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SEISMICACQUISITION
version1.0released29/1/99
INTRODUCTION
ZEROOFFSETANDCMPMETHODS
NORMALMOVEOUT
FORMINGACMPGATHER
TYPICALACQUISITIONGEOMETRIES
GATHERTYPESANDDOMAINS
EFFECTSOFDIPANDSTRUCTURE
SEISMICACQUISITIONINPRACTICE
OBSERVERSLOGS
NAVIGATION
RECORDINGSYSTEMS
RECORDINGPOLARITY
SAMPLINGANDALIASING
TAPEFORMATS

ONBOARDPROCESSING
TYPICALSHOTRECORDS
ADVANCEDTOPICS

INTRODUCTION
Inthissectionweintroducetheconceptsofseismicacquisition,startingwithasimpleraybasedconceptand
endingwithmorepracticaldetailsofthetypicalsystemsinusetoday.Thecontentsofthischapterare
fundamentaltoseismicprocessing.
returntocontents

ZEROOFFSETANDCMPMETHODS
Thesimplesttypeofacquisitionwouldbeto
useasinglecoincidentsourceandreceiver
pairandprofiletheearthalongalineas
shownintheadjacentfigure.Suchan
experimentwouldbecalledazerooffset
experimentbecausethereisnooffsetdistance
betweensourceandreceiver(bothmarkedas
ayellowdotonthefigure).Theresulting
seismicdatawillbesinglefoldbecausethere
willonlybeasingletracepersubsurface
position.Thezerooffsetconceptisan
importantoneandthemethodmightbeused
inpractiseifnoisecouldbeignored.Inorder
toovercomethenoiseproblemand
additionallytoestimateearthvelocity,the
methodofacquisitionmostcommonlyusedis
theCommonMidPoint(CMP)method.The
samemethodisalsocalledCommonDepth
Point(CDP).Neitherofthetwonames
exactlydescribesthemethod,sowhileboth
areequallyinvalid,CMPisusuallypreferred.
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Thegeneralideaofthemethodistoacquireaseriesoftraces
(gather)whichreflectfromthesamecommonsubsurfacemid
point.Intheadjacentfiguresourcepointsareshowninredand
receiverpointsingreen.Thetracesarethensummed(stacked)
sothatsuperiorsignaltonoiseratiotothatofthesinglefold
stackresults.Thefoldofthestackisdeterminedbythenumber
oftracesintheCMPgather.
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TheearlierfigureshowedraysandthepreviousfigureshowstracesresultingfromasinglesixfoldCMP
gatherdepictingreflectionsfromasingleflatinterface(thesecouldbefromanyofthesubsurfacelocations
fromthezerooffsetfigure).Thereflectionfromtheflatinterfaceproducesacurvedseriesofarrivalsonthe
seismictracessinceittakeslongertotraveltothefaroffsetsthanthenearoffsets.Thishyperboliccurve
(showninthedottedredline)iscalledtheNormalMoveoutcurveorNMOandisrelatedtotraveltime,
offsetandvelocityofthemediumasshownbytheequationinthefigure.BeforestackingtheNMOcurve
mustbecorrectedsuchthattheseismiceventlinesuponthegather.ThisiscalledNormalMoveout
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Correctionandtheresultsareshowninthecentralportionofthefigure.Themoveoutcorrectedtracesare
thenstacked,toproducethe6foldstacktrace,whichsimulatesthezerooffsetresponsebutwithincreased
signaltonoiseratio.
TheCMPgatherprovidesinformationaboutseismicvelocityofpropagationsincethisistheonlyunknown
variableintheNMOequation.Ifthevelocityappliedistoolow,theNMOcurvewillbeovercorrectedandif
thevelocityistoohighthecurvewillbeundercorrected.Bothunderandovercorrectionresultinasmeared
stackwhichwouldbeinferiortotheperfectzerooffsettrace.
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CMPACQUISITION
WhileaCMPcouldbeacquiredusingasinglepairofsourceand
receiverpairthiswouldbeveryexpensiveandtimeconsumingway
toacquireseverallinesora3DcubeofCMPgathers.Inpractise
CMPacquisitionisaccomplishedbyfiringthesourceintomany
receiverssimultaneouslyasshowninadjacentfigure(a)which
depictsashotgatherwhereasingleshot(red)isfiredintosix
receivers(green).Areceiverisalsocolocatedwiththeshotto
produceazerooffsettrace.Bymovingthesourcepositionan
appropriatemultipleofthereceiverspacingCMPgatherscanbe
constructedbyreorderingtheshottraces(thisprocessiscalled
sorting).Figure(b)showstheoriginalshotandsecondshot(tracesin
red).Inthiscase,theshothasmovedupadistanceequaltothe
receiverspacing.TheCMPspacingisequaltohalfthereceiver
spacing.Figure3cshowshowthefoldoftheCMPgathersisstarting
tobuildupaftersixshotshavebeenfired.Atthebeginningofthe
linethefoldbuildsuptoit'smaximumofthree.Thefoldstaysatthe
maximumuntiltheendofthelineisreachedwherethefold
decreases.
Questions:
1.WhathappenstotheCMPspacingifthereceiverspacingis
doubled?
2.Whathappenstothefoldifthereceiverspacingisdoubled?
3.Whathappenstothefoldiftheshotspacingishalved?
4.Whathappenstothefoldiftheshotspacingisdoubled?
Typicallytheboatwilltravelaround4knots(8km/h)andthe
shotpointintervalwouldbedoublethereceivergroupinterval.A
speedof4knotsisapproximately2m/swhichmeansapproximately
12sbetweenshotsfora25mshotpointinterval.Duringthistimethe
compressorsneedtobeabletorechargetheairgunarraybeforefiring
again.Iftheboattravelstoofastthenthedesiredrecordlengthmay
notbeacquired,tooslowandcontrolofthestreamerequipmentcontrolmaybelost.Acompromiseis
requireddependingonthegeologicaltargetandseaconditions.
AslongastheshotpointandreceiverintervalsareintegermultiplesofeachothertheCMPfoldcanbe
calculatedbydividinghalfthecablelengthbytheshotpointinterval.Nonintegerincrementscanresultin
somestrangegeometriessuchasvariableCMPspacingandfold.Thefollowingtablesummarisestypical
geometries.Thefoldcalculationassumesa3kmcableandallunitsareinmeters.Notethatthetablerefersto
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thefoldandspacingasacquiredinthefield.Theseparameterscan,andoftenare,changedduringtheseismic
processingflow.Themaximumrecordingtimeisthatpracticallyestablishedonmodernvessels.
SHOT
SPACING

RECEIVER
SPACING

CMP
SPACING

FOLD

MAXIMUM
RECORDING

18.75

12.5

6.25

80

4.5s

25

12.5

6.25

60

8s

25

25

12.5

60

8s

50

25

12.5

30

20s

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GATHERTYPES
Theadjacentfigureshowsray
pathsforvarioustypesofgather
whichcanbeconstructedby
sortingtracesfromtheCMP
acquisitiontechnique.Data
sortingchangesthedomainof
thedataforexamplefromCMP
domaintocommonoffset
domain.Eachtracewillbe
assignedaseriesofidentifiers
duringacquisitionwhichwillbe
usedtosortthedata.These
identifiersortraceheaderswill
includethingslikeshotnumber,
receivernumber,tracenumber
withinshotandsourcereceiver
offset.Duringprocessingthe
datamaybesortedmanyways
usingtheseheadersusuallyin
ordertofindadomainwhere
noiseisseparatedfromsignalso
itcanbesuppressed.Whatever
theprocessingsequence,thesort
fromshottoCMPgathermust
alwaysbeappliedbefore
stacking.

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EFFECTOFDIPPINGHORIZONS

Thepreviousfiguresanddiscussionhaveassumedthatthereflectingstrataarehorizontal.Unfortunatelythe
introductionofdipintroducesmanycomplicationsasshownabove.Figure(a)showssixfoldraypathsfora
horizontalthreereflectorcaseandin(b)acaseinwhichmoderatedipisinvolved.TheCMPmethodholds
formultiplelayersandthedatacanbemovedoutandstackedtoproducethreereflections.Notethat
refractionoccursatthevelocityboundariesandvelocityincreasesineachlayer.Wheredipispresentitis
clearthattheCMPmethodisbreakingdownsincethetracesdonotallreflectfromthesamemidpoint
location.ProcessingtechniquessuchasDMOandMigrationarerequiredtoaccuratelyprocessCMPdata
acquiredfromdippingstrata.Forfurtherdiscussiononvelocityanalysisformultilayeredordippingdata
clickhere.
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MARINEACQUISITIONINPRACTICE
Practicallimitationslimittheeffectivenesswithwhichwecanacquiremarineseismicdata.Forexamplethe
modernsleeveairgunsourcedoesnotproduceanexactimpulsebutistunedtoproduceabroadband
spectruminthetypicalseismicfrequencies5100Hz.
Theadjacentfigureshows
detailsofatypical
acquisitionsystem(either
2Dor3D)incrosssection
mode.Anumberofpoints
arenotedwithparticular
referencetoseismic
processing.

1.Theantennaformsthemajorreferencepointfortherestoftheequipmenttowedbehindthevessel.
Navigationpositionsaremeasuredfromtheantenna,howeveritisnotedthatthesourcetoreceiver
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distanceiswhatisrequiredinprocessing.
2.Thesource(showninred)istowedatafixedoffsetanddepthfromthebackoftheship.Severalarrays
ofairgunsofdifferentvolumesare
tunedtoobtainasimpulseasource
aspossible.Thesourcesignalis
affectedbysourceghostreflections
fromtheseasurfacewhich
destructivelyinterferewiththe
signalatcertainfrequencies
dependingonthesourcedepth(see
adjacentfigure).Thecalculation
assumesraypathsareverticaland
thattheseasurfacereflectionis1.
Forasourcedepthof7.5m
frequenciesof0,100Hzand200Hz
wouldbecompletelycancelled.
3.Thereceiversaremountedinaneutrallybuoyantcableupto9kmlong(3kminthediagram)whichis
towedatafixeddepthandoffsetbehindthevesselandbehindthesource.Thehydrophonesaretowed
ingroups(showninblue)whichareusuallyspaced12.5mapart.Therecordedsignalisaffectedby
receiverghostreflectionsfromtheseasurfacewhichdestructivelyinterferewiththesignalatcertain
frequenciesdependingonthereceiverdepth(seepreviousdiscussiononsourceghost).
4.Particularlyfor3Ddataatailbuoywouldbeplacedatthefarendofthestreamertomarktheendand
provideanavigationalreferencepoint.
Thefollowingfigureshowstheacquisitionsysteminplanviewforatypical3Dvesselwithtwosourcesand
fourstreamers.InthismodeeightsubsurfaceCMPlinesareacquiredsimultaneously.A2Dvesselwoulduse
asinglesourceandstreamertowedbehindeachothertoacquireasinglesubsurfaceline.Itisnotedthatthe
realityofacquisitionismuchmorecomplicatedthanthesediagramsindicate.Thediagramsshowdetailsof
whatisrequiredforseismicprocessing.

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OBSERVERSLOGS
Therecordingandacquisitiondetailsforeachlinewithinasurveyaredescribedintheobserversreportsor
logs.Theseusuallypaper(butincreasinglydigital)reportsarecriticaltotheprocessingofseismicdata.
Unfortunatelytheyareoftenlostandaresometimesmisleadingandincorrect.Howevertheyarerecords
madeinthefieldandmaybetheonlyplacewheredeviationsfromtheacquisitionspecifications,suchas
missedshots,badtraces,noisefiles,changesinneartraceoffset,levelofinterferenceetcarerecorded.Itis
difficult(butnotimpossible)toprocessseismicdatafromfieldtapeswithouttheobserverslogs.
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NAVIGATION
Amodernseismicacquisitionsystemusesseveralnavigationsystemsfirstlytodetermineandcontrolthe
positionofthevesselinthewaterandsecondlytodeterminethepositionoftheseismicequipmenttrailing
thevessel.ModernsystemsalmostexclusivelyrelyonGPS(globalpositioningsystem)forthemajorityof
positioning.Smallreceiversmountedonthevessel,tailbuoysandgunfloatscandetectsignalsalmost
anywhereintheworldfrom3ormoresatellitesanddeterminepositionwithin10mviatriangulation.
Acousticsystemsorpingersarealsousedin3Dvesselsonthesourcesystem.Some3Dvesselsadditionally
uselaserpositioningonthesourceandtailbuoys.Avastamountofnavigationdatacanbecollectedonboard
amodernmultistreamerseismicvessel.Thenavigationdatarequiresonboardprocessingandcheckingto
ensurethatallthemeasurementsagreewithinerror.Thisnavigationdatashouldbeprovidedalongwiththe
seismicdatafordataprocessingpurposeswheretheseismicandnavigationinformationaremerged.Thisis
especiallyimportantfor3Dprocessing.Followingnavigationmergetheseismictraceheaderscontainthe
(x,y)positionsofthesourceandreceiverforthattrace.
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POLARITY
Ascompressesairisexpelledfromthegunchamberitexpandsinthewatertoformabubble(rarefraction)
whichthencollapses(compression).Aninitialimpulseisfollowedbytheoscillitorybubblepulse.The
SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists(SEG)ambiguouslydefinespolarityforseismicdatarecording,thata
rarefactionisapositivenumberandacompressionanegativenumberontape.Anincreaseinacoustic
impedanceorpositivereflectioncoefficientisalsorepresentedbyatroughi.e.anegativenumberontape.
Oncethedataisrecordeditcanbedisplayedatanypolarity.DataisusuallyrecordedatSEGstandard
polarity.
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RECORDING
Inthemarinecasetheseismicreflectionsarerecordedbyhydrophones(whichdetectpressureoracceleration
changes)andinthelandoroceanbottomseismiccasebygeophones(whichdetectmotionorvelocity
changes).Thereisa90degreephasechangebetweenthetwosystems.Thesignalisusuallyrecordedby
analogueinstrumentsandmustbedigitisedtobestoredoncomputertape.Theprocessofdigitisinginvolves
formingatimeseriesoftheanaloguesignalbysamplingitataregularinterval.Atypicaltraceorrecord
lengthforexplorationseismologywouldbe6secondsalthoughfordeepcrustalwork15to20secondsis
common.Waterbottomacquisitionsystemsoftencombinegeophoneandhydrophonemeasurements.
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SAMPLINGANDALIASING
Theuseofdigitalcomputertechnologymeansthattheanaloguesignalmustbesampledatregularintervals
intimeinordertobeprocessed.Onoldersystemsthissamplingwascarriedoutattherecordingsystem.On
moderndigitalsystemsthesamplingiscarriedoutwithinthestreameritself.Anysignalwouldbeperfectly
representedinthecomputerifaninfinitenumberofsamplesweretaken.
Theadjacentfigureshowsa
signalsampledattwodifferent
intervals.Thetopslideshowsthat
agoodrepresentationofthe20Hz
signalcanbemadebysamples
takenevery25ms(markedbythe
bluestars).Inthebottomslide
samplesaretakenevery75ms.
Aninsufficientnumberof
samplesaretakenandthehigher
frequencyinformationis"lost"or
aliased.Theoriginal20Hzred
curveappearsasa6.7Hzblue
dottedcurve.
Thehighestfrequencyfwhich
canbesampledbyintevaldis
1/2dthisiscalledtheNyquist
Frequency.Higherfrequencies
thanthisaresaidtobetemporally
aliasedbecausetheywillappear
asiftheyarelowerfrequencies.
Typicalsamplingintervalsare1,2,4,8millisecondswithaliasingoccurringabove500,250,125,62.5Hz
respectively.Ifdataaresampledatanintervalof4msthenafrequencyof150Hzwouldappearasifitwere
100Hzi.e.itwouldcorruptthetrue100Hzsignal.Beforethedataaresampledthehigherfrequencieswhich
wouldbealiasedbythechosensamplingintervalmustberemovedbyananaloguefilterintherecording
system.
Samplingisequallyasimportantinspaceasitisintimeandisdiscussedinmoredetailhere.
Ifeithertemporallyorspatiallyaliaseddataareadmittedintofurtherprocessingstagesthenartifactsand
noisemaywellbeintroducedwhichcouldpotentiallybemisleading.Anunderstandingofsampling
(particularlyspatialsampling)isanimportantpartofsurveydesignandcanaffectsurveycostsandquality.It
isobviouslyimportanttosamplesignalcorrectly,butitisequallyvitaltoadequatelysamplenoiseifthisisto
beremovedbyprocessingroutines.
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TAPEFORMATS
SeveraltapeformatsdefinedbytheSEGarecurrentlyinuse.Thesestandardsareoftentreatedquite
liberally,especiallywhere3Ddataisconcerned.Mostcontractorsalsoprocessdatausingtheirowninternal
formatswhicharegenerallymoreefficientthantheSEGstandards.

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ThetwocommonestformatsareSEGD(forfielddata)andSEGYforfinalorintermediateproducts.The
previousfigureshowsthetypicalwayinwhichaseismictraceisstoredontapeforSEGYformat.Theuse
ofheadersisparticularlyimportantsincetheseheadersareusedinseismicprocessingtomanipulatethe
seismicdata.Oldermultiplexedformats(dataacquiredinchannelorder)suchasSEGBwouldtypicallybe
demultiplexed(inshotorder)andtranscribedtoSEGYbeforeprocessing.InSEGYformata3200byte
EBCDIC(ExtendedBinaryCodedDecimalInterchangeCode)"text"headerarrangedasforty80character
imagesisfollowedbya400bytebinaryheaderwhichcontainsgeneralinformationaboutthedatasuchas
numberofsamplespertrace.Thisisfollowedbythe240bytetraceheader(whichcontainsimportant
informationrelatedtothetracesuchasshotpointnumber,tracenumber)andthetracedataitselfstoredas
IBMfloatingpointnumbersin32byteformat.Thetrace,oraseriesoftracessuchasashotgather,willbe
terminatedbyanEOF(EndofFile)marker.ThetapeisterminatedbyanEOM(EndofMedia)marker.
SeverallinesmaybeconcatenatedontapeseparatedbytwoEOFmarkers(doubleendoffile).Separatelines
shouldhavetheirownEBCIDCheaders,althoughthismaybestrippedout(particularlyfor3Darchives)for
efficiency.Eachtracemusthaveit'sown240bytetraceheader.Notethereareconsiderablevariationsinthe
detailsoftheSEGYformat.TheAHCHoustondocumentationprovidesmoredetails.
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ONBOARDPROCESSING
Modernacquisitionvesselscanqualitycontrolandprocess2Dand3Dseismicdataonboarddependingon
thesizeofcomputersystemandnumberofoperatorsinstalled.APROMAXsystem(orequivalent)and
operatorareusuallyprovidedtoQCtheseismicdataasitisacquired.Qualitycontrolwouldtypically
includedshotdisplays,FKanalysisandbrutestackdisplays.Fullonboardprocessingispossibleifrequired
andprovidestheultimateQCtoolatacost.Onboardprocessingisthefastestwaytoprocessdataand
workswellinsomeareasbutshouldgenerallybeavoidedasamechanismforprovidingafinaldatasince
thereistoomuchtogowrong.
Thesecretofsuccessfulonboardprocessingistodoyourhomeworkinadvanceandtoknowtheprocessing
sequenceaheadoftime.Usuallythecontractorisgivenexamplesofexistingvelocityfields,sectionsand
dataatleastamonthinadvanceofthesurvey.Thecontractorwillthenstarttoformasequenceontheir
systemandstarttoresourcethehardwarerequiredideallyinvolvingthepeopleonboardwhowillbedoing
thework.Sourcesignaturesandotherobviousthingsareoftenastickingpointatthelastminute.The
velocityfieldsarecriticalifmoveoutbaseddemultipleistobeattemptedonboard.
Preprocessingonboard(e.g.designature,temporal/spatialtracereduction,navigationmerge,traceedit/QC)
andregularhelicopterdropscanoftenachieveasimilarturnaround,cancostlessandproducebetterquality
thanfullonboardprocessing.Sometimesforspeedtheonboardpreprocesseddataistakenthroughafast
tracksequencee.g.radondemultiple,3DDMOstackandthedatamigratedonshoreandloadedtoa
workstation.Thiswouldtypicallytake4weeksfromtheendofsurvey.Inpractisetheinterpreterprefersto
waitforthefinalvolumesinceotherwisetheinterpretationisdonetwice.Ifthe3Disjustbeingshotto
confirmawelllocationwhichisalreadyprettyfirmthenonboardprocessingmaybeaviableroute.Notethe
datamayhavetobereprocessed.
Thecontractorshouldensurethatsomeonesenioronboardisresponsiblefortheprocessing.Itisimportant
fortheoilcompanyrepresentatives(includinginterpreter)toattendthemobilisationmeeting(maybeeven
ridetheboatforafewweeks)tomakesurethetargetsaredefinedandthateveryoneknowswhoeveryoneis.
Aseverwithcontractorsyouareinthehandsofthepeopledoingthejob.WesternGeophysicalhavea
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systemwherethedataisprocessedonboardremotelybyateambasedonshore.Thishybridmethodmaybe
quiteattractivetosome.
Mostvesselscannowshipoffexamplesectionsorscreendumpsbyemailfordecisionmakingbackatbase
(eithercontractor/oilcompanyorboth)andstaffshouldbeencouragedtodothisifthereistime.Theideal
processingsituationistoshootthefirstlineandthengodownforweather/technicaldowntimeforaweek!!
Velocityfilescanalsobeeasilycompressedandshippedifthesearebeingpickedonboard.Forthisreasonit
maynotberequiredtoputafulltimeQConboard.Theonboardseismicrepshouldinanycasebepretty
knowledgeableaboutprocessing.
Thecontractorswilloftentryandcutcorners.ForinstanceGECOusedtoprocesseverythingat16bit
onboardandstoredintermediatedataintheirformatonexabytecartridge.Thecontractshouldspecifythata
SEGYprestackarchive(e.g.afterRADONdemultiple)shouldbeproducedonboardon3590cartridges.This
givesagoodstartingpointwhenthereprocessinginevitablyhastotakeplace.Contractorswillalsotryand
cheatonthenumberofparabolasusedforRADONdemultiple,oftenlimitingtothefoldorless.Thefold+
20%(orsomeothernumber)shouldbespecifiedinthecontract.
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IDENTIFYINGREFLECTIONSANDNOISETYPES

Theshotrecordsinthepreviousfiguresareusedtoidentifyprincipalreflectionsofinterest,includingvarious
sourcesofnoise.Clickheretoobtainanenlargeddisplayofarawshotrecordandheretodisplaytheshot
aftert2gaincorrectionwitheventsidentified.Whendataisrecordedrawnoisefilesareusuallyacquiredat
thebeginningandendofline.Anoisefileiscreatedbyrecordingashotbutnotfiringthesource.Thenoise
fileinthepreviousfiguresclearlyshowsnoisegeneratedbytugatthefrontendandfar(fromtailbuoy)end
ofthestreamer.Thislowfrequencynoisewouldtypicallyberemovedbyacombinationofbandpassfiltering
andDMO.Noisefilesshouldberemoved(byediting)beforeprocessing.Fielddataarealsoacquiredwith
severalauxiliarytraceswhichwouldberemoved(byediting)priortoprocessing.Thenearchannelisusually
numbered240butinthisinstanceisnumbered1.Inthefigurethedirectarrivaldoesnotarriveattimezero
becausethereisarecordingdelaybuiltintothesystemwhichshouldberemovedbeforeprocessingbegins.
Observerslogsshoulddetailchannelnumbers,noisefiles,auxiliarytracesandstartofdatadelays.The
secondfigureidentifiesseveraleventsonthegaincorrectedshot.Yilmazcontainsfortyshotrecordsfrom
aroundtheworldandindicatesdataandnoisetypes.
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ADVANCEDTOPICS
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LANDACQUISITION
SUBSEAorSEABOTTOMACQUISITION
PLANNINGA2DSURVEY
PLANNINGA3DSURVEY
ARRAYDESIGN
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