414

1 8 Chassis
The chassis of a motor vehicle includes:
Wheel suspension
Steering
Suspension
Brakes
Wheels and tyres
They are responsible for the dynamics of vehicular
operation and for the road safety of the vehicle.

Roll centre (instantaneous centre, Fig. 2). This is the

point (W) on an imaginary perpendicular to the centre of the axle, about which the vehicle body rotates
due to the action of lateral forces FS.
The roll centre of a vehicle axle is located in the centre of the vehicle when viewed from the front. Its
height depends on the wheel suspension.

The dynamics of vehicular operation deal with

the action of the forces affecting the vehicle
while it is being driven and the resulting movements of the vehicle.
The movements occur about the longitudinal axis,
transversal axis and vertical axis (Fig. 1).
Rear-wheel drive

Vertical axis (yaw axis)

Transversal axis

FB

FS

Height

18.1 Dynamics of vehicular

operation
W
Fs

Fig. 2: Roll centre

Roll axis. This is formed by connecting the roll centres of front axle WF and rear axle WR (Fig. 3). It usually slopes down towards the front of the vehicle, since
the roll centre is lower at the front wheel suspensions
than at the rear.
The closer the centre of gravity S lies to the roll axis,
the less the vehicle tilts when cornering.

FA
FB

FN
FB

FS

FA
FN

FB

Longitudinal axis

FN

FS

FB
FA
FS
FN

FS
FN

Braking force
Motive force
Lateral force
Vertical force

Fig. 1: Forces and axes on the vehicle

18

WR
WF

A distinction can be made between:

Forces acting along the longitudinal axis: motive
force, braking force, friction force
Forces acting along the transversal axis: centrifugal
force, wind force, lateral force
Forces acting along the vertical axis: wheel load,
forces created by jolts from a rough road surface
The movements resulting from all forces acting together express themselves in the drivability of the vehicle.
Factors influencing the drivability are:
The location of the centre of gravity, roll centre, roll
axis, driving axis
The type of drive and the mounting location of the
power plant
The wheel suspension and the wheel positions
The suspension and the oscillation damping
The wheel control systems, such as ABS, TCS, ESP

Fig. 3: Roll axis

Axis of symmetry. This runs in vehicle longitudinal

direction through the centre of the front and rear
axles (Fig. 4).
Axis of
symmetry

Driving axis

Wheel
offset

Fig. 4: Axis of symmetry, driving axis

Geometrical driving axis. This is formed by the position of the rear wheels and is the bisector of the toein angle of the rear wheels (Fig. 4).
The wheel offset is the angle by which the two rear
wheels are offset against each other towards the
front (+) or towards the rear () for example (Fig. 4).

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18 Chassis
Wheel-slip angle. If a vehicle is hit by a lateral interference factor while it is in motion (e.g. wind
force, centrifugal force), lateral forces FS act in the
tyre contact patches of all four tyres. If the steering
is corrected, the direction of travel of the wheels
changes, they run at an angle to the original direction of travel by an angle of (Fig. 1).
Wheel-slip angle is the angle between the
wheel plane and the actual direction of wheel
motion.

Direction of
wheel motion

Wheel
plane
Direction
of travel
Centre
of gravity

Vehicles with
front wheel drive tend to understeer
rear engines and rear-wheel drive tend to oversteer
all-wheel drive tends towards neutral drivability
The aim is for neutral or slightly understeered drivability (with the exception of sports vehicles).

Wheel-slip
angle

Oversteer (Fig. 3). The wheel-slip angles of the

rear wheels R are greater than those of the
front wheels F. The vehicle wants to steer a
smaller radius of bend than that corresponding
to the lock on the front wheels and the vehicle
starts to break away at the rear.
Neutral drivability. The wheel-slip angle of the
front and rear wheels is the same. The vehicle
drifts evenly on all the wheels.

F > R

Wheel
angle

R > F
F

Vehicle
longitudinal
axis

F
R

FS

FS

To centre
of curve/bend
Attitude angle

Fig. 1: Wheel-slip angle and attitude angle

Attitude angle. This relates to the whole vehicle

(Fig. 1).
The attitude angle is the angle between the direction of travel (direction of motion of the vehicle) and the vehicle longitudinal axis.

Self-steering effect
To assess drivability, standard driving manoeuvres
are performed, e.g. steady-state turn, and the selfsteering effect of a motor vehicle is determined.
Up to the cornering limit speed, the adhesion between tyres and road surface is adequate for establishing the lateral forces required.
If the corner is taken at a higher speed, lateral slip
occurs at the front or rear wheels or at all wheels.
A distinction is drawn between:
Understeer (Fig. 2). Wheel-slip angles F of the
front wheels are greater than those of the rear
wheels R. The vehicle wants to steer a larger radius of bend than that corresponding to the lock
on the front wheels and drifts outwards over the
front wheels.

Fig. 2: Understeer

Fig. 3: Oversteer

Yawing is the rotational motion of the vehicle

about its vertical axis (yaw axis) (Fig. 1, Page 414).
The yaw velocity is measured by yaw sensors on
vehicles with ESP.
Rolling is the tipping movement about the roll axis
(Fig. 3, Page 414).
Pitching is the rotational motion of a vehicle about
its transversal axis (Fig. 1, Page 414).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the 3 spatial axes of a vehicle and what
are the movements about them called?
2 What is meant by roll centre (instantaneous centre)?
3 How is the roll axis of a vehicle formed?
4 What is the wheel-slip angle?
5 Explain the terms understeer, oversteer and neutral drivability.

18

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18 Chassis

The main steering components in the motor vehicle are (Fig. 1):
Steering wheel
Steering spindle
Steering gear
Tie rod
Tie-rod arm
Steering wheel

Tie-rod arm

Tie rod

Steering
spindle

Tie-rod end

Tie rod

Steering gear

Fig. 1: Main steering components

Functions:
Turning (swivelling) the front wheels.
Enabling different steering angles.
Strengthening (gearing up) the torque generated manually at the steering wheel.

connection of the kingpins. Ackermann steering is

used on all dual-track motor vehicles. When the
wheels are turned about the steering axis, the
standing area remains almost the same size.

Behaviour of the wheels when cornering

In order for the wheels to be able to roll faultlessly
when cornering, each steered wheel must be
turned to an angle appropriate to the radius of
bend. A greater wheel angle is required for a small
radius bend than for a larger one.
Since on dual-track vehicles, the wheels on the inside of a curve follow a smaller radius of bend
than those on the outside of a curve, they must be
turned to a greater angle than the wheels on the
outside of a curve.
The different steering locks are achieved by the
steering trapezoid.
Ackermann principle. The wheels must be turned
such that the projected centre lines of the steering
knuckle of the wheels on the inside and the outside
of the bend meet the projected centre line of the
rear axle. The circular trajectories covered by the
front and rear wheels then have a common centre
point (Fig. 3).
d Toe difference
a, b Wheel angle

Steering
knuckle

Designs:
Swinging beam steering Ackermann steering

18

Steering axle

Steering axle

Standing area

Fig. 2: Swinging beam steering, Ackermann steering

18.2.1 Swinging beam steering

When the wheels of the steering axle are turned,
they are pivoted about a common rotational axis
(steering axis). The tendency to tilt increases due
to the reduction in the size of the standing area.
Swinging beam steering is used on twin-axle trailers. It offers good manoeuvrability.

Wheelbase

18.2 Basics principles of steering

Fig. 3: Ackermann steering, toe-difference angle

Steering trapezoid
This is formed by the tie rod, the two tie-rod arms
and the line through the two steering axles (Fig. 4)
when the front wheels are set to the straight-ahead
position.
The steering trapezoid allows the front wheels
to turn at different angles, the inside wheel being turned further than the outside wheel.
Steering
trapezoid

Steering axle

18.2.2 Ackermann steering

Each wheel is pivoted about its own axis, the steering axis. It is formed by the connection of the upper and lower mounting points of the wheel suspension (Fig. 2, Page 418) or by the longitudinal

Tie-rod arm

Tie rod

Fig. 4: Steering trapezoid

Steering knuckle

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18 Chassis

18.2.3 Steering linkage

Toe-in

Functions:
Transfer of the steering movement produced by
the steering gear to the front wheels.
Guidance of the wheels in a particular toe-in angle.

Main components
Tie rod(s), tie-rod joint, tie-rod arm, possibly intermediate lever and steering rod.
Rigid front axle. Recirculating-ball steering gear is
usually used as the steering gear on commercial
vehicles. The movement is transferred by the steering-gear pitman arm via the steering rod to the intermediate lever and track arm (tie-rod arm). The
latter is connected to the one-piece tie rod and the
track arm of the other side of the axle by a tie-rod
linkage (Fig. 1).

The toe is the difference in length l2 l1 between the front of the two wheels and the rear
of the two wheels when set straight ahead.
The toe-in is measured at the hub height from rim
flange to rim flange and may be given as the toe-in
angle (for both wheels) either in millimetres or in
degrees ().
A distinction is drawn between:
Toe-in
Zero toe
Toe-out
Toe-in (l2 l1) > 0 (Fig. 4)
This is used with rear-wheel drive and positive
kingpin offset. The wheels are pivoted outwards by
the rolling resistance at the front.
Zero toe (l2 l1) = 0

Connection for steering spindle

Toe-out (l2 l1) < 0 (Fig. 5)

This is used with front-wheel drive and positive
kingpin offset. The wheels are turned inwards by
the motive force acting on the tyre contact patch.

Recirculating-ball
steering gear
Pitman arm
Steering rod

e
2

Reversing lever

e
2

e
2

e
2

l1

l1

l2

l2

Tie-rod arm
Tie rod

Fig. 1: Rigid axle with single-piece tie rod

Fig. 4: Toe-in

18.3 Wheel adjustment

Wheelbase
The wheelbase is the distance between the centre of the front wheels and the centre of the rear
wheels (Fig. 2).

Fig. 5: Toe-out

Toe, camber, kingpin inclination, kingpin offset and

castor are determined such that the following objectives are attained:
Small and favourable self-steering effect
Good straight-running stability
Low tyre wear
Compensation for play in the wheel location
Little or no tendency of the wheels to wobble

EUROPE

Toe-difference angle
Fig. 2: Wheelbase

Fig. 3: Track width

Track width
The track width is the distance between the
wheels on one axle, from the centre of one tyre
to the centre of the other, measured when
straight (Fig. 3).
Wheelbase times track width gives the wheel contact area.

The toe-difference angle is the angle by which

the wheel on the inside of the bend is turned
beyond the angle turned by the wheel on the
outside of the bend (Fig. 3, Page 416).
The toe-difference angle is determined at a steering angle of 20 on the wheel on the inside of a
bend.
It is needed when checking the steering trapezoid
for faults, e.g. if the track arms or tie rods are deformed.

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18 Chassis
To optimise a vehicle's handling characteristics in
respect of the self-steering effect, straight-running
stability, directional stability and of the tendency
of the wheels to wobble, the various wheel settings, such as camber, kingpin inclination, kingpin
offset, castor and toe-in, are co-ordinated. The aim
of this is the least possible tyre wear.

Camber
Camber is the angle of the wheel plane in relation to a vertical line at the wheel contact point
at right angles to the vehicle longitudinal axis
(Fig. 1).
Camber angle is given in degrees and minutes. A
distinction can be made between:
Positive camber
Negative camber
Positive camber. The wheel plane tilts outward at
the top. Positive camber produces a cone effect.
The wheel thereby tends to turn (pivot) outward.
The greater the positive camber, the lower the lateral force when cornering.
Negative camber. The wheel plane is tilted inward
at the top. The cone effect causes the wheel to tend
to turn inwards.
Negative camber improves the lateral guidance
when cornering, however it produces increased
tyre wear on the inside of the tread.
Most vehicles have a camber of 60 to + 30 at the
steered front wheels when the wheels are in the
straight-ahead position. Deviations of 30 are permitted.
Generally, a negative camber of 30 to 2 is used
at the rear wheels.

18
Positive

Negative

The kingpin inclination is given in degrees and

minutes. Kingpin inclinations of 5 to 10 are usual.
Kingpin inclination and camber together form an
angle, the size of which remains the same during
compression and rebound. If the kingpin inclination becomes smaller , the camber angle becomes larger and vice-versa.
With positive kingpin offset, the kingpin inclination
causes the vehicle to be raised at the front when
the wheels are turned.
The weight of the vehicle creates a torque, which
causes the wheels to return automatically to the
straight-ahead driving position.
d

d
g

Steering
axis

Steering
axis

R0

Fig. 2: Kingpin inclination

Fig. 3: Positive kingpin offset

Kingpin offset
The kingpin offset R0 is the lever arm on which
the frictional forces which occur between the
tyres and the road act (Fig. 3). It is measured
between the centre of the tyre contact patch
and the intersection of the extended steering
axis with the road surface.
The kingpin inclination and camber together influence the kingpin offset. A distinction can be made
between:
Positive kingpin offset
Zero kingpin offset
Negative kingpin offset
Positive kingpin offset (Fig. 3)

Fig. 1: Positive and negative camber

Kingpin inclination
The kingpin inclination is the angle of the steering axis or kingpin at right angles to the vehicle
longitudinal axis in relation to the vertical from
the road surface (Fig. 2).
The steering axis runs through the upper and lower wheel suspension points, for example.

The extended steering axis intersects with the

road surface beyond the centre of the tyre contact patch towards the inside of the tyre.
If a braking force acts on the tyre, the wheel pivots
outward. If the grip of the wheels is different, the
wheel with better grip is pivoted further outward
and the vehicle pulls to one side. The aim is a small
kingpin offset, to keep the effect of outside forces
on the steering to a minimum.

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18 Chassis
Castor

Negative kingpin offset

The extended steering axis intersects with the
road surface beyond the centre of the tyre contact patch towards the outside of the tyre (Fig. 1).

Steering
axis

Castor is the result of the steering axis or kingpin being angled along the vehicle longitudinal
axis so that it is not perpendicular to the road
surface (Fig. 4).

Negative
castor angle
rearward rake
Steering
axis

Negative
R0 < 0

Fig. 1: Negative kingpin

offset

R0 = 0

Zero
0

Fig. 2: Zero kingpin

offset

Negative kingpin offset is enabled by using dished

wheels and floating-calliper disc brakes, for example.
The braking forces acting on a wheel produce a
torque which pivots the wheel inwards at the front,
since the pivot is located on the outer side of the
wheel. If differing adhesion characteristics occur,
e.g. during braking (one wheel on a dry road surface, the other on an icy one, or in the event of a
puncture), the wheel with the greater grip is pivoted inward more. This creates an automatic countersteer, which counteracts the tendency of a vehicle to pull towards the side of the more heavily
braked wheel (Fig. 3).
Moment from
one-sided
braking force
M
Wheel contact points
Vertical axis

Countersteer moment

R0

MWheel
One-sided
braking force
Pivot

Negative
kingpin offset

Fig. 3: Effect of negative kingpin offset

Zero kingpin offset

The extended steering axis intersects with the
road surface exactly in the centre of the tyre
contact patch (Fig. 2).
Characteristics:
Low action on the steering by interference factors while driving.
The wheel moves when the steering lock is applied while the vehicle is stationary.

Positive
castor angle
Steering point
Steering axis

Direction
of travel

Castor offset

Steering
point
(+) na

na () in mm

Fig. 4: Castor

Castor is usually expressed as an angle in degrees and minutes. Castor may also be given as a
distance na in mm.
Positive castor. The wheel contact point is behind the steering axis intersection with the road
surface.
The wheels are pulled by positive castor. This is
used with rear-wheel drive and helps to stabilise
the steered wheels.
If the castor angle is positive, the wheel on the inside of a bend is lowered and the wheel on the
outside of a bend is raised when the wheels are
turned. This gives a steering aligning torque after
cornering. A negative camber is also produced on
the wheel on the outside of a bend.
Negative castor. The wheel contact point is in
front of the steering axis intersection with the
road surface.
On vehicles with front-wheel drive, zero castor or
small negative castor can be used. This causes a
reduction in the return forces and prevents the
wheels from being turned back to the straightahead position too quickly after cornering.
Castor, kingpin inclination and kingpin offset
jointly influence the return forces on the turned
wheels. They have a stabilising effect on the
steering.

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18 Chassis

18.4 Computerised axle alignment

For computer axle alignment, the wheel position dimensions of the motor vehicle are electronically detected and processed by a computer using measurement software.

The geometrical driving axis is automatically

used by the system as the reference axis for
computer axle alignment.
The geometrical driving axis is formed by the position of the rear wheels (Fig. 1).

The measurement is made, e.g. by 8 pickups

(Fig. 1), which relay the signals to the computer.
The computer processes the data received into
digital display values which are output on the display screen or on the computer. The individual
measured variables can be given to an accuracy of
5 to 10.

Display screen
Single wheel toe,
front axle

Computer

+003

Keyboard
Remote control

Printer

Measurement process
Position the vehicle on a horizontal surface, e.g.
a measuring platform.
Check the tyre wear profile, tyre and rim size,
tyre pressure, condition of the tie-rod joints,
wheel bearings and steering pins.

Pickup

Pickup

Position the front wheels on rotating underplates, the rear wheels on sliding underplates.
Compress the vehicle springs.

Secure the angle sensor to the wheels using

clamping fixtures.

Rotating
underplate

Axis of symmetry

Establish communication between the angle

sensor and the computer.

Rotating
underplate

Geometrical
driving axes

Pickup

Enter the vehicle data into the computer.

Pickup

Run rim run-out compensation, if necessary, by

turning the angle sensor.
Perform the measuring process for the individual wheel setting values and adjust if necessary.
After adjustment work, perform a reference dimension check.

18

5
7

Sliding underplate

Print out the result report.

Fig. 1: Computer axle alignment

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What functions does the steering have?

10 What do positive and negative camber mean?

2 Describe the trajectory of the front wheels on a vehicle with Ackermann steering when cornering.

11 Explain the term kingpin inclination.

3 What makes up the steering trapezoid?

12 What effect does kingpin inclination have on the

vehicle when the front wheels are turned?

4 What functions does the steering trapezoid have?

13 Explain the term kingpin offset.

5 What functions does the steering linkage have?

7 What does the term toe-difference angle mean?

14 What effect does negative kingpin offset have on

the front wheels under braking with a one-sided
braking force?

8 Where is the steering axis of a wheel?

15 How is the toe-difference angle measured?

9 Which different wheel settings are there?

16 Describe an alignment process.

6 Explain the terms toe-in and camber.

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18 Chassis

The transmission ratio in the steering gear must

be designed such that the maximum force at the
steering wheel, e.g. 200 N for vehicle category M3,
is not exceeded.
The transmission ratio is up to i = 19 on passenger
cars, up to around i = 36 on commercial vehicles.
Nowadays, rack-and-pinion steering gear (Fig. 1) is
used on almost all passenger cars, whereas commercial vehicles generally use recirculating-ball
steering gear.

Rack-and-pinion steering gear (mechanical)

Structure. A pinion fitted in the steering-gear housing sits on the steering spindle and engages with
the rack by way of helical teeth. The rack is guided
in bushes and continuously pressed against the
pinion by a thrust member and disc springs to
eliminate play (Fig. 1).

Rubber bellows
Pinion
Connection,
steering spindle

Tie rod

Rack

Thrust member

Fig. 1: Mechanical rack-and-pinion steering gear

Operating principle. When the steering wheel is

turned, the rack is displaced axially by the rotary
motion of the pinion and pivots the wheels via the
tie rods, tie-rod arms and steering knuckles.
Rack-and-pinion steering gear features direct
transmission ratio, easy return and flat design.
Constant transmission ratio. The tooth pitch is the
same over the whole rack.
Variable transmission ratio. On mechanical steering gear without hydraulic assistance, the transmission ratio is designed such that the steering in
the range of smaller deflections (central range) has
a more direct effect than with larger deflections in
the outer range (Fig. 2).

P1

Outer range
indirect

d2

Functions:
Conversion of the rotary motion of the steering
wheel into displacement of the rack and/or moving the pitman arm.
Amplification (gearing up) of the torque generated by hand at the steering wheel.

d1

18.5 Steering gear

P2

Middle range
direct

Outer range
indirect

Fig. 2: Variable transmission ratio on mechanical rackand-pinion steering gear

Advantages of the variable transmission ratio:

More direct steering for fast straight-ahead driving.
Low amount of effort required for large steering angles, e.g. when manoeuvring into a parking space.

18.6 Steering systems

A distinction is drawn between steering gear with
hydraulic assistance, e.g. rack-and-pinion steering and recirculating-ball power steering,
electro-hydraulic assistance (servo effect), e.g.
Servotronic and active steering, and
electrical assistance, e.g. Servolectric and active
steering.

18.6.1 Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering

Structure (Fig. 1, Page 422).This consists of:
Mechanical rack-and-pinion steering gear
Hydraulic working cylinders with working
plungers
Rotary slide as control valve
Oil pump, pressure-limiting valve, oil reservoir
The rack is driven by the pinion, the drive applied to
the tie rods is designed on both ends as a side output.
The housing for the rack constitutes the working
cylinder, which is divided into two working chambers by a plunger.
Rotary slide valves (Fig. 1, Page 422) or rotating
plunger valves are used as control valves.
The torsion bar is connected by 2 pins on one end
with the control bushing and the drive pinion, at
the other end it has a rigid connection to the steering spindle and the rotary slide valve.
The rotary slide valve is composed of the rotating
slide and the control bushing. They have control
grooves on their lateral surfaces. The grooves on
the control bushing open into housing flutes which
lead to the two ram chambers, to the vane pump
and to the oil reservoir.

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18 Chassis
Axial groove

Inlet slot

Rotary slide

Torsion bar

Oil reservoir Oil pump

Return flow
Control
bushing

Port
Supply

Pin

Control bushing
Torsion bar

Radial grooves
Rotary slide

Drive pinion

Working plunger

Working cylinder

Pin

Rack

Fig. 1: Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering with rotary slide valve steering right

18

Operating principle. When the steering wheel is

turned, the steering force applied manually is
transferred via the torsion bar to the drive pinion.
At the same time, the torsion bar is stressed in
proportion to the counterforce and twisted slightly.
This causes the rotary slide to turn in relation to
the control bushing surrounding it. This changes
the positions of the control grooves in relation to
one another. The inlet slots for the pressure oil
supply are opened. The pressure oil coming from
the oil pump flows through the inlet slots into the
lower radial groove of the control bushing and is
channelled into the relevant ram chamber.
The fluid pressure acts on either the right-hand or
the left-hand side of the working plunger and generates the hydraulic assisting force here. It acts in
addition to the steering force transferred mechanically from the pinion to the rack.
If the steering wheel is not turned any further, the
torsion bar and rotary slide valve return to the
neutral position. The ports to the ram chambers
are closed, the ports for the return flow are
opened.
The oil flows from the oil pump via the control
valve back to the supply reservoir.

At low driving speeds, the full assisting force of

the hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering takes effect.
The hydraulic assisting force is reduced as driving
speed increases.
Structure (Fig. 2). Servotronic consists of:
Electronic speedometer
ECU
Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering Oil reservoir
Electro-hydraulic converter
Oil pump

Oil reservoir

Pressure-oil
pump
Speedometer
+

ECU

--

Hydraulic rack-andElectrohydraulic converter

pinion steering

18.6.2 Servotronic electro-hydraulic

power steering
Servotronic is an electronically controlled rackand-pinion steering system in which the hydraulic assisting forces are influenced by the
driving speed.

Fig. 2: Servotronic with hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering

Operating principle. At speeds below 20 km/h the

solenoid valve controlled by the ECU remains
closed.
As the speed increases, the solenoid valve is gradually opened.

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18 Chassis
Steering right at low speed.
If the steering spindle is turned clockwise, right
valve plunger (6) is pushed down by the torsion
bar and the lever fitted to it. The pressure oil flows
into ram chamber (12), acts on the working
plunger, thereby assisting the steering force.
At the same time, the oil flows through open nonreturn valve (8) into chambers (4) and (5).
Steering right at high speed. The solenoid valve is
fully open. The pressure oil flows from ram chamber (12) via open non-return valve (8), throttle (10)
and the open solenoid valve to the return flow.
As a result of the oil flowing in through non-return
valve (8) and the throttle effect of throttle (10), the
pressure in chamber (4) is greater than in chamber
(5). This pushes the lever of plunger (6) upwards
and produces a reaction torque on the torsion bar
and steering spindle.
The steering power assistance thus decreases, the
driver must apply more steering force to the steering wheel, the steering is more direct.
Torsion bar

sured via a speed sensor. The two signals are fed

to the ECU. The ECU calculates the torque required
and its force-transfer direction using stored program maps and sends the relevant output signals
to the electric motor. The latter generates an assisting torque which is transformed by a worm-gear
pair and transmitted via the steering spindle to the
rack-and-pinion steering gear.
ECU

Torque sensor

Worm-gear
pair

Speedometer
Electric
motor

Rack

Pinion
ECU
Torque sensor

Pressure oil

Lever
Speedometer

Rack-and-pinion steering gear

Fig. 2: Servolectric electric power steering

4
km/h

11

Plunger
rod
Working
plunger

10

Solenoid
12
valve

18.6.4 Active steering

Active steering allows a steering movement to
be made without any driver input.

ECU

Fig. 1: Servotronic hydraulic system steering right and

v < 20 km/h

This system primarily consists of:

Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering
Electric motor
Planetary gearbox
ECU
Sensors
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Name the functions of a steering gear.

18.6.3 Electric power steering

(Servolectric)
With Servolectric (Fig. 2), the assisting force is
generated by an electronically controlled electric motor. The electric motor is only switched
on when required.
Operating principle.The steering torque applied by
the driver is measured via a torsion rod with a
torque sensor and in addition the speed is mea-

2 What is a variable transmission ratio on a rackand-pinion steering gear?

3 What are the different types of steering systems?
4 How is a hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering unit
constructed?
5 Describe the operating principle of hydraulic rackand-pinion steering.
6 How is Servotronic electro-hydraulic power steering constructed?
7 How is Servotronic electro-hydraulic power steering distinguished from Servolectric electric power steering?

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18.7 Wheel suspension

Wheel suspensions have the task of forming a
connection between the vehicle body and the
wheels. They must absorb high static forces
(load) and dynamic forces (motive, braking and
lateral forces).
The wheel geometry should change little or in the
desired manner when the springs on the axles are
compressed, to achieve a high degree of driving
safety and comfort with low tyre wear. A distinction is drawn between
rigid axles
independent suspension
semi-rigid axles

The use of several trailing arms can reduce diving

under braking and rear squatting under acceleration.
Rigid axle with separate drive (De Dion axle).To reduce the large unsprung masses of the driven
axle, the final-drive unit is separated from the axle
and is fitted to the bodywork. Power is transmitted
via propeller shafts, each having two homokinetic
joints with additional length compensation. The
rigid rear-axle tube twisted into a U-shape can be
laterally guided by:
Two transverse struts (Fig. 2)
A Watt linkage
A Panhard rod

Rigid axles

Rear-axle tube

Body mounting

The two wheels are connected to each other by a

rigid axle and sprung against the body.
On rigid axles, there is no change in the toe-in
or camber during the compression and rebound of a wheel, which reduces tyre friction.
When the vehicle is driven over an obstacle on one
side, the whole axle is tilted and the camber of the
wheels is changed.

18

Rigid axle with integrated drive.The axle is usually

designed as housing for the final-drive unit with
differential and the axle shafts. Since the housing
is generally made from cast steel, this results in
relatively large unsprung masses, which reduce
driving smoothness and driving safety. On commercial vehicles, it is easiest to secure to the frame
or to the body using the leaf springs. In addition to
the suspension, these can also take over wheel
guidance in a longitudinal or lateral direction.
When helical springs or air springs are used
trailing arms transfer the wheel forces in a longitudinal direction.
transverse struts (panhard rod) transfer the lateral
forces (Fig. 1).
Upper trailing arm

Final drive
Transverse strut

Transverse strut

Fig. 2: De Dion axle

Rigid axle as a steering axle. This usually consists

of quenched forging with a I-shaped cross section.
To ensure that the engine has sufficient room, the
axle is bent downward (Fig. 3). As a mounting for
the steering knuckle, a stub stub axle or a fork
fork axle is forged on (Fig. 4).

Stub
axle

Panhard rod
Leaf spring

Front axle

Fig. 3: Rigid axle as a steering axle

Lower trailing arm

Stub

Fig. 1: Rigid axle with integrated drive

Fig. 4: Stub axle, fork axle

Fork

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18 Chassis

Semi-rigid axles
On semi-rigid axles, the wheels are fixed rigidly
to each other by axle supports. The wheels can
move independently of each other to a certain
extent due to the elasticity of the axle supports.
On vehicles with front-wheel drive, the use of semirigid axles is preferred, the rear axle can be of simple
design so that the unsprung masses remain light.
A semi-rigid axle acts like a rigid axle if both
wheels are compressed at the same time and
like independent wheel suspension if compressed at different times.
Torsion-beam axle. The rear wheels are suspended
from the trailing arms, which are welded to a
cross-member made of spring steel (Fig. 1). The
cross-member itself is screwed on to the body
with rubber-metal bearings. If both wheels compress to the same extent, e.g. under load, the
whole axle housing is pivoted evenly in the rubber-metal bearings. If only one wheel spring is
compressed, the cross-member becomes twisted
in itself and acts like an anti-roll bar. Only small toe
and camber changes occur.

Wheel suspension on double-wishbone axles. Two

control arms, one on top of the other are each connected via a ball joint to the steering knuckle. Camber and toe changes can be controlled during operation by the length of the individual suspension
arms.
Control arms are usually of the wishbone type, to
increase rigidity in the direction of travel. They are
secured to the chassis by two bearings.
Wheel suspension on unequal-length control arms
(trapezium shape, Fig. 2). The upper control arm is
always shorter than the lower one. This results in a
negative camber and little toe change during compression and rebound, which improves stability
when cornering.
Wheel suspension on equal-length control arms
(parallelogram shape). The camber does not
change during compression and rebound, however there is a toe change.
Subframe

Anti-roll bar

Trailing arm

Triangular control arm

Fig. 2: Wheel suspension on double-wishbone axles

Bearing block
Cross-member

Fig. 1: Torsion-beam axle

Independent suspension

Wheel suspension with suspension strut and control arm (McPherson axle). The McPherson axle
(Fig. 3) developed from the double wishbone axle.
The upper control arm was replaced by a vibration-damper pipe, to which a steering knuckle is attached. The plunger rod of the damper is secured
to the vehicle body in an elastic rubber bearing.
There is a helical spring between this attachment
point and the spring seat on the damper pipe. Due
to the large braking, acceleration and lateral
forces, the plunger rod and plunger rod guide are

Independent suspension allows the mass of the

unsprung parts to be kept small. The compression and rebound of a wheel has no influence
on the other wheels.

McPherson suspension strut

Anti-roll bar

The following are used for the front-wheel suspension:

Double-wishbone axles
Multiple suspension arms
McPherson suspension strut with control arm
The rear wheels are predominantly suspended on:
Trailing arms
Semi-trailing arms
Multiple suspension arms

Control arm

Fig. 3: McPherson axle

18

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18 Chassis
of a particularly sturdy design. The rubber bearing
must absorb large axial forces and allow large angles of twist at the steering axles. The wheel housing is strengthened at the upper attachment point.
Wheel suspension on trailing arms. This is particularly suitable for vehicles with front-wheel drive,
since the boot floor between the rear wheels can
be lower. If the suspension rotational axis is lying
horizontal, the track width, toe-in and camber do
not change during compression and rebound.
Subframe (Fig. 1). To keep noises and vibrations
away from the body more adequately, suspension
arms are not attached directly to the body, but are
attached to a subframe. This consists of 2 retainer
arms which are connected to a horizontal tube. It is
bolted to the body at 4 rubber bearings, with the
front rubber bearings designed as hydro mounts.
The two trailing arms are attached to the subframe
by taper roller bearings. To minimise toe changes
caused by the lateral forces created during cornering, the trailing arm has a tension bolt. These two
together form a four-bar linkage.

The toe and camber changes during compression

and rebound are dependent on the inclined position and slope of the semi-trailing arm. If angles
and are increased, the wheels adopt greater negative camber during compression, which increases
the lateral force when cornering.
With this type of wheel suspension, the drive
shafts change length during compression and rebound, which necessitates 2 slip joints on each
side each with length compensation.
Anti-roll bar
Miniblock spring

Subframe

Semi-trailing arm

Fig. 3: Rear-wheel suspension on semi-trailing arms

Subframe

Multiple suspension arm axles. All existing wheel

suspensions permit undesirable steering movements while the vehicle is in motion due to the
elastic suspension mounting on the body, subframe or wheel carrier. Steering movements occur
when forces act on the wheel and move it out of
the direction of travel by a steering angle towards
toe-in or toe-out. This can cause the vehicle to
change course significantly, e.g. if there is a crosswind.

Anti-roll bar
Hydro mount
Four-bar linkage

Tension bolt
Trailing arm

Tension bolt

Type and effect of forces on the wheels:

Fig. 1: Wheel suspension on trailing arm

18

Wheel suspension on semi-trailing arms. Semitrailing link axles (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) consist of two
wishbones, on which the rotational axis of the two
mounting bearings runs diagonally to the transversal axis of the vehicle ( = 10 to 20) and horizontally or slightly tilted towards the centre of the
vehicle ().

Top view

View from rear

Fig. 2: Tilt angle on semi-trailing arms

Motive forces act in the centre of the wheel

along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and
turn the wheel in the toe-in direction.
Braking forces act in the centre of the tyre contact area along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and turn the wheel in the toe-out direction.
Lateral forces act just behind the centre of the
tyre contact area at right angles to the vehicle
longitudinal axis. When cornering, the wheel on
the outside of a bend is steered into the toe-out
direction, which reduces cornering safety. When
cornering sharply, the tread of the tyre is deformed by the rolling movement of the body
and by the lateral force which reduces the tyre's
reserves of adhesion.
Vertical forces act in the direction of the vehicle
vertical axis. These occur if the road surface is
uneven or if the vehicle is loaded and cause
small toe and camber changes.

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18 Chassis
Elastic steering faults. Fig. 1 shows the steering
angle created by the motive force. While the rear
rod control arm is tensioned and elongates slightly
due to the elastic suspension, the front rod control
arm is placed under pressure, leading to a slight
contraction. The wheel is turned out of the direction of travel.
Direction of travel

Front rod
control arm

Steering
angle

Compression
a

a = Movement in
resilient bearing
a
Tension

Motive
force
a

Resilient
bearing

The intersection point of the suspension-arm centre line lies outside the wheel midplane, so that the
wheel, for example by the action of motive forces,
steers exactly as far outwards (M2) as is steered inwards by the elastic fault (M1).
Kinematics of the multilink rear suspension. The
critical factors for drivability are primarily the toe-in
and camber changes, since the self-steering effect
of the vehicle is determined by these. If there are
changes in the toe angle, a lateral force is created
which disrupts the straight-running stability. In
Fig. 3 it is possible to see that the toe-angle change
during compression or rebound is almost zero.
Camber changes in the middle zone of the corner
(straight-ahead travel) should be as small as possible, in order not to create large lateral forces. A
negative camber arises from compression during
cornering, which improves lateral guidance.

Rear rod
control arm

80
mm
60
40

Fig.1: Generation of a steering angle

Multilink rear suspension. This compensates for

elastic steering faults. It was developed from the
twin-control-arm axle with anti-roll bar. The suspension arms which were originally rigidly coupled were
broken down into 5 individual beam suspension
arms, which lie in exactly fixed position in relation to
each other in space and guide the wheel (Fig. 2).

M1
M2

Wheel axis

Fig. 2: Multilink rear suspension

20
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
20
Toe-out
40
60

Toe-angle
change

80
mm
60

Compression

40

0.2 0.4 () 0.8

20
4

Toe-in
Rebound

20

Camber
change
Positive
2 () 4

40
Negative 60

80

80

Fig. 3: Changes in toe angle and camber

Roll centre (instantaneous centre).This is the point

about which the body, connected to the chassis by
springs, tilts under the action of a lateral force. Instantaneous means that this point is only located
in this position for a moment.
The higher the roll centre, the less distance to the
centre of gravity of the vehicle, i.e. the lever arm
on which the centrifugal force acts becomes smaller, the lateral tilt is reduced. However, the greater
toe-width changes are a disadvantage as they
cause uneven straight-running stability. The connecting line through the roll centres of the front
and rear axles gives the roll axis. Its distance to the
centre of gravity determines the lateral tilt of the
body.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
rigid axles?

How is a McPherson axle constructed?

Which forces act on the wheel when the vehicle

is in motion and how does it react to them?

What are semi-trailing arms?

2 What is a semi-rigid axle?

3 Name the most important types of independent
suspension.
4 What advantage does the wheel suspension on a
double-wishbone axle have?
5 What is an elastic steering fault?
6 What is a subframe?

10 How is a multilink rear suspension constructed

and what advantages does it have?
11 What is the roll centre?
12 How does a high roll centre affect the tilt of the
body?

18

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18 Chassis

18.8 Suspension
18.8.1 Function of the suspension
Due to the unevenness of a road surface, the
wheels of a vehicle must perform movements up
and down in addition to their rotational motion.
When the vehicle is being driven fast, these movements occur within a very short space of time,
generating accelerations and decelerations perpendicular to the road surface which are a multiple
of acceleration due to gravity. This causes significant, impulsive forces to act on the vehicle, which
are greater if the inertia is greater.
The suspension works together with the damping to absorb jolts from the road and to convert
them into vibrations.
Suspension and damping are decisive for
driving smoothness. The vibration of the body
moderates the uncomfortable impacts which
could cause injury to the occupants and fragile
loads are protected.
driving safety. If the road surface is very uneven, contact with the surface may be lost; if
wheels are up in the air, they cannot transmit
any forces, e.g. motive forces, braking forces.
cornering ability. When the vehicle is cornering
at high speeds, the low wheel grip on the
wheels on the inside of a bend causes a reduction in the lateral force. To prevent the vehicle
sliding out of a bend, the suspension must have
shock absorbers and an anti-roll bar to ensure
constant grip of the wheels.
The springs are fitted between the wheel suspension and the body. The action of the springs is supported by the tyres. An additional suspension,
which is only of benefit to the occupants, however,
is the seat suspension (Fig. 1).

18.8.2 Operating principle

of the suspension
Due to the suspension, the motor vehicle becomes
a vibratory structure with its own vibration frequency defined by the vehicle weight and by the
spring (body-vibration frequency).
In addition to the jolts from rough road surface,
other forces also act on the vehicle (motive forces,
braking forces, centrifugal forces). Movements and
vibrations can thus occur along the 3 spatial axes
(Fig. 2).
Long
it

Vertical axis

Motive force

udin
al
axis

is
Transversal ax

Drifting

Jerkin

Pitching
Lateral force

Tilting
Rolling

Braking force

Wobbling

Skidding
Yawing
Lifting
Lowering

Fig. 2: Types of vibration acting on the motor vehicle

Vibrations
If the wheel of a motor vehicle travels over an obstacle, both the body and the wheel start to vibrate. The upwards movement of the wheel causes
the helical spring to be compressed, the spring
force accelerates the body upwards. The spring
force generated when the spring expands slows
the body down again, the upper reversing point is
reached. The body is accelerated downwards by
the weight, beyond the rest position. The spring is
compressed (tightened), the resulting spring force
slows the movement of the body down to the lower reversing point.
The travel from the upper to the lower reversing point of a vibration is known as the amplitude of oscillation.

18

Amplitude of oscillation

This motion sequence is repeated until the kinetic

energy is converted into heat by spring and air friction (Fig. 3).
Fig. 1: Suspension in a passenger car

Lateral suspension. In addition to the vertical jolts

from rough road surface, slight lateral jolts also
occur. The suspension must therefore also be effective in this direction. In addition, lateral suspension can be provided in part by the tyres and by
the rubber bearings, which serve to secure and
guide the wheel suspension components.

Fig. 3: Damped vibration

0
Time

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18 Chassis
Resonance. The vibration is pitched if the body is
jolted at the frequency of natural oscillation, e.g.
when driving over rough roads, where the obstacles are equal distances apart one after the other
(Fig. 1).

2,500
N
2,000
F 1,500
1,000

Amplitude of
oscillation

500
0
0

0.05

0.10

0.15 m 0.20
s

Fig. 3: Progressive spring characteristic

Fig. 1: Pitched vibration

Frequency. This is the number of vibrations per

second. Since a body does not vibrate very quickly,
the number of vibrations is also given per minute
(vibration frequency, body-vibration frequency).
A large mass and soft springs result in a low
frequency (vibration frequency) and a large
spring travel.
Spring rate. This indicates the properties of the
spring (hard, soft). To check or compare springs, a
load is applied to them and the resulting compression is measured. The ratio of force F to travel l is
referred to as the spring rate c in N/m.
Spring characteristics. If the spring rate is the
same over the whole range of spring (constant), as
for a normal helical spring, for example, the spring
has a linear characteristic (Fig. 2).

500
F

=2
5,0
0
Ha
rd
c

F 1,500
1,000

0N
/m

2,500
N
2,000

0
0

c
Soft

0.05

00
= 7,5

N/m

0.10

0.15 m 0.20
s

Fig. 2: Linear spring characteristics

If the spring rate increases as the range of spring

increases, e.g. with multi-leaf springs or conical
helical springs, the characteristic is plotted as a
curve. The spring has a progressive characteristic
(Fig. 3).

Sprung masses, unsprung masses

On motor vehicles, a distinction is drawn between
sprung masses (body with load) and unsprung
masses (wheels with drum or disc brakes, parts of

the wheel suspension). These different masses are

connected (coupled) to one another by the
springs. This causes feedback to one another, so
that the two masses vibrate in different frequency
ranges independently of each other (Fig. 4). If a vibration damper (shock absorber) is fitted between
the two masses, the amplitude of oscillation becomes smaller, the vibration dies out more quickly.

Sprung mass

Unsprung mass

Fig. 4: Motion sequence when driving over an uneven

road surface

If a vehicle is driven over a hump at high speed,

the body initially remains balanced due to the
large mass. The wheel, with its small mass in relation to the body, is accelerated upwards very
rapidly, and in doing so it compresses the spring.
Only the force corresponding to this spring travel
is acting on the body.
On the other side of the hump, the wheel is accelerated downwards by the preloaded spring. Only
the load relief of the spring corresponding to the
bump acts on the body.
If the force from the wheel is greater than the initial tension of the spring, the wheel loses adhesion
on the road surface for a short time, as the initial
spring tension is insufficient to move the wheel
downwards quickly enough.
To achieve good driving safety and the best
possible comfort, the unsprung mass should be
as small as possible.

18

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18 Chassis

Body vibration frequencies

These can be determined by the vibration at the
front or rear of the vehicle. A complete vibration
consists of the spring compression and rebound
process. The number of vibrations per minute then
gives the body-vibration frequency. Vibration
dampers do not control the vibration frequency, the
amplitude of oscillation is downrated by the greater
resistance. In contrast, the mass plays a large part.
The heavier the vehicle or the larger the payload,
the lower the vibration frequencies become.
Soft suspension: 60 vibrations per minute or lower
can cause nausea. This can be rectified by stronger
damping.
Hard suspension: 90 vibrations per minute or lower jar the spine. Hard springs are often required for
high payloads on the rear axle, however, whereby
a more moderate driving smoothness when unladen is achieved. This applies particularly to small
vehicles, which must be equipped with sustainable, i.e. hard, springs due to the unfavourable ratio of net weight to maximum load.

18.8.3 Types of springs

18.8.3.1 Steel springs
Most motor vehicles are fitted with steel springs.
These may be:
Leaf springs
Helical springs
Torsion-bar springs
Anti-roll bars

Helical springs with a progressive characteristic

must be fitted to allow a greater payload and adequate comfort when the vehicle is unladen. This
can be achieved with the following:
Different sizes of the internal diameter, e.g. taper
shape, barrel shape, waist shape
Different wire diameters (Fig. 1)

Normal spring Barrel shape Taper shape Waist shape

Different wire diameter

at either end

Barrel shape with different

wire diameter

Fig. 1: Types of helical springs

The barrel-shaped miniblock spring has the advantage over the cylindrical helical spring that the
spring coils cannot touch when the spring is compressed while the vehicle is in motion because
each coil lies inside the larger ones forming a spiral (Fig. 2). This means that the spring can be
shorter without sacrificing a long spring range for
a high load-carrying capacity. The miniblock spring
incorporates all the options for a progressive
spring.

The spring effect is caused by the elastic deformation of spring steel (e.g. chrome-vanadium spring
steel) up to the limit of elasticity. The spring characteristic is linear, but the design of the spring can
cause it to be progressive.

18

Leaf springs
These have a minor role in passenger cars. However, in heavy vehicles, they are the most commonly used type of spring (see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology).
Helical springs
These are primarily used as compression springs
in passenger cars.
Advantages: Low weight, low space requirements
Disadvantages: Almost no damping, no transmission of wheel forces (longitudinal
and transverse forces).
Helical springs usually have a linear spring characteristic. Soft helical springs differ from hard helical
springs in that they have a:
Smaller wire diameter
Larger spring internal diameter
More loosely wound coil

Fig. 2: Miniblock spring

Helical springs cannot transfer wheel guidance

forces.
They are therefore only used in axle designs in
which the motive, braking and lateral forces are
transferred by other elements (control arm, trailing
arm, McPherson-suspension strut). Vibration
dampers are nowadays only rarely used inside the
helical spring (Fig. 2) because fitting and removal
are very time consuming.

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18 Chassis
Torsion-bar spring
A torsion-bar spring is a rod made of spring steel
(Fig. 1) which is caused to twist by a lever on which
the wheel is mounted.
Torsion bar

This counteracts the excessive rolling action (leaning to one side) of the body when the vehicle is
cornering. The anti-roll bar has no effect if both
wheels are compressed at the same time.

Frame

18.8.3.2 Rubber spring

Natural and synthetic rubber are very elastic and
have high internal damping characteristics. Many
different types of rubber springs are manufactured
(Fig. 3) but are not actually used as vehicle springs.
The high internal damping and elasticity of the
rubber is used to intercept high-frequency vibrations and as noise insulation. To this end, the actual vehicle springs or mountings, e.g. the control
arm, are mounted in rubber cushions. This also improves the transverse suspension.

Spring strut
(lever)

Fig. 1: Torsion-bar suspension

Torsion bars are mostly round rods, square bars

and packages of flat bars. They may be arranged
longitudinally or transversely. A longitudinal
arrangement allows greater length and therefore a
greater torsion angle. These springs are softer and
have a longer travel.
Torsion bars cannot be subjected to bending. They
are therefore often fitted in a tube which provides
support against bending and which also provides
protection.
The heads are usually interlocked. This toothed interlocking allows the initial tension to be changed
and to be adjusted evenly on all wheels.
Anti-roll bar
This is a suspension element which helps to improve the roadholding. U-shape torsion bars are
usually used (Fig. 2).
Triangular control arm

Shockabsorber
strut

Helical spring

Natural rubber

Working
chamber
Bearing spring
a

Support tube

Perforated plate
Compensating
chamber

Fig. 3: Rubber spring

Fig. 4: Hydro mount

Hydraulically damped elastomer mountings (hydro mount, Fig. 4) are used instead of simple rubber springs to prevent vibrations of various frequencies from being transferred from the engine
to the body. These consist of an elastic bearing
spring made from natural rubber, which forms the
mechanical connection between the engine and
the body, and a hydraulic section, which consists
of a working chamber and a compensating chamber and which is filled with hydraulic fluid. A perforated plate between the two chambers impedes
the flow of fluid into the compensating chamber
and damps any vibrations that have been transferred here (see also Chapter Mechanical Engine
Components and Engine suspension).

18.8.3.3 Gas-filled spring

Anti-roll bar

A gas-filled spring exploits the elastic properties of

an enclosed volume of gas (air or nitrogen) for the
purposes of suspension.

Fig. 2: Anti-roll bar

The centre section of the anti-roll bar is able to rotate in its mounting on the body and the two links
are attached to the wheel suspension, e.g. control
arms, via rubber elements.
When a wheel is lifted (compression), the twisting
action of the anti-roll bar also raises the other
wheel and lowers it when the wheel is lowered.

Air spring
These are the most commonly used, but they require a pressure generating system and are therefore primarily used in buses and commercial vehicles which already have one of these for the brakes
(see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology).
The air spring has a progressive characteristic and
has the advantage that the travel of the spring can

18

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18 Chassis
be adjusted to the load by altering the air pressure.
The height of the load area or entrance can also be
set or maintained using level control.
On passenger cars, the body can be raised and
lowered according to the speed of the vehicle. The
angle of the body when cornering can be considerably reduced by control interventions.
To prevent pressure loss, the enclosed volume of
air is sealed in fixed rubber bellows. This may be
roll bellows or a gaiter seal (Fig. 1).

The valves between the working cylinder and the

spring ball throttle the flow of fluid in both directions and act like a vibration damper.
Gas chamber

Gas

Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Pressureoil port

Oil
chamber

Oil

Valves Cylinder
Plunger
rod

Plunger

Fig. 3: Hydro-pneumatic suspension elements

Air only has a low level of internal damping. This

means that vibration dampers must also be fitted
or a suspension strut used which consists of a
combination of rubber bellows and a gas-pressure
shock absorber.
Air springs cannot transfer wheel forces and they
are therefore fitted between suspension arms or
axles, e.g. torsion-beam rear axles (Fig. 2), and the
body.
Roll bellows

Trailing arm

Cross-member

Fig. 2: Torsion-beam rear axle with roll bellows

18

Hydro-pneumatic spring
In principle, a hydro-pneumatic spring (Fig. 3) is a
gas-filled spring combined with a working cylinder. It has the effect of both suspension and a
shock absorber. A constant volume of gas (usually
nitrogen) in a spring ball is compressed to a
greater or lesser extent by pumping in or releasing
hydraulic fluid. The gas and fluid are separated by
a diaphragm. Gas and fluid are pressurised equally. The pressure is generated by a high-pressure
pump and is approximately 180 bar.
Depending on the space available, the spring ball
may be on the side next to the working cylinder or
it may be completely separate from it.

Level control. The ground clearance of the body

can be adjusted, e.g. for travelling over rough
ground or for changing a wheel, using a manually
operated level-control valve. The level can be controlled automatically for all load conditions by a
linkage which is fixed to the trailing arm and which
acts on the ride-height controller plunger (Fig. 4). If
the vehicle is more heavily laden, the rear sinks
and the plunger rod in the cylinder moves in. At
the same time, the plunger in the ride-height controller is moved by the trailing arm and linkage,
thereby allowing the pressure oil to flow in. The
plunger rod in the cylinder moves out until the old
level is reached and the flow of fluid into the rideheight controller is shut off.
The increase in load causes an increase in the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder and a simultaneous pressure increase in the nitrogen. The springs
become harder and, because the vibration frequency of the body also increases, the suspension
characteristics become more uncomfortable.
Fitting a third spring ball per axle increases the
volume of gas and therefore the volume of the
spring; this improves the comfort characteristics of
the chassis when driving in a straight line.
Return flow

Ride-height controller
G

Pressureoil supply
Unloaded

Fig. 1: Roll bellows and gaiter seal

All the suspension elements are interconnected by

a network of lines. The hydraulic cylinder plunger
rod is fixed to the trailing arm or the wheel-suspension control arm.

Trailing
arm

Fig. 4: Hydro-pneumatic suspension

Loaded

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18 Chassis

Hydractive chassis
Structure. Additional components connect the hydropneumatic suspension system to a chassis which is
able to ...
reduce the lateral roll of the body when cornering.
counteract diving of the front of the vehicle under braking and squatting of the rear of the vehicle under acceleration.
change the ride comfort between soft and hard,
regardless of whether comfort or sports tuning
is selected.
The following additional components are required
(Fig. 1):
2 anti-roll bars, each with 2 spring cylinders, for the
front and rear axles
A centre spring ball with hardness controller for
both the front and rear axle
Hydraulic block
Height sensors for the front and rear axle
Steering angle, accelerator-pedal and brake-pedal
sensors
Problematic driving situations can occur when the vehicle corners or swerves suddenly. The angle of the body
means that the load on the wheels on the inside of the
bend is reduced so that smaller forces are transferred to
the road surface. This can result in the vehicle breaking
away at the rear or rolling. The cornering speed and the
distance of the rolling axis from the vehicle's centre of
gravity determine the lateral roll of the body.
The angle can be reduced by fitting anti-roll bars. If
the wheels are compressed to a differing extent, the

anti-roll bars are twisted, they act as additional torsion-bar springs and the suspension becomes generally harder and more uncomfortable.
Structure. On a hydractive chassis, the front spring
cylinders are mounted vertically and attached to the
anti-roll bar via coupling rods, the rear spring cylinders are mounted horizontally. Depending on the hydraulic pressure supplied in the spring cylinders, additional forces may act on the anti-roll bar and cause
the spring action to be too hard.
There is a third spring ball and a height sensor between the spring cylinders on each axle. Spring
movements cause the anti-roll bar to twist, which the
height sensor reports to the ECU as a change of body
attitude.
All the spring cylinders and spring balls are interconnected via the hydraulic block.
Hydraulic block. This consists of the hydraulic pump
with electric motor, 4 solenoid valves and the ECU.
The spring balls are supplied with hydraulic fluid by
the hydraulic pump. The operating pressure of the
system is between 80 bar and 140 bar. Two solenoid
valves on both the front and rear axle control the
supply and return flow of the hydraulic fluid. This
means that the front end of the vehicle can be raised
or lowered independently of the rear end and vice
versa.
Operating principle of the hydractive chassis. By
selecting the Comfort or Sport drive program,
the driver can choose between a soft or hard suspension setting.

Steering-angle sensor

Rear spring cylinder

Front spring cylinder

with coupling rods

18

Front ride-height
sensor

Rear ride-height sensor

Rear centre spring ball
with hardness controller
Hydraulic
block
ECU

Fig. 1: Hydractive chassis components and system

Accelerator-pedal and
brake-pedal sensors
Front centre spring ball with hardness controller
Hydraulic lines

Electric cables

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18 Chassis
Depending on the driving conditions and driving
style (e.g. rapid cornering), the ECU may also make
the suspension hard in the Comfort drive program.
Comfort drive program. The three spring balls
on each axle are interconnected. When the suspension is compressed, the spring-cylinder plunger
rod moves in and pushes out the hydraulic oil,
which can flow into the spring balls, press against
the diaphragms and compress the nitrogen cushion. The 3rd spring ball provides an additional gas
cushion which allows a softer spring action (Fig. 1).

The suspension becomes harder and the tilt angle

of the body is reduced. If this measure were not in
place, the body would dive towards the wheels on
the outside of the bend and the hydraulic fluid
would flow into the suspension elements on the
other side. To counteract the squatting of the rear
of the vehicle under acceleration, the ECU uses information from the accelerator pedal sensor to disconnect the centre spring ball on the rear axle.
Centre spring ball

Centre spring ball

Hardness
controller
Spring
cylinder

Spring
ball

Spring ball

To left
spring
cylinder

Supply reservoir

Return
flow

Supply from
hydraulic
block

Valve
spool
Solenoid
valve
Return flow

Electrics

Hydraulic block

Fig. 1: Hydractive chassis in comfort setting

Sport drive program. If the hardness controller

solenoid valve on the centre spring ball is activated by the ECU, the flow to these spring cylinders is
blocked. This means that only the volume of gas in
two spring cylinders is available and the suspension becomes harder.

18

To right
spring
cylinder

Function of the hardness controller in the Sport

drive program (Fig. 2). The solenoid valve is supplied with power, the return flow to the hydraulic
fluid reservoir is opened, the bottom of the valve
spool is at zero pressure. Because the top is still
subject to the pressure of the suspension, the valve
spool is pushed downwards, thereby breaking the
connection between the suspension elements and
from the suspension elements to the spring ball.
Processes during cornering, acceleration, braking.
When the vehicle corners, the ECU receives information about the speed and angle of the steering
wheel from the steering-angle sensor. To counteract any rolling movement by the body, the solenoid valve is supplied with power and the connection to the spring balls is established.

Fig. 2: Hardness controller in sports setting

18.8.4 Vibration dampers

Vibration dampers (shock absorbers) allow vibrations from body and wheels to subside
more quickly and therefore increase safety and
driving comfort.
These are fitted between the wheel suspension
and the body. Vibrations of the wheels and body
have different frequencies. A good damper must
be set up so that it is effective for the two different
vibrations.
Nowadays, hydraulic vibration dampers are almost exclusively used. These consist of a plunger
which moves in a cylinder, pushing fluid through
small holes or valves (throttle points).
Rebound. The wheel moves downwards and pulls
the vibration damper apart telescopically (telescopic shock absorber).
Compression. The wheel moves upwards. As it
does so, the vibration damper is pushed back together.
By changing the flow resistance for the fluid as the
plunger moves backwards and forwards, it is possible to adjust the vehicle characteristics.
Kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy
by vibration dampers.

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18 Chassis

18.8.4.1 Twin-tube vibration damper

Hydraulic vibration dampers basically consist
of a cylinder in which a plunger with plunger
rod can move up and down.
In a twin-tube vibration damper (Fig. 1), the plunger
rod and protective tube are fixed to the body and
the cylinder is fixed to the wheel suspension.
Rubber bearing
Plunger rod
Protective tube
Seal
Air chamber

18.8.4.2 Single-tube gas-pressure shock

absorber
The single-tube gas-pressure shock absorber
(Fig. 2) behaves exactly the same as the twin-tube
vibration damper on the upwards and downwards
strokes. However, a special compensating chamber is not required to compensate for the plunger
rod volume and so there is no outer tube.
Compensation is achieved with a gas cushion of
nitrogen which is usually separated from the oil
chamber by a moveable plunger. The gas cushion,
which is at a pressure of 20 bar to 30 bar, is
squeezed and further compressed by the oil forced
out by the plunger rod when the working plunger
moves down. The gas cushion and oil are always
pressurised, which prevents the oil from foaming
and causing a reduction in the damping effect.

Working chamber
Outer tube
Inner tube

Gas cushion

Compensating chamber
Plate valves
Plunger

Working plunger

Base valve

Oil chamber

Cylinder

Separating plunger

Fig. 1: Twin-tube vibration damper

The cylinder consists of an inner and an outer

tube. The inner tube contains the working chamber
in which the plunger moves. This is completely
filled with oil.
Between the inner and the outer tube, there is the
compensating chamber. This is only partially filled
with oil and is designed to take the oil which is
pushed out of the working chamber when the
plunger rod moves in.
Valves are fitted in the plunger and the working
chamber which throttle the oil flow at differing rates.
During the rebound stage, damping is stronger. As
the plunger moves upwards, the oil has to be
pressed through fine openings in the plate valves
in the plunger. At the same time, oil is sucked back
out of the compensating chamber through the
base valve.
Installation only with the plunger rod at the top,
as otherwise air would be drawn out of the
compensating chamber, which would cause the
oil to foam and the damping to fail.

Compensating chamber
Gas cushion
Base valve

Fig. 2: Single-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

Fig. 3: Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

Single-tube gas-pressure shock absorbers with

a separating plunger can be fitted in any location. For versions with an impact plate, the
plunger rod must always be at the bottom.

18.8.4.3 Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber

The twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber (Fig. 3)
has a similar structure to the twin-tube vibration
damper. A ring-shaped compensating chamber
contains nitrogen at an initial pressure of 3 bar to
8 bar. This prevents the formation of gas bubbles
when the vibration damper moves quickly. The
damping forces are improved in nearly all vibration ranges.

18

436

18 Chassis
Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber with
variable damping
In the past, it was practically impossible to adjust a
shock absorber to the different load conditions of a
vehicle. Vehicles with heavy loads (e.g. heavy
goods vehicles with trailers) require strong damping, but this results in unpleasant shaking and
bouncing when the vehicle is unladen and driven
on rough roads.

closed curves. The damping force increases because plunger speed in the damper increases if the
crankshaft drive is rotating at a constant speed.
Damping
force
Rebound

Heavy load. The working plunger moves underneath the area with the grooves where there is no
additional throughflow cross-section. There are
maximum damping forces.
The number and length of the grooves, as well as
their height offset, allow the damping forces to be
adjusted not only to the load, but also to all the
suspension systems used.

Gas cushion
Groove
(bypass)
Reduced damping,
partial load

Closed

18

Strong damping,
full load

Fig. 1:Twin-tube gas-pressure shock absorber with

variable damping

3,000
2,000

One or more grooves in the cylinder wall of a twintube gas-pressure shock absorber (Fig. 1) can provide the desired variable damping characteristics.
Light load. The working plunger moves in the area
between the two grooves. The oil can flow through
both the plunger valves and the grooves. This additional bypass reduces the damping force, thereby increasing comfort.

4,000
N

20

10

10 mm 20
Plunger
travel

1,000

Compression

Fig. 2: Test graph of a gas-pressure shock absorber

Fitting valves with various throughflow cross-sections in the plunger results in varying damping
forces in the rebound and compression stages. The
ratio of the damping forces in the compression
stage to those in the rebound stage is between 2
and 5.
Vibration damper fitted. All the dampers on one
axle are tested on a shock tester at the same time.
The wheels rest on a plate and are each caused to
vibrate by an electric motor via an eccentric element and a compression spring. Once the motor is
switched off, the vibration is allowed to continue
through its entire frequency range until it comes to
a standstill and a measuring instrument records
this on a disc (Fig. 3).
The greatest amplitude is displayed at the resonance point. This indicates the damping capabilities of the damper concerned. If the measured resonance amplitude is greater than or equal to the
limit value given, the damper is faulty. A disc
graph can be used to show the damper vibrations
on one side of the vehicle.

Limit value
Actual value

42 MM
49 MM

42 MM
35 MM

18.8.4.4 Test graphs

Vibration damper removed. In order to obtain the
characteristic curves of a vibration damper, the
damper must be tensioned in a testing device. The
damper is moved by a cranked drive. The damping
forces as shown by the plunger travel are measured and plotted on a graph. A constant rebound
and compression results in closed curves (Fig. 2).
An increase in the radius of the crankshaft on the
testing device also increases the rebound and
compression of the damper, resulting in further

49 m

35 m

Rear

No

Yes REPLACEMENT

No

Fig. 3: Vibration patterns of 2 dampers

Yes

Front

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18 Chassis

18.8.4.5 Vibration dampers in the compound

suspension system

Sensor cable,
induction signal

Suspension strut
The combination of a vibration damper in a reinforced construction with a spring, usually a
helical spring, is known as a suspension strut.
Suspension struts can also be used as wheel suspension if they have an additional steering knuckle
(Fig. 1). Vibration-damper cartridges are used so
that the entire suspension strut does not have to
be replaced if the vibration damper is faulty. If
there is a reduction in damping forces, the cartridge can be changed by opening a threaded connection at the top of the container tube.

Air line
Air bell
Sensor coil
Roll bellows
Gas-pressure
vibration damper
Vehicle loaded

Vehicle unloaded

Fig. 2: Air-spring damper

Stroke

Helical
spring

Vibration
damper

Threaded
connection
Vibration-damper
cartridge
Steering
knuckle

Control arm

Fig. 1: Suspension strut

Vibration dampers with a level control system

The suspension in a passenger car is usually designed so that the optimum roadholding is
achieved when the vehicle has an average load. If
the vehicle is fully laden, the rear of the vehicle
squats significantly, the ground clearance and
spring range are reduced and roadholding is impaired. This often also results in uncontrolled
steering characteristics, cross wind sensitivity and
glare for oncoming traffic when driving at night.
Driving comfort deteriorates because the increased load changes the vibration frequency of
steel springs. A constant natural frequency of 1
Hertz (corresponds to a vibration frequency of 60)
in all load conditions is only possible with a levelcontrolled gas spring. This allows the height of the
vehicle to be automatically maintained, even when
towing a trailer. A distinction is made between
pneumatic and hydro-pneumatic systems.
Pneumatic level control system. The system consists of a compressor, an ECU and two air-spring
dampers, each with an induction sensor. The airspring dampers consist of a combination of singletube gas-pressure shock absorber with air springs
(Fig. 2).These bear the entire axle load.

The air spring, which is attached via the gas-pressure

shock absorber, consists of an air bell and roll bellows. If the load increases, the shock-absorber tube
sinks further into the sensor coil integrated in the air
bell and generates an induction voltage which is forwarded to the ECU as a signal. The ECU allows air to
flow in via the compressor until the specified vehicle
height is reached. The pressure in the suspension air
bag is between 5 and 11 bar, depending on the load.
Hydro-pneumatic level control system. The system
consists of:
Suspension struts and spring-type actuators
(Fig. 3)
Compressed-oil system with radial-piston pump
and oil reservoir
Control device with level controller and actuation linkage
The spring-type actuators work like a hydro-pneumatic auxiliary spring. If the rear of the vehicle has
squatted, the spring element is supplied with pressure oil via the level-control valve until the normal
level is reached. The oil is then returned to the container by the pump at nearly zero pressure.
Gas cushion
Spring-type
actuator
Diaphragm

Connection for
high-pressure
oil pump

Oil
Body

Suspension
strut
Wheel suspension

Fig. 3: Suspension strut with spring-type actuator

18

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18 Chassis

18.8.5 Active Body Control (ABC)

Hydraulic cylinder (plunger)

Active Body Control (ABC) is an electro-hydraulic active chassis system which, in addition to its suspension and damping functions, enables automatic level control while the vehicle is in motion. This maintains the vehicle body at practically the same level at the front and
rear axles when the vehicle brakes, accelerates, drives over uneven
road surfaces and bends.
Structure
Each wheel is mounted to a suspension strut consisting of a vibration
damper and a helical spring.
The plunger is a dynamically adjustable hydraulic cylinder which is able
to generate forces which counteract wheel or body movements. To do
this, the plunger moves the base of the helical spring and changes the
tension. This reduces body movements in the direction of the 3 vehicle
axles.
Pulsation
damper (52a)

Valve unit,
pressure supply (52)

Rear bleed
screw (57)

Rear suspension strut (41)

Helical
spring

Vibration
damper

Fig. 1: Suspension strut with

plunger

Pressure accumulator,
rear axle (4)

Rear suspension strut (41)

Front suspension strut (40)

Front bleed
screw (56)
Oil cooler
(9)

Radial-piston
pump (1)
Valve unit ABC,
front axle (Y36/1)

18

Oil reser- Front suspenvoir (2)

sion strut (40)
Pressure accumulator,
front axle (14)

Pressure
accumulator,
return (53)

Valve unit ABC,

rear axle (Y36/2)

Rear bleed
screw (57)

Front bleed screw (56)

Fig. 2: Active Body Control (layout)

Legend for the ABC diagrams
a
b
c
d

Suction line
Operating pressure
Control pressure
Return line

1
2
2a
9
4
14
40
41
52
52a
52b

Radial-piston pump
Oil reservoir
Oil filter
Oil cooler
Pressure accumulator, rear axle
Pressure accumulator, front axle
Front suspension strut
Rear suspension strut
Valve unit, pressure supply
Pulsation damper
Pressure-limiting valve

53
56
57
F1
F2
N51/2
N10/6
B4/5
B22/1
B22/4
B22/5
B22/6
B22/7
B22/8
B22/9
B22/10
B40/1

Pressure accumulator, return

Front bleed screw
Rear bleed screw
Fuse 1
Fuse 2
ABC ECU
SAM ECU
ABC pressure sensor
Plunger travel sensor, rear left
Plunger travel sensor, front left
Plunger travel sensor, front right
Plunger travel sensor, rear right
Level sensor, rear left
Level sensor, front left
Level sensor, front right
Level sensor, rear right
ABC oil temperature sensor

B24/12
B24/14
B24/3
B24/4
B24/6
Y36/1
y1
y2
y3
y4
y36/2
y1
y2
y3
y4
y86/1

Lateral-acceleration sensor
Longitudinal-acceleration sensor
Body acceleration sensor, front left
Body acceleration sensor, front right
Body acceleration sensor, rear
Valve unit ABC, front axle
Suspension strut control valve, front left
Suspension strut check valve, front left
Suspension strut control valve, front right
Suspension strut check valve, front right
Valve unit ABC, rear axle
Suspension strut control valve, rear left
Suspension strut check valve, rear left
Suspension strut control valve, rear right
Suspension strut check valve, rear right
ABC vacuum valve

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18 Chassis
40

41
B22/5

B22/6
52

Y36/1

56
2

14

53

B4/5

y3

y1

52a

y1

y3

y4

2a
9

Y36/2

57

52b
y4

B40/1

y2
Y86/1

y2

56

57

a
b
B22/4

B22/1

c
d

40

41

Fig. 1: ABC hydraulic-circuit diagram

30
15
F1 F2

48

46

B4/5

B22/5 B22/9 B22/4 B22/8 B24/4 B24/3 B40/1 B24/6 B24/12 B24/14 B22/1 B22/7 B22/6 B22/10

36 38 10 42 41 19 20 44 40
8
37 16 15
30 18 17 34

39

21

23

29 7

31 1

25 3

26

N51/2

ECU plug 2
27

35 11

29

10

12

27

23

25

17

18
14 20 21
4
2
5
3
6
16
19

ECU plug 1
26 11 24

9 30 15 28 13

CAN
SAM
N10/6

Plug 3
1

CAN C
y2

y4

y1

y3

Y36/1

y86/1

y2

y4

y1

Y36/2

y3

Diagnosis

31

18
Fig. 2: ABC schematic diagram

Task and function of the sensors

Pressure sensor B4/5 reports the hydraulic pressure to the ECU via pin 36, pin 37 plug 2. This is
regulated to 180 to 200 bar by the vacuum valve
y86/1.
Oil temperature sensor B40/1 measures the hydraulic-oil temperature in the return flow pin 26,
pin 2 (plug 2).
Travel sensors in the hydraulic cylinder (plunger)
B22/6; B22/1; B22/4; B22/5 transmit the actual position of the positioning cylinder in the suspension

strut to the ECU pin 20; pin 17 (plug 1), pin 18,
pin 16 (plug 2).
Level sensors B22/7, B22/10, B22/8, B22/9 detect the
level of the vehicle body using the relevant control
arm pin 2; pin 5 (plug 1), pin 20; pin 42 (plug 2).
Body acceleration sensors B24/3, B24/4, B24/6
measure the vertical acceleration of the vehicle
body. They consist of electronic vibration modules
which send their signals to the ECU via pin 6, pin 8
(plug 2), pin 29 (plug 1). They are required to be
able to record the lifting movements of the body.

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18 Chassis
Lateral and longitudinal acceleration sensors
B24/12, B24/14 determine the lateral and longitudinal dynamics of the vehicle pin 27, pin 25 (plug 1)
and are required to compensate for rolling and
pitching movements.
Signal acquisition and actuation module SAM activates the ECU via pin 23 (plug 2) via the remote
control, door contact switch or luggage compartment lighting. The ECU checks the vehicle level in
order to lower it to the preselected level if necessary.
ABC ECU N51/2 compares stored and preselected
program maps (sport/comfort) in order to control
the actuators using incoming sensor signals and
information that is transmitted from other systems
via the CAN bus.

Task and function of the actuators

The vacuum valve y86/1 regulates the quantity of
oil sucked in by the oil pump so that an oil pressure of 180 to 200 bar can be established and
maintained in the ABC system. When it is not energised, the valve is closed in order to maintain the
pressure in the system.
Control valves y1, y3.The positioning cylinders are
moved when the control valves are actuated. This
causes the body to sink or rise at the corresponding wheel. The downforce of the wheels may be
briefly increased by this.
Check valves y2, y4 are closed when the engine is
off, the vehicle is stationary and if faults occur to
prevent pressure loss. This also prevents the positioning cylinders from being pulled apart if the
wheel is changed or the vehicle is placed on a lifting platform, for example.

Cornering. When the vehicle is corning, the lateralacceleration sensor B24/12 registers centrifugal
forces. The relevant signal is transferred to the
ECU via pin 27 plug 1. The ECU uses the speed of
the front right and front left wheels from the CAN C
to determine whether it is a left-hand or right-hand
bend. If it is a left-hand bend, the ECU N51/2 actuates control valves y3 via pin 3, pin 27 (plug 2) and
pin 28, pin 13 (plug 1), so that the plunger moves
out and the side of the vehicle on the outside of
the bend is raised. At the same time, the control
valves y1 are switched via pin 1, pin 25 (plug 2) and
pin 30, pin 15 (plug 1) so that the load on the
plunger on the side of the vehicle on the inside of
the bend is relieved. The side of the vehicle on the
inside of the bend is lowered. The level sensors
B22/22/7 ... 22/10 are used to compare the actual
level with the target level.
Acceleration. When the vehicle accelerates, the
longitudinal-acceleration sensor B24/14 registers
acceleration forces on the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle. The signal is transferred to the ECU at
pin 25 plug 1 which actuates the control valves so
that the vehicle body sinks at the front axle and is
raised at the rear axle.
Braking. When the vehicle brakes, the ECU receives information that a braking procedure has
been commenced from the closed brake-light
switch via the CAN C. The longitudinal-acceleration
sensor supplies the ECU with information about
the deceleration rate via pin 25 plug 1. The ECU actuates the control valves so that the vehicle body
is raised at the front axle and lowered at the rear
axle.

Control procedures

Driving straight ahead. When the vehicle is driving

straight ahead, the ECU receives information about
the vehicle speed via the CAN C. The ECU actuates
the control valves to automatically lower the vehicle according to the preselected program map. If
the driver wishes, the vehicle can be raised by 25
or 50 mm (by pressing the level switch (CAN C)).

Starting the engine. When the vehicle door is

opened, the ABC ECU is activated by the signal acquisition and actuation module pin 23 (plug 2). The
level sensors B22/7 ... 22/10 are used to compare
the actual level with the target level. If the actual
level is higher than the target level, the control
valves y1, y3 are actuated and the vehicle is lowered to the target level. The ECU is powered with
battery + via pin 48 and with battery via pin 21 in
order to carry out this control procedure. Once the
ignition has been switched on, there is an additional power supply via pin 46 plug 2.

Vertical vibrations. If the vehicle vibrates in the direction of the vertical axis due to an uneven road
surface, these movements are transferred to the
ECU from the body acceleration sensors B24/3,
B24/4, B24/6 via pin 6, pin 8 (plug 2) and pin 29
(plug 1). The level sensors B22/7, B22/8, B22/9
pin 42, B22/10 report the amplitude via pin 20
plug 2 and pin 2, pin 5 (plug 1). The ECU actuates
the control valves according to the preselected
program map (sport/comfort) so that the body vibrations are damped and evened out.

18

441

18 Chassis
wheel disc or the wheel spider (Fig. 2). The cross
section of the rim may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

18.9.1 Wheels
Requirements on the wheels
Low weight
Large diameter for large brake discs
High dimensional stability and elasticity
Good heat dissipation properties (frictional heat)
Easy replacement of tyres and wheels in the
event of damage
Structure of the wheel
The wheel consists of the rim and the wheel disc
with a centre hole and bolt holes. Instead of a
wheel disc, there may be a wheel spider, or the rim
may be connected to the hub by steel spokes. The
wheel is secured to the flange of the wheel hub
(Fig. 1), which pivots about the kingpin, with wheel
nuts or wheel bolts. The brake drum or brake disc
is also bolted to the wheel-hub flange. If the bearing is open, a hub cover protects the bearing and
is also the mounting location for the grease reservoir.

a
Bead seat

Kingpin

Hubcap

Brake
disc

Rim flange

Rim well

Valve
hole

D = Rim diameter

Fig. 2: Single-piece symmetrical drop-centre rim

Hump rim. If tubeless radial-ply tyres are used,

drop-centre rims which have a continual raised
section = hump (H) on the bead seat near to the
rim well (Fig. 3).
If this raised section is not rounded, it is known as
a flat hump (FH). Both types are designed to prevent the tyre bead from being pushed from the
bead seat into the rim well by the large lateral
forces which occur when the vehicle is cornering
at speed. The air escapes suddenly on tubeless
tyres, which could result in a serious accident.
Hump

Wheel
bolt
Wheel
hub

a = Rim width

18.9 Wheels and tyres

McPherson
suspension
strut

Flat hump

Rim well

Drive shaft
Control
arm
Lower supporting joint
Steering knuckle
Disc wheel

Fig. 1: Passenger-car wheel with bolted wheel hub

Rims
There are rims which are fixed to the wheel disc
and those which can be removed. We also make a
distinction between single-piece rims (drop-centre
rims) and multi-piece rims, which are used on
commercial vehicles (see Chapter Commercial vehicle technology).
Drop-centre rims. Single-piece drop-centre rims
are used almost exclusively on passenger vehicles. They are a single-piece cast or forged out of
light alloy and are riveted, welded or bolted to the

Fig. 3: Asymmetrical hump rim

Dimensions and designations on rims

This data is standardised. The rim designation is
stamped on each wheel by the manufacturer. It basically consists of two dimensions: the rim width a
in inches and the rim diameter D in inches. The two
dimensions are separated by an x on drop-centre rims. Code letters after the rim width indicate
the shape of the rim flange, code letters after the
rim diameter indicate the type of rim.
Example:
61/2
J

6 1/2 J x 15 H RO 35

Rim width in inches

Code letter for the dimensions of the rim
flange
x
Single-piece rim (drop-centre rim)
15
Rim diameter in inches
H
A hump on the outer bead seat
RO 35 Offset 35 mm

18

442

18 Chassis
Other rim designations:
H2 Hump on both sides
FH Flat hump on the outer bead seat
FH2 Flat hump on both sides
CH Combination hump:
Flat hump on the outer bead seat and hump
on the inner bead seat
EH Extended hump
SDC Semi-drop-centre rim
TD Special rim with reduced a reduced flange
height to improve the ride comfort of the
tyre. A groove in the bead seat accommodates the tyre bead so that the bead cannot
jump out if the tyre is depressurised. The rim
width and diameter are given in mm.
Offset
This is the measurement from the centre of the
rim to the inner contact face (wheel-mounting
plane) of the disc wheel (Fig. 1).
Selecting a wheel with a different rim offset may
change the track width.
Note about changing the rim: If the track width
changes, other geometrical dimensions, such as
the kingpin offset and camber, will also change.
Positive offset. The inner contact face is moved to
the outer section of the wheel in relation to the
centre of the rim.
Negative offset. The inner contact face is moved to
the inner section of the wheel. Using rims with a
negative offset increases the track width of a motor vehicle.

Requirements on the tyres

To support the weight of the vehicle
To absorb and damping jolts from the road
To transfer drive, braking and lateral forces
Low rolling resistance (low friction and heat development)
Adequate service life
Quiet and low-vibration rolling
Structure
The tyres include the inner tube and valve, the tyre
itself and the rim band. The latter is now only used
on mopeds and motorcycles with wire-spoked
wheels to protect the inner tube from being damaged by the nipple heads of the wire spokes. The
inner tube must correspond to the tyre size. In this
type of tyre, the inner tube must always be replaced at the same time as the tyre.
The tyre (Fig. 2) consists of:
Carcass
Protector with tread
Bracing layer (on radial-ply tyres)
Side wall
Beads with inserted wire-spoked cores
Airtight rubber layer
Tread

Protector

Bracing layer
Airtight
rubber layer

RO

RO

18.9.2 Tyres

Carcass
Bead core
Inner
contact
face

18
Positive offset

Inner
contact
face
Negative offset

Hump

Side wall
Bead

Rim flange
Bead seat

Valve

Fig. 1: Rim offset

Fig. 2: Structure of a tyre

Types of wheels
Disc wheels are pressed out of steel sheet or cast
or forged out of light alloy, e.g. GK-AlSi 10 Mg.
Benefits of wheels made from light alloy:
Low weight (small unsprung mass)
More effective brake ventilation and heat dissipation
Lightweight wheels made from newly developed
steels, e.g. DP 600 or HR 60, can have thinner walls
and have become up to 40 % lighter compared to
previous steel wheels made from RSt 37.

Carcass. This is constructed of rubberised cord fibres made from nylon, rayon, steel, polyester or
aramid. The fibres are laid on top of each other in
layers, either radially at right angles to the direction of travel or diagonally in a point towards
the running direction. The fibres are wound around
two steel rings (bead cores) and are fixed in place
by vulcanisation.
Protector. This consists of several layers of fabric
and rubber cushions. It damps impacts and protects the carcass.

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18 Chassis
Bracing layer.This consists of several layers of steel
wires, textile fibres or aramid fibres embedded in
rubber. The bracing layer lies over the carcass and
is made in such a way that the wires or fibres cross.
In high-speed tyres, the bracing layer may be folded (Fig. 1 ), thereby increasing the stability.
Folded aramid bracing layer

Aspect ratio. In order to distinguish between different tyre types, e.g. balloon tyres and low-crosssection tyres, the ratio of the tyre height H to tyre
width W is established. This is given as a percentage in tyre designations.
On modern tyres, the width is greater than the
height. If the height of the tyre is 80 % of the width,
for example, the ratio height to width = 0.8 : 1. As
the percentage is used in the tyre designation,
these would be known as 80s tyres.

Fig. 1: Arrangement of the carcass and bracing layer in

a tyre

Tread. This has grooves. The longitudinally

grooved tread provides the tyre with cornering stability and the cross-groove tread transfers motive
forces. The arrangement of the tread has a considerable impact on aquaplaning, rolling resistance
and the noise characteristics of the tyres.
If the road is wet, a wedge of water can form between the tyres and the road surface at high
speeds. This eliminates the road-surface adhesion
and renders the vehicle unsteerable. The grooves
in the tread must be of a certain shape and depth
to dissipate the water quickly.
The minimum tread depth of 1.6 mm prescribed by
law is not sufficient to prevent aquaplaning in
many cases.
Side wall. Lower side walls increase the rigidity of
the tyre, which improves steering precision but reduces ride comfort.
Bead.This has the task of keeping the tyre firmly in
place on the rim so that braking, motive and lateral
forces can be transferred to the road. It is therefore
made to be particularly rigid using cables made
from steel wire (bead core). On tubeless tyres, it
has the additional task of sealing the tyre onto the
rim.
Dimensions and designations on the tyre
Tyre size. This is given as 2 measurements: tyre
width in inches or mm and rim diameter in inches
or mm.

When the vehicle is in motion, the compression of

the tyres is eliminated by the centrifugal force and
the radius increases again. This is known as dynamic radius rdyn.

Load

rstat

Bead core

Airtight
rubber layer

Effective radius. A vertical tyre under load has a

smaller radius (distance from the centre of the
wheel to the road surface) than an unladen tyre.
This is known as static radius rstat (Fig. 3).

Bead wrapping

18

Carcass,
2-ply rayon

Bead apex

However, these numerical values do not correspond to the actual dimensions of the tyre. Exact
values must therefore be taken from the standard
table. All measurements apply to tyres that are inflated to the standard pressure and unladen
(Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Tyre measurements

Compression

Fig. 3: Tyre under load

Dynamic rolling circumference Udyn. This describes

the distance that the tyre covers with one revolution at a speed of 60 km/h when it is bearing the
load specified in the standard and inflated to the
specified air pressure. The accuracy of the speedometer reading depends on the rolling circumference. The static radius and the dynamic rolling circumference are given in tyre tables.

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18 Chassis
Tyre speed category. This classifies tyres for passenger vehicles and motorcycles according to their
maximum permissible speed. Each maximum permissible speed is given a code letter, a selection of
which is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Speed categories
Maximum
tyre speed
in km/h

Speed
symbol

Maximum
tyre speed
in km/h

Speed
symbol

160
180
190
210

Q
S
T
H

240
270
300
over 240

V
W
Y
ZR

335 / 30 ZR 18 (102 W)
This tyre has a dual designation for the speed. The
part in brackets means that the tyre has a maximum speed of 270 km/h (W) at a load index of 102.
If the vehicle is approved for greater speeds, the
vehicle manufacturer must issue an approval
which sets out the permissible load-bearing capacity and speed.
Note: the tyre load-bearing capacity of these
tyres is reduced by 5 % every 10 km/h above
240 km/h.

91

Tyres with the designation Reinforced or Extra

Load have a reinforced carcass. This means that
they can bear greater loads at a greater air pressure. The load index is higher on these tyres.
Table 2:Tyre load-bearing capacity LI (selection)

18

LI

kg

bar

Reinforced
(Extra Load)
LI
kg
bar

135/80 R 13

70

335

2.4

74

375

2.8

185/70 R 14

88

560

2.5

92

630

2.9

195/65 R 15

91

615

2.5

95

690

2.9

205/50 R 16

87

545

2.5

91

615

2.9

Tyre size

Code letter for radial-ply tyre

Height-to-width ratio in %
Tyre width in mm

Fig. 1: ECE tyre designation

Tyre type
We distinguish between balloon tyres, super lowpressure tyres, low-cross-section tyres, super lowcross-section tyres, 70, 60, 50, 40, 35 tyres, etc.,
according to the aspect ratio of the tyres
(Fig. 2). The ratio of tyre height to tyre width varies
between the individual shapes, which results in
different handling characteristics. They vary from
an almost round profile (balloon) to an ever flatter
and wider cross-section. Wider treads and lower
side walls result in better driving safety, which is
very important as the speed increases.
Tyre width

Examples of tyre designations

195 / 60 R 15 88 H
R = radial-ply tyre
195 = nominal tyre width 195 mm;
60 = aspect ratio 60 %;
15 = rim diameter 15
88 = load capacity 560 kg
H = maximum speed 210 km/h.

Code letter for permissible top speed

(210 km/h)
Code number for tyre load-bearing
capacity (615 kg)
Rim diameter in inches

Tyre height

The tyre load-bearing capacity depends on the

tyre type, maximum speed, tyre pressure and
camber. These must be determined from the vehicle.

195

65

For some tyres for commercial vehicles, the PR

designation (ply rating) is also given. 8 PR means
that, due to the rigidity of its carcass, a tyre can
bear the same load as a tyre with 8 layers of cotton
cord even though it has fewer layers.

R1
5

Tyre load-bearing capacity (Table 2). This is shown

by the load index (LI). This is a code number and
indicates the maximum load-bearing capacity of
the tyre at the standard pressure.

Tyre designations (Fig. 1). In accordance with ECE

regulation no. 20 (ECE = Economic Commission
for Europe), the information listed in Fig. 1 must be
used for a tyre designation. The full tyre designation must be taken from the motor vehicle technology book of tables.

Super lowcross-section
tyre

70s tyre

Fig. 2: Tyre cross-sections (selection)

50s tyre

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18 Chassis
Balloon tyres (height to width = 0.98 : 1) e.g. 4.50-16,
have good suspension characteristics but poor cornering stability due to the large tyre height.
Super low-pressure tyres (height to width = 0.95 : 1)
e.g. 5.60-15, are distinguished from balloon tyres
by their wider shape and smaller inner diameter
(up to 15").
Low-cross-section tyres (height to width = 0.88 : 1)
e.g. 6.00-14, have a width in 1/2" gradations. They
may also be marked with the letter L (low).
Super low-cross-section tyres (height to width
~ 0.82) e.g. 165 R 13, were manufactured as crossply tyres and, from 1964, as radial-ply tyres (80s
tyres).
70s tyre (height to width = 0.70 : 1) have a height
that is 70 % of the width. This is what gives the
tyres their designation. They have the advantage
of increased road grip and vehicle stability. The
high lateral forces allow greater cornering speeds.
50s tyres (height to width = 0.5 : 1) e.g. 225/50 R 16,
have a height that is only 50 % of the width. The
rim diameter is increased since the rolling circumference of the tyre remains constant, compared to
195/65 R 15 tyres.
Advantages:
Larger and higher performance brake discs with
better ventilation can be fitted.
Not sensitive to lateral deformation as the crosssection is low and flat.
High lateral stability when steering into bends;
occurrence of large lateral forces even at small
wheel-slip angles, allowing high cornering
speeds.
Increased resistance to lateral twisting.
More precise response to steering movements.
Disadvantages:
Poorer aquaplaning characteristics
Lower internal suspension, loss of comfort
Greater steering effort required
Tyre contact patch (tyre contact area,
positive tread)
As the tyre width increases, so does the contact
patch of the tyre on the ground (Fig. 1). A larger
contact area increases the friction force so that the
tyre grip is increased under fast cornering and under braking. Coulomb's law, which states that the
friction force depends only on the normal force
(vertical load) and the friction coefficient, only applies to tyres to a limited extent. When rubber-elastic materials rub against coarse surfaces (roads),
the size of the surfaces rubbing against each other
due to the indentations is significant.

Super low-pressure tyre

70s tyre

Fig. 1: Tyre contact patches

Negative tread. This is made up of lateral, longitudinal and diagonal grooves between the individual
tread bars. If the tyre contact patch is large, the
proportion of negative volume must be increased
in relation to the tyre contact patch to prevent the
tyre aquaplaning due to increased water absorption. The effectiveness of the tyre for winter driving
is also increased by the higher ground pressure.
Air-pumping effect. Deformation of the tyre contact patch while the vehicle is in motion can create
enclosed cavities, depending on the layout of the
negative tread, which can abruptly fill with air and
then empty again. This results in considerable driving noise.
Tyre construction
A distinction is made between crossply tyres and
radial-ply tyres according to the carcass structure.
Crossply tyres. The fabric plies are laid diagonally
on top of each other so that the cord fibres form a
point (cord angle) of 26 to 40 along the direction
of travel (Fig. 2). The smaller the cord angle, the
harder the tyres, the better the lateral stability and
the greater the possible cornering speeds. Crossply tyres are primarily used on motorcycles (see
Chapter Motorcycle technology).

18

38
35
Normal tyre

Fig. 2: Cord angle on crossply tyres

4
303

"S" tyre

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18 Chassis
Radial-ply tyres (Figs. 1 and 2). All the cord threads
on the carcass are situated next to each other and
are arranged radially, i.e. at 90 to the direction of
travel. A belt made of several layers of fabric or
steel cord or aramid at an angle of approximately
20 to the direction of travel is fitted between the
carcass and the tread of the tyre, so that the tread
becomes only very slightly deformed when the vehicle moves away. Fig. 1 shows 2 criss-cross steel
cord and 2 circumferential nylon belts at 0. The
nylon bracing layers at 0 enable the tyre to withstand higher speeds.
0 nylon
cover (2-ply)
(0 bracing
layer)

If the tyre is filled with nitrogen instead of air, it

will last longer, because nitrogen molecules are
larger than air molecules. The rubber valve fitted in
the rim must also be perfectly sealed. Tubeless
tyres bear the inscription Tubeless or sI.
The benefits of tubeless tyres:
Less heat build-up because there is no friction
between tyre and tube.
Lighter weight and easier to assemble.
Wheel-slip angle
If a moving vehicle is affected by disruptive forces
(wind force, centrifugal force), a wheel-slip angle appears and the lateral forces at work in the tyre contact areas counterbalance these disruptive forces.
The angle between the actual direction of motion and the rim plane (following the line of the
rim) is called the wheel-slip angle (Fig. 3). A
tyre can only transmit lateral force if it runs at
an angle to the direction of travel.

20 steel
bracing
layer
Carcass,
2-ply rayon

Wheel-slip
angle

Fig. 1: Structure of a radial-ply tyre

The side walls of radial-ply tyres compress, the deformation is mainly limited to the flexing zone.
At lower speeds, radial-ply tyres run firmer than
diagonal tyres, thanks to the reinforcement belt. At
greater and higher speeds, the springiness of the
soft carcass comes into play, meaning that the radial-ply tyre operates more quietly than the diagonal tyre. In addition, the bracing layer produces
good lateral stability and thus high lateral forces.

Direction of motion
a
a

Rim plane

Tyre
contact
area
Adhesion
area

FS

FS

2
3
4

Sliding area

Fig. 3: Wheel-slip angle

Tubeless tyres (Fig. 2). An airtight rubber layer

made of butyl prevents the air from escaping. Nevertheless, pressure is lost through diffusion of air
molecules over time. The tyre pressure must therefore be checked regularly.

18
Negative
tread
Bracing
layers
Side
wall
Inner
rubber
layer

Tread

Positive
tread
Carcass
Flexing zone

Side
wall
zone

Bead zone
Bead core

Bead

Fig. 2: Tubeless radial-ply tyre

The lateral force in the tyre builds up through the

deformation of the tyre contact area, when cornering, for example. As soon as a wheel-slip angle
forms, the tyre tread moves further and further
away from the line along which it normally lies
when in contact with the road surface, in the centre of the tyre (Fig. 3).
This creates a deformation in the tyre. The further
away the tread moves from the centre line, the
greater the deformation. The sum of these application
forces is the lateral force, which takes effect at the
centre of gravity of the deformed tyre contact area.
If the wheel-slip angle continues to increase, a sliding friction occurs in the rear section of the tyre
and the application force is alleviated. However,
the lateral force continues to increase because the
adhesion area is still larger than the sliding area. If
the wheel-slip angle still continues to increase, the
sliding area becomes larger than the adhesion
area and the lateral force is alleviated.

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18 Chassis
When cornering, the wheel load on the outer cornering wheels of an axle is increased, whereas the
wheel load on the inner cornering wheels is decreased. The higher the wheel load becomes, the
greater the build up of lateral force in the tyre.
Strong lateral forces must also be built up in wide
tyres in the event of high wheel loads and lateral
acceleration, thus increasing safety when cornering, whereas with super low-cross-section tyres,
such as 165/80 R 13 tyres, the lateral force is actually decreased (Fig. 1).

Due to the high risk of aquaplaning, at high speeds

in particular, and due to the increased braking distance on wet roads if tyres have low tread depths
(Table 1), it is advisable to change the tyre if the
tread wear indicators are in contact with the road
surface.
Table 1: Braking distance when braking
from 100 km/h to 60 km/h
Tread depth
(mm)
7

7,000
N
6,000

5
195/60 R14

4,000

185/70 R13

1.6

3,000

165/80 R13

Lateral force FS

5,000

2,000
Wheel-slip angle
a = 5

1,000
1,000

3,000

5,000

7,000 N 9,000

Wheel force F

Wheel balancing
The mass of a wheel when turning is never evenly
distributed. In the areas where the mass is greater,
an imbalance appears, in other words, centrifugal
forces develop which increase more, the greater
the mass and the higher the engine speed (Fig. 3).
700
N
600

Winter tyres (M+S tyres). In contrast to the coarse

studded tyre treads that were previously used, today's tyre treads have small tyre tread grooves
with many fine fins. The fine fins give the tyre a
better grip on snowy or slippery road surfaces in
winter. To keep the rubber on the tread surface
elastic at lower temperatures starting from 7 C,
silicic acid (silica) or natural rubber is added. This
has the following benefits:
Better adhesion between tyre and lining
Lower rolling resistance
Good service life of tyre tread (less internal heat
formation)
Winter tyres with a tread depth of less than 4 mm
are no longer sufficiently winter-proof.
Tread wear indicators (Fig. 2).These are elevations in
the tread-groove base. If the tread wears down to the
legally prescribed minimum tread depth of 1.6 mm,
the height of the tread wear indicators will be level
with the tread. The position of these indicators in the
tyre tread is marked with the letters TWI (tread wear
indicator) or with a triangle, on the tyre wall.
Tread wear indicator TWI

Tread-groove
base

Fig. 2: Tread wear indicator

Tyre tread

Centrifugal force FC

Fig. 1: Lateral force build-up for radial-ply tyres

1.6 mm

Braking distance in m (wet road surface)

20
40
60
80

100g

500

50g

400
300
25g
200
100
0

50

100
Driving speed v

150 km/h 200

Fig. 3: Centrifugal forces on a tyre with designation

195/65 R 15

Static imbalance. If, for example, rubber is worn

on a section of the tread as a result of locking
brakes, this produces a centrifugal force in the section opposite, which can cause the wheel to
bounce off the road surface at higher engine
speeds. This fault can be viewed by spinning the
wheel.
To ensure that the wheel remains stationary in
each position when spinning, the sum of all the
moments of inertia around the wheel rotational axis must equal 0.
M 1 = M2

G1 r1 = G2 r2

18

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18 Chassis
A balancing mass m2 with weight force G2 must be
fixed on the rim opposite the heaviest section of
the wheel. This mass must be large enough to
make the existing torque M2 correspond with the
torque M1. The wheel is then statically balanced
(Fig. 1).

If a wheel is out-of-round despite being balanced,

a radial tyre runout could be the problem. If the radial tyre runout protrudes by more than 1 mm
from the tread surface, attempts must be made to
reduce the radial tyre runout by turning the tyre on
its rim (matching).

Wheel axis

M1

m1
r1

G2

G1

18.9.3 Run-flat systems

M2

m2

r2
M1 = M2
G1 r 1 = G 2 r 2

Fig. 1: Balancing (static)

Dynamic imbalance. A wheel's imbalance weight

m1 is seldom at the same level as its balance
weight m2 affixed to the rim. The wheel is statically
balanced, but at higher engine speeds, the centrifugal forces m1 and m2 produce a torque in line
with the axle and cause the wheel to wobble. In
this case, the wheel has a dynamic imbalance. If
the imbalance weight m1 is level with the wheelmounting plane, then only the torque MC2 (Fig. 2)
will take effect.
Wheel axis

Wheel-mounting plane

FC2
rC2

MC2

m2

m1

rC1 = 0

FC1

MC1 = 0
MC2 = FC2 rC2

Fig. 2: Dynamic imbalance

18

Attaching a second balance weight m3 to the inside of the rim can cause the existing torque MC3
to balance the torque MC2, the wheel is then dynamically balanced. (Fig. 3). The size and position
of the balance weights m2 and m3 are determined
on balancers.
Wheel axis
FC3
m3
rC3
Inner side
of rim
FC1

MC3 Wheelmounting
plane

Run-flat systems can either aggravate or prevent critical driving situations caused by a sudden air loss in the tyre, particularly at higher
speeds. It is normally possible to reach the closest workshop without having to change the tyre.
Run-flat systems are wheel/tyre systems with
limp-home characteristics.
A distinction can be made between 2 possible applications:
Systems which can be used with conventional
rims.
Systems composed of special rims and corresponding tyres.
The use of compressed-air monitoring systems is
a requirement for both systems. The driver must
know about the pressure loss in the tyre in order to
adjust the speed and continue driving.

Systems with conventional rims

Conti Support Ring (CSR). A light metal ring with
flexible mounting is fitted on the rim (Fig. 4). When
air is lost, the tyre is supported against the ring
without touching the inside of the tyre walls and
causing irreparable damage to the tyre through
friction-induced heat. It is possible to drive on for
approximately 200 km at reduced speed. The additional weight per wheel is about 5 kg. Tyres with a
height/width ratio of > 60 are suitable, otherwise
they cannot be fitted.
Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tyres (SSR, DSST*). The
side walls of these tyres are reinforced with rubber
(Fig. 5). At zero pressure, the tyre can still be supported on its bead, so that the bead does not slide down
into the rim well. It is possible to drive on for approximately 200 km at a speed of 80 km/h. This side wall
reinforcement can also reduce comfort due to the increased transmission of bumps in the road surface.
Metal ring

FC2
m2

MC2

Normal
tyre

rC2
m1

MC2 = MC3
FC2 rC2 = FC3 rC3

Fig. 3: Balancing (dynamic)

DSST
tyre

Fig. 4: CSR system

* DSST Dunlop Self Supporting Technology

Fig. 5: DSST system

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18 Chassis

18.9.4 Compressed-air monitoring systems

Systems with special rims and tyres

PAX system. The PAX system is composed of a
special rim with a flexible insert and the corresponding tyre with vertical anchorage on the rim
(Fig. 1).

Flexible insert
Rim edge
protector

Hump

Mounting groove

Rim

Fig. 1: PAX system

Rim. The rim is very flat and has one small mounting groove in place of the rim well. Rim flanges are
not supplied, both humps are on the outside of the
rim. Rim diameters for large brake discs can be
achieved due to the flat shape of the rim.
Tyre. The tyre has shorter side walls, which increase its rigidity. Lateral forces can cause less deformation to the tyre contact patch, thus improving the road adhesion and reducing the rolling resistance.
The tyre bead is in a groove outside on the humps.
All the forces working on the tyres produce a tensile strength in the carcass, meaning that the bead
is always pressed into the groove (Fig. 2).This vertical anchorage ensures that the bead cannot slip out
of the rim, even when the tyre is at zero pressure.
Tensile strength
in carcass
Outer
hump

Bead core
Inner stop

Compressed-air monitoring systems are designed both to recognise the air loss in the tyre
and also to warn the driver.
The following types of compressed-air monitoring
systems are used in motor vehicles:
Indirect measuring systems
Direct measuring systems
Indirect measuring systems
When pressure is lost, the tyre's rolling circumference, which increases the engine speed in relation
to the other tyres, is reduced. The engine speeds are
determined via the ABS or ESP sensors. However,
the driver is not warned until there is a difference in
air pressure of more than 30 % between the tyres.
Direct measuring systems
The pressure is measured directly by sensors in
the tyre. The following functions are fulfilled:
Continued monitoring of tyre pressure whilst
driving and when the vehicle is stationary.
The driver is given early warning in the event of
a pressure loss, reduced pressure and flat tyre.
Automatic individual wheel recognition and
wheel positioning.
Diagnostic procedure for systems and components in the workshop.
The system is composed of:
1 tyre-pressure sensor per wheel
Antennae for tyre pressure monitoring
Instrument panel with display
ECU for tyre-pressure monitoring
Function-selector switches
Antenna
Tyre-pressure sensor

Fig. 2: Vertical anchorage of the tyre bead

Flexible insert. The insert is an elastomer ring

which is pushed onto the rim. Thanks to its high
loadbearing capacity it supports the tyre when
pressure is lost, meaning that at a speed of
80 km/h, approximately 200 km more can still be
covered.
Size designations for PAX systems
205/650 R 440 A
205
650
R
440
A

Tyre width in mm
Outside diameter of the tyre in mm
Radial structure
Average rim seat diameter in mm
Asymmetrical seat

18

Metal valve

Fig. 3: Tyre-pressure sensor and antenna

Tyre-pressure sensor. This sensor is bolted to the

metal valve (Fig. 3) and can be reused when changing the tyres or wheel rims. In addition, a temperature sensor, transmitting antenna, measuring and
control electronics as well as a battery with a service
life of approximately 7 years are integrated. Since
the filling pressures are altered by temperature influ-

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18 Chassis

To avoid damaging the sensor irreparably when

changing a tyre, the tyre must be pressed down
on the side opposite the valve.
ECU. The ECU obtains the following information
from the transmitting antenna:
Individual identification number (ID code), used
for individual wheel recognition.
Current inflation pressure and current temperature.
Condition of the lithium battery.
The ECU evaluates the signals transmitted by the antenna for the tyre pressure monitoring and imparts
the information for the driver on the display screen,
according to the importance of this information. If
wheels are changed on the vehicle, for example,
from the front axle to the rear axle and vice versa,
the ECU must be recoded with the new pressures.
Individual wheel recognition. The sensors belonging to the vehicle are recognised by the ECU and
stored. The sensors are recognised when the vehicle is being driven, to avoid interference from sensors on cars parked nearby.
WORKSHOP NOTES
Secure the motor vehicle against rolling away
before removing the wheels.
Only use wheel rims which are relevant for the
tyre you are using (vehicle documents).
Check the rims for cracks and remove traces of
rust.
Tighten the wheel nuts to the specified torque
in a diagonal pattern.
Note the specified air pressure to avoid loss of
operating life.

18

System messages, top priority (Fig. 1). These messages are intended for when driving safety is no
longer guaranteed. They are displayed to the driver if, for example:
signal threshold 2 is undershot (0.4 bar below
the stored setpoint tyre pressure of 2.3 bar).
signal threshold 3 is undershot (minimum
pressure limit value, 1.7 bar in the diagram).
a pressure loss is greater than 0.2 bar/minute.
System messages, second priority (Fig. 1). They
are displayed to the driver if, for example:
signal threshold 1 is undershot (0.2 bar below
the stored setpoint tyre pressure of 2.3 bar).
the difference in pressure on the wheels of
one axle is 0.4 bar.
the system is switched off or has a fault.

bar
2
Compression

ences, the pressures and temperatures recorded in

the ECU are set to a standard temperature of 20 C.

SETPOINT tyre pressure

Signal threshold 1
Signal threshold 2
Signal threshold 3
Case 2 Rapid pressure loss > 0.2 bar/min
in example 0.4 bar/min
Case 1 Rapid (sudden) pressure loss

1
ACTUAL
5
tyre pressure

8
Time

10

2.3 bar
2.1 bar
1.9 bar
1.7 bar

12

14

Fig. 1: Diagram of system messages

Using a mixture of diagonal- and radial-ply

tyres is not permitted for passenger cars.
Only use tyres of the same type and with the
same tread on one and the same axle.
Label the wheels after removing them and
store them in a room that is cool, dry and dark.
Do not stand wheels up and do not pile more
than 4 tyres on top of each other.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1

From which components is a wheel constructed?

Which types of rim are there?

11 What is a tread wear indicator and how is its

position on the tyre indicated?

Why are rims with humps used?

12 What is the wheel-slip angle?

What are the benefits of using wheels made of

light-metal alloys?

13 Why do wheels need to be balanced?

From which components are tyres made?

What does dynamic rolling circumference of a

tyre mean?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a

50 series tyre?

How are radial-ply tyres designed?

What is a tyre-contact area?

10 Explain the tyre designation

195/65 R 15 86 T M + S.

14 What does dynamic imbalance mean?

15 How can a radial-tyre runout be removed?
16 What are run-flat systems?
17 How is the PAX system designed?
18 What are the tasks of compressed-air monitoring
systems and where should they be fitted?
19 What are the benefits of direct-measuring
compressed-air monitoring systems in relation
to indirect-measuring systems?

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18 Chassis

18.10 Brakes
Brakes are used in a vehicle for deceleration, for
bringing the motor vehicle to a halt and for securing it against rolling away. When a vehicle is
braked, the kinetic energy is converted into heat.

Structure

Muscular energy
Energy
supply

Hydraulic energy
Pneumatic energy

Brake systems
Service brake system. This system enables the
speed to be reduced, if necessary, until the vehicle
is stationary. The vehicle must stay firmly in lane
during this process. The service brake is operated
continuously with the foot (foot brake) and impacts on all the wheels.

Control
equipment

Brake pedal - master cylinder

Brake pedal - brake booster,
master cylinder
Brake pedal - service-brake valve
Brake pedal - electr. potentiometer
Lever for parking brake
Engine-brake actuation

Transmission
equipment

Transmission media (mechanical,

hydraulic, pneumatic,
electropneumatic)
Brake lines
Brake hoses
Valves (relay valve, overloadprotection valve, solenoid valve)

Auxiliary brake system. This system must fulfil the

functions of the service brake system when it is
malfunctioning, possibly to less effect. It does not
have to be an independent third brake, for the intact circuit of a dual-circuit service brake system or
a graduated parking brake system is sufficient.
Parking brake system. Its function is to secure a
stopping or parked vehicle from rolling away, including on a sloping road surface. Its components
must be able to work mechanically for reasons of
safety. In passenger cars, it is normally operated in
stages by a coupling lever (handbrake) or a pedal
via linkage and control cables. It works on the
wheels of one axle only.

Supplementary equipment for trailer vehicles

Continuous brake system. Its function is to keep the

speed of the vehicle to a prescribed value when
driving downhill (third brake). It is a requirement for
motor busses whose weight is mgvwr > 5.5t and other
vehicles with a weight of mgvwr > 9t.
Antilock-braking system (ABS), also anti-skip system. The ABS measures the wheel slip automatically
during braking, regulates the braking pressure and
thus prevents the brakes from locking. The ABS is a
legal requirement on vehicles weighing mgvwr > 3.5 t.
Structure of a brake system (Fig. 1)
A brake system consists of:
Energy supply equipment
Control equipment
Transmission equipment
Possible supplementary equipment for trailer
vehicles, for example, trailer control equipment
Parking brake
Service brake
Possibly also brake pressure control, such as an
ABS, for example
Wheel brake on the front axle and rear axle

Parking brake

Service
brake

18
Brakingforce
control,
e.g. ABS

Wheel
brake

Front brakes
Rear brakes

Fig. 1: Structure of a brake system

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18 Chassis

Legal requirements (extracts)

Inspection of motor vehicles and trailers

The legal requirements for brakes on motor vehicles are set out in the German National Road Traffic
Licensing Regulations (StVZO), in EC directives
and the ECE regulations.

( 29 StVZO)
Owners of vehicles and trailers must establish
within specified intervals and at their own cost
whether the motor vehicles comply with the regulations. A distinction can be made here between:

Table 1: Motor-vehicle classifications (extracts)

L

Motorcycles and three-wheelers

M1

Passenger car with up to 9 seats including

driver's seat

M2

Motor bus with > 9 seats and up to 5 t

gross weight

M2

Motor bus with > 9 seats and up to 5 t

gross weight

N1

Heavy goods vehicle up to 3.5t gross weight

N2

Heavy goods vehicle > 3.5 t and up to 12 t

gross weight

N3

Heavy goods vehicle > 12 t gross weight

Trailer and semi-trailer

Specified brake systems ( 41 StVZO)

Motor vehicles from classes M and N must have
two separate brake systems (service brake systems, parking brake systems) or a brake system
with two separate control units. Each control unit
must be able to function if the other fails.
One of the brake systems must function mechanically and be able to secure the vehicle against rolling
away (parking brake system). If more than two
wheels can be braked, the same brake areas and
mechanical transmission equipment can be used.
Motor vehicles from classes M2/3 and N2/3 and with a
maximum speed of more than 60 km/h determined
by the model must be fitted with an ABS system.

18

Continuous braking action (Directive on Approximation of European Community Laws RREG 71/320 EC)
Motor vehicles from class M3 with a permissible
total weight from 5.5 t (except for city buses) and
vehicles from class N2.3 with a permissible total
weight of more than 9 t must have a continuous
braking action (continuous brake) for long downhill gradients. The braking action must be designed
such that it limits a fully-laden vehicle that is being
driven on a gradient of 7 % for a distance of 6 km
to a speed of 30 km/h.
Stop lamps ( 53 StVZO)
The service-brake operation must be made visible
by two red stop lamps to the rear on class L (vmax >
50 km/h), M, N and O motor vehicles. Since 18. 3. 93
class M1 vehicles have been allowed to have a third
stop lamp in the centre at the rear. This third stop
lamp is a legal requirement on all vehicles whose
first registration was after 1. 1. 2000.

General inspections GI: to check the vehicle's roadworthiness in accordance with 29 StVZO (appendix VIII).
Safety inspections SI: the chassis and suspension
components are subjected to a comprehensive visual, operation and function check (e.g. brakes,
steering, tyres).
Table 2:Type and time interval of inspections
(extracts)
Class of vehicle

Time interval Month

GI
SI

24

24 (36)
12

M2, M3 in the 1st year

in the 2nd and 3rd year
from the 4th year

12
12
12

6
3

N1
N2, N3

24
12

24 (36)
24
12
12

M1
M1 Passenger transportation
(e.g. taxi, hire car)

O to 750 kg
O > 750 kg to 3.5 t
O > 3.5 t to 10 t
O > 10 t

Values in ( ) are those for the initial inspection after the vehicle
was first registered.

Minimum braking 29 StVZO (GI guide line)

(Table 3). The minimum braking rate can be calculated from the measured values determined on the
brake dynamometers. Formula:
z=

Sum of the wheel brake forces

  100 %
Vehicle weight force

Table 3: Minimum braking z in %

Class of vehicle

Service
Parking
brake system brake system

M1 Passenger car

50

16

M2, M3 Motor bus

50

16

N1 Heavy goods vehicle,

with gross weight up to 3.5 t

50

16

N2, N3 Heavy goods vehicle

> gross weight 3.5 t

45

16

Types of brake system according to energy supply

Muscular energy braking. The braking force is applied by the driver and enhanced by the mechanical and hydraulic transmission ratio.

453

18 Chassis
Assisted braking (power-assisted brake). In addition
to muscular-energy braking, the braking force is also
enhanced by other energy sources (vacuum pressure,
hydraulic-accumulator pressure, compressed air)
Externally-powered brake (compressed-air brake).
The driver controls the braking force. The braking energy (compressed air) is not generated by the driver.
Overrun brake. When the tractor vehicle is braked,
the trailer comes closer due to its inactive state
(overrun). The braking energy is generated on the
trailer wheel brake via the towbars.

Types of energy transmission

Mechanical transmission through pedal, lever,
towbar and control cables, for example, when applying the parking brake in a car or the overrun
brake when towing a trailer.
Hydraulic transmission caused by fluid pressure in
the brake line, e.g. in a passenger-car service brake.
Pneumatic transmission caused by compressed
air in the brake line, e.g. in commercial vehicles.
Electrical transmission caused by electrical leads, for
example, or the magnetic field in an electric retarder,
for commercial-vehicle continuous brake systems.

18.10.1 Braking
Braking duration
During braking, the braking action does not
take effect until an obstacle has been recognised. The total duration (stopping time tA) of a
braking procedure is determined by the reaction time tR and the braking time t (Fig. 1).
70

III

30

II

20
I

0
t An
tR

tSw

tA
Time t
I : Detection of danger
II : Start of braking by driver
III : Start of braking action

3
t

tv

10
m
s2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Braking deceleration a

40

sH

IV

50

sR

Distance driven s

Braking time t.The sum of the response, threshold

and delay times is known as the braking time t.
Response time tAn. This is generated by the clearance in the brake system, e.g. pedal idle travel,
clearances.
Threshold time tSw. The pressure in the brake system is increased during the threshold time and the
desired braking deceleration is achieved.
Delay period tV. The braking deceleration remains constant until the vehicle comes to a halt.

Braking distance
The braking distance is dependent on the driving speed. Under normal conditions, doubling
the speed will increase the braking distance by
four times.
Further factors which influence the braking distance are:
Road conditions, e.g. dry, wet, icy
Tyre condition, e.g. tread depth, tyre pressure
The condition of the brakes, e.g. worn, stiff,
damaged, corroded
The condition of the brake pads, e.g. wet, glazed
over, oily
The brake type, e.g. drum or disc brake, compressed-air brake, SBC
The weight of the vehicle, weight distribution,
e.g. when towing a trailer
The condition of the shock absorbers

10

cantly as a result of alcohol consumption, drug

consumption and also tiredness.

18.10.2 Hydraulic brake

Structure
The hydraulic-brake system (Fig. 2) consists of the
brake pedal, tandem master cylinder with brake
booster, wiring system (possibly with brake-pressure reducer), brake cylinder with wheel brakes.
Brake line
Brake
booster

IV : Full braking action

V : Vehicle stopped

FA

Brake shoe
Brake circuit 2
Brake pedal
Drum brake RA
(Simplex)

Disc brake

Fig. 1: Braking

Reaction time tR.This is the time needed by the driver between recognising a hazard and operating
the brake pedal (reaction). The reaction time depends very much on the physical and mental condition of the driver. It can be lengthened signifi-

Wheel-brake
cylinder

Tandem
master cylinder
Brake circuit 1 Brakepressure
Brake
reducer
cylinder
Brake disc

Brake calliper

Fig. 2: Hydraulic-brake system

Return spring

Brake drum

18

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18 Chassis
Wheel brakes. Normally, all wheels have disc brakes,
older and smaller vehicles have drum brakes on the
rear wheels. For reasons of safety, a dual-circuit
brake system with tandem master cylinder is a requirement. If a brake circuit fails, it is still possible to
brake the vehicle using the other brake circuit.

Operating principle
The operating principle of the hydraulic brake is
based on Pascal's law:

Table 1: Brake-circuit configurations

Abbreviation
Design

Remark
Use

II
(TT)

Front/rear axle configuration. Each circuit drives one

axle. For rear-wheel drive
with ABS. (black-white)

The pressure on fluid which is enclosed on all

sides acts evenly on all sides.
The force with which the brake pedal presses on
the plunger in the master cylinder generates the
fluid pressure. The fluid pressure takes effect
through the brake lines and generates the application forces (contact pressures).

The work performed (W = F s) is therefore the

same on the master cylinder and the wheel-brake
cylinders.
Wheel-brake cylinder F2 = 4,000 N
1,000 N
1,000 N 1,000 N

4 s

Master cylinder
F1 = 1,000 N 1,000 N

18

Fig. 1: Diagram of a hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake can work at high pressures of up

to about 180 bar. This explains the small dimensions
of the hydraulic construction components. The hydraulic brake remains maintenance-free for a longer
period of time. Since brake fluid is almost impossible
to compress and the clearances are small, only small
quantities of brake fluid are moved. The pressure increase is very fast and the brakes respond quickly.

18.10.3 Brake-circuit configuration

Hydraulic service brake systems are split into 2 circuits. This means that a sufficient braking action is
still produced if one circuit fails. There are 5 designs (Table 1).

HI
(HT)
1

LL

The hydraulic power transmission normally involves a transmission of force (Fig. 1).
The forces interact like the plunger surfaces, in other
words, the strongest force is created on the largest
surface. The plunger travels, on the other hand, behave in the opposite way to the forces. So, an actuating force of 1,000 N with a plunger travel of 8 mm
on the master cylinder on the four wheel-brake
cylinders, for example, produces a total force of
4,000 N and a corresponding plunger travel of 2 mm.

HH
1

Diagonal configuration.
Each circuit drives one
front wheel and the rear
wheel diagonally opposite. All-wheel drive and
front drive with ABS and
negative kingpin offset.
One brake circuit drives
the front and rear axle, the
other drives the front axle
only. Seldom used. (4-2)
Each brake circuit drives
the front axle and one
rear wheel (triangle).
Seldom used.
Each brake circuit drives
the front and rear axle.
Seldom used.

Vehicles with ABS control systems normally use

the II (black-white) and X (criss-cross) brake-circuit
configurations.

18.10.4. Master cylinder

Only tandem master cylinders are used, because the law requires that two separate brake
circuits are used. This cylinder is operated by
the brake pedal via the brake booster.

Its tasks are:

To achieve a rapid pressure build-up in each
brake circuit.
To achieve a rapid pressure reduction so that the
brakes are rapidly released.
To balance the volume of the brake fluid during
a temperature change and when the clearance is
increased because the brake pad is worn.

Structure
The tandem master cylinder (Fig. 1, Page 455) contains two plungers arranged one behind the other the push-rod plunger and the intermediate plunger,
which is stored in fluid. The plungers form two separate pressure chambers in one housing. Both
plungers are designed as double plungers, meaning
that there is a ring-shaped castor chamber between
the front and rear sealing section of each plunger.
This chamber is always filled with brake fluid via the
snifter bore. The primary cup seal is located at the
front of each plunger and seals the pressure chamber.

455

18 Chassis
Contact plate
Expansion
tank

Float

Primary
cup seal

Balancing
port

Cylinder
housing

Snifter
bore

Plunger
spring

Intermediate
plunger

Push-rod
plunger

Circ. 1

Plastic
bushing

Circ. 2
Central
valve
Valve pin

Stop pin

Separating
cup seal

Plunger
spring

Longitudinal slot in piston

Secondary
cup seal
Primary cup seal

Fig. 1: Tandem master cylinder

The push-rod plunger is sealed at the rear by the

secondary cup seal. The separating cup seals the
intermediate plunger against the push rod circuit.
The intermediate plunger has a slot into which a
central bore hole runs at the front. The central
valve rests in this bore hole. A stop pin which leads
goes through the slot on the intermediate plunger
keeps the plunger in the cylinder and forms the
front and rear stop.
Central valve. This is used on vehicles with ABS
systems and assumes the function of the balancing port. There are also tandem master cylinders
which have a central valve on both plungers.
Plunger
spring

Central
valve

Valve spring

Valve seal

Primary cup seal

Stop pin

Plunger spring

Primary cup seal

Fig. 2: Rest position

Operating principle
Rest position. The plunger springs press the
plungers against their stop. The primary cup seal
on the push-rod plunger releases the balancing
port and the intermediate plunger is placed at the
front of the stop pin. This means that the central
valve (Fig. 2) is opened by the valve pin which fits
into it and assumes the function of the balancing
port. Both pressure chambers are now linked to
the expansion tank. The volume of the brake fluid
can be balanced during a temperature change, for
example.

If the balancing port is closed because the pushrod plunger is in the wrong rest position or due to
contamination, it will not be possible to balance
the brake fluid. The fluid expands due to heat,
which then increases or automatically triggers the
braking action.
Brake actuation. When the vehicle is braked, the primary cup seal (Fig. 3) on the push-rod plunger travels over the balancing port and seals the pressure
chamber. The filler shim thus prevents the balancing
port from pressing in to the filler bores and from becoming damaged. The intermediate plunger is now
somewhat displaced by the brake fluid. The stop pin
releases the valve pin and the central valve is
closed. Pressure builds up in both brake circuits.
Advantages of the central valve
The primary cup seal has a longer service life
because the sealing lip cannot be damaged by
the balancing port.
In ABS systems, the primary cup seal would be
pressed into the balancing port by pressurepeak reverse movements in an ABS control system and would thus be damaged.
Primary
cup seal

Snifter bore

Balancing port

Support ring

Filler shim

Snifter bore

Filler bore

Fig. 3: Brake position

Releasing the brake. The plunger is pushed back

up by the fluid pressure and the plunger springs.
The primary cup seal on the push-rod plunger
folds down, the filler shim lifts up and the brake
fluid flows from the castor chamber through the
filler bores into the expanding pressure chamber
(Fig. 4). The intermediate plunger returns to its
original position. The pressure chambers are
linked to the expansion tank by the central valve
and the balancing port. The pressure falls and the
brakes are released.
Push-rod plunger

Folded filler shim

Fig. 4: Release position

18

456

18 Chassis
Failure of circuit 1 (Fig. 1)
The push-rod plunger is pushed up to the stop on
the intermediate plunger. The actuating force now
acts directly on the plunger for intact circuit 2,
where it generates braking pressure.
Failure of circuit 2 (Fig. 1)
The intermediate plunger is pushed forwards by
the fluid pressure in circuit 1 until it meets the
stop. It seals the intact circuit 1 to the non-tight circuit 2. The pressure now builds up in circuit 1.

Tandem master cylinder with riveted plunger spring

The screw-riveted compression spring keeps the
intermediate plunger and the push-rod plunger the
same distance apart when they are in the rest position (Fig. 3).
This causes the pressure to build up evenly in both
brake circuits when the brake is actuated. If the
braking pressure is increased, the intermediate
plunger is no longer moved by the plunger springs
but by the brake-fluid pressure.
Balancing
port

Circ. 2

Circ. 2

Circ. 1
Brake position,
circuit 1 leaking

Circ. 1
Brake position,
circuit 2 leaking

Fig. 1: Failure of a brake circuit

18

Tiered tandem master cylinder (Fig. 2)

This master cylinder was developed for II systems
(TT, black-white) with front axle/rear axle brake-circuit split. The cylinder diameters are graduated,
meaning that the diameter of the intermediate
plunger, which works on the rear axle brake circuit,
is smaller than the diameter of the push-rod
plunger. In intact brake circuits, the same pressure
is created in both circuits when the vehicle is
braked. The larger push-rod plunger diameter in
the front axle brake circuit pushes back a greater
volume of fluid when the vehicle is braked, causing the brakes to respond faster. If the front axle
brake circuit fails, the push-rod plunger is pushed
onto the intermediate plunger when the vehicle is
braked and the plunger's plunging force now acts
directly on the intermediate plunger. The pedal
travel is lengthened and a higher pressure is created in the rear axle brake circuit due to the smaller
diameter of the intermediate plunger without the
pedal force being increased. If the front axle circuit
fails, a sufficient braking action is still achieved
with the rear axle brakes.
Central
valve

Stop pin

Snifter bore Riveted

Push-rod plunger
plunger spring

Balancing port Push-rod plunger

Intermediate
plunger
Intermediate-plunger spring

Connecting screw
Stop sleeve

Fig. 3:Tandem-brake master cylinder with riveted

plunger spring

18.10.5 Drum brake

Nowadays, drum brakes (Fig. 4) are predominantly
used as brakes for rear wheels of passenger cars
or in commercial vehicles.

Structure and operating principle

The brake drum fits snugly on the wheel hub. The
brake shoes and the components which generate the
application force are found on the brake anchor plate.
The brake anchor plate is fixed to the wheel suspension. When braking occurs, the brake shoes and their
pads are pressed against the brake drum by the
clamping fixture, thus generating the friction required.
The application force can be created hydraulically by
the wheel-brake cylinder (service brake) or mechanically by the control cable and the tension lever, expander lever or brake shoe expander (parking brake).
Brake shoe
Brake anchor plate

Brake drum
Return
springs

Holding
spring
Intermediate Valve
pin
plunger

Longitudinal
Primary
slot in plunger cup seal

Wheel-brake
cylinder
Expander lever

Plastic
bushing

Fig. 2: Tiered tandem master cylinder with central valve

Fig. 4: Parts of the drum brake

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18 Chassis
Features:
Self-reinforcement
Dirt-proof design
Parking brake easier to use
Long idle time of brake pads
Pad replacement and maintenance is costly and
time-consuming
Poor heat dissipation
Tendency towards fading
Designs
According to the actuation methods and brake-shoe
supports, it is possible to distinguish between:
Simplex brakes
Duo-servo brakes
Simplex brake (Fig. 2). This brake has one overrun and
one trailing brake shoe. To tension the brake shoes, a
double-acting wheel-brake cylinder, brake shoe expander, S cam, expanding wedge or expander lever
can be used. Each brake shoe has a fixed pivot or fulcrum point, such as a support bearing.
Simplex brakes have the same effect when driving
forwards as they do when reversing but have only
reduced self-reinforcement (Fig. 1). The pad wear
on the overrun brake shoe is greater. A parking
brake is easy to use.
Duo-servo brake (Fig. 3). The self-reinforcement of
the overrun brake shoe is used to press down the
second overrun brake shoe. The support bearing is
floating.The support is provided by the double-acting wheel-brake cylinder. The braking action is the
same when driving forwards or reversing. It is often used as a parking brake in cup washers (Fig. 6).
A control-cable-actuated brake-shoe expander is
then used in place of a wheel-brake cylinder.
Self-reinforcement (Fig. 4). The friction creates
torque which pulls the overrun brake shoe into
the drum and strengthens the braking effect.
This reinforcement is expressed by the brake
coefficient C (Fig. 1). The pressing force on the
trailing brake shoe is then reduced.

Fading. This is an abatement of the braking effect caused by overheating, e.g. during long
braking. The friction coefficient in the pad decreases at high temperatures or high sliding
speeds. The brake drum can also become deformed to a conical shape, because the heat
supply to the wheel hub is more efficiently carried off. The brake area then becomes smaller.

Fixed
Double-acting
support
wheel-brake cylinder bearing

Floating support bearing

Fig. 2: Simplex brake

Fig. 3: Duo-servo brake

Overrun
brake
shoe

Return
spring

Readjustment
caps

M
Direction
of brake-drum
rotation

Trailing
brake
shoe

Control
cable

Fig. 4: Self-reinforcement
of the drum brake

Tensioning lever

Fig. 5: Clamping fixture

for parking brake

Clamping fixtures
These are intended to tension or expand the brake
shoes and press them onto the brake drum.
Wheel-brake cylinders are normally used with hydraulic brakes (Fig. 1, Page 458). With mechanically
operated parking brakes, a tensioning lever (Fig. 5)
or a brake-shoe expander (Fig. 6) is used.
Backplate

Expander

18

5
Brake coefficient C

Duo-servo
brake

Simplex
brake
Expander

3
2
1
0

Brake lining

Disc brake
0.2
0.4
Friction coefficient

Fig. 1: Brake coefficient C

0.6

Brake cable
Backplate

Fig. 6: Parking brake integrated into the cup washer

458

18 Chassis

Wheel-brake cylinder
In the double-acting wheel-brake cylinder (Fig. 1),
the pressure generated in the master cylinder acts
on the plungers and generates an application
force. The plungers are sealed by rubber sleeves.
Dust caps prevent dirt from entering. On the back
of the wheel-brake cylinder are threaded bore
holes which fasten it to the brake anchor plate and
the brake line connection. A bleeder valve is
screwed in at the highest point.
Pressure
element

Plunger

Dust cap

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1

What are brakes for?

Which types of brake systems can be distinguished according to their method of use?

Explain the structure of a hydraulic brake system.

Which brake systems are specified in vehicle

classes M and N?

How can brake systems be distinguished according to their mode of operation?

What are the functions of the master cylinder?

How does the primary cup seal work?

What are the functions of the central valve?

How does the tandem master cylinder work

when one of the brake circuits fails?

10 What is the advantage of tiered master cylinders?

11 Which brake-circuit configurations are there?
12 What are the features of drum brakes?
Grooved-ring sleeve

Fig. 1: Double-acting wheel-brake cylinder

13 List the distinguishing features of different

types of drum brakes.
14 What does fading mean?

Brake drum (Fig. 4, Page 456)

Features:
High wear resistance
Inherent stability
Good heat conductivity
Substances:
Cast iron with flake graphite
Malleable cast iron
Cast iron with nodular graphite
Cast steel
Combined casting of light alloy and cast iron
The brake drum must run centrally and free from
runout. The brake area is finely spun or ground.

Brake shoes (Fig. 4, Page 456)

18

Brake shoes maintain their rigidity due to a T-section and are cast from a light metal alloy or welded
from pressed steel. At one end they have a bearing
surface for the mostly slotted pressure pins on the
wheel-brake cylinder. A bolt is fitted at the other
end, or the end of the shoe is flush with the fixed
support bearing. The shoes can therefore be centred in the drum. They fit better and the pad wear is
more even.

Adjusting components
The clearance between the brake pad and the
brake drum is increased by the brake pad wear.
This also increases the pedal idle travel. The brakes
must therefore be adjusted on a regular basis, either by hand or using an automatic adjusting component.

18.10.6 Disc brake

Disc brakes are designed as a fixed-calliper or floating-calliper brake (Fig. 1). The brake plungers are
located in the brake calliper. They press the pads
against the brake disc when the vehicle is braked.
Brake pads

Floating calliper

Brake fluid
Plunger
Brake disc
Brake anchor
plate
Fixed-calliper brake

Plunger
Bracket

Floating-calliper brake

Fig. 2: Disc brakes

Features:
No self-reinforcement due to the even brake areas. This requires greater downforces and therefore brake cylinders whose diameters (40 mm to
50 mm) are larger than the diameters of the
wheel-brake cylinders in the drum brake and additional brake boosters are required.
Good metering of the braking force, because the
absence of self-reinforcement and the minor
changes in friction coefficient ensure that hardly
any fluctuations occur in the braking.
Efficient cooling.
Low tendency towards fading.
Higher brake-pad wear due to the high downforces.

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18 Chassis
Easy maintenance and pad replacement.
Automatic adjustment of clearance.
More heat generated by the brake fluid, because
the pads fit tightly on the brake plungers. Danger of vapour bubbles.
Good automatic cleaning due to centrifugal force.
Tendency of vapour-bubble formation because
the brake plungers fit tightly against the brake
pad.
The parking brake requires great effort.

Designs

When the vehicle is braked, the brake-cylinder

plungers press against the brake pads. The brake
pads are then pushed against the brake disc on
both sides.
Sealing ring

Plunger

Fixed-calliper disc brake. Two- and four-cylinder

fixed-calliper disc brakes are normally used (Fig. 1).
Fixed calliper

Locking pin

Protective cap
Sealing
ring

Brake lining
Expander
spring
(cruciform
spring)

Brake position

Release position

Fig. 2: Plunger reset

Plunger reset (Fig. 2)

A rectangular rubber sealing ring used to seal the
plunger is located in a groove in the brake cylinder. The inner diameter of the sealing ring is somewhat smaller than the plunger diameter. It therefore encompasses the plunger with its pretension.

Plunger
Backplate

The braking movement of the plunger deforms the

sealing ring elastically due to its static friction and
the plunger stroke. When the pressure drops in the
brake fluid, the sealing ring returns to its starting
shape or position. This also removes the plunger
from the clearance of about 0.15 mm and releases
the brake disc. This is only possible with complete
pressure reduction in the wire system and ease of
movement of the plunger and pads.

2-cylinder
Internal ventilation
Fixed
calliper
Expander
spring

Expander spring. It fits the brake pads onto the

plungers and thus prevents the pads from knocking and chattering.

Plunger

Floating-calliper disc brake (Fig. 1, Page 460)

4-cylinder

Brake disc
with holes

Fig. 1: Fixed-calliper disc brake

The fixed brake-cylinder backplate (fixed calliper) is

bolted onto the wheel suspension. This backplate
grips the brake disc like pliers. It consists of one
two-piece housing. Each housing section contains
brake cylinders which are situated opposite each
other in pairs. They contain the brake plungers with
sealing ring, protective cap and clamping ring. The
brake cylinders are linked by channels. The bleeder
valve sits on top of the housing.

This consists of two main components, the bracket

and the housing or floating calliper and has the
following features:
Low weight
Small size
Good heat dissipation
Large pad surfaces
Takes up less space.
Reduced tendency towards vapour-bubble formation, as only one or two of the brake cylinders are on the bracket side.
Maintenance-free housing versions, therefore
not sensitive to dirt and corrosion.

18

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18 Chassis
Bracket. The bracket is fixed to the wheel suspension.
The housing is fitted within the bracket. Floating-calliper disc brakes with various guides are used, such as:
Guide teeth
Guide pins
Guide pins and guide teeth combined
Guide pins with retractable floating calliper
Brake pads
Housing
Locking pin

pushes the housing in the opposite direction. The

plunger in the housing now also presses the outer
brake pad against the brake disc once the additional clearance has been overcome. Both brake pads
are pushed against the brake disc with the same
amount of force.
The guide teeth support the inner pad directly, the
outer pad is supported against the housing by the
peripheral force.
If guide pins are used, both brake pads are supported on the housing. When the brake is released,
the return forces of the sealing ring restore the
clearance, with the support of the expander spring.
Gaiter seal

Bracket

Brake lining

Cover plate

Expander spring
Bracket
Bracket with
guide teeth

Housing

Housing
(calliper)

Fastening screw
Expander spring
Guide pin

Fig. 2: Floating-calliper disc brake with guide pins

Brake disc (Fig. 1, Page 459)

Guide spring

Locking pin

Brake pads

Fig. 1: Floating-calliper disc brake with guide teeth

Floating-calliper disc brake with guide teeth

(Fig. 1)
Bracket.The bracket has two teeth on each side.

18

Housing. The housing is kept in the bracket by the

guide teeth which fit into its semicircular grooves,
thus enabling it to slide back and forth.
Guide spring. The guide spring presses the housing onto the bracket teeth to prevent clattering
noises from occurring.

The brake disc is normally disc-shaped and is made

of cast iron, malleable cast iron or cast steel. In racing
cars, this disc can also be made of composite materials reinforced with carbon fibres or ceramic carbon.
Internally ventilated brake discs. These discs are
used when the brakes are subject to a very great
load. They contain radially mounted air ducts
which are designed such that a fan effect is produced during revolutions. This produces a more efficient cooling effect. Sometimes, the brake area
even also contains bore holes and possibly also
oval-shaped grooves. This ensures that water is
drained away more rapidly if the brake is applied
when the discs are wet. The brakes respond evenly
and the risk of fading is low. At the same time, the
bore holes also bring about a reduction in weight.

Floating-calliper disc brake with guide pins

(Fig. 2)
This brake has two guide pins bolted onto the housing on the cylinder side of the bracket. The bracket has
two bore holes which contain sliding inserts made of
Teflon, for example. The housing is kept in these bore
holes by the guide pins and can slide back and forth.
Braking.The plunger in the housing presses the inner brake pad against the brake disc once the
clearance has been overcome. The reaction force

18.10.7 Brake pads

The friction material uses the braking force to generate considerable friction with the brake disc or
brake drum. This then converts the kinetic energy
generated by the vehicle into heat. With drum
brakes, the brake pad is riveted or adhered to the
brake shoe. On disc brakes, the pad is adhered to
the steel brake-pad backplate.

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18 Chassis
Electric contacts can be incorporated into disc
brake pads for a wear indicator.
Requirements of the friction lining:
Very stable at high temperatures, considerable
mechanical strength and long operating life.
Constantly high coefficient of friction even at
high temperatures and sliding speeds.
Not sensitive to water and dirt.
No glazing at high thermal load, good heat conduction.

Brake lining materials. Brake linings contain, for

example:
Metals such as steel wool and copper powder.
Filler materials such as iron oxide, barite, mica
powder and aluminium oxide.
Anti-friction agents such as coke dust, antimony
sulphide and graphite.
Organic substances such as resin filler material,
aramid fibres and binding resin.
Brake pads have a friction coefficient of approximately = 0.4. They are heat-resistant to approximately 800 C.

18.10.8 Diagnosis and maintenance of the hydraulic brake system

Visual check. Monitoring of the brake-fluid level in
the expansion tank; looking for damp, dark patches on the brake cylinders and connection points
and for corrosion on the brake lines/state of the
brake hoses (chafe marks, bubbles, animal bites).

High-pressure test. Using the pedal holder, the

braking pressure is set to a value of between
50 bar and 100 bar. Within 10 minutes, this set pressure may drop by a maximum of 10 %. If there is a
larger pressure drop, this means there is a leak.

Functional test. This includes checking the pedal

travel by activating the service brake system. If the
pedal travel slowly increases, this may be a result
of a leaking primary cup seal or a leaking central
valve. If the pedal travel is too great or it is only
possible to build up the pressure by pumping, the
cause could be air bubbles or the clearance being
too great.

Filling and bleeding the brake system (Fig. 2). This

work can be carried out by one person with filler
and bleeder apparatus. A bleeder pipe and a transparent bleeder hose with collector are the tools required. For vehicles with ABS, observe the brake
bleeding instructions.

Leak tests (Fig.1). A pressure-tester tool and a pedal holder are required. Before the tests, the brake
system and the pressure tester tool filled with
brake fluid must be bled.
Low-pressure test. The low/high-pressure manometer combination of the pressure-tester tool is
connected to the bleeder valve on a wheel brake
and the pedal holder used to apply a pressure of
between 2 bar and 5 bar. This pressure should be
maintained for 5 minutes. The entire system
should be left untouched for this time. If the pressure falls, there is a leak.
Combination
pressuretester tool

Front brake
circuit

Filler and
bleeder
apparatus
Bleeder
bottle

Filling pressure
Safety valve
Operating pressure
Pressure
regulator
Filler hose

Brake
cylinder

Shutoff
cock

Wheel-brake
cylinder

Tandem master cylinder

Fig. 2: Bleeding with apparatus

High-pressure
manometer
Low-pressure Vacuum-pressure
manometer
manometer

Tandem
master cylinder

Fig. 1: Leak test

Rear brake
circuit

Connect the filler and bleeder apparatus to the

bleeder pipe on the expansion tank and attach the
bleeder hose with collector to a bleeder valve.
Now open the shutoff cock on the filler hose of the
equipment and then open the bleeder valve, until
new, clear brake fluid flows out without bubbles.
Then close the bleeder valve. Repeat the process
for all bleeder valves. Finally, close the shutoff
cock. Before removing the bleeder pipe, open a
bleeder valve briefly and release the pressure.

18

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18 Chassis

Work on the wheel brakes

Brake drums and brake discs. During a brake check,
you must check these for ridges, out-of-roundness
and knock. Brake discs with lateral runout that is
too great must be replaced. The disc-brake pads,
sliding calliper and floating calliper must move
smoothly. Brake drums and brake discs that are
out-of-round or have ridges must be skimmed or
turned down. Observe the maximum skimming
measurement or the minimum disc thickness, the
brake discs and/or brake drums may need replacing. Brake drums or brake discs with cracks and/or
damaged brake callipers must be replaced.
Brake pads. The thickness and oiling must be
checked and the pads must be replaced if necessary.

Brake test
The brake tests are mainly carried out on brake dynamometers.
The following are measured for each wheel:
Braking force
Rolling resistance
Fluctuation of the braking force, e.g. in the case
of an out-of-round drum
Occurrence of incipient lock
Dynamic brake analyser (Fig. 1). This has two identical sets of rollers so that the brakes for both
wheels on an axle can be tested at the same time.
These each drive one braked wheel during the test.
The drive rollers on one side are driven together.
The third roller is a sensor roller. It automatically
WORKSHOP NOTES
Check the fluid level in the expansion tank
during each check. On disc brakes, the sunken
fluid level can be a sign of considerable lining
wear.
The thickness of the drum brake linings can be
checked using inspection holes.

18

To check the brake drum, remove it; clean the

brake of wear debris. Vacuum off the wear debris, do not blow it out.
The brake pads must be replaced on the
brakes of one axle at the same time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

Fig. 1: Dynamic brake analyser

activates the dynamometer and the locking protection. The braking force (peripheral force) of every
wheel is measured.
The braking factor z is mainly determined as a percentage (see Page 452).The brake-force differential
(for the service brake system) of an axle must not
be greater than 25 %. Special test instructions
must be observed for motor vehicles with permanent all-wheel drive and variable engine torque
distribution.
Renew the brake fluid in accordance with
company regulations, e.g. yearly.
Do not use drained brake fluid; store it in
marked containers and have it disposed of by
a disposal or reprocessing company.
Keep greases and oils away from the brake
components.
Only use the specified brake fluid to refill.
Only use brake cleaner, possibly alcohol
(methylated spirits) for cleaning.

Describe the braking procedure for the floatingcalliper disc brake.

What requirements are made of brake pads?

What inspections are carried out on the hydraulic

brake?

4 What are the different types of floating-calliper disc

brakes, as distinguished by the calliper guide?

How is the hydraulic brake filled and bled?

5 How is the braking factor determined?

10 What measurements can be taken on the dynamic brake analyser?

1 What are the features of disc brakes?

2 How is a fixed-calliper disc brake constructed?
3 How is the clearance set for disc brakes?

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18 Chassis

18.10.9 Power-assisted brake

To create the assistance (power-assistance), a vacuum pressure or hydraulic brake booster is connected to the master cylinder of the hydraulic brake.

Vacuum brake booster

For motor vehicles with a spark-ignition engine, the
vacuum pressure can generally be taken from the
induction pipe. The small pressure difference between the air pressure and the intake manifold pressure of approximately 0.8 bar requires the working
plunger to have large surfaces, so that the plunger
rod force can be increased fourfold, for example.

valve is closed. The reaction shim is squeezed by

the valve plunger and the outside air valve is
opened. The pressure difference which arises in
the working chamber compared to the vacuum
chamber has the effect of a boosting force on the
working plunger. This is pushed forwards with the
timing case and push rod until the reaction force
from the master cylinder is equal. When the push
rod is still, the reaction shim expands again and
presses on the valve plunger. This closes the outside air valve. The booster force on the working
plunger and push rod remains constant.

For diesel engines, the pressure difference is generated by a vacuum pump driven by the engine.
Vacuum
Plunger return spring
connection

Roller diaphragm

Working plunger
Vacuum valve (open)
To nonreturn
valve

Plunger
rod

Push rod

Brake
pedal

Reaction
shim

Filter
Vacuum pressure

Valve
plunger
Vacuum
chamber

Air pressure

Compression spring
Outside air valve (closed)
Poppet valve

Working-pressure chamber
Rest position

Reduced air pressure

Vacuum pressure

Air pressure

Fig. 1: Vacuum brake booster

Structure (Fig. 1). The master cylinder is usually

flange-mounted to the reinforcement housing. The
working plunger divides the housing into a vacuum chamber and working chamber. The working
chamber is connected alternately via a vacuum
pressure and outside air valve with the outside air
or with the vacuum chamber. The double valve is
actuated by the brake pedal via the plunger rod.
This plunger rod presses on the master cylinder
push rod via valve plungers and the rubber reaction shim. The working plunger and its boosting
force also presses on the push rod.

Fig. 2: Partially braked position

Full braking (Fig. 3). At full pedal force, the reaction

shim is constantly being squeezed by the plunger
rod and the counterforce from the push rod,
whereby the outside air valve is constantly open.
The pressure difference (p = 0.8 bar) between the
two chambers is the largest possible and the
largest booster force is therefore exerted on the
working plunger and push rod.

18

Operating principle
Release position (Fig. 1). The outside air valve is
closed, the working chamber is connected via the
open vacuum valve to the vacuum chamber. Both
sides of the working plunger have the same pressure of approximately pabs = 0.2 bar.
Partially braked position (Fig. 2). During braking,
the push rod is moved forwards and the vacuum

Vacuum pressure

Fig. 3: Fully braked position

Air pressure

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18 Chassis

Hydraulic brake booster (Fig. 2)

Pneumatic brake booster

The system (Fig. 1) consists of the high-pressure

oil pump for the power steering, the hydraulic accumulator, the pressure-regulated oil-flow controller and the hydraulic brake booster with tandem master cylinder and the oil supply reservoir.

Pneumatic brake boosters (Fig. 3) can be fitted to

vehicles with a combined compressed-air/hydraulic brake system. With an operating pressure
of approximately 7 bar, great booster forces can be
achieved on small vehicles.

Supply reservoir

Hydraulic
booster

Oil-flow
controller

Partially braked
position

Supply e.g. 7 bar

Inlet valve

Outlet
valve
Working
plunger

Tandem master cylinder

Hydraulic
accumulator

Filter
Ventilation

High-pressure
oil pump
Power-steering gear

Operating principle
The high-pressure oil pump delivers oil to the hydraulic accumulator. The oil compresses the nitrogen inside it using a diaphragm and charges the
accumulator with a pressure of up to 150 bar. The
brake booster and the hydraulic-accumulator pressure-oil chamber are connected via an electric line.
Brake position. By applying the brake, the control
plunger (Fig. 2) of the brake booster is moved. It
closes the return passage and opens the inlet passage. The working chamber is supplied with pressure oil and assists the working plunger. The moving working plunger closes the inlet passage thus
enabling a variable boost depending on the pedal
force.
Release position. When the pedal force is released,
the control plunger closes the inlet passage and
opens the return passage. The hydraulic fluid can
flow back to the supply reservoir. The resetting
spring pushes the working plunger into its original
position. If the engine fails, there is still pressure
oil for approximately 10 brake applications.
Release
position

To supply
reservoir

From
Return Inlet
hydraulic
accumulator passage passage
Working
chamber

Push rod
To master cylinder

Working plunger

Fig. 2: Hydraulic brake booster

Valve tappet

Working
chamber
e.g. 3 bar

Fig. 3: Pneumatic brake booster

Fig. 1: Hydraulic brake-booster system

18

Air pressure

Control plunger

Function. When the brakes are applied, the valve

tappet is moved by the plunger rod. The valve tappet comes into contact with the valve plate and
therefore closes the outlet valve. Simultaneously,
the valve plate is raised and the inlet valve therefore
opens. The supply pressure surges into the working
chamber and has the effect of a booster force on the
working plunger. The moving working plunger closes the inlet valve again. This results in a variable
booster force which is directly related to the pedal
force. When the pedal force is released, the valve
tappet closes the inlet valve and opens the outlet
valve. The pressure in the working chamber is discharged and the working plunger is moved back to
its original position by the resetting spring.

18.10.10 Braking-force distribution

The axle load displacement that occurs during
braking depends on the level of braking deceleration, the load, the load distribution on the vehicle
and the height of its centre of gravity. If the brakes
are applied when the vehicle is being driven in a
straight line, the front wheels are under load and
the rear wheels are relieved. If the brakes are applied when the vehicle is cornering, the wheels on
the outside of the bend are subjected to an additional load. The brakes are usually designed in such
a way to provide optimum effect at medium deceleration and medium load. When braking sharply,
however, the rear wheels may lock and the vehicle
could skid. Brake-pressure reducers reduce this
danger and are used on vehicles without ABS.
Brake-pressure reducer (Fig. 1, Page 465). This controls the braking pressure of the rear wheels in the
brake line. They are braked with only slightly increased pressure as of a certain changeover pressure.

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18 Chassis
Pressure characteristic in the brake system without braking-pressure control. The blue line shows
the routing of the braking pressures during actual
braking. The same braking pressure is exerted on
the front and rear axles until the changeover point
(e.g. 40 bar). After the changeover point, further increase of braking pressure on the rear axle is reduced. The rear axle is prevented from locking.
Optimum braking is when the braking pressure on
the rear axle increases further at the start of braking than it does on the front axle. This is shown in
Fig. 1 for a laden and an unladen vehicle. When the
vehicle is laden, the wheel contact forces are
greater and therefore enable stronger braking
forces, generated by the higher braking pressures
in the wheel brake cylinders.

Brake cables.These are steel cables which are routed over rollers in pipes or flexible metal hoses
(Bowden cables). To reduce friction and protect
against icing and corrosion, these are coated with
plastic. Tensioning bolts are attached to adjust the
brake cables.
Brake compensator (Fig. 3). This is required so that
the same forces are exerted on the wheels of one
axle.
Compensating lever
Brake cable,
front

Brake cable, rear

Clamp Rubber grommet Bracket

Adjusting screw

Tension
spring

Spring hook
Blow valve
Stepped plunger
MC From master
cylinder
Plunger spring

Braking pressure RA

RA To rear axle

Ideally
loaded

Unreduced
pressure
Changeover
point

oaded
lly unl
Idea

Reduced
pressure
Braking pressure FA

Fig. 1: Brake-pressure reducer

Stepped
plunger
Valve
"open"
MC

RA
To rear axle
Rest position

Changeover point
loaded
d
Id
e

Ring surface
Housing

Braking pressure RA

Load-sensitive brake-pressure reducer (Fig. 2).

This has the same effect as the normal brake-pressure reducer, but after the changeover point, the
braking pressure during braking is controlled according to the load and axle-load shift.
The braking pressure within the control range is always adjusted to the ideal pressure with the loadsensitive shift of the changeover pressure.

ly
al

e
ad
lo

Control
range

ded
nloa
lly u
Idea

Changeover point
unloaded
Braking pressure FA

Fig. 3: Brake compensator

Overrun brake (Fig. 4). This is used for trailers.

When the tractor vehicle is braked, the trailer runs
onto the tractor vehicle. The shear force of the trailer causes the pull rod to be pushed against a compression spring. The movement caused is created
by a reversing lever and a control cable on an expander which creates an application force on the
brake.
Towing
Handbrake Reversing lever
attachment lever

Wheel
Drum brake
Brake cables

Pull
rod with
gaiter seal

Tear-off Compensating
cable
element
Expander

Fig. 4: Overrun brake

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What types of brake booster are used in hydraulic
brakes?

Fig. 2: Load-sensitive brake-pressure reducer

2 What pressure difference is used in the vacuum

brake booster?

18.10.11 Mechanically operated brake

3 How does the vacuum brake booster work in

emergency braking?

Mechanically operated brakes are often only still

used as the parking brake in vehicles with a hydraulic service-brake system and as the service
brake in light motorcycles and single-axle trailers.
The efficiency of the mechanical load transmission
is low (according to the maintenance status, only
~ 50 %). In winter, load transmission components
may freeze together in wet weather or frost.

4 What are the components that make up a hydraulic brake-booster system?

5 What is understood by dynamic axle-load displacement when braking?
6 What are the basic types of brake-pressure reducer used?
7 How does the brake-pressure reducer work?

18

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18 Chassis

18.10.12 Basics of the electronic chassis

control systems

Kamm's
friction circle

F Resmax = F N

Electronic control systems should guarantee

safe control of a motor vehicle during braking,
accelerating and steering.
The following control systems are used:
ABS (Antilock-Braking System), prevents wheel
locking during braking.

Greatest
transmissible
peripheral force F U

Greatest
transmissible
lateral force F S

BAS (Brake Assistant), detects emergency situations and brings about shorter braking distances.
SBC (Sensotronic Brake control), reduces braking distances and increases the directional stability when braking in bends.
TCS or ASC (Acceleration Skid Control), ELSD (Electronic Limited-Slip Differential), prevents wheel
spinning when pulling away and accelerating.
VDC (Vehicle Dynamics Controller such as ESP
or DSC), prevents the vehicle from skidding.
Every vehicle movement or change in movement
can only be achieved by forces on the wheels.
These are:
Peripheral force as motive or braking force. This
acts on the longitudinal direction of the tyre.
Lateral force, e.g. caused by steering or external
interferences such as crosswind.
Normal force caused by vehicle weight. This acts
at right angles to the road surface.
The strength of these forces depends on the road
surface, tyre condition/type and weather influences.

18

The possible load transmission between the tyres

and road surface is determined by the friction
force. Optimum transmission of the loads can only
occur as a result of static friction between the tyres
and road surface. The electronic control systems
utilise the static friction optimally.
The peripheral force is transferred via static friction as a motive (FA) or braking force (FB) to the
road surface.
Its size is equal to the normal force FN multiplied by
the coefficient of friction H (Ice = 0.1 to Dry = 0.9).
FA, B

FA, B = H FN

FN

Motive force,
braking force
Normal force
Coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction H (grip value) is determined by:

Material pairing, tyres and road surface
Occurring weather influences

Greatest transmissible
force on tyre F Res

Normal force F N
(tyre load)

Fig. 1: Forces on the wheel, Kamm's friction circle

Kamm's friction circle (Fig. 1). The largest force

transferable onto the road (Fmax = FN H) is shown
as a circle. For a stable driving condition, the resulting FRes of peripheral force FU and lateral force
FS must lie within the circle and therefore be smaller than Fmax.
If the peripheral force FU reaches its maximum as a
result of spinning or locked wheels, no lateral
force FS can be transferred. The vehicle can then no
longer be steered.
If when cornering at maximum cornering speed
the lateral force FS is at its maximum, the vehicle
cannot be braked or accelerated, as it would otherwise break away at the rear.
Slip (Fig. 2). While a tyre rolls, elastic deformations
and sliding occur. If, for example, a braked wheel
with a rolling circumference of 2 m covers a distance of only 1.8 m during a turn, the travel difference between the tyre circumference and braking
distance is 0.2 m. This corresponds to a slip of 10 %.
If a wheel locks or spins when it is being driven,
there is a slip of 100 %.
A slip-free transmission of force between the
tyres and the road surface is not possible, because the tyre is not interlocked with the road
surface and always slides a little when driving
or braking.
Vehicle speed
Slip 0.2 m = 10 %
Road surface Braking force
Travel in 1 rotation = 1.8 m
Rolling circumference = 2 m

Fig. 2: Slip on the braked wheel

Braked
wheel
Tyre
circumference

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18 Chassis

Relationship of forces on the wheel and slip

The relationship between motive force, braking
force, lateral force and slip when driving straight
ahead is shown in simplified form in Fig. 1. Even at
low-slip values, the braking force increases steeply
to its highest level. It then falls again a little when the
slip values increase further. The routing and highest
value of the motive/braking force curve depend on
the friction coefficient of the tyre on the road surface.
The highest value lies between 8 % and 35 % slip. The
first area of the curve is called the stable area because the wheel remains stable for driving and steerable. This is where the wheel has the best force transmission. Electronic control systems therefore work
in this control range. For large slip values, the lateral
force decreases significantly, the vehicle can no
longer be steered and the driving characteristics become unstable. The control systems in the vehicle
make sure that the stable area is kept to.

Motive or braking force

& lateral force

Stable

ABS operating range

Lateral force
35

50

Slip

Antilock-braking systems.They can be differentiated between according to the number of control

channels or sensors, and according to the type of
control in
4-channel system with 4 sensors and X (diagonal)
or II (black-white, TT) brake-circuit configuration.
Each wheel is controlled individually.
3-channel system with 3 or 4 sensors and X (diagonal) brake-circuit configuration. The front wheels
are controlled individually and the rear wheels always together.

Unstable
Motive or brakin
g force

0 8

ABS systems have the following features:

Lateral forces and directional stability remain
the same, whereas the risk of skidding is reduced.
Vehicle is still steerable and obstacles can thus
be avoided.
An optimum braking distance can be achieved
on normal road conditions (no gravel, snow).
Flat spots on tyres are prevented as the
wheels do not lock.

100

Fig. 1: Forces on the wheel subject to slip

18.10.13 Antilock-braking system (ABS)

Antilock-braking systems (ABS), also known as anti-skip system (ABV), are used in hydraulic brake
systems and air-brake systems for brake-pressure
control.
During braking, ABS systems control the braking pressure of a wheel according to its grip on
the road surface in order to prevent wheel locking.
Only moving wheels can be steered and can
transfer lateral forces.

Structure
An ABS consists of the following components:
Wheel sensors with pulse rings
ECU
Hydraulic modulator with solenoid valves
The solenoid valves are selected by the ECU in
three control phases; pressure build-up, pressure
holding and pressure reduction. They prevent the
wheels from locking.

Individual Control (IC). The greatest possible braking pressure for each wheel is adjusted here. This
means that the braking force is at its maximum.
Because the wheels of an axle can be braked with
varying forces, e.g. due to a road surface that is icy
on one side, there is vehicle torque on the vertical
axis (yaw moment).
Select-Low Control (SLC). With SLC, the wheel determines the common braking pressure of an axle with
the low road-surface adhesion. The yaw moment
when braking on road surfaces with varying roadsurface adhesion is lower, because the braking forces
on the rear wheels are approximately the same.
The front wheels are generally controlled individually and the rear wheels are often controlled according to the Select-Low principle.

Operating principle
The brakes are mainly applied when there is low
slip. The ABS does not therefore take effect. The
ABS closed-loop control circuit (Table 1, Page 468)
is only activated and wheel locking prevented during sharp braking and when there is significant
slip. The ABS control range lies between 8 % ... 35 %
slip. Below approximately 6 km/h, ABS is generally
deactivated so that the vehicle comes to a stop.
There is a toothed pulse ring around each wheel
which creates alternating voltage by induction in a
speed sensor. The frequency of the alternating
voltage is a measurement for the wheel speed. The
ECU can therefore determine the acceleration or
deceleration for each wheel.

18

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18 Chassis
Table 1: ABS closed-loop control circuit

Brake
calliper

Solenoid valve
Brake
cylinder

Control parameter
Pulse ring

Reference Master
parameter cylinder

Closed-loop
ECU
control
parameter Control Check
Monitor
Compute Warn
Tyre
Closed-loop
control path

Sensor

Controller
Road surface
(interference factor)

Closed-loop
control path

Friction pairing of tyres and road surface, wheel contact force (wheel load)

Interference
factor

Road conditions, state of brakes,

weight distribution of vehicle,
tyre condition (air pressure, tyre tread)

Controller

In ABS ECU (comparison of setpoint/

actual values)

Closed-loop
control
parameter

Rotational speed or change in speed

of wheel

Reference
parameter

Braking pressure specified by pedal

force

Control
parameter

Braking pressure in brake cylinder

Pressure build-up.The pressure created in the master

cylinder is transferred to the wheel-brake cylinder.
Pressure holding. If a wheel tends to lock during
braking and exceeds a predefined slip, this is detected by the ECU. It switches the solenoid valve of
the wheel to pressure holding. The connection
master cylinder wheel-brake cylinder is interrupted. The braking pressure remains the same.

18

Pressure reduction. If the slip and therefore the incipient lock continue to increase, the switch to pressure
reduction is made. A connection from the wheelbrake cylinder via the return pump to the master
cylinder is therefore made. The slip is reduced. If the
slip falls below a particular threshold, then the ECU
switches the solenoid valve back to the pressure
build-up. The control cycle is repeated (4 10 times
per second) as long as the brake is applied.

ABS with return in a closed circuit.

ECU
Final drive

Hydraulic
modulator

Warning lamp
Brake pedal

Sensor

Brake disc

Pulse ring
Tandem master cylinder
ABS electronics

ABS hydraulics

Fig 1: ABS with return in a closed circuit (illustration)

Wheel sensors (Fig. 2). These are on every wheel.

For each sensor there is one pulse ring around the
wheel. Inductive speed sensors or Hall-effect sensor are used.
Sensor

Coil

Pulse ring

Fig. 2: Inductive wheel sensor (speed sensor)

ECU. This processes the incoming signals from the

sensors, determines the necessary settings for the
solenoid valves and adjusts these accordingly. The
function of the ABS system is constantly monitored by self-diagnosis.
Warning lamp. Upon starting, this signals the operational readiness of the ABS. It lights up should
the ABS control system fail. The vehicle can still be
braked fully.
Hydraulic modulator with return pump. This contains solenoid valves for control, an accumulator
for brake fluid for each brake circuit and an electrically-driven return pump. The pump is activated
via a relay and always runs during the ABS control
system.
ECU

Winding

Sensor
M

During pressure reduction, brake fluid is taken in

by a pressure accumulator. At the same time, the
return pump pumps it back to the respective master-cylinder brake circuit.
Structure (Fig. 1). This ABS has the following components in addition to the usual brake system:
Wheel sensors
ECU
Hydraulic modulator
Warning lamp

Brake system

Electric motor
Return pump
Solenoid valve
Pulse ring

Pressure build-up

Pressure
accumulator

Fig. 3: 3/3 solenoid valve - operating principle

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18 Chassis

Operating principle with 3/3 solenoid valves

(Fig. 3, Page 468).
For braking-pressure modulation in the ABS control system, the ECU triggers a 3/3 solenoid valve
in the hydraulic modulator for each channel. In accordance with the three control phases, the master
cylinder is connected as follows:
To the wheel brake cylinder for pressure build-up
No connection for pressure holding
To the return pump for pressure reduction

Operating principle with 2/2 solenoid valves

(Fig. 1)
In this system, the hydraulic modulator is
equipped with smaller, lighter and faster switching
2/2 solenoid valves. Each control channel now requires an inlet valve and an outlet valve.
The ECU switches the solenoid valves in the control phases as follows:
Pressure build-up. Inlet valve (IV) open, outlet
valve (OV) closed.
Pressure holding. Both valves closed.
Pressure reduction. Inlet valve closed and outlet
valve open. The running return pump pumps the
excess brake fluid from the accumulator back into the relevant brake circuit.

FR

Tandem
master cylinder

Expansion
tank

Vacuum
brake
booster

Brake
circuit 1

ABS with return in an open circuit and

2/2 solenoid valves (Fig. 2)
During a control action, the excess brake fluid
flows back into the expansion tank at zero pressure. The hydraulic pump is selected by the ECU
using the position of the pedal-travel sensor. It
pumps the missing volume of brake fluid out of
the expansion tank at high pressure back into the
respective brake circuit and therefore brings the
brake pedal to its basic position. The pump is then
deactivated.
Structure
The system is composed of:
ECU
Wheel sensors
Actuating unit
Hydraulic unit
Warning lamp
ECU. This processes the sensor signals and passes
them on as control signals to the solenoid valves.
The signals from the travel sensor control the hydraulic pump in the ABS control system. Faults
and malfunctions are detected by the ECU, ABS is
switched off and the ABS warning lamp is
switched on.
FR

Non-return valve

IV

IV

OV

IV

Supply
reservoir

Vacuum
brake
booster

Brake circuit 2
OV

Electr. motor

RR

Brake
pedal

IV

RR

Hydraulic pump

OV
Brake
pedal

OV
IV

Pedal-travel sensor

Damper

18

ABS tandem
master cylinder

IV

Inlet valve (IV)

Return
pump
Accumulator

OV

Outlet valve (OV)

OV

FL

Inlet valve (IV)

Outlet valve (OV)

FL

Non-return valve

RL

Fig. 2: ABS with open circuit (hydraulic circuit)

RL

Fig. 1: ABS with closed circuit and 2/2 solenoid valves

(hydraulic circuit)

Wheel sensors. These are on every wheel and

transmit the wheel speed.
Actuating unit. This consists of a vacuum brake
booster, which has an integrated pedal-travel sensor, and the ABS tandem master cylinder with ex-

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18 Chassis
pansion tank. The pedal-travel sensor reports the
position of the brake pedal to the ECU.
Hydraulic unit. As the engine-pump unit, it includes a dual circuit electrically-driven hydraulic
pump and the valve block. This has two 2/2 solenoid valves for each closed-loop control circuit. An
inlet valve (IV) and an outlet valve (OV) with a parallel selected non-return valve.

the cathode of the diode. The warning lamp goes

out. The solenoid valves are now at the positive.
Should the ECU detect a risk of locking in the valve
relay, pin 28 is returned to earth. The motor relay
switches on the return pump. The valve relay can
now be switched to the control phases by connecting to earth at pin 35 or 37 in the control phases.

Operating principle of the ECU

WORKSHOP NOTES

If the ECU detects an incipient lock, e.g. on the front

left wheel, then the inlet valve closes and the outlet
valve opens. The brake fluid now flows at zero pressure back into the expansion tank. When switching
to pressure build-up, the outlet valve closes and
the inlet valve opens. The brake fluid missing from
the brake cylinder will be added by the master
cylinder plunger. The master cylinder plunger and
the brake pedal move slightly as a result. The travel
sensor informs the ECU. This switches the hydraulic
pump on. It pumps fluid back until the original pedal position has been reached again.

Check of the electrical system

Electrical circuit of an ABS

The schematic diagram (Fig. 1) shows a 4-channel
ABS with return in a closed circuit with eight
2/2 solenoid valves and 4 sensors.
When the ignition switch is switched on, the control winding in the electronic protection relay is
supplied with the voltage from terminal 15, the
ECU switches and connects to terminal 30 (positive) via pin 1 (plug-in connection on the ECU). At
the same time, the warning lamp lights up because it is connected to terminal 15 to the positive
and via terminal L1 to the valve relay and via the
diode to earth. The ECU now checks the ABS for
faults. If everything is OK, it connects across pin 27
and returns the control winding in the valve relay
to earth. The valve relay switches. Pin 32 on the
ECU receives positive from terminal 30, as does

This can be carried out using a voltage or resistance measuring device, a test diode or special
test equipment.
Before disconnecting the ECU, the ignition
must be switched off.
1. Inspection. Power supply ECU:
Ignition on; between pin 1 and earth,
U > 10 V.
2. Valve relay function:
Pin 27 at earth, ignition on; senses the
switching of the relay, or between pin 32 and
earth, U > 10 V.
Electric circuit control winding: ignition off,
resistance measuring device between pin 1
and 27, R 80 .
3. Speed sensor VR resistance:
Ignition off between pin 11 and 21,
R = 750 1.6 k.
Function: turn wheel, between pin 11 and 21
e.g. at 1 rotation of wheel/second U > 30 mV
alternating voltage.
4. Motor relay function:
Ignition on, pin 28 at earth, senses the tripping function, or between pin 14 and earth,
U > 10 V, return pump runs (noise).

30
15

18

14 28

Plug-in connection
ECU
25

27 29 32 36 2 38 18 37 35 39 19 10 5

4 11 21 7

3 24 25

15

Protected

Warning lamp
Brake-light switch
30 15

2 1 6 5 4 3 8 7

87
30 85

86 87

X2

X3

X4

X5

87 86 85 L1
FL

RL

FR

RR

Solenoid valves
Electronic
Motor relay
protection M
Electr. motor (return pump)
relay
31
1

Valve
relay
Hydraulic modulator

G1
D+/61

FL
FR
RL
RR
Plug-in
Speed
connections to ECU sensor

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram for a 4-channel ABS

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18 Chassis

18.10.14 Brake assistant (BAS)

The brake assistant immediately makes sure in
the case of panic braking that there is maximum brake boosting effect, which means that
the braking distance is considerably reduced.
Many drivers brake quickly in critical situations but
do not depress the brake pedal enough. The braking distance is therefore longer which can lead to
collisions.
Structure
The brake assistant (Fig. 1) consists of the following components:
BAS ECU
Solenoid
Travel/pedal sensor
Release switch

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1

Which electronic chassis control systems

are used?

Which forces take effect on the vehicle wheel?

What is understood by slip?

What is the slip range in which the vehicle

remains steerable and stable?

What are the tasks of an ABS?

Name the components of an ABS.

Name and explain the terms of the ABS closedloop control circuit.

Name the control phases for ABS.

What are the essential differences of the

hydraulic-ABS concepts?

10 How does the brake assistant work?

18.10.15 Traction-control system (TCS)

Travel sensor

Diaphragm disc

The TCS system prevents the drive wheels spinning when pulling away and accelerating.

Solenoid

This stabilises the vehicle in the longitudinal direction, the cornering stability is maintained and the
vehicle is prevented from breaking away at the
powered axle.

To
brake master
cylinder

Solenoid coil
Release switch
Working
chamber
ECU

Vacuum chamber

Fig. 1: Brake assistant

Operating principle
The movement of the pedal causes a change in resistance in the pedal sensor. This is reported to the
BAS ECU. If the ECU detects that the pedal is suddenly applied, for example during panic braking,
then the solenoid is activated. This vents the working chamber of the brake booster to create the full
force of the booster. The result is emergency braking. The ABS prevents the wheels from locking. The
solenoid is only switched off via the release switch
once the brake is released and the brake pedal has
returned to its initial position.
For data exchange, the BAS ECU is connected via
the CAN bus to the ECUs for other electronic chassis control systems, e.g. ABS, TCS, ESP.
If the ECU detects faults, the brake assistant is
switched off. The failure is displayed with a yellow
warning lamp.

The TCS is an enhancement of ABS. Both systems

use common sensors and actuators and often have
a common ECU where the data exchange is usually
carried out via a CAN bus. When the vehicle is being driven with snow chains, the TCS can be deactivated. A distinction can be made between:
TCS systems with engine intervention.
TCS systems with brake intervention, otherwise
known as ELSD Electronic Limited-Slip Differential.
TCS systems with engine and brake intervention.
Brake master cylinder
ABS low-pressure accumulator
Suction
valves

Control
line

Hydraulic
pump P
Delivery
valve

Hydraulic
changeover
valve

Inlet valve
IV

ABS/
ELSD
ECU

18

ABS
outlet
valve

Check
valve CV
Pressurelimiting valve

Speed sensor,
drive wheel, right

ELSD pressure build-up

ELSD pressure holding

Wheel
brake

Induction
ELSD pressure reduction

Fig. 2: TCS/ELSD brake circuit of a wheel

Advantages
Improvement of traction when pulling away or
accelerating.

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18 Chassis
Increase of driving safety at high motive forces.
Automatic adjustment of engine torque to the
grip ratios.
Driver information about reaching dynamic limits.

The system works with engine or brake intervention, according to the driving situation. The block diagram Fig. 1 shows the collaboration of engine and
brake intervention for preventing unreliable wheel
slip when pulling away (TCS operation/ELSD operation) or in overrun mode (EDTC operation).

TCS with brake intervention/

electronic limited-slip differential ELSD

Structure (Fig. 2).

ABS/TCS EDTC ECU
ABS/TCS hydraulic unit
Electronic accelerator pedal with ECU
Setpoint generator, servo-motor and throttle
valve

An electro-hydraulic system is used as a starting-off aid. The lock effect is created as a result
of brake intervention on the spinning wheel in
order to achieve better traction.

Engine control circuit

Structure (Fig. 2, Page 471)

Hydraulic system. This is composed of a hydraulic
pump with suction and delivery valves, inlet and
outlet valves, a hydraulic changeover valve and a
check valve with pressure limiter.
Electrical system. This is composed of ABS/TCS
(ELSD) ECU and wheel-speed sensors.
Operating principle
Pressure build-up. If a driven wheel spins, this is
detected by the ECU with a speed sensor. It activates the hydraulic pump and the check valve. The
check valve (CV) closes and the pressure generated by hydraulic pump P brakes the spinning
wheel.
Pressure holding.The inlet valve (IV) is closed.
Pressure reduction. If the wheel has stopped spinning, then the inlet and check valves are opened
and the pressure is relieved to the expansion tank
via the master cylinder.

TCS with engine and brake intervention

Braking torque
Closed-control loop

18

Drive torque
Closed-control loop

ABS

TCS

Electronic accelerator
pedal/EDTC

monitors

controls

controls

Brake intervention

Engine intervention
reduces

Speed differential, wheel slip

Brake intervention
v < 40 km/ h

Intervention in engine
management v > 40 km/h

Maximum
possible traction

Optimal
directional stability

Fig. 1: TCS block diagram

Throttle
valve

Emergency drive unit

M Servo-motor

Setpoint generator
ETC

Accelerator pedal

Electronics
Electronics

ABS
TCS

Hydraulics
ABS

TCS
EDTC

TCS ON/OFF
(snow-chain switch)
Brake unit with
brake-light switch

Pump
FA

Speed
sensor

RA

Pressure accumulator
Brake control circuit

Fig. 2: TCS-system overview

Operating principle (Fig. 1, Page 473)

All wheel speeds are entered and processed in the
ABS/TCS ECU. If one or both wheels tend to spin,
then TCS control is activated.
Control when pulling away
If a wheel is threatening to spin, then the braking
torque control overrides because it is important to
have as much traction as possible. If, for example,
the rear right wheel (RR) starts to spin, then pump
P1 is activated via the ECU. The intake solenoid
valve Y15 is opened, the changeover valve Y5 and
solenoid valve Y10 on the rear left wheel (RL) are
closed. The pump-interior pressure therefore
brakes the wheel (RR). With the solenoid valves
Y12 and Y13 in the hydraulic unit, the braking
torque can be controlled through pressure buildup, pressure reduction and pressure holding.
Control when driving
If, for example, both wheels are threatening to spin,
then the drive-torque control overrides to gain optimum traction. The throttle-valve position is returned
with a servo-motor and the moment of ignition delayed, whereby the drive torque is reduced.

473

18 Chassis
With a networked data bus, the systems control
the brake intervention depending on the wheel
speed, braking pressure, yaw rate, steering angle,
lateral acceleration and defined program maps.

Pressure accumulator
RA circuit
Changeover
valve

Intake
solenoid valve

To FA
circuit

Y5
Pressure
build-up RR
Induction
Pressure
holding
Pressure
reduction

Damper

Y15
P1

M
Pump

Solenoid valve

Steering-wheelangle sensor

2 pressure sensors on
tandem master cylinder

Yaw-rate sensor

Wheel-speed
sensor

GMR

ABS

ESP

Hydraulic control unit

with integrated controller

V
AB

Engine
management

T
C
S
P

Y11

RL

Y13

RR

Fig. 1: Hydraulic circuit diagram of a brake circuit

If the wheels spin despite this, the braking torque

control is activated by feeding braking pressure
from pump P1 via solenoid valves Y10 and Y12 to
the rear wheels until the wheels stop spinning. The
directional stability is increased.
Overrun
If slip occurs during sudden deceleration caused
by the braking effect of the engine on the drive
wheels, the ECU detects this and activates the engine-drag torque control (EDTC). By activating the
servo-motor, the throttle valve is moved to such an
extent and the engine speed therefore increased
that there is no longer slip on the drive wheels.
TCS warning lamp. This informs the driver in the
case of TCS closed-loop control and if the system
fails.

18.10.16 Electronic Stability Program

ESP, VDC
Through the specific braking of individual
wheels, the vehicle can be stabilised laterally
and longitudinally. This therefore prevents the
vehicle turning on a vertical axis.
In the Electronic Stability Program (ESP) (Fig. 2),
the following systems work together:
Antilock-braking system (ABS)
Automatic braking-force distribution (ABV)
Traction-control system (TCS) with engine-drag
torque control (EDTC)
Automatic regulation of yaw moment (GMR).

Lateral-acceleration
sensor

Y12

Y10

ABS:
+ ABV:
+ TCS:
+ GMR:
= ESP:

Antilock Braking System

Automatic regulation of braking-force distribution
Traction Control System
Automatic regulation of yaw moment
Electronic Stability Program

Fig. 2: Components of the ESP system

Operating principle
The signals from the sensors, e.g. wheel speed,
steering movement and lateral acceleration are
recorded by the ECU as actual values and compared with stored setpoint values. If the actual values deviate from the desired and actual course
(setpoint value), then one wheel is braked specifically so that the vehicle remains stable.
The ESP system decides
which wheel is braked and how sharply.
whether the engine torque is downrated.
Understeer. If the vehicle tends to understeer
when cornering or during a swerve to avoid an obstacle (Fig. 3), then it would be pushed straight
ahead by the front axle. The ESP system controls
uses a presupply pump (Fig. 1, Page 474) to control
the braking pressure of the rear wheel in the inside
of the bend. The yaw moment created as a result
twists the vehicle on the vertical axis and counteracts the understeering.
Oversteer. If the vehicle tends to oversteer (Fig. 3),
then the front wheel on the outside of the bend, for
example, is braked by the system, therefore stabilising the vehicle.

Vehicle
understeers

Vehicle
oversteers

Fig. 3: Understeering and oversteering vehicle

18

474

18 Chassis

Hydraulic circuit diagram (Fig. 1)

Actuating unit

The brake circuit of a wheel is shown here.

Hydraulic control
unit with SBC ECU

Pressure build-up
If ESP intervenes in the control, P1 draws in the
brake fluid from the supply reservoir and supplies
it to pump P2. This guarantees that the system
quickly builds up braking pressure in the brake circuit even at low temperatures. The return pump P2
works in the same way, increasing the braking
pressure further until the wheel is braked. The
high-pressure switching valve Y1 and the inlet
valve Y2 are therefore opened. The outlet valve Y3
is closed and the switching valve Y4 is blocked.
Pressure holding
In this control phase, the high-pressure switching
valve Y1 and the inlet valve Y2 are closed. The braking pressure remains constant.
Pressure reduction
In this phase, the outlet valve Y3 and the switching
valve Y4 are opened. The brake fluid is returned
through the return pump back to the master cylinder.
Presupply pump

P1

High-pressure switching valve

Y1

Exhaust
valve
Y3

Master
cylinder

Pressure
build-up
Pressure
reduction
Pressure
holding
Brake pliers

P2
Return pump
Switching
valve

Inlet valve

Y2

Speed sensor

Yaw-angle sensor

ECU box with

ESP ECU

Fig. 2: Components of the SBC system

Unlike a conventional brake system, where all

wheels are first subjected to a high braking pressure as quickly as possible and then a pressure
control is carried out, with SBC the braking pressure of the individual wheels is controlled individually. Sensors determine the current driving situation and the ECU calculates the optimum braking
pressure from this for each wheel. In this way, it is
possible to brake the left-hand wheels more
sharply which are subjected to heavier loads during a right-hand bend, for example. When braking
in bends, this results in an optimum braking factor
and stable driving characteristics.
In addition to the functions of a conventional hydraulic brake system, SBC can, for example, adopt
the following functions:
Holding the vehicle on an incline (hill-starting).
Applying the footbrake and handbrake until the
discs and drums are dry in wet conditions.
Softstop to prevent diving under braking.
Filling the lines when rapid deceleration is detected, therefore faster pressure build-up during
an emergency braking manoeuvre.
Automatic adaptive speed and distance control
(ACC).
.

Y4

Fig. 1: ESP-system hydraulic circuit diagram

18
18.10.17 Sensotronic Brake Control (SBC)
The Sensotronic Brake Control SBC (or EHB) is
a Brake by Wire system. This means that the
driver's wish to brake is transmitted via an electrical wire. The system incorporates the functions of ABS, TCS, BAS and ESP.

Structure
The SBC system (Fig. 2) essentially consists of the
hydraulic unit with pressure accumulator, actuating unit, ECU and speed and yaw-angle sensors.

The system does not need a brake booster. In the

case of an electronics failure, restricted braking can
take place via an emergency hydraulic connection.

Function
Fig. 1, Page 475, shows the structure of the SBC
hydraulics. The driver operates the brake pedal,
therefore generating a braking pressure in both
brake circuits in the master cylinder. The pressure
is recorded by pressure sensor b1.
SBC normal braking
The ECU closes the hydraulic connection to the
front axle by supplying both isolating valves y1,
y2.

475

18 Chassis
Return
line

B37/1

Braking pressure SBC

Admission pressure
3

Suction line
S9/1

Hydraulic
pump

2
MC2

Pressure accumulator

MC1

b2
b1

Pressure sensor
Isolating valves

y1

y7

y6

m1

y2

y8

y9

b3

y11

b4
7
FL

5b

Pressure sensor

y10

y12

y13

b5

b6

8
y3
Balance
valve
Media isolator

FR

y4
Balance
valve

RL

5a

Pressure sensor

6b

RR
6a

Fig. 1: SBC hydraulic circuit diagram, normal braking

The brake system pressure supply is now provided

by the pressure accumulator 3. The storage pressure is generated by the electrically driven hydraulic pump m1 and measured by the pressure
sensor b2. This can be up to 150 bar. Should the
storage pressure sink below a particular value,
then the hydraulic pump is reactivated.
The ECU calculates the optimum braking pressure
for each wheel and adjusts it accordingly using inlet valves y6, y8, y10, y12 and outlet valves y7, y9,
y11, y13. Pressure sensors b3, b4, b5, b6 report the
actual values of the individual wheel brake cylinders to the ECU.
Balance valves y3, y4 balance the pressure for the
wheels of one axle during a brake application.
They are activated and closed during braking
when cornering and in the Electronic Stability Program. It is now possible to regulate the brake pressure individually for each wheel.

Return
line

B37/1

Suction line

MC2

S9/1

MC1

Braking
pressure,
emergency
braking =
admission
pressure
b1
y2

y1
Isolating valves

y7

y6

y8

7
b3
FL 5b

y9
8

Balance
valve

y3
Media
isolator

b4
5a FR

Fig 2: SBC hydraulic circuit diagram, emergency braking

manoeuvre

REVIEW QUESTIONS

The two media isolators 7, 8, prevent nitrogen

from entering master cylinder 1 from a leaking
pressure accumulator 3.

1 What is understood by a traction-control system?

Emergency-braking manoeuvre if SBC fails

The two isolating valves y1, y2 are not energised
and therefore remain open (Fig. 2).

4 Describe the function of the TCS system with

engine and brake intervention.

The braking pressure generated by the driver in

the master cylinder is directed to the brake cylinder at the front axle. The rear axle is unbraked. Because there is no brake booster, the braking effect
is low. The vehicle speed is therefore restricted by
the engine ECU to a maximum of 90 km/h.

2 What are the advantages of traction-control

systems?
3 What are the components in the TCS system
required for the braking-torque control loop?

5 What are the advantages of an

Electronic Stability Program?
6 How does the ESP/VDC system work if the
vehicle is oversteered?
7 What are the extra functions of SBC in addition
to a hydraulic brake system?
8 Explain the function of SBC.

18