Nervous System - Overview

Introduction:
The nervous system is composed of all nerve tissues in the body. The functions of nerve tissue are to receive
stimuli, transmit stimuli to nervous centers, and to initiate response. The central nervous system consists of the
brain and spinal cord and serves as the collection point of nerve impulses. The peripheral nervous system includes
all nerves not in the brain or spinal cord and connects all parts of the body to the central nervous system. The
peripheral (sensory) nervous system receives stimuli, the central nervous system interprets them, and then the
peripheral (motor) nervous system initiates responses.
The somatic nervous system controls functions that are under conscious voluntary control such as skeletal
muscles and sensory neurons of the skin.
The autonomic nervous system, mostly motor nerves, controls functions of involuntary smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, and glands. The autonomic nervous system provides almost every organ with a double set of nerves the sympathetic and parasympathetic. These systems generally but not always work in opposition to each other.
The sympathetic system activates and prepares the body for vigorous muscular activity, stress, and emergencies.
While the parasympathetic system lowers activity, operates during normal situations, permits digestion, and
conservation of energy.
The two systems generally act in opposition to each other. For example, a stimulation by the sympathetic system
on the heart would increase contractions, while a stimulation by the parasympathetic system would decrease
heart contractions. Where dual control of an organ exists, both systems operate simultaneously although one may
be operating at a higher level of activity than the other. The operation is similar to the operation of a car with both
the accelerator and brake pedals depressed.

Function
One of the worlds most "intricately organized" electron mechanisms is the nervous system. Not even engineers
have come close to making circuit boards and computers as delicate and precise as the nervous system. To

understand this system, one has to know the tree simple functions that it puts into action: sensory input,
integration, motor output.

Sensory input

When your eyes see something or your hands or touch a warm surface, the sensory cells, also known as Neorons,
send a message straight to your brain. This action of getting information from your surrounding environment is
called sensory input because your putting things in your brain by way of your senses.

Integration

Integration is best known as the interpretation of things you have felt, tasted, and touched with your sensory cells,
also known as neurons, into responses that the body recognizes. This process is all accomplished in the brain
where many, many neurons work together to understand the environment.

Motor Output

Once your brain has interpreted all that you have learned, either by touching, tasting, or using any other sense,
then your brain sends a message through neurons to effecter cells, muscle or gland cells, which actually work to
perform your requests and act upon your environment. The word motor output is easily remembered if one should
think that your putting something out into the environment through the use of a motor, like a muscle which does
the work for our body.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. The two main organs of the CNS
are the brain and spinal cord.
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This system is
responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body. The nervous system
monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the external environment. This
system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Let's take a
look at the central nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives information from and
sends information to the peripheral nervous system. The two main organs of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord.
The brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord. Both the brain and spinal cord
are protected by three layers of connective tissue called the meninges.
Within the central nervous system is a system of hollow cavities called ventricles. The network of linked cavities in
the brain (cerebral ventricles) is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. The ventricles are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid which is produced by specializedepithelium located within the ventricles called the choroid
plexus. Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds, cushions, and protects the brain and spinal cord from trauma. It also assists
in the circulation of nutrients to the brain.

Central Nervous System

Abbreviated as CNS, it is one of the most important organs of the nervous system. It is made up of two of the most
vital organs in the human body - the brain and the spinal cord. The brain weighs approximately 3 lbs, while the
spinal cord is about 42 to 45 cm in length. Both of them make up a large part of the entire nervous system. Its
functions include coordinating the activities between the various parts of the human body. Working in
collaboration with the peripheral nervous system, central nervous system plays a fundamental role in controlling
the behavior in various multicellular organisms.
Central Nervous System: Brain
The brain is the control center of the body. It consists of three main components: the forebrain, the brainstem, and
the hindbrain. The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory
information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. The
forebrain contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as
motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. It also contains the largest part
of the brain, the cerebrum. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral
cortex.
The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem
that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses
as well as motor function.
The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and contains structures such as the pons andcerebellum. These regions
assist in maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information.
The hindbrain also contains themedulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as
breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is connected to the brain. The spinal cord runs
down the center of the protective spinal column extending from the neck to the lower back. Spinal cord nerves
transmit information from body organs and external stimuli to the brain and send information from the brain to
other areas of the body. The nerves of the spinal cord are grouped into bundles of nerve fibers that travel in two
pathways. Ascending nerve tracts carry sensory information from the body to the brain. Descending nerve tracts
send information pertaining to motor function from the brain to the rest of the body.
Central Nervous System: Neurons
Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. All cells of the nervous system are comprised of neurons.
Neurons contain nerve processes which are "finger-like" projections that extend from the nerve cell body. The
nerve processes consist of axons and dendrites which are able to conduct and transmit signals. Axons typically
carry signals away from the cell body. They are long nerve processes that may branch out to convey signals to
various areas. Dendrites typically carry signals toward the cell body. They are usually more numerous, shorter and
more branched than axons. Axons and dendrites are bundled together into what are called nerves. These nerves
send signals between the brain, spinal cord, and other body organs via nerve impulses. Neurons are classified as
either motor, sensory, or interneurons. Motor neurons carry information from the central nervous system to
organs, glands, and muscles. Sensory neurons send information to the central nervous system from internal organs
or from external stimuli. Interneurons relay signals between motor and sensory neurons.

Characteristics of the Central Nervous System

The most fundamental way of categorizing groups of neurons that make up the central nervous system is as nuclei
and tracts. The nuclei are collections of cell bodies and tracts are pathways consisting of large groups of axons. Due
to their myelin the axons often appear white and the cell bodies appear gray, thus creating what is often referred
to as gray and white matter in the brain. You can think of the brain as a big collection of nuclei and groups of nuclei
where processing occurs, and tracts which carry the messages from one group of nuclei to another. Although we
will speak of the brain in terms of various "structures" you should keep in mind that the brain is not neatly divided
into sections, rather the "structures" refer to areas where clumps of nuclei occur, these areas are not neatly
partitioned off from other areas, rather all the structures are interconnected in a myriad of complex patterns.

Structure
The central nervous system is divided into seven major divisions. The first is the spinal cord which integrates with
the brain stem and runs down the center of the vertebrate column. The brain itself is composed of six regions
the medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, and the cerebral hemispheres (sometimes referred to
as telencephalon). Each of these regions can be further subdivided into many anatomically and functionally distinct
areas.
The central nervous system is covered by three tissue layers called the meninges. The three meninges tissues are
the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the thickest and toughest tissue and the
outermost layer. It is primarily thought to serve as a protection layer for the underlying nervous tissue. The
arachnoid mater is connected loosely to the dura mater. There is a space between the dura mater and the
arachnoid mater called the subdural space. The pia mater is a very thin and delicate layer of tissue that adheres to
the surface of the nervous tissue. The space between the archnoid mater and the pia mater is called
the subarachnoid space. Arachnoid mater filaments pass through this space giving a web like appearance to the
area (hence the term arachnoid).
Beyond protection the meninges tissue is also important for the circulatory health of the central nervous system.
The veins and arteries that serve the CNS are located in the subarachnoid space. There are also large, low-pressure
blood vessels that serve as the return path for cerebral venous blood located in the dura mater.
The CNS contains several cavities called the ventrical system. Tissue surrounding the ventrical system is the
primary producer of cerebrospinal fluid which surrounds the CNS providing a medium for communication
between neurons and as a cushion in case of trauma.
Neurons and axons are distributed non-uniformly through the CNS. The cell body and dendrites of the neurons
cluster in cortical regions which are essentially flattened sheets of cells called laminae. These areas are located
primarily on the cerebral hemispheres or in areas beneath the surface of all the sub-divisions of the CNS
called nuclei. Axons are then distributed through out the system in regions called tracts. In live tissue the regions
populated by cell bodies and dendrites appear gray while the tract's of axons appear white due to myelin sheaths.
These areas are called gray matter and white matter respectively.
CNS Functions
As we said earlier, the central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord, both of which play an
important role on physical as well as mental aspects of our life. The brain plays a major role in controlling the
various body functions, which include movement, sensation, thinking, memory, speech, etc. On the other hand,
the spinal cord is connected to the brain at a particular section of the brain referred to as the brainstem. The brain
is divided into two halves, the right brain and the left brain. Right brain functions include visual and spatial skills,
memory storage in auditory and visual modalities, whereas left brain functions include sequential analysis,
memory storage in particular order, logical interpretations etc.

The brain is further divided into several regions, each of which is assigned a specific function. For instance, the
frontal lobe deals in cognition and memory, while the parietal lobe looks after processing of sensory input. The
spinal cord and central nervous system neurons located within it are primarily assigned the responsibility of
transmitting messages back and forth between the brain and the peripheral nerves. Although the brain and spinal
cord work together to control various functions of the body, reflex movements can occur through spinal cord
pathways, without any of the structure of brain getting involved in the process.
Any damage caused to the head or spine can lead to some adverse effects on the individual's body and hamper
various nervous system functions. Our brain is protected by the skull, whereas the spinal cord is protected by the
vertebrae or the spinal column, but this doesn't mean both these organs are safe from injuries. In fact, in several
causes the spinal cord is damaged or punctured by the vertebrae itself. These injuries may range from a shock
which may last for a few hours, to more severe conditions, such as complete paralysis.
These functions play an important role in various activities, and therefore any damage caused to the central
nervous system can affect our day-to-day life. One has to take some precautionary methods, especially when
indulging in various physical activities, to ensure that the brain and nervous system are not harmed by any injury.

Peripheral Nervous System

There are two types of cells in the peripheral nervous system. These cells carry information to (sensory nervous
cells) and from (motor nervous cells) the central nervous system (CNS). Cells of the sensory nervous system send
information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli.
Motor nervous system cells carry information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands. The motor nervous
system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Thesomatic nervous
system controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs such as the skin. This system is said to be
voluntary because the responses can be controlled consciously. Reflex reactions of skeletal muscle however are an
exception. These are involuntary reactions to external stimuli.
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and cardiac muscle. This system is
also called the involuntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can further be divided into the
parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
The parasympathetic division controls various functions which include inhibiting heart rate, constricting pupils,
and contracting the bladder. The nerves of the sympathetic division often have an opposite effect when they are
located within the same organs as parasympathetic nerves. Nerves of the sympathetic division speed up heart
rate, dilate pupils, and relax the bladder. The sympathetic system is also involved in the flight or fight response.
This is a response to potential danger that results in accelerated heart rate and an increase in metabolic rate.

Components
On the basis of location of the nerves, the Peripheral Nervous System consists of the following nerves:

31 pairs of Spinal Nerves that connects the spinal cord with the rest of the body.
12 pairs of Cranial Nerves that connect the brain with the vital organs of the body.

On the basis of the functions of the nerves, the Peripheral Nervous System consists of the following nerves:

Somatic Nerves which carry sensory information from the skin and muscle, and motor commands to the
skeletal muscles.
The Autonomic nerves which carry signals between the CNS and smooth muscles, glands, cardiac muscles
and internal organs.

Peripheral Nervous System Divisions

The peripheral nervous system is divided into the following sections:

Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory Nervous System - sends information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli.

Motor Nervous System - carries information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands.

Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs.

Autonomic Nervous System - controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and cardiac muscle.

Sympathetic - controls activities that increase energy expenditures.

Parasympathetic - controls activities that conserve energy expenditures.

Somatic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system includes the sensory and motor nerves that innervate the limbs and body wall.
Sensory nerve fibers in the peripheral nerves are the peripheral axonal process of neurons in the dorsal root
ganglion. The motor axons are the processes of anterior horn cells of the spinal cord.
Peripheral nerves have multiple layers of connective tissue surrounding axons, with the endoneurium
surrounding individual axons, perineurium binding axons into fascicles and epineurium binding the fascicles into a
nerve. There are also blood vessels (vasa vasorum) and nerves (nervi nervorum) contained within the nerve. Nerve
fibers in peripheral nerves are wavy, such that a length of peripheral nerve can be stretched to half again its length
before tension is directly transmitted to nerve fibers. Nerve roots have much less connective tissue, and individual
nerve fibers within the roots are straight, leading to some vulnerability.
Peripheral nerves receive collateral arterial branches from adjacent arteries. These arteries that contribute
to the vasa nervorum anastamose with arterial branches entering the nerve above and below in order to provide
an uninterrupted circulation along the course of the nerve. There is usually sufficient collateral circulation to
survive damage to one of the feeding arteries. However, this is unpredictable.
Individual nerve fibers vary widely in diameter and also may be myelinated or unmyelinated. Myelin in the
peripheral nervous system derives from Schwann cells, and the distance between nodes of Ranvier determines the
conduction rate. Table 1 shows the functional categories of nerve fibers and the relative speed of conduction. On
this table, please note that the function of an axon can be deduced from its diameter and from conduction

velocity. Because certain conditions preferentially affect myelin, they would be most likely to affect the functions
mediated by the largest, fastest, most heavily myelinated axons (see table 1).
Sensory neurons are somewhat unique, having an axon that extends to the periphery and another axon that
extends into the central nervous system via the dorsal root (figure 3). The cell body of this neuron is located in the
dorsal root ganglion or one of the sensory ganglia of sensory cranial nerves. Both the peripheral and the central
axon attach to the neuron at the same point, and these sensory neurons are called "pseudounipolar" neurons.
Before a sensory signal can be relayed to the nervous system it must be transduced into an electrical signal in
a nerve fiber. This involves a process of opening ion channels in the membrane in response to mechanical
deformation, temperature or, in the case of nociceptive fibers, signals released from damaged tissue. Many
receptors become less sensitive with continued stimuli and this is termed adaptation. This adaptation may be rapid
or slow, with rapidly adapting receptors being specialized for detecting changing signals.
There are several structural types of receptors in the skin. These fall into the category of encapsulated or
non-encapsulated receptors. The non-encapsulated endings include free nerve endings, which are simply the
peripheral end of the sensory axon. These mostly respond to noxious (pain) and thermal stimuli. There are some
specialized free nerve endings around hairs that respond to very light touch and also free nerve endings that
contact special skin cells, called Merkle's cells. These Merckle's cells (discs) are specialized cells that release
transmitter onto peripheral sensory nerve terminals. The encapsulated endings include Meisner's corpuscles,
Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini endings. The capsules that surround encapsulated endings change the response
characteristics of the nerves. Most encapsulated receptors are for touch, but the Pacinian corpuscles are very
rapidly adapting and therefore are specialize to detect vibration. Ultimately, the intensity of the stimulus is
encoded by the relative frequency of action potential generation in the sensory axon.
In addition to cutaneous receptors, there are muscle receptors that are involved in detecting muscle stretch
(muscle spindle) and muscle tension (Golgi tendon organs). Muscle spindles are located in the muscle bellies and
consist of intrafusal muscle fibers that are arranged in parallel with the majority of fibers comprising the muscle
(i.e., extrafusal fibers). The ends of the intrafusal fibers are contractile and are innervated by gamma motor
neurons, while the central portion of the muscle spindle is clear and is wrapped by a sensory nerve ending, the
annulospiral ending. This ending is activated by stretch of the muscle spindle or by contraction of the intrafusal
fibers (see section V). The Golgi tendon organs are located at the myotendinous junction and consist of nerve
fibers intertwined with the collagen fibers at the myotendinous junctions. They are activated by contraction of the
muscle (muscle tension).
The cutaneous distribution of sensory nerves is shown in figure 4. There is a small area of overlap between
sensory distributions of peripheral nerves. It is important to note that there is significant variability in the precise
borders of the peripheral distribution of nerves although the general pattern is quite consistent. Nerve roots
supply dermatomes (figure 5). With few exceptions, there is complete overlap between adjacent dermatomes. This
means that the loss of a single nerve root rarely produces significant loss of skin sensitivity. The exception to this
rule is found in small patches in the distal extremities, which have been termed "autonomous zones." In these
regions single nerve roots supply distinct and non-overlapping areas of skin. By their nature the "autonomous
zones" represent only a small portion of any dermatome and only a few nerve roots have such autonomous zones.
For example, the C5 nerve root may be the sole supply to an area of the lateral arm and proximal part of the lateral
forearm. The C6 nerve root may distinctly supply some skin of the thumb and index finger. Injuries to the C7 nerve

root may decrease sensation over the middle and sometimes the index finger along with a restricted area on the
dorsum of the hand. C8 nerve root lesions can produce similar symptoms over the small digit occasionally
extending into the hypothenar area of the hand. In the lower limb, L4 nerve root damage may decrease sensation
over the medial part of the leg, while L5 lesions affect sensation over part of the dorsum of the foot and great toe.
S1 nerve root lesions typically decrease sensation on the lateral side of the foot.
In addition to sensory problems, peripheral nerve injury can affect strength. The principal innervation for the
most important muscles is depicted in table 2. Damage to peripheral nerves often produces a very recognizable
pattern of severe weakness and (with time) atrophy. Damage to single nerve roots usually does not produce
complete weakness of muscles since there are no muscles supplied by a single nerve root. Nonetheless, there is
often detectible weakness. Examples in the upper extremity include weakness of shoulder abductors and external
rotators with C5 nerve root lesions, weakness of elbow flexors with C6 nerve root lesions, possible weakness of
wrist and finger extension with C7 nerve root lesions and some weakness of intrinsic hand muscles with C8 and T1
lesions. In the lower extremity, there may be some weakness of knee extension with L3 or L4 lesions, some
difficulty with great toe (and, to a lesser extent, ankle) extension with L5 lesions and weakness of great toe plantar
flexion with S1 nerve root damage.
Motor nerve fibers end in myoneural junctions. These consist of a single motor axon terminal on a skeletal
muscle fiber. The myoneural junction includes a complex infolding of the muscle membrane, the ridges of which
contain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. There is also a matrix in the synaptic cleft containing
acetylcholinesterase, involved in termination of action of the neurotransmitter.
One motor neuron has connections with many muscle fibers through collateral branches of the axon. This is
called the "motor unit" and can vary from a handful of muscle fibers per motor neuron in muscles of very fine
control (such as eye muscles) up to several thousands (as in the gluteal muscles).

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system consists of two main divisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous
systems. The sympathetics are primarily involved in responses that would be associated with fighting or fleeing,
such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure as well as constricting blood vessels in the skin and dilating them
in muscles. The parasympathetic nervous system is involved in energy conservation functions and increases
gastrointestinal motility and secretion. It also increases bladder contractility. There are some areas in which blood
vessels are under competing sympathetic and parasympathetic control, such as in the nose or erectile tissues.
There some areas where there is a competitive balance between sympathetics and parasympathetics, such as the
effects on heart rate or the pupil. For some functions sympathetics and parasympathetics cooperate; an example
being parasympathetic nerves, which are necessary for erection and sympathetics for ejaculation.
Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic portions of the autonomic nervous system have a two neuron
pathway from the central nervous system to the peripheral organ. Therefore, there is a ganglion interposed in
each of these pathways, with the exception of the sympathetic pathway to the adrenal medulla. The adrenal
medulla basically functions as a sympathetic ganglion. The two nerve fibers in the pathway are termed
preganglionic and postganglionic. At the level of the autonomic ganglia the neurotransmitter is typically
acetylcholine. Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons also release acetylcholine while norepinephrine is the

postganglionic transmitter for most sympathetic nerve fibers. The exception is the use of acetylcholine in
sympathetic transmission to the sweat glands and erector pili muscles as well as to some blood vessels in muscle.
Sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located between T1 and L2 in the lateral horn of the spinal cord.
Therefore, sympathatics have been termed the "thoracolumbar outflow." These preganglionic visceral motor fibers
leave the cord in the ventral nerve root and then connect to the sympathetic gangliated chain through the white
rami communicans (figure 3). This chain of connected ganglia follows the sides of the vertebrae all the way from
the head to the coccyx. These axons may synapse with postganglionic neurons in these paravertebral ganglia.
Alternatively, preganglionic fibers can pass directly through the gangliated chain to reach prevertebral ganglia
along the aorta (via splanchnic nerves). Additionally, these preganglionics can pass rostrally or caudally through the
gangliated chain to reach the head or the lower lumbosacral regions. The sympathetic pathway to the head is
shown in figure 6. Sympathetic fibers can go to viscera by one of two pathways. Some postganglionic can leave the
gangliated chain and follow blood vessels to the organs. Alternatively, preganglionic fibers may pass directly
through the gangliated chain to enter the abdomen as splanchnic nerves. These synapse in ganglia located along
the aorta (the celiac, renal, superior or inferior mesenteric ganglia) with postganglionic. Again, postganglionics
follow the blood vessels.
Sympathetic postganglioncs from the gangliated chain can go back to the spinal nerves (via gray rami
communicans) to be distributed to somatic tissues of the limbs and body walls. For example, the somatic response
to sympathetic activation will result in sweating, constriction of blood vessels in the skin, dilation of vessels in
muscle and in piloerection. Damage to sympathetic nerves to the head results in slight constriction of the pupil and
loss of sweating on that side of the head (called Horner's syndrome). This can happen anywhere along the course
of the nerve patheway including the upper thoracic spine and nerve roots, the apex of the lung, the neck or the
carotid plexus of postganglionics.
Parasympathetic nerves arise with cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X, as well as from the sacral segments S2-4.
Therefore, they have been termed the "craniosacral outflow." Parasympathetics in cranial nerve III synapse in the
cilliary ganglion and are involved in pupillary constriction and accommodation for near vision. Parasympathetics in
cranial nerve VII synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion (lacrimation) or the submandibular ganglion (salivation)
while those in cranial nerve IX synapse in the otic ganglion (salivation from parotid gland). The vagus nerve follows
a long course to supply the thoracic and abdominal organs up to the level of the distal transverse colon, synapsing
in ganglia very close to (or within) the organ walls. The pelvic parasympathatics, which appear as "pelvic splanchnic
nerves" activate bladder contraction and also supply lower abdominal and pelvic organs.

Peripheral Nervous System Connections

Peripheral nervous system connections with various organs and structures of the body are established through
cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the brain that establish connections in the
head and upper body, while 31 pairs of spinal nerves do the same for the rest of the body. While some cranial
nerves contain only sensory neurons, most cranial nerves and all spinal nerves contain both motor and sensory
neurons.

Functions
The nerves of peripheral nervous system connect the CNS to muscles, glands, blood vessels and all the organs of

the body including the sense organs. The function of this nervous system is to carry messages from the brain to all
the other parts of the body, and back from these parts to the brain and the spinal cord.

By function, the peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system
and the enteric nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is responsible for coordinating the body movements, and also for receiving external
stimuli. It is the system that regulates activities that are under conscious control, and that controls reflex activity,
including reflex arcs, from the triggering sensory stimulus to the reflexive motor response.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic division, parasympathetic division, and enteric
division.
The sympathetic nervous system responds to impending danger or stress, and is responsible for the increase of
one's heartbeat and blood pressure, among other physiological changes, along with the sense of excitement one
feels due to the increase of adrenaline in the system.
The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, is evident when a person is resting and feels relaxed, and
is responsible for such things as the constriction of the pupil, the slowing of the heart, the dilation of the blood
vessels, and the stimulation of the digestive and genitourinary systems.
The role of the enteric nervous system is to manage every aspect of digestion, from the esophagus to the stomach,
small intestine and colon.

Neurons
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. These specialized cells are the information-processing
units of the brain responsible for receiving and transmitting information. Each part of the neuron plays a role in the
communication of information throughout the body. Follow the links below to learn more about the functions of
each part of a neuron.
1. Dendrites are treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help increase the surface area of the cell
body and are covered with synapses. These tiny protrusions receive information from other neurons and transmit
electrical stimulation to the soma.
Dendrite Characteristics

Most neurons have many dendrites

Short and highly branched
Transmits information to the cell body
2. The soma is where the signals from the dendrites are joined and passed on. The soma and the nucleus do not
play an active role in the transmission of the neural signal. Instead, these two structures serve to maintain the cell
and keep the neuron functional.
The support structures of the cell include mitochondria, which provide energy for the cell, and the Golgi apparatus,
which packages products created by the cell and secretes them outside the cell wall.
3. The axon hillock is located at the end of the soma and controls the firing of the neuron. If the total strength of
the signal exceeds the threshold limit of the axon hillock, the structure will fire a signal (known as an action
potential) down the axon.
4. The axon is the elongated fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings and transmits the neural
signal. The larger the axon, the faster it transmits information. Some axons are covered with a fatty substance
called myelin that acts as an insulator. These myelinated axons transmit information much faster than other
neurons.
Axon Characteristics

Most neurons have only one axon

Transmit information away from the cell body
May or may not have a myelin covering
5. The terminal buttons are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other
neurons. At the end of the terminal button is a gap known as asynapse. Neurotransmitters are used to carry the
signal across the synapse to other neurons.