Need for protection:A power system is not only capable to meet the present load but also has

the
flexibility to meet the future demands. A power system is designed: to generate electric power in sufficient quantity.
to meet the present and estimated future demands of the users in a particular
area.
to transmit it to the areas where it will be used.
and then distribute to generate electric power in sufficient quantity.
to meet the present and estimated future demands of the users in a particular
area.
to transmit it to the areas where it will be used and then distribute it within
that area on a continuous basis.
To ensure the maximum return on the large investment in the equipment,
which goes to make up the power system and to keep the users satisfied with
reliable service, the whole system must be kept in operation continuously without
major breakdowns. This can be achieved in two ways
The first way is to implement a system adopting components, which
should not fail and requires the least or nil maintenance to maintain the
continuity of service. By common sense, implementing such a system
is neither economical nor feasible, except for small systems

 The second option is to foresee any possible effects or failures that

may cause long-term shutdown of a system, which in turn may take
longer time to bring back the system to its normal course. The main
idea is to restrict the disturbances during such failures to a limited area
and continue power distribution in the balance areas. Special
equipment is normally installed to detect such kind of failures (also
called faults) that can possibly happen in various sections of a
system, and to isolate faulty sections so that the interruption is limited
to a localized area in the total system covering various areas. The
special equipment adopted to detect such possible faults is referred to
as protective equipment or protective relay and the system that uses
such equipment is termed as protection system.

Basic
requirements
protection:-

of
A

protection apparatus has three main functions/duties:1. Safeguard the entire system to maintain continuity of supply.
2. Minimize damage and repair costs where it senses fault.
3. Ensure safety of personnel.
These requirements are necessary, firstly for early detection and localization of
faults, and secondly for prompt removal of faulty equipment from service.

Qualities
system:-

of

protection

In order to carry out the

above duties, protection must have the following qualities:-

1. Reliability:2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Operate dependably and in healthy operating condition when

fault conditions occur, even after remaining idle for months or years.
Selectivity:Clearly discriminate between normal and abnormal system
condition to avoid unnecessary, false trips.
Sensitivity:Ability to distinguish the fault condition, although the
difference between fault and normal condition is small.
Speed:Fault at any point in the system must be detected and isolated
rapidly to minimize fault duration and equipment damage. Any intentional
time delays should be precise.
Economy:Provide maximum protection at minimum cost
Simplicity:Minimize protection equipment and circuitry

Zones of Protection:Zones are defined for:

Generators
Transformers
Busbars
Transmission and distribution lines
Motors
Zones are overlapped so that none of the portion remains unprotected.
Circuit breakers are located in the overlap regions to identify the

boundary of protective zone. For a fault anywhere in a zone, all circuit

breakers in that zone open to isolate the fault.

Basic Components Used In Protection:Protection of any distribution system is a function of

many elements and here given a brief outline of various components that go in
protecting a system. Following are the main components of protection.
1. Circuit breakers:These are used to make circuits carrying enormous
currents, and also to break the circuit carrying the fault currents for a few
cycles based on feedback from the relays. The opening of faulty circuits
requires some time, which may be in milliseconds, which for a common day
life could be insignificant. However, the circuit breakers, which are used to
isolate the faulty circuits, are capable of carrying these fault currents until
the fault currents are totally cleared. The circuit breakers are the main
isolating devices in a distribution system, which can be said to directly
protect the system.
2. Voltage Transformers and Current Transformers:-

Their function is to
monitor and give accurate feedback about the healthiness of a system. Accurate
protection cannot be achieved without properly measuring the normal and
abnormal conditions of a system. In electrical systems, voltage and current
measurements give feedback on whether a system is healthy or not. Voltage
transformers and current transformers measure these basic parameters and are
capable of providing accurate measurement during fault conditions without
failure.
3. Relays:To convert the signals from the monitoring devices, and give
instructions to open a circuit under faulty conditions or to give alarms when the
equipment being protected, is approaching towards possible destruction. The
measured values are converted into analog and/or digital signals and are made to
operate the relays, which in turn isolate the circuits by opening the faulty circuits.
In most of the cases, the relays provide two functions viz., alarm and trip, once the
abnormality is noticed. The relays in olden days had very limited functions and
were quite bulky. However, with advancement in digital technology and use of
microprocessors, relays monitor various parameters, which give complete history
of a system during both pre-fault and post-fault conditions
4. Fuses:Self-destructing to save the downstream equipment being
protected. Fuse is the self-destructing one, which carries the currents in a
power circuit continuously and sacrifices itself by blowing under
abnormal conditions. These are normally independent or stand-alone
protective components in an electrical system unlike a circuit breaker,
which necessarily requires the support of external components.
5. DC batteries:These give uninterrupted power source to the relays
and breakers that is independent of the main power source being
protected. The operation of relays and breakers require power
sources, which shall not be affected by faults in the main distribution.
Hence, the other component, which is vital in protective system, is
batteries that are used to ensure uninterrupted power to relays and
breaker coils.
The above items are extensively used in any protective

System and their design requires careful study and selection for
proper operation

Types of Protection:They are listed below:A Fuses: For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, PTs, Auxiliary
Supplies
B Over current and earth fault: Widely used in All Power Systems
Non-Directional
Directional
C Differential: For Distribution Feeders, Busbars, Transformers, Generators etc
High Impedance
Low Impedance
Restricted Earth Fault
Biased

D Distance: For Transmission and Sub-transmission Lines and Distribution Feeders,

Also used as back-up protection for transformers and generators without
signaling with signaling to provide unit protection e.g.:

Time-stepped distance protection

Phase comparison for transmission lines
Directional comparison for transmission lines

E Miscellaneous: Under and over voltage

Under and over frequency
A special relay for generators, transformers, motors etc.
Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc.
Tripping and auxiliary relays
Protection against voltage gradient effects

Voltage Gradient:When electricity is released into

ground due to an electrical fault (e.g. a live wire contacting the ground) the
electricity will fan out from the point of contact. There is a rippling effect that
looks like dropping an object into still water. The size of the wave created will
spread out in rings in the water, and the size of the ring produced will reduce as it
spreads out. This is very similar to a pool of electricity, the energy is greatest at
the point of contact to ground but the voltage is reduced gradually as you move
away from the contact point. This effect is called voltage gradient as shown in
figure :-

The voltage gradient creates two problems, known as step potential and touch
potential.

Step potential :If we assume that there is a live wire touching the
foot of a pole and it has created a pool of electricity as shown
in figure. If there is person standing close to the location of the fault, and
he has placed one foot at point X and other foot at one step away at point
Y, the difference in voltage would cause the electricity to flow through
the body. This effect is know as step voltage and it could be fatal.
Step voltage = 180 90 = 90 volts

Touch potential:Similarly the electricity would flow through your

body if you were to place your hand on the faulty wire while your feet were at
some distance from the source. The difference in voltage in this case is known as
touch voltage.
Touch voltage = 240 180
= 60 volts

Basic theory of operation of

transformer:The transformer is one of the high efficient devices in electrical
distribution systems, which are used to convert the generated voltages to
convenient voltages for the purpose of transmission and consumption. A
transformer comprises of two windings viz., primary and secondary coupled
through a common magnetic core. When the primary winding is connected to a
source and the secondary circuit is left open, the transformer acts as an inductor
with minimum current being drawn from the source. At the same time, a voltage
will be produced in the secondary open-circuit winding due to the magnetic
coupling. When a load is connected across the secondary terminals, the current will
start flowing in the secondary, which will be decided by the load impedance and
the open-circuit secondary voltage. A proportionate current is drawn in the primary
winding depending upon the turns ratio between primary and secondary. This
principle of transformer operation is used in transfer of voltage and current in a
circuit to the required values for the purpose of standardization.

Instrument transformers:-

Instrument transformers are special

versions of transformers in respect of measurement of current and voltages.

Purpose:The voltage transformers and current transformers continuously

measure the voltage and current of an electrical system and are responsible to give
feedback signals to the relays to enable them to detect abnormal conditions. The
values of actual currents in modern distribution systems varies from a few amperes
in households, small industrial/commercial houses, etc. to thousands of amperes in
power-intensive plants, national grids, etc., which also depend on the operating
voltages. Similarly, the voltages in electrical systems vary from few hundreds of
volts to many
kilovolts. However, it is impossible to have monitoring relays designed and
manufactured for each and every distribution system and to match the innumerable
voltages and currents being present. Hence the voltage transformers and current
transformers are used which enable same types of relays to be used in all types of
distribution systems ensuring the selection and cost of relays to be within
manageable ranges.

Main tasks of
transformers:-

instrument

The main tasks of instrument transformers are: To transform currents or voltages from usually a high value to a value
easy to handle for relays and instruments.
To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from the primary
high-voltage system.
To provide possibilities of standardizing the relays and instruments,
etc. to a few rated currents and voltages.

Voltage transformers:A voltage transformer is an open-circuited

transformer whose primary winding is connected across the main electrical system
voltage being monitored. A convenient proportionate voltage is generated in the
secondary for monitoring. The most common voltage produced by voltage

transformers is 100120 V (as per local country standards) for primary voltages
from 380 V to 800 kV or more.

Types of voltage transformers:There are basically, two types

of voltage transformers used for protection equipment.
1. Electromagnetic type (commonly referred to as a VT)
2. Capacitor type (referred to as a CVT).

Electromagnetic type :-

The electromagnetic type is a

step down transformer whose primary (HV) and secondary (LV) windings are
connected. The number of turns in a winding is directly proportional to the opencircuit voltage being measured or produced across it. The above diagram is a
single-phase VT. In the three-phase system it is necessary to use three VTs at one
per phase and they being connected in star or delta depending on the method of
connection of the main power source being monitored. This type of
electromagnetic transformers are used in voltage circuits upto 110/132 kV.

Capacitor type:For still higher voltages, it is common to

adopt the second type namely the capacitor voltage transformer (CVT). Figure
below gives the basic connection adopted in this type. Here the primary portion
consists of capacitors connected in series to split the primary voltage to convenient
values. The magnetic voltage transformer is similar to a power transformer and
differs only so far as a different emphasis is placed on cooling, insulating and
mechanical aspects. The primary winding has larger number of turns and is
connected across the line voltage; either phase-to-phase or phase-to-neutral. The

secondary has lesser turns however, the volts per turn on both primary and
secondary remains same.
The capacitor VT is more commonly used on extra high-voltage (EHV)
networks. The capacitors also allow the injection of a high-frequency signals onto
the power line conductors to provide end-to-end communications between
substations for distance relays, telemetry/supervisory and voice communications.
Hence, in EHV national grid networks of utilities, the CVTs are commonly used
for both protection and communication purposes.

Two core or Three core VT:It should be

remembered that these voltage transformers are also used for measuring purposes.
It is possible to have one common primary winding and two or more secondary
windings in one unit. The voltage transformers having this kind of arrangement are
referred to as two core or three core VT depending on the number of secondary
windings.

Connection
of
transformers:-

voltage

El
ectromagnetic voltage transformers may be connected inter phase or between

phase and earth. However, capacitor voltage transformers can only be connected
phase-to-earth. Voltage transformers are commonly used in three-phase groups,
generally in starstar configuration. Typical connection is shown in Figure below.
With this arrangement, the secondary voltages provide a complete replica of the
primary voltages as shown below and any voltage (phase-to-phase or phase-toearth) may be selected for monitoring at the secondary.

Protection
of
transformers:-

voltage

It is possible to
protect a voltage transformer from secondary short-circuit by incorporating fuses
in the secondary circuits. Short-circuit on the secondary winding gives only a few
amperes in the primary winding and is not sufficient to rupture a high-voltage fuse.
Hence high-voltage fuses on the primary side do not protect the transformers, they
protect only the network in case of any short-circuit on the primary side.

Current transformers:-

T he current transformer is having its

primary winding directly connected in series with the main circuit carrying the full
operating current of the system. An equivalent current is produced in its secondary,
which is made to flow through the relay coil to get the equivalent measure of the
main system current. The standard currents are invariably 1 A and 5 A universally.
All current transformers used in protection are basically similar in
construction to standard transformers in that they consist of magnetically coupled
primary and secondary windings, wound on a common iron core, the primary
winding being connected in series with the network unlike voltage transformers.
They must therefore withstand the networks short-circuit current.

Types
of
transformers:-

current
There

are two types of current transformers:

1. Wound primary type
2. Bar primary type.

1. Wound primary type:The wound primary is used for the

smaller currents, but it can only be applied on low fault level installations due to
thermal limitations as well as structural requirements due to high magnetic forces.
For currents greater than 100 A, the bar primary type is used. If the secondary
winding is evenly distributed around the complete iron core, its leakage reactance
is eliminated distributed secondary winding type construction.

The standard symbol used to depict current transformers is shown below:-

The basis of all transformers is that:

Amp-turns on the Primary = Amp-turns on the secondary
e.g. 100 A x 1 turn = 1 A x 100 turns

2.Bar primary type:Protection CTs are most

frequently of the bar primary, toroidal core with evenly distributed secondary
winding type construction as shown below:-

Protection CTs:Protective relays are not normally expected to give

tripping instructions under normal conditions. On the other hand these are
concerned with a wide range of currents from acceptable fault settings to
maximum fault currents many times normal rating. Larger errors may be permitted
and it is important that saturation is avoided wherever possible to ensure positive
operation of the relays mainly when the currents are many times the normal current
as shown in graph below:-

Open circuits of CTs:-

Current transformers generally work at a

low flux density. Core is then made of very good metal to give small magnetizing
current. On open-circuit, secondary impedance now becomes infinite and the core
saturates. This induces a very high voltage in the primary up to approximately
system volts and the corresponding volts in the secondary will depend on the
number of turns, multiplying up by the ratio (i.e. volts/turn x no. of turns). Since
CT normally has much more turns in secondary compared to the primary, the
voltage generated on the open-circuited CT will be much more than the system
volts, leading to flashovers.
HENCE AS A SAFETY PRECAUTION, NEVER OPEN-CIRCUIT A
CURRENT TRANSFORMER ON LOAD!

Connection
of
transformers:-

current

Current transformers for protection are normally provided in groups of three, one
for each phase.

Star connected:They are most frequently connected in star

as illustrated in Figure below. The secondary currents obtainable with this
connection are the three individual phase currents and the residual or neutral
current. The residual current is the vector sum of the three phase currents, which
under healthy conditions would be zero. Under earth fault conditions, this would
be the secondary equivalent of the earth fault current in the primary circuit.

Delta connected:Sometimes, current transformers are

connected in delta. The reasons for adopting this connection are one or more of
the following:
To obtain the currents Ir-Iw, Iw-Ib, Ib-Ir
To eliminate the residual current from the relays
To introduce a phase-shift of 30 under balanced conditions, between
primary and relay currents

Application
of
transformers:-

current

Current
transformers are used so that the high primary currents are transformed down to
manageable levels that can be handled comfortably by protection equipment as
shown in figure below:-

Circuit breakers:-

Introduction:Where fuses are unsuitable or inadequate, protective

relays and circuit breakers are used in combination to detect and isolate faults.
Circuit breakers are the main making and breaking devices in an electrical circuit
to allow or disallow flow of power from source to the load. These carry the load
currents continuously and are expected to be switched ON with loads (making
capacity). These should also be capable of breaking a live circuit under normal
switching OFF conditions as well as under fault conditions carrying the expected
fault current until completely isolating the fault side (rupturing/breaking
capacity).Under fault conditions, the breakers should be able to open by
instructions from monitoring devices like relays. The relay contacts are used in the
making and breaking control circuits of a circuit breaker, to prevent breakers
getting closed or to trip breaker under fault conditions as well as for some other
interlocks.

Protective relaycircuit
breaker combination:The protective relay detects and evaluates the fault and
determines when the circuit should be opened. The circuit breaker functions under
control of the relay, to open the circuit when required. A closed circuit breaker has
sufficient energy to open its contacts stored in one form or another (generally a
charged spring). When a protective relay signals to open the circuit, the store
energy is released causing the circuit breaker to open. Except in special cases
where the protective relays are mounted on the breaker, the connection between the
relay and circuit breaker is by hard wiring.

Important
breaker:-

parts

of

circuit

From the
protection point of view, the important parts of the circuit breaker are: the trip coil,
latching mechanism,
main contacts
and auxiliary contacts.
The roles played by these components in the tripping process is clear from Figure
above and the following step by step procedure takes place while isolating a fault
(the time intervals between each event will be in the order of a few electrical cycles
i.e. milliseconds):

 The relay receives information, which it analyzes, and determines that the
circuit should be opened.
Relay closes its contacts energizing the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker is unlatched and opens its main contacts under the
control of the tripping spring.
The trip coil is de-energized by opening of the circuit breaker auxiliary
contacts.
Circuit breakers are normally fitted with a number of auxiliary
contacts, which are used in a variety of ways in control and protection
circuits (e.g. to energize lamps on a remote panel to indicate whether the
breaker is open or closed).

Purpose of circuit breakers

(switchgear):The main purpose of a circuit breaker is to:
Switch load currents
Make onto a fault
Break normal and fault currents
Carry fault current without blowing itself open (or up!) i.e. no distortion due
to magnetic forces under fault conditions.

Important characteristics of
CB:The important characteristics from a protection point of view are:
The speed with which the main current is opened after a tripping impulse is
received
The capacity of the circuit that the main contacts are capable of interrupting.

tripping time:The first characteristic is referred to as

the tripping time and is expressed in cycles. Modern high-speed circuit breakers
have tripping times between three and eight cycles. The tripping or total clearing or
break time is made up as follows:-

o Opening time: -The time between instant of application of tripping power to

the instant of separation of the main contacts.
o Arcing time: -The time between the instant of separation of the main circuit
breaker contacts to the instant of arc extinction of short-circuit current.
Total break or clearing time.

Arc Phenomenon:-

The arc has three parts:

1. Cathode end (ve):- There is approximately 3050 V drop due to emission
of electrons.
2. Arc column:- Ionized gas, which has a diameter proportional to current.
Temperature can be in the range of 600025 000 C.
3. Anode end (+ve): -Volt drop 1020 V. When short-circuit occurs, fault
current flows, corresponding to the network parameters. The breaker trips
and the current is interrupted at the next natural current zero. The network
reacts by transient oscillations, which gives rise to the transient recovery
voltage (TRV) across the circuit breaker main contacts. All breaking
principles involve the separation of contacts, which initially are bridged by a
hot, highly conductive arcing column. After interruption at current zero, the
arcing zone has to be cooled to such an extent that the TRV is overcome and
it cannot cause a voltage breakdown across the open gap.

Three critical phases are distinguished during arc interruption, each

characterized by its own physical processes and interaction between system
and breaker.

Types of circuit breakers:

The types of breakers

basically refer to the medium in which the breaker opens and closes. The
medium could be oil, air, vacuum or SF6. The further classification is single
break and double break. In a single break type only the busbar end is isolated
but in a double break type, both busbar (source) and cable (load) ends are
broken. However, the double break is the most common and accepted type in
modern installations.

i
i

p i
C
u

l
o

B B
e
r
ke
a
k
e
r

Oil circuit breakers:In modern installations, oil circuit breakers,

which are becoming obsolete, are being replaced by vacuum and SF6 breakers.
However there are many installations, which still employ these breakers where
replacements are found to be a costly proposition. In this design, the main contacts
are immersed in oil and the oil acts as the ionizing medium between the contacts.
The oil is mineral type, with high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage across
the contacts under normal conditions.

Figure:- Double break Oil Circuit Breaker

Figure:- Single break Oil Circuit Breaker

Advantages of Oil Circuit Breaker:Oil Circuit Breaker has the following advantages: Ability of cool oil to flow into the space after current zero and arc goes out
Cooling surface presented by oil.
Absorption of energy by decomposition of oil.
Action of oil as an insulator lending to more compact design of switchgear.

Disadvantages of Oil Circuit Breaker:Oil Circuit Breaker has the following disadvantages: Inflammability (especially if there is any air near hydrogen)
Maintenance (changing and purifying).
In the initial stages, the use of high-volume (bulk) oil circuit breakers was
morecommon. In this type, the whole breaker unit is immersed in the oil. This type
had the disadvantage of production of higher hydrogen quantities during arcing and
higher maintenance requirements. Subsequently these were replaced with low oil
(minimum oil) types, where the arc and the bubble are confined into a smaller
chamber, minimizing the size of the unit.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker:-

Interrupting contacts situated in air

instead of any other artificial medium.Arc is chopped into a number of small arcs
by the Arc shute as it rises due to heat and magnetic forces. The air circuit breakers
are normally employed for 380~480 V distribution.

SF6 circuit breakers:Sulphur-hexaflouride (SF6) is an inert

insulating gas, which is becoming increasingly popular in modern switchgear
designs both as an insulating as well as an arc-quenching medium. Gas insulated
switchgear (GIS) is a combination of breaker, isolator, CT, PT, etc., and are used to
replace outdoor substations operating at the higher voltage levels, namely 66 kV
and above.

For medium- and low-voltage installations, the SF6 circuit breaker

remains constructionally the same as that for oil and air circuit breakers mentioned
above, except for the arc interrupting chamber which is of a special design, filled
with SF6. To interrupt an arc drawn when contacts of the circuit breaker separate, a
gas flow is required to cool the arcing zone at current interruption (i.e. current
zero). This can be achieved by a gas flow generated with a piston (known as the
puffer principle), or by heating the gas of constant volume with the arcs energy.
The resulting gas expansion is directed through nozzles to provide the required gas
flow. The pressure of the SF6 gas is generally maintained above atmospheric; so
good sealing of the gas chambers is vitally important. Leaks will cause loss of
insulating medium and clearances are not designed for use in air.

Vacuum circuit breakers and contactors:Vacuum circuit

breakers and contactors were introduced in the late 1960s. A circuit breaker is
designed for high through-fault and interrupting capacity and as a result has a low
mechanical life. On the other hand, a contactor is designed to provide large number
of operations at typical rated loads of 200/400/600 A at voltages of
1500/3300/6600/11 000 V.
Vacuum breakers are also similar in construction like the other types of
breakers, except that the breaking medium is vacuum and the medium sealed to
ensure vacuum.

Contacts:-

Fixed contacts normally have an extended finger for arc control

purposes. Moving contacts normally have a special tip (Elkonite) to prevent
burning from arcing.

Comparison
Circuit

Of

Types Of
Breaker:-

ISOLATOR: Mechanical switch use to isolate the transmission line or other equipment from
the source of energy.
Isolator are of 3-poles.Each pole consists of 2 or 3 insulator posts.
Conducting rods are of copper or aluminum. During the opening, conducting rod
move to one side and thus circuit breaks.

PROPERTIES:-

Isolates the circuit from energy source.

Operate at no load.

 No specific current breaking/making capacity.

Provides more protection.

How Isolator Work?

Circuit breaker makes and breaks the circuit
during the normal condition and short circuit condition respectively while isolators
are used only in no load conditions.
Isolator opens after the circuit breaker. Similarly when close, isolator will
close before circuit breaker and then circuit breaker will close.
It is necessary to connect isolator with supply side of circuit breaker as well as side
of bus bar so that during repairing, the live part must be isolate from breaker.

USES OF ISOLATORS: To break the charging current of transmission line

To break the magnetizing current of transformer.

INSULATOR :Insulator provides necessary insulation between the

line conductors and supports and stop any kind of leakage current towards the
earth from conductor.

Properties Of Insulators:

Rigidity
High resistance
Greater dielectric strength.
Non porous.

Relays:-

A device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the system.

Type of Relays:

Magnitude or Over-current Relay

Directional Relay
Distance or Ratio or Impedance Relay
Differential Relay

Magnitude Relays: Also called as Over-current Relay

Response to the magnitude of input quantities ie. current.
Energize CB trip coil when the fault current magnitude exceeds a
predetermined value or trips when a current rises above a set point (pick-up
current).
If it is less than the set point value, the relay remains open, blocking the trip
coil.
Time-delay Over-current Relay also have the same operating method but
with an intentional time-delay.

Directional Relays: Responds to fault only in one direction, either to the left or to the right of its
location
Operation depends upon the direction (lead or lag) of the fault current with
respect to a reference voltage.
The directional element of these relays checks the phase angle between the
current and voltage of one phase, and allows the over-current unit to operate
if this phase angle indicates current in the reverse direction.

Ratio Relays:-

 Operate for certain relations between the magnitudes of voltage, current and
the phase angle between them.
Measures the distance between the relay location and the point of fault, in
term of impedance, reactance and admittance.
Respond to the ratio of two phasor quantities as example Voltage and
Current (Z = V/R)
Also called impedance or distance relay

Differential Relays: Respond to the vector difference between two currents within the zone
protection determined by the location of CTs.
Not suitable for transmission-line protection because the terminals of a line
are separated by too great a distance to interconnect the CT secondaries.
Used for the protection of generators, transformers and busbars.
Most differential-relay applications are of the current-differential type.

Types of Faults : Ground faults:Those faults, which involve only one of the phase
conductors and ground, are called ground faults.

Phase faults:Faults involving two or more phase conductors, with or

without ground, are called phase faults.

Faults
statistics
with
reference to power system
elements :Power system element

Probability of faults (%)

Overhead lines

50

Underground cables

Transformers

10

Generators

Switchgear

12

CT, PT, relays, control equipments, etc

12

Total

100%

Bus-Bar: An electrical conductor that makes a common connection between

several circuits.
A busbar in electrical power distribution refers to thick strips of copper or
aluminium that conduct electricity within a switchboard
An electrically conductive bar connecting two or more electrical circuits.
Busbars are either in the form of aluminium tubes or ACSR conductors.
Aluminium tublar busbars are mounted on post insulators.
ACSR busbars are flexible and are supported on strain insulators. Busbars
are in two or three horizontal planes.
The incoming circuits and outgoing circuits are connected
to the busbars. The bus bars carry the main power so the protection of
busbars is most improtant.

 Busbars receive power from incoming circuits and deliver power to

outgoing circuits.

Importance of busbars:Busbars are the most important component

in a distribution network. They can be open busbars in an outdoor switch yard, up
to several hundred volts, or inside a metal clad cubicle restricted within a limited
enclosure with minimum phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground clearances. We come
across busbars, which are insulated as well as those, which are open and are
normally in small length sections interconnected by hardware. They form an
electrical node where many circuits come together, feeding in and sending out
power

Figure:- Schematic illustrating area of busbar zone

From the above diagram, it is very clear that for any reason the busbars fails, it
could lead to shutdown of all distribution loads connected through them, even if
the power generation is normal and the feeders are normal.

Busbar protection:Busbars are frequently left without protection

because:
Low susceptibility to faults especially metal clad switchgear

Relay on system back-up protection

Too expensive and expensive CTs
Problems with accidental operation greater than infrequent busbar faults
Majority of faults are earth faults limited earth fault current fast
protection not required.

However, busbar faults do occur.

Busbar protection types: High-impedance differential

Medium-impedance biased differential
Low-impedance biased differential

High-impedance bus zone:Advantages

Relays relatively cheap offset by expensive CTs

Simple and well proven
Fast 1545 ms
Stability and sensitivity calculations easy providing data is available
Stability can be guaranteed.

Disadvantages:

Very dependent on CT performance

CT saturation could give false tripping on through faults
Sensitivity must be decreased
DC offset of CTs unequal use filters

Primary effective setting (3050%)

Limited by number of circuits
Decreased reliability
Require exact CT data
High voltages in CT circuits (2.8 kV) limited by volt-dependent resistors.

Biased
medium-impedance
differential:Advantages: High speed 813 ms
Fault sensitivity 20%
Excellent stability for external faults
Normal CTs can be used with minimal requirements
Other protection can be connected to same CTs
No limit to number of circuits
Secondary voltages low (medium impedance)
Well proven 10000 systems worldwide
Any busbar configuration
No need for duplicate systems
No work on primary CTs

Disadvantages: Relays relatively expensive

Relays with auxiliary CTs require a separate panel.

Low-impedance
protection:-

busbar

Principle:On through-fault, one CT may saturate does not provide

balancing current for other CT. Spill current (i1 i2), then flows through the
operating coil.

Electronics detect CT saturation shorts out differential path. Inhibit circuit only
allows narrow spikes in differential coil. Relay stable.
For an internal fault, differential current in phase with saturated CT current,
Inhibit pulses remove insignificant portion of differential current.
Relay operates
Setting range: 20200%
Operating time: Less than 20 ms
CT supervision: Alarms and blocks or trips after 3 s for CT open cct

Single Bus-Bar Scheme:Applications:-

Used in low voltage and medium voltage substations.

Not preferred for large and important substations.

Remarks: Cheapest.
Total Shut down in case of a fault.

Double Bus-Bar Scheme:Applications:

High voltage substations.

Remarks: Costlier than single bus.

One bus can serve as a reserve.
During maintenance or fault, the reserve bus is used.

Circuit Breaker Scheme:-

Internationally used scheme in switchyard of substations.

In this scheme, three circuit breakers are used for two circuits.
It provides high flexibility of operations.
Its cost is high.

In the 500KV switch yard, the scheme being used is Circuit Breaker
Scheme as shown in figure below:-

Transformer protection:Winding polarity:A transformer consists of two windings viz., primary

and secondary coupled to a common magnetic core. International standards define
the polarity of the primary and secondary windings sharing the same magnetic
circuit as follows. If the core flux induces an instantaneous emf from a lownumber terminal to a highnumber terminal in one winding, then the direction of
induced emf in all other windings linked by that flux will also be from a lownumber terminal to a high-number terminal. In the following sketch the induced
emf on primary winding Ep is from A1 to A2 in the A phase when a primary
voltage V is applied across A as shown. The secondary emf Es is also from a1 to a2
in secondary a phase (see Figure 15.1). From the laws of induction, it will be seen
that the current flow in the windings is in the opposite direction

Principle of operation of a transformer

Transformer connections:Transformer windings can be

connected either in a star (Y) or delta (D) configuration, bearing in mind that each
phase will be displaced 120 from the other. The three windings of a three-phase
core type transformer. This shows the primary connected in delta while the
secondary windings are connected in star. The vectorial representation of primary
and secondary voltages are also indicated.

Types of faults:The following is a brief summary of the types of

faults that can occur in a power transformer:
1. HV and LV bushing flashovers (external to the tank)
2. HV winding earth fault
3. LV winding earth fault
4. Inter-turn fault
5. Core fault
6. Tank fault.

Earth faults:Effectively earthed neutral:The fault current in this case is

controlled mainly by the leakage reactance, which varies in a complex manner
depending on the position of the fault in the winding. The reactance decreases
towards the neutral so that the current actually rises for faults towards the neutral
end.
The input primary current is modified by the transformation ratio and is
limited to 23 times the full load current of the transformer for fault positions over
a major part of the star winding. An overcurrent relay on the HV side will therefore
not provide adequate protection for earth faults on the LV side.

Resistance earthed neutral:For this application, the fault current

varies linearly with the fault position, as the resistor is the dominant impedance,
limiting the maximum fault current to approximately full load current .The input
primary current is approximately 57% of the rated current making it impossible for
the HV overcurrent relay to provide any protection for LV earth faults. Restricted
earth fault protection is therefore strongly recommended to cover winding earth
faults and this will be covered in more detail in a later section.

Inter-turn faults:-

Insulation between turns can break down due to

electromagnetic/mechanical forces on the winding causing chafing or cracking.
Ingress of moisture into the oil can also be a contributing factor.
Also an HV power transformer connected to an overhead line transmission system
will be subjected to lightning surges sometimes several times rated system voltage.
These steep-fronted surges will hit the end windings and may possibly puncture the
insulation leading to a short-circuited turn. Very high currents flow in the shorted
turn for a relatively small current flowing in the line

Core faults:Heavy fault currents can cause the core laminations to move,
chafe and possibly bridge causing eddy currents to flow, which can then generate
serious overheating. The additional core loss will not be able to produce any
noticeable change in the line currents and thus cannot be detected by any electrical
protection system. Power frequency overvoltage not only increases stress on the
insulation but also gives an excessive increase in magnetization current. This flux
is diverted from the highly saturated laminated core into the core bolts, which

normally carry very little flux. These bolts may be rapidly heated to a temperature,
which destroys their own insulation, consequently shorting out core laminations.
Fortunately, the intense localized heat, which will damage the winding insulation,
will also cause the oil to break down into gas. This gas will rise to the conservator
and detected by the Buchholz relay (see later).

Tank faults:Loss of oil through a leak in the tank can cause a reduction of insulation and
possibly overheating on normal load due to the loss of effective cooling. Oil sludge
can also block cooling ducts and pipes, contributing to overheating, as can the loss
of forced cooling pumps and fans generally fitted to the larger transformer.

Differential
protection:-

Differential protection, as its

name implies, compares currents entering and leaving the protected zone and
operates when the differential current between these currents exceed a predetermined level. The type of differential scheme normally applied to a transformer
is called the current balance or circulating current scheme as shown in Figure
below

Figure:-Differential protection using current balance scheme (external

fault conditions)
The CTs are connected in series and the secondary current circulates between
them.
The relay is connected across the midpoint where the voltage is theoretically
nil, therefore no current passes through the relay, hence no operation for faults
outside the protected zone.

Under internal fault conditions (i.e. faults between the CTs) the relay operates,
since both the CT secondary currents add up and pass through the relay as seen
below:-

Figure:-Differential protection and internal fault conditions

This protection is also called unit protection, as it only operates for faults on the
unit it is protecting, which is situated between the CTs. The relay therefore can be
instantaneous in operation, as it does not have to coordinate with any other relay on
the network. This type of protection system can be readily applied to autotransformers. All current transformer ratios remain the same and the relays are of
the high-impedance (voltage-operated) type, instantaneous in operation
Unfortunately, the same parameters cannot be applied to a two-winding
transformer. As stated earlier, there are number of factors that need consideration:
(a). Transformer vector group (i.e. phase shift between HV and LV)
(b).Mismatch of HV and LV CTs
(c).Varying currents due to on-load tap changer (OLTC)
(d).Magnetizing in-rush currents (from one side only)
(e).The possibility of zero sequence current destabilizing the differential for an
external earth fault.
Factor (a) can be overcome by connecting the HV and LV CTs in star/delta
respectively (or vice versa) opposite to the vector group connections of the primary
windings, so counteracting the effect of the phase shift through the transformer.
The delta connection of CTs provides a path for circulating zero sequence
current, thereby stabilizing the protection for an external earth fault as required by
factor (e). It is then necessary to bias the differential relay to overcome the current
unbalances caused by factor (b) mismatch of CTs and (c) OLTC. Finally, as the
magnetizing current in-rush is predominantly 2nd, harmonic filters are utilized to
stabilize the protection for this condition (d).
Most transformer differential relays have a bias slope setting of 20%, 30% and
40% .

Figure:-Typical connections for a deltastar transformer

Under-load or through-fault conditions, the CT secondary currents
circulate, passing through the bias windings to stabilize the relay, whilst only small
out-of-balance spill currents will flow through the operate coil, not enough to cause
operation. In fact the higher the circulating current the higher will be the spill
current required to trip the relay, as can be seen below:-

Figure:- Biased differential configurations

Restricted earth fault:A simple over-current and earth fault

relay will not provide adequate protection for winding earth faults.
Even with a biased differential relay installed, the biasing desensitizes the relay
such that it is not effective for certain earth faults within the winding. This is

especially so if the transformer is resistance or impedance earthed, where the

current available on an internal fault is disproportionately low.
In these circumstances, it is often necessary to add some form of separate earth
fault protection. The degree of earth fault protection is very much improved by the
application of unit differential or restricted earth fault systems as shown below:-

Figure:- A restricted earth fault system

On the HV side, the residual current of the three line CTs is balanced
against the output current of the CT in the neutral conductor, making it stable for
all faults outside the zone.
For the LV side, earth faults occurring on the delta winding may also result in a
level of fault current of less than full load, especially for a midwinding fault which
will only have half the line voltage applied. HV overcurrent relays will therefore
not provide adequate protection. A relay connected to monitor residual current will
inherently provide restricted earth fault protection since the delta winding cannot
supply zero sequence current to the system.
Both windings of a transformer can thus be protected separately with restricted
earth fault, thereby providing high-speed protection against earth faults over
virtually the whole of the transformer windings, with relatively simple equipment.
The relay used is an instantaneous high-impedance type

Buchholz protection:-

Failure of the winding insulation will result in some form of arcing, which can
decompose the oil into hydrogen, acetylene, methane, etc. Localized heating can
also precipitate a breakdown of oil into gas.
Severe arcing will cause a rapid release of a large volume of gas as well as oil
vapor. The action can be so violent that the build-up of pressure can cause an oil
surge from the tank to the conservator.

The Buchholz relay can detect both gas and oil surges as it is mounted in the pipe
to the conservator

Figure:- Mounting of the Buchholz relay

The unit contains two mercury switches. The production of gas in the
tank will eventually bubble up the pipe to be trapped in the top of the relay casing,
so displacing and lowering the level of the oil. This causes the upper float to tilt
and operate the mercury switch to initiate the alarm circuit. A similar operation
occurs if a tank leak causes a drop in oil level.
The relay will therefore give an alarm for the following conditions, which are of a
low order of urgency:
Hot spots on the core due to shorted laminations
Core bolt insulation failure
Faulty joints
Inter-turn faults and other incipient faults involving low power
Loss of oil due to leakage.
The lower switch is calibrated by the manufacturers to operate at a certain
oil flow rate (i.e. surge) and is used to trip the transformer HV and LV circuit
breakers. This calibration is important, particularly with large transformers having
forced circulation, where starting of the pumps can sometimes cause a rush of oil
into the conservator pipe. Obviously operation should not occur for this condition.
When oil is being cleaned and filtered on load as part of routine maintenance,
aeration will take place and air will accumulate in the Buchholz relay. It is
therefore recommended that tripping be disconnected, leaving the alarm function
only, during this oil treatment process and for about 48 h afterwards. Discretion
must then be used when dealing with the alarm signals during this period.

Figure:- Details of the Bucholtz relay construction

Because of the universal response to faults within the transformer, some of
which are difficult to protect by other means, the Buchholz relay is invaluable.
Experience has shown that it can be very fast in operation. Speed as fast as 50 ms
have been recorded, beating all other protection systems on the transformer in
process. Gas sampling facilities are also provided to enable gas to be easily or
analysis.

Types Of Cooling in Power

Transformer :-

Symbols Title
Description
O.N.A.N Oil Natural This is widely
Air Neutral used for

O.N.A.F

O.F.A.F

O.F.W.F

A.N

transformers
up to 30MVA
Oil Natural This is widely
Air Forced used for
transformers
between
30MVA to
60MVA
Oil Forced This method is
Air Forced used for
transformers
above 60MVA
Oil Forced The heat is
Water
exchange from
Forced
oil to cooling
water
Air Natural The ambient air
is used for
cooling

Application of Protective
Scheme in Power
Transformer:Faults

Protection scheme
Primary

Back-up

Phase faults

Percentage differential
relay

Over-current /distance

Ground faults

Percentage differential
relay

Over-current /distance

Inter-turn faults

Buchholz relay

Oil leaks

Buchholz relay

Overloads

OC relay with thermal image of protected unit

Over-fluxing

Over-fluxing relay with measures (V/f) ratio

Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
Provide path to transfer power between generation and load.

Operate at voltage levels from 220kV to 500kV.

Deregulated markets, economic, environmental requirements have pushed

utilities to operate transmission lines close to their limits.

1.1 Overhead Transmission

Lines
Overhead transmission lines are the backbone of every
electrical power system. Without overhead lines, it is not
possible to use power plants with high output because the
consumers are not concentrated at the location of the

generation. Therefore, transmission line systems like

overhead lines or power cable are in use to connect the
power plants and the consumer. To increase the reliability
many power plants and consumer are connected together to
an integrated network.

1.2 High-Voltage Transmission Lines

High-voltage transmission lines are used to transmit electric
power over relatively long distances, usually from a central
generating station to main substations. They are also used
for electric power transmission from one central station to
another for load sharing. High voltage (HV) transmission
lines are made of high voltage (between 66 kilovolts and 500
kilovolts) overhead and underground conducting lines of
either copper or aluminum.
One of the key concerns in transmission of electricity is
power loss in transmission lines (called line loss or
transmission loss), dissipated as heat due to the resistance
of the conductors. The smaller the surface area of the
conductors, the smaller the loss to heat dissipation. High
voltages require less surface area, resulting in reduced line
loss. With high-voltage lines, the voltage can be stepped up
at the generating station, transmitted through the
transmission grid to a load center, and there stepped down
to the lower voltages required by distribution lines.

1.3Balanced lines
A balanced line is a transmission line, consisting of two
conductors of the same type, and equal impedance to ground and
other circuits. This includes twisted pairs which are commonly
used for terrestrial telephone communications.

1.4Classification
Classification of line length depends on:
Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR), and
Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
Short Lines: SIR > 4
Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
Long Lines: SIR < 0.5

2.4Background of the invention (Protection)

.
Power transmission lines carry electric power from generating
sources to users. The power transmission lines are typically high
voltage lines and the electric voltage is typically transformed to a
lower voltage at a power substation, before being distributed to
individual electric power users such as homes, factories, business
buildings etc. At many power substations, protective relays are
installed.

The detection of a fault in the line involves

measuring critical system parameters and, when a fault occurs,
quickly making a rough estimate of the fault location and of
certain characteristics of the fault so that the faulted line can be
isolated from the power grid as quickly as possible. A fault occurs
when a transmission line, typically due to external causes, diverts
electrical current flow from its normal path along the transmission
line.
The major types and causes of faults are insulation faults, caused
by design defects, manufacturing defects, improper installation,
and aging insulation; electrical faults, caused by lightning surges,
switching surges, and dynamic overvoltages; mechanical faults,
caused by wind, snow, ice, contamination, trees, and animals; and

thermal faults,
conditions.

caused

by

over

current

and

overvoltage

2.5 Primary and backup protection

Primary protection is the protection provided by each zone to its elements.
However, some component of a zone protection scheme fail to operate.
Back-up protection is provided which take over only in the event of primary
protection failure

2.6 Methods of Detecting Faults

Magnitude of current overcurrent protection
Magnitude of current in earth or neutral Earth fault protection
Magnitude & phase angle of current Directional fault protection
Magnitude & phase angle of current in earth or neutral Directional Earth Fault
Protection.
V/I ratio Impedance protection
Difference between 2 or more currents Differential protection
Difference between phase angles of 2 currents phase comparison protection
Magnitude of ve sequence current.
Magnitude of voltage over- or under- voltage protection
Magnitude of Frequency over or under-frequency protection
Temperature Thermal protection

2.8 Equipment used

Transmission Line
CT current transformer
PT potential transformer
Transducers
Time overcurrent relay/51
Instantaneous Over current relay/50
Undervoltage relay/27
Distance relay/21
Under frequency relay/81

for protection

of

2.9 Types of Relays

Technology
Electromechanical
Analog electronics
Digital electronics
programmable
multifunction
intelligent electronic devices
Function:
Magnitude relays
Directional relays
Ratio relays
Differential relays

Distance Relays

2.10 Protection System for Phase Faults

Time overcurrent
Instantaneous & time overcurrent

51
50/51

Directional time overcurrent

Instantaneous & directional time over current

67
50/67

Directional Instantaneous overcurrent

67

Step time overcurrent

51

Directional Instantaneous and directional

67

Zone Distance

21

2.11 Protection System for Ground Faults

Time Overcurrent

51N

Instantaneous & Time Overcurrent

50N/51N

Product Overcurrent

67N

Instantaneous and Product Overcurrent

67N/50N

Directional time overcurrent

67N

Instantaneous and directional time overcurrent

67N

Directional Instantaneous Overcurrent

67N

Three-zone distance system

21N

2.12 Current Transformer(CT)

The secondary winding has a standard rating of 5 amp. Its indicated as 400/200/5
the 400 and 200 are the primary current which gives us an 80 to 1 and 40 to 1 ratio
respectably. It is important that CTs be accurate at fault levels which may be 10
times normal load current. Standard classifications of CTs allow 10% error for
current flow up to 20 times rated value. They are marked Class C . The higher
the number the higher current that can flow though the CT and still be 10%
accurate. Never open a live CT circuit without first shorting the secondary side.
Without the secondary side shorted very high voltage will be seen on the secondary
circuit.

2.13 Potential Transformers (PT)

The secondary voltage is usually 69V for relaying and 120V for metering.
There is no problem with error readings as during a fault the voltage will drop.
At above 115KV coupling capacitors are used. This is called CCVT. They
are connected in series causing a voltage drop across each cap.
PTs should never be shorted.

2.14 Fault Calculation

Fault Current is approximately 10 to 20 times normal full load current. To

understand the relay performance, you must know how severe is the fault. Fault
calculation, mostly symmetrical fault, aided with the knowledge of unsymmetrical
fault is required. This knowledge is required to find out the condition at the
relaying point under fault conditions, for example, voltage at relaying point and
current passing through relays. Based on this you can deduce what the relay will
see.

2.15 Typical Protection Schemes

Short Lines
Current differential

Phase comparison

Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)

Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Medium Lines:
Phase comparison

Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)

Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)

Step Distance

Current Differential

Long Lines
Phase comparison

Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)

Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)

Step Distance

Current Differential

3.1 Over current protection

The most obvious effect of shunt fault is a sudden build up of current
therefore the
over current protection is the most widely used form of
protection

3.2 Types of over current protection

Non directional over current protection
Directional over current protection

Non directional over current protection

The type of protection which depends on only the magnitude of current is
called non directional over current protection

Directional over current protection protection

A type of protection in which not only the magnitude of current is taken
but its phase w.r.t the voltage is also taken.
The directional over current protection afford greator selectivity than non
directional over current protection.

I*Z - V

F2

4.2 Types of distance relay

Simple impedance relay
Reactance relay
Mho relay

4.3 Three stepped distance protection

First step
Second step
Third step

First step
IT is not advisable to set the reach of the distance protection to 100% So set to
reach up to 80-90% of the length of line section.

Second Step

Second step is required to provide primary protection to remaining 20-10% of line

section in addition to cover up 50% of the next line section

Third Step
The 3rd step is provided with an intention to give full back up to the adjoining lie
section it covers the line section under consideration 100% of the next line section
and reaches further in to the system the operating time of this unit is instantaneous
this is known as fault detector

Purpose

Reach

Operating
time

1St step

Primary
protection

80-90% of line
section

Instantaneous

2nd step

Primary
protection of
remaining 2010%

100% of line
under
consideration
+ 50% of the
shortest
adjoining line

Selective time
interval =T1

3rd step

Backup
protection

100% of line
under
consideration
+100%
longest
adjoining line
+10-20% extra

T1+selective
time
interval=T2

4.4 Pilot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes

DUTT Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

PUTT Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip

POTT Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip

Hybrid POTT Hybrid Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip

DCB Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme

DCUB Directional Comparison Unblocking Scheme

4.5 Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)

Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which overlap in reach (Zone
1).
Applied with FSK channel
GUARD frequency transmitted during normal conditions
TRIP frequency when one RU function operates

Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond RU reach if remote
breaker is open or channel is inoperative.

Dual pilot channels improve security

4.6 Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)

Requires both under (RU) and overreaching (RO) functions

Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping signal supervised by RO (Zone 2)

4.7 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)

Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone 2).

Applied with FSK channel:

GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
TRIP frequency when one RO function operates

No trip for external faults if pilot channel is inoperative

Time-delayed tripping can be provided

effect has been called the "mutual impedance" effect. It will be evident that, if I1
and I2 are out of phase, the impedance (I2/I1) ZB will have a different angle from
ZB. If the distance relays are adjusted to operate for a fault

4.8 Hybrid

POTT
Intended for three-terminal lines and weak infeed conditions

Echo feature adds security during weak infeed conditions

Reverse-looking distance and oc elements used to identify external faults

4.9 Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B) functions

ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)

Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking function(s)
operate
Receipt of signal from remote end blocks tripping relays

Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater

Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-set ground overcurrent

elements

4.10 Directional Comparison Unblocking

(DCUB)
Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR) schemes to overcome the
possibility of carrier signal attenuation or loss as a result of the fault

Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is lost:

 If signal is lost due to fault, at least one permissive RO

functions will be picked up.

4.11 Line Protection with distance Relays

Distance relaying should be considered when overcurrent relaying is too slow or is
not selective. Distance relays are generally used for phase-fault primary and backup protection on sub transmission lines, and on transmission lines where highspeed automatic reclosing is not necessary to maintain stability and where the short
time delay for end-zone faults can be tolerated. Overcurrent relays have been used
generally for ground-fault primary and back-up protection, but there is a growing
trend toward distance relays for ground faults also.
Single-step distance relays are used for phase-fault back-up protection at the
terminals of generators, as described in Chapter 10. Also, single-step distance
relays might be used with advantage for back-up protection at power-transformer
banks, but at the present such protection is generally provided by inverse-time
overcurrent relays. Distance relays are preferred to Overcurrent reIays because
they are not nearly so much affected by changes in short-circuit-current magnitude
as overcurrent relays are, and, hence, are much less affected by changes in
generating capacity and in system configuration.

4.12 The Choice Between Impedence, Reactance, or

Mho relay
Because ground resistance can be so variable, a ground distance relay must be
practically unaffected by large variations in fault resistance. Consequently,
reactance relays are generally preferred for ground relaying.
For phase-fault relaying, each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. For
very short line sections, the reactance type is preferred for the reason that more of
the line can be protected at high speed. This is because the reactance relay is
practically unaffected by arc resistance which may be large compared with the line
impedance. On the other hand, reactance-type distance relays at certain
locations in a system are the most likely to operate undesirably on severe
synchronizing power surges unless additional relay equipment is provided to
prevent such operation.

The mho type is best suited for phase-fault relaying for longer lines,
and particularly where severe synchronizing-power surges may occur. It is the least
likely to require additional equipment to prevent tripping on synchronizing-power
surges.1 When mho relaying is adjusted to protect any given line section, its
operating characteristic encloses the least space on the R-X diagram, which means
that it will be least affected by abnormal system conditions other than line faults; in
other words, it is the most selective of all distance relays. Because the mho relay is
affected by arc resistance more than any other type, it is applied to longer lines.
The fact that it combines both the directional and the distance measuring functions
in one unit with one contact makes it very reliable.
The impedance relay is better suited for phase-fault relaying for
lines of moderate length than for either very short or very long lines. Arcs affect an
impedance relay more than a reactance relay but less than a mho relay.
Synchronizing-power surges affect an impedance relay less than a reactance relay
but more than a mho relay. If an impedance-relay characteristic is offset, so as to
make it a modified relay, it can be made to resemble either a reactance relay or a
mho relay but it will always require a separate directional unit.

4.13 The Adjustment Of Distance Relays

Ground distance relays are adjusted in the same way, although some types may
respond to the zero-phase-sequence impedance. This impedance, or the
corresponding distance, is called the "reach" of the relay or unit. For purposes of
rough approximation, it is customary to assume an average positive-phase
sequence- reactance value of about 0.8 ohm per mile for open transmission-line
construction, and to neglect resistance.
To convert primary impedance to a secondary value for use in
adjusting a phase or ground distance relay, the following formula is used
Zsec = Zpri (CT ratio/VT ratio)
where the CT ratio is the ratio of the high-voltage phase current to the relay phase
current, and the VT ratio is the ratio of the high-voltage phase-to-phase voltage to
the relay phase to- phase voltage all under balanced three-phase conditions.

First Zone
It is the practice to adjust the first, or high-speed, zone of distance relays to reach
to 80% to 90% of the length of a two-ended line or to 80% to 90% of the distance

to the nearest terminal of a multi terminal line. There is no time-delay adjustment

for this unit.

Second Zone
The principal purpose of the second-zone unit of a distance relay is to provide
protection for the rest of the line beyond the reach of the first-zone unit. It should
be adjusted so that it will be able to operate even for arcing faults at the end of the
line. To do this, the unit must reach beyond the end of the line. Even if arcing faults
did not have to be considered, one would have to take into account an
underreaching tendency because of the effect of intermediate current sources, and
of errors in: (1) the data on which adjustments are based, (2) the current and
voltage transformers, and (3) the relays. It is customary to try to have the secondzone unit reach to at least 20% of an adjoining line section; the farther
this can be extended into the adjoining line section, the more leeway is allowed in
the reach of the third-zone unit of the next line-section back that must be selective
with this second-zone unit. The maximum value of the second-zone reach also has
a limit. Under conditions of maximum overreach, the second-zone reach should be
short enough to be selective with the second-zone units of distance relays on the
shortest adjoining line sections .
Transient overreach need not be considered with relays having a
high ratio of reset to pickup because the transient that causes overreach will have
expired before the second-zone tripping time.

Third Zone
The third-zone unit provides back-up protection for faults in adjoining line
sections. So far as possible, its reach should extend beyond the end of the longest
adjoining line section under the conditions that cause the maximum amount of
underreach, namely, arcs and intermediate current sources..
The third zone time delay is usually about 0.4 second to 1.0 second. To
reach beyond the end of a long adjoining line and still be selective with the relays
of a short line, it may be necessary to get this selectivity with additional time delay.

4.14 The Effect Of Intermediate Current

Sources On Distance-Relay Operation

An "intermediate-current source" is a source of short-circuit current between a

distance relay location and a fault for which distance-relay operation is desired.
The true impedance to the fault is ZA + ZB, but, when the intermediate current I2
flows, the impedance appears to the distance relays as ZA + ZB + (I2/I1) ZB; in
other words, the fault appears to be farther away because of the current I2. This at a
given location when a given value of I2 flows, they will operate for faults beyond
that location for smaller values of I2. Therefore, it is the practice to adjust distance
relays to operate as desired on the basis of no intermediate current source. Then,
they will not overreach and operate undesirably. Of course, when current flows
from an intermediate source, the relays will "underreach," i.e., they will not operate
for faults as far away as one might desire, but this is to be preferred to overreach.
Because of the effect of intermediate current sources, the full capabilities of
distance relaying cannot be realized on multiterminal lines.
It is the practice to adjust the highspeed zone of the relays at a
given terminal to reach 80% to 90% of the distance to the nearest terminal,
neglecting the effect of an intermediate current source.
Neglecting the effect of an arc, if this maximum reach of the highspeed zone is less than ZA, it will become evident that intermediate current cannot
affect the high-speed-zone reach; if the maximum reach is greater than ZA,
intermediate current will cause the reach to approach ZA, as a minimum limit. If
the second-zone reach is made to include double the impedance of the common
branch, tripping will always be assured although it might be sequential

Typical Zones

The Power System

WAPDA has lines on its system. In 1947, WAPDA had only 1200 KMs
Transmission Lines. The total length of transmission lines now stands about 4665
Km. WAPDA's Power Transmission Lines system is interconnected through a
National Grid which extends power from Peshawar to Karachi - Quetta and Azad
Kashmir linking all important cities of the country

500 KV Transmission Lines : Existing

NO Cicuit

Rout

Tarbela - Faisalabad (1st Circuit)

330 KM

Faisalabad - Multan - Guddu - Karachi

957 KM

Tarbela - Faisalabad (2nd Circuit)

327 KM

Lahore - Multan - Jamshoro

1075 KM

Tarbela - Peshawar

117 KM

Tarbela - Lahore (3rd Circuit)

347 KM

3rd 500 KV Jamshoro - Gud-u-Multan and 630 KM

2nd Multan - Gatti - Lahore

First Hub-Jahmsoro

182 KM

Second 500 KV Line Hub-Jamshoro

181 KM

10

2nd 220 KV Guddu - Sibbi D/C

259 KM

11

Sibbi - Quetta

194 KM

12

S/C 220 Guddu - Sibbi

272 KM

Appendices
Auxiliary relay
An all-or-nothing relay used to supplement the performance of another relay, by
modifying contact performance for example, or by introducing time delays.
Back-up protection.
A protective system intended to supplement the main protection in case the
latter should be in-effective, or to deal with faults in those parts of the power
system that are not readily included in the operating zones of the main
protection.
Biased relay.
A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some
quantity other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to
the actuating quantity.

Characteristic angle.
The phase angle at which the performance of the relay is declared. It is usually
the angle at which maximum sensitivity occurs.
Characteristic curve.
The curve showing the operating value of the characteristic quantity
corresponding to various values or combinations of the energizing quantities.
Characteristic quantity.
A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay, e.g.
current for an over current relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a
directional relay, time for an independent time delay relay, impedance for an
impedance relay.
Characteristic impedance ratio (C.I. R.)
The maximum value of the System Impedance Ratio up to which the relay
performance remains within the prescribed limits of accuracy.
Check protective system.
An auxiliary protective system intended to prevent tripping due to inadvertent
operation of the main protective system.
Conjunctive test.
A test on a protective system including all relevant components and ancillary
equipment appropriately interconnected. The test may be parametric or specific.
a. Parametric conjunctive test.
A test to ascertain the range of values that may be assigned to each parameter when
considered in combination with other parameters, while still complying with the
relevant performance requirements.
b. Specific conjunctive test.
A test to prove the performance for a particular application, for which definite
values are assigned to each of the parameters.
Dependent time delay relay.
A time delay relay in which the time delay varies with the value of the
energizing quantity.
Discrimination.

The quality whereby a protective system distinguishes between those conditions

for which it is intended to operate and those for which it shall not operate.
Drop-out.
A relay drops out when it moves from the energized position to the un-energized
position.
Drop-out / pick ratio.
The ratio of the limiting values of the characteristic quantity at which the relay
resets and operates. This value is sometimes called the differential of the relay.
Earth fault protective system.
A protective system which is designed to respond only to faults to earth.
Earthing transformer.
A three-phase transformer intended essentially to provide a neutral point to a
power system for the purpose of Earthing.
Effective range
The range of values of the characteristic quantity or quantities, or of the energizing
quantities to which the relay will respond and satisfy the requirements concerning
it, in particular those concerning precision.
Effective setting
The 'setting' of a protective system including the effects of current transformers.
The effective setting can be expressed in terms of primary current or secondary
current from the current transformers and is so designated as appropriate.
Electrical relay
A device designed to produce sudden predetermined changes in one or more
electrical circuits after the appearance of certain conditions in the electrical
circuit or circuits controlling it.

Energizing quantity.
The electrical quantity, either current or voltage, which alone or in combination
with other energizing quantities, must be applied to the relay to work.

Independent time delay relay.

A time delay relay in which the time delay is independent of the energizing
quantity.
Instantaneous relay
A relay which operates and resets with no intentional time delay.
Operating time
With a relay de-energized and in its initial condition, the time which elapses
between the application of a characteristic quantity and the instant when the
relay operates.
Operating time characteristic
The curve depicting the relationship between different values of the characteristic
quantity applied to a relay and the corresponding values of operating time.
Operating value
The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay actually
operates.
Protected zone
The portion of a power system protected by a given protective system or a part
of that protective system.
Protective gear
The apparatus, including protective relays, trans-formers and ancillary
equipment, for use in a protective system.
Protective relay
A relay designed to initiate disconnection of a part of an electrical installation or
to operate a warning signal, in the case of a fault or other abnormal condition in
the installation. A protective relay may include more than one unit electrical
relay and accessories.
Protective scheme
The coordinated arrangements for the protection of one or more elements of a
power system. A protective scheme may comprise several protective systems.
Protective system

A combination of protective gear designed to secure, under predetermined

conditions, usually abnormal, the disconnection of an element of a power
system, or to give an alarm signal, or both.

Rating
The nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in the designation of
a relay. The nominal value usually corresponds to the CT and VT secondary
ratings.
Resetting value
The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay returns to its
initial position.
Stability
The quality whereby a protective system remains inoperative under all
conditions other than those for which it is specifically designed to operate.
Stability limits
The R.M.S. value of the symmetrical component of the through fault current up
to which the protective system remains stable.
Time delay
A delay intentionally introduced into the operation of a relay system.
Time delay relay
A relay having an intentional delaying device.
Unit electrical relay
A single relay which can be used alone or in combinations with others.
Unit protection
A protection system which is designed to operate only for abnormal conditions
within a clearly defined zone of the power system.
Unrestricted protection
A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of operation and which
achieves selective operation only by time grading.

Fault
An unplanned occurrence or defect in an item which may result in one or more
failures of the item itself or of other associated equipment .
Non-damage fault
A fault which does not involve repair or replacement action at the point of
the fault
Damage fault
A fault which involves repair or replacement action at the point of the fault

LIST Of device Numbers

2 Time delay starting or closing relay.

3 Checking or interlocking relay
21 Distance relay
25 Synchronizing or synchronism check relay
27 Under voltage relay
30 Annunciator relay
32 Directional power relay
37 Undercurrent or under power relay
40 Field failure relay
46 Reverse phase or phase balance current relay
49 Machine or transformer thermal relay
50 Instantaneous over current or rate-of-rise relay
51 A .c. time over current relay
52 A.c. circuit breaker
52a Circuit breaker auxiliary switchnormally open
52b Circuit breaker auxiliary switchnormally closed
55 Power factor relay
56 Field_application relay
59 Over voltage relay
60 Voltage or current balance relay
64 Earth fault protective relay

67
68
74
76
78
79
81
83
85
86
87

A.c. directional over current relay

Blocking relay
Alarm relay
D.c. over current relay
Phase angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay
A.c. reclosing relay
Frequency relay
Automatic selective control or transfer relay
Carrier or pilot wire receive relay
Locking-out relay
Differential protective relay

94
Auxiliary
tripping

relay