICITY

Is the ability of a material to have its shape changed permanently.

e.g. cool drink can (aluminum)

DUCTILITY

The ability of the material to change shape without breaking.

e.g. gold
MALLEABILITY

Is the ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without cracking.

e.g. Steel

HARDNESS

Is the ability of a material to resists scratching, wear and tear and deformation.

e.g. diamond

STIFFNESS

Is the ability of a material to resist an external force. A stiff material is rigid

rather than flexible.

e.g. desk
FLEXIBILITY

Is the ability of a material to bend without breaking.

e.g. steel

TOUGHNESS

Is the ability of a material to resist breaking when sudden force is applied to it.

e.g. rock