Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
PIET M. LUGT
SKF, Engineering & Research Center
P.O. Box 2350
Nieuwegein 3430 DT, The Netherlands
KEY WORDS
EHL with Greases; Grease Application; Greases; Lubricant
Degradation; Rolling Element Bearings; General; Starvation in
EHL
INTRODUCTION
The main role of grease in a rolling bearing is to provide the
rolling element ring contact with a lubricant to ensure a separation of the two such that the bearing has a long life and low
friction. The main advantages of using grease rather than oil
lubrication are the ease of use (it will not easily leak out of
the bearing due to its consistency), the inherent sealing action,
the protection against corrosion, and low friction (provided that
Manuscript received November 2, 2008
Manuscript accepted November 27, 2008
Review led by Andy Jackson
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471
GREASE PROPERTIES
Grease Structure
Grease is defined as a solid to semi-fluid product or dispersion of a thickening agent in a liquid lubricant. Other ingredients
imparting special properties may also be included (NGLI (5)).
The base oil is kept inside the thickener structure by a combination of Van der Waals and capillary forces (Bauer, et al. (6)).
Interactions between thickener molecules are dipole-dipole including hydrogen bonding (Hurley (7)) or ionic and Van der
Waals forces (Forster, et al. (8)). The effectiveness of these forces
depends on how these fibers contact each other. The thickener
fibers vary in length from about 1 to 100 m and have a length
to diameter ratio of 10 to 100 where this ratio has been correlated with the consistency of the grease for a given concentration
of thickener (Scarlett (9)). It is not obvious how to visualize the
structure of grease. In general, wet samples cannot be used in
a scanning electron microscope. Figure 1 shows the structure of
some greases where the oil has been carefully washed away using
a non-polar solvent. Since grease contains 8090% oil, one may
argue that the thickener structure may collapse if the oil is washed
out and that such a picture may be misleading. Other visualization techniques have been used as well such as a freeze-fracture
technique (Magnin and Piau (10); Shuff and Clarke (11)), where a
replica is made of a frozen grease sample, which can be observed
in the SEM. Also, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used
(Hurley and Cann (12)). Shin, et al. (13) visualized the grease
flow in a shear field with an optical microscope in phase contrast
mode. They observed very long fibers ranging from 50 to 100 m,
which are much longer than those observed with the SEM. An
environmental SEM may be used but the low contrast between
soap and base oil makes visualization difficult. Salomonsson, et al.
(14) have visualized the grease structure using the cryo-TEM
technique and visualized naphthenic lithium grease and paraffinic
lithium grease by increasing the contrast between soap and oil
through, e.g., replacing lithium by lithium/cesium soap.
Additives
The role of additives in grease has not been explored in
much detail. At high temperatures, the antioxidant additives will
have the greatest effect. These additives are continuously consumed during bearing operation and, according to van den Kommer (15), totally consumed after 50% of grease life. Extreme
pressure/anti-wear (EP/AW) additives are generally applied for
low speed and/or high load. The effect on grease life that these
additives have is not well understood. According to Gow (16)
some 90% of all lubricant additives destroy the thickener structure of grease since they are often based on surface-active materials and this leads to what is commonly called the mayonnaise
effect (softening and discoloring). He also mentions that of the remaining 10%, some 90% do not work. He ascribes this to the fact
that the thickener material is almost always very polar (metallic
soaps) and that the (also polar) EP additives will adhere to the
soap structure rather than to the metal surface (Gow (17)). This
is in contradiction to the results found by McClintock (18) who
tested a number of greases on lubricant life and found an increase
in life. A very promising development is the use of bismuth as an
EP/AW additive because it is nontoxic and shows very good performance (Rohr (19)).
Kaperick (20) shows in an evaluation of the Timken OK
Load Test, in which identical EP additives give a different response to EP action for different formulated greases and ascribes
this to a possible impact of mobility towards the surface through
chemical interactions or attractive forces. If Gow is right then it
is likely that the impact of EP additives on grease performance
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P. M. LUGT
Non-Newtonian Rheology
A lubricating oil shows non-Newtonian behavior at high shear
rates and pressure. Due to the thickener structure and its interaction with the base oil, grease shows this behavior already at very
low shear rates and ambient pressure. Measurements from low to
high shear rates can be found in Pavlov and Vinogradov (21).
The solid-like behavior, or resistance to flow (or leakage), is
traditionally characterized through the consistency or penetration, measured using a cone penetrometer (ISO 2137, ASTM
D217), which is translated into an NLGI consistency number. An
alternative is to measure the yield strength on a rheometer, by
means of the computerized evaluation of yield value (CEY; Gow
et al. (23);
(22)) or through the cross-over stress (Couronne,
Couronne and Vergne (24)). A correlation between yield stress
and penetration/consistency can be found in Couronne et al. (25).
Generally, this is only determined at room temperature.
It is clear that the grease will be severely worked in the bearing. This applies to the grease that is being churned between the
rolling elements but also applies to the fraction that passed the
EHL contacts where shear rates are O(106 s1 ). This causes a
rapid change in rheological properties of the grease during the
initial phase of bearing operation. It is therefore relevant to measure the rheology after working the grease. This can be done in a
rheometer itself, in a grease worker (26), or in a Shell roll tester
(27). The change in consistency loss is quantified by measuring
the mechanical stability of the grease before and after working
the grease.
The yield stress strongly depends on temperature. Measurements for different types of grease can be found in Karis, et al.
(28) or Czarny (29). Karis shows that the yield strength of a
lithium grease may drop from 500 Pa at 20 C to 100 Pa at 60 C.
As shown by Forster and Kolfenbach (30), greases show viscoelastic behavior. There are a number of models proposed for low
and high shear rates. The best known are the power law, RheeEyring, Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley models. A definition of
these models can be found in Yousif (31). These models assume
solid or very high viscous behavior at low shear rates and viscous (with possible shear thinning) at higher shear rates. An example can be seen in Fig. 2. In addition to this nonlinear shear
stress-shear rate behavior, grease is thixotropic, meaning that the
measured stress also depends on time. Paszkowski (32) defined
thixotropy as an isothermal decrease in structural (apparent) viscosity during shearing (at both constant and variable shear rates)
followed by an increase in the viscosity and the re-solidification
of the substance once shearing ends. Pavlov and Vinogradov (21)
show creep-like behavior at very low shear (106 s1 ) until the
yield strength has been reached. As shown by Hurley and Cann
(33), grease rheology approaches that of the base oil at high shear
rates. They also show that mechanical work changes the rheological behavior significantly. The grease thickener structure is thus
continuously degrading and is transformed from a Bingham plastic or Herschel-Bulkely material towards a more viscous material
(Merieux,
et al. (34)).
LUBRICATION MECHANISMS
Lubricating Conditions
There is no consensus on the lubrication mechanisms in grease
lubrication. There is an overall agreement though that greaselubricated bearings are generally running under starved lubrication conditions. This has been shown by Poon in 1972 on a disc
machine (Poon (35)) and by Wilson in 1979 (36) in full bearings.
Wilson measured the film thickness in cylindrical and spherical
roller bearings and showed that the lubricant film initially exceeds
the value in case of fully flooded oil lubrication by 2025%. However, already after a few hours the film thickness has decreased
below this value. At this point the bearing runs under starved lubrication conditions.
Barz (37) measured the film thickness in a cylindrical thrust
bearing as a function of bearing speed. His measurements
show that the film thickness is relatively large at low speed
but decreases with speed up to a speed where the film stays
and Jacobson (38) measured the electrical
constant. Wikstrom
capacity over the bearing contacts (using a method developed
by Heemskerk, et al. (39)) in a grease lubricated spherical roller
bearing and showed that metal-to-metal contact occurs very
regularly, meaning that the films are very thin, certainly smaller
than the values that could be expected assuming fully flooded
conditions.
As a rule of thumb approximately 30% of the free volume of
the bearing should be initially filled with grease. It will be clear
that this is much more than required to provide the bearing with
a (fully flooded) lubricant film. In the beginning, excessive grease
churning, or grease flow, takes place, which is responsible for the
high temperature peak caused by the churning component of the
friction torque. The initially thick lubricant films in the beginning
indicate that at least during this initial bearing operation thickener enters the contact.
om,
473
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
500
1000
1500
shear rate (1/s)
2000
2500
Fig. 2Shear stress versus shear rate curve for lithium soap bearing grease at room temperature. Measurements and fit using a power law model.
and Hoglund
(53) using both grease and base oil only showed
equal friction torque. This shows the importance of the base oil.
They claim that these tests confirm the theorem from Booser and
Wilcock (43) where grease releases oil, which then lubricates the
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P. M. LUGT
Starvation models for oil-lubricated contacts have been developed by Chevalier, et al. (62), later refined by Damiens, et al.
(63) and Damiens (64). In these models, a given layer of oil with a
given thickness is supplied to the EHL contact. The main problem
here is the input layer thickness, which is not known for a bearing
with multiple contacts. This layer needs to be calculated based
on the nonuniform layer, which leaves the preceding EHL contact and the feed and loss of lubricant in-between over-rollings
(or rather in-between two rolling elements).
The first problem is the possible occurrence of replenishment
between two consecutive rolling elements. Van Zoelen, et al. (65)
has recently developed an innovative approach to this by assuming that starvation is caused by side flow in the EHL contacts only
and that track replenishment can be neglected. They showed that
the starved film thickness increases with increasing load caused
by increasing viscosity inside the contact and therefore a reduced
side flow.
Track Replenishment
Replenishment has been the topic of many articles starting
with the model from Chiu (66). Jacod, et al. (67) showed that
surface tension-driven replenishment of the running track is too
slow to give any significant effect and shows that only capillary
forces may have some effect. Recently, Gershuni, et al. (68) investigated the impact of bearing centrifugal forces on the layers formed behind a contact of cylindrical roller bearings. They
showed that these forces increased the replenishment rates enormously in case of outer ring rotation. In case of inner ring rotation, replenishment is seriously retarded by the centrifugal action
on the layers. They showed that replenishment times, even in the
absence of centrifugal forces, were too long to have any effect.
Farcas and Gafitanu (48) developed a model based on the wetting
properties of the lubricant only. They calculated the critical speed
at which lubricant droplets are no longer able to adhere to the
surface due to the centrifugal forces. They have validated their
model using electrical resistance measurements over the bearing
contacts.
Merieux,
et al. (34) show that grease shear degradation may
also lead to replenishment and film growth. They assume that the
grease next to the contact is continuously sheared and therefore
degrades. The grease will ultimately lose its grease-like behavior
and will then behave as an oil, replenishing the contact.
Van Zoelen, et al. (69) investigated the impact of the tangential component of the centrifugal forces on the thin-film flow on
tapered and spherical roller bearing inner rings. They showed
a significant effect here, which should certainly be incorporated
in any replenishment model. The cage design also plays a role
in the prediction of the film thickness and track replenishment.
Damiens, et al. (70) have done film thickness measurements on a
single contact where they mounted a single cage pocket, cut from
a full cage, on their ball-on-disc device and where they were able
to vary the clearance between cage and ball from 0.05 to 0.5 mm.
They show that, in case of oil lubrication, the film thickness decreases with decreasing clearance between cage and ball. They
ascribe this to a scraping effect. However, in the case of grease
lubrication they found an inverse effectthe film thickness was
Dynamic Behavior
In 1996, Mas and Magnin (55) speculated on the release of
fresh grease after heat development caused by film breakdown.
They wrote that a grease lubricated bearing will fail as soon as this
can no longer take place. This would imply a dynamic behavior
of subsequent film breakdown and repair. Such dynamic behavior
and Jacobson
can be observed in the measurements of Wikstrom
(38), who tested spherical roller bearings, measuring the electrical capacitance across the contacts. Unlike Barz (37) and Wilson
(36), who used a similar technique, they did not translate this signal to film thickness values. Their intent was only to illustrate the
occurrence of metal-to-metal contact. Their measurements show
that the capacitance signal was not constant but had a dynamic
character.
Cann and Lubrecht (73) illustrated this in their ball-on-disc
machine and showed that severe starvation can be repaired by
adding additional lubricant to the contact. Very pronounced dynamic behavior was observed in 2008 in Lugt, et al. (74), where
temperature signals from cylindrical roller bearing tests were analyzed and where it was shown that these signals show events
characterized by periods where the temperature rises significantly
and falls back to the steady state. Moreover, additional analysis of
the electrical resistance measurements proved that these events
are caused by film breakdown followed by replenishment and that
grease lubrication exhibits deterministic chaotic behavior. This
had not been observed so explicitly before for two reasons. In the
first place, a sufficiently long test time is required to measure this,
which is usually not applied because of high costs for testing or
lack of patience. The second reason is that most grease life tests
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Grease Flow
During the churning phase in a grease lubricated bearing,
most of the grease is pushed onto the covers/seals/shields of the
bearing arrangement and some grease stays inside the bearing
where some of it may be mobile and continuously flow and part
of it will form patches of grease that can be found under the cage.
The amount of grease that can be stored here obviously depends
on the cage geometry and the flow properties of the grease; i.e.,
its rheological behavior. Also, in case of vertical shaft arrangements or in case of vibrations, the amount of grease available
for lubrication depends on these properties. Under these circumstances generally a high consistency grease is used to prevent
grease falling back into the track again and to maintain a lubricant reservoir adjacent to the rolling elements row(s).
According to Cobb (75), there is no difference in grease performance (start-up torque, temperature, leakage through seals) if
ball bearings are filled from one side only, provided the same total
amount of grease is placed in the bearing under either placement
condition. This indicates that most of the grease in the bearing
participates in the flow.
The flow of grease inside the bearing is very complex. Visualization techniques have shown flow patterns, (9). However, a
quantitative prediction and therefore prediction of the formation
of the grease reservoir is not possible today. There are several
reasons for this. The first reason is the complex rheology of the
grease. In addition, thickener-oil separation could occur with entrapped air. A multi-phase flow may occur, which is most difficult
to describe using todays computational tools. Moreover, there is
an enormous variation in scale and shear rates inside the bearing configuration. Between the rolling elements, clearly churning
takes place with relatively low shear rates. In the inlet of the contacts, phase separation may occur (similar to what happens with
water in emulsions in the inlet of EHL contacts), a jet flow may
occur, or even droplets may be formed (Larsson, et al. (76)).
Wall Slip
The flow is not only determined by the rheological properties
of the grease. The bearing (cage) material and roughness are also
important. The roughness of cage material and type of cage material are important due to the occurrence of wall slip. This wall slip
effect has been studied in rheometers and in pipe flows. Forster,
et al. (8) claim that the flow close to the wall is restricted by the
breaking fiber contacts. They report that at high slip rates internal slip in the fibers would be responsible for wall slip. Bramhall
and Hutton (77) ascribe wall slip to a lower concentration of the
thickener particles at the wall, so slip over a layer of oil. Czarnys
experiments (Czarny (78); Czarny and Moes (79)) show that the
wall slip depends on the wall material and on the thickener type.
Since this does not apply to oil lubrication, he claims that the formation of a wall layer is a result of interactions between the particles of the grease thickener and the wall material resulting in a
concentration gradient of thickener close to the wall. He based
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P. M. LUGT
this explanation not only on his own work but also on the experimental work of Vinogradov, et al. (80). Delgado, et al. (81)
showed the impact of roughness on wall slip though measurements of pressure drop and flow through pipes. They showed that
smoothening of the wall gave a significant reduction in pressure
drop. This can only be ascribed to wall slip again. The wall slip
phenomenon is not only of importance to understand grease flow,
it may also be of importance for the ability of the bearing to maintain its grease reservoir after the churning phase. In case of line
contact bearings grease may slide away from under the cage bar
into the track.
GREASE LIFE
deep-groove ball bearings by means of grease performance factors (GPFs), which is shown in Fig. 4. The GPF is defined as the
ratio of real life and the grease life predicted by his model. In order to determine its values grease life tests are necessary, such as
the R0F/R0F+ test.
As mentioned above, the initial filling rate is important. Generally, the models apply to an optimally filled bearing. To the authors knowledge only Farcas and Gafitanu (49) have included
the initial volume of grease inside the bearing as a parameter in
a life mode. Their empirical model is based on a limited data set,
though.
The effects of shock loads and vibrations are also often incorporated through penalty factors.
These effects cause grease lumps from the covers/seals to fall
into the bearing, resulting in high temperatures and loss of grease
reservoir. The same applies to the effect of air flow through the
bearing. Lubricant droplets formed behind the rolling elements
(Larsson, et al. (76)) will be dragged out of the bearing and will no
longer replenish the inlet of the next rolling element. Air flow will
also have an impact on the evaporation rate, especially at higher
temperatures. Lansdown and Gupta (52) show that evaporation
of base oil not only happens on thin films bled out of the grease
but may even happen to oil contained in grease directly.
Reliability
Bearing life is usually expressed in L10 life (10% of the population will have failed), and grease life is usually expressed in
L50 life (50% of the population will have failed). This is the result of test practice where grease life is measured using a limited number of tests representing a large quantity of bearings. A
two-parameter Weibull distribution is assumed, since a minimum
Fig. 3Balance between feed and loss of lubricant ultimately determin and Jacobson (38) ).
ing the lubricant film thickness (Wikstrom
477
Fig. 4Grease life model from Huiskamp (2) including grease performance factors.
Fig. 5Failure distribution for a grease life test using the R0F test rig using a population of 10 grease failures.
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P. M. LUGT
generally measured through the L50 value. Re-lubrication intervals are derived from that using a fixed Weibull slope. ROF
testing gives an average Weibull slope = 2.3, which gives
L10 2.7L01 and L50 5L01. Note that for ball bearing fatigue
life, typically = 1.1 (Harris (4); Lundberg and Palmgren (84);
Ioannides, et al. (85)). This means that the spread in grease life is
less pronounced than that in bearing life.
centrifugal forces on roller and rings (van Zoelen, et al. (65); van
Zoelen, et al. (69)).
At low shear rates grease creeps, so it may be that grease very
slowly flows into the track.
An additional complexity is the dynamic behavior of grease
lubrication. The grease lubricated bearing shows an inherent
self-healing mechanism where replenishment may happen due
to film breakdown resulting in metal-to-metal contact, local heat
development, and release of grease into the raceways (Mas and
Magnin (55); Cann and Lubrecht (73); Lugt, et al. (74)). This
means that the life of the grease in bearings cannot easily be predicted based on film thickness calculations only.
Ultimately, knowledge on multi-phase flow, nonlinear rheology, EHL theory, and chemistry need to be combined to develop
predictive models for grease lubrication in rolling bearings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank Prof. E. Ioannides, Technical
Director Product R&D for SKF, for his kind permission to publish this article.
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