Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
summer 2015
volume 41 number 4
Eric Geiger
Vice President, Church Resources
B I B L I C A L
B I B L I C A L I L L U S T R AT O R
SUMMER 2015
J E W I S H W E D D I N G S I C H U R C H AT A N T I O C H I S C R O L L S A N D S E A L S
UMEROUS TIMES I
have been unpleasantly
surprised at how creative human beings have been
throughout history in developing
ways to hurt, maim, or kill other
humans. Bullets and bombs for
battles. Stones and steel for weapons. Chariots for chasing. Horses.
Cars. Tanks. Ships. Planes. Guns,
guillotines, and grenades. Knives
and nails. Rocks, ropes, and rods.
Arrows and axes. A cross and a crown of thorns. Indeed,
murder and mayhem have helped define much of history.
Although I didnt realize it when planning this issue,
many of the included articles deal with topics related to
death and dying. The most obvious is the article on Cain,
who committed the first murder in human history. Megiddo,
located in north-central Israel, is the location of numerous battles throughout history and the site of the ultimate
battle of good and evilthe Battle of Armageddon. Emperor
Domitian persecuted early Christians. Jonah (eventually)
went to preach to the Assyrians in Nineveh, a people infamous for torturing their enemies. And of course, many died
during Joshuas conquest ofCanaan.
One hundred years ago, many nations were in the throes
of World War I, which was also known as the War to End
All Wars. This war saw a huge shift in military capabilities.
For the last time in history, a successful cavalry charge
was used, by the way, at Beersheba, in what is now southern
Israel. And this war saw the first aerial combat. Looking
back makes me wonder what people will say of our day 100
years from now.
The good news, though, is that battle and bloodshed do
not last forever. Because of the One who carried the cross
and wore the crown of thorns, a day will come when, they
shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into
pruninghooks: nation shall not lift up sword against nation,
neither shall they learn war any more (Isa.2:4, kjv). And a
further prophecy that Isaiah states promises: For unto us a
child is born, unto us a son is given: and the government shall
be upon his shoulder: and his name shall be called Wonderful,
Counsellor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father, The
Prince of Peace (9:6, kjv). Watching events unfold makes me
cry earnestly, Even so Lord Jesus, come quickly!
summer 2015
volume 41 number 4
1105
YES!
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Contents
DEPARTMENTS
2
BI Lines
46 The Nicolaitans
by Michael Priest
July 26 // Session 2
InSites: Patmos
July 26 // Session 2
74
90
15
S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :
InSites: Patmos
July 19 // Session 7
22
74
An ioch
FIRST
CHURCH,
BY JEFF IORG
ISTOCK PHOTO
HE STORY OF THE
church at Antioch is
an inspiring drama.
A healthy first-century
church, Antioch is a model
for the church in the twenty-first
century. The New Testament
provides an extensive biblical
record of the churchs beginning
and early years of growth, along
with examples of how it handled
doctrinal debates, personality conflicts, and practical matters of church
life, Christian devotion, and missionary outreach. Antioch was one of the
most significant churches in history, if
not the most significant church. Why
is such a bold claimpossible?
Antioch was unique because it
was a church of firsts. While many
churches carry labels like First Baptist
or First Methodistthese labels usually refer to chronology, being the first
church of their denomination in an
area. Antioch was that, and so much
more. It was the first church where
several events occurred which have
marked the church for twomillennia.
In Evangelizing Gentiles
Some preachers, fleeing the persecution resulting from Stephens
martyrdom, arrived in Antioch
(Acts11:1920). They started preaching the gospel among Gentiles. While
ISTOCK PHOTO
the southern
Shephelah to Gaza.
Along the way he
met the Ethiopian
and shared with
him the gospel.
Below: House
at Beit Gurvin
(Maresha). Philip
journeyed on the
road that ran past
Beit Gurvin through
In Engaging Paul
After Barnabas concluded the
Antioch church was legitimate, he
understood it needed to be stabilized
through a capable teaching ministry.
He knew just the man to translate
the gospel from a Jewish perspective
into the Gentile mindset. Barnabas
summoned Paul and added him to
the teaching team, thus marking his
emergence into publicministry.
Paul taught the Antioch church
for a whole year (11:26) and remarkable growth occurredboth numerical
and spiritual. An interesting question
is what was the curriculum? While
the text does not specify an answer, it
might have been embryonic insights
of what later emerged in the Pauline
letters that form much of the New
Testament. Perhaps Paul hammered
out his theology by field-testing his
ideas while teaching at Antioch. If
Inside Church
of St. Peters at
Antioch; many
believe this to be
one of the oldest
Christian churches;
it may have been
in use in the 1st
cent.
Above: Dating
to the 3rd cent.
B.C., a colossal
Charonian carving
in the mountainside overlooking
Antioch. Ancient
records indicate
the figure was
carved in an
attempt to save
the city below
from a plague
afflicting persons
in the area.
Right: Mosaic at
Antioch depicting
three male magicians.
In Relief Offering
Soon after its founding, a prophet
from Jerusalem named Agabus
spoke to the Antioch church. Part
of his message was about a famine
coming to Jerusalem. In all likelihood, Agabus may have even asked
the Antioch church for assistance.
Regardless, upon hearing the news,
believers at Antioch gave money to
help those suffering (11:2729). This
In Dispatching Missionaries
Paul and Barnabas were commissioned as the first missionary team
intentionally sent out by a church
(13:13). The preachers who started
the Antioch church were fleeing persecution, not extending themselves
as missionaries. Antioch was the first
church to select a missionary team,
pray for them, commission them,
and provide their financial support.
WHY THESE
66
BOOKS?
BY TERRY L. WILDER
HE WORD CANON
(Hebrew: qaneh; Greek:
kanon) originally meant
measuring reed, but eventually
developed the meaning standard.
Pertaining to the Bible evangelical
Christians use, the term refers to
those books the church accepted as the standard that governs
Christian belief andconduct.1
The Old Testament Canon
Unfortunately no clear record
exists to show exactly how the
Jews decided which books to
include in their canon of Scripture.
Josephus, the first-century Jewish
historian, does offer, though, in
his book Contra Apion (1:37-42; ca.
a.d.90) some strong indications
about the Jewish canon. Josephus
mentioned some standards that
Jews used to determine the books
of their canon: (1)they chose
books that were not contradictory;
(2)they were written by prophets
or by persons recognized as having
divine authority; (3)they originated through inspiration from
God; and (4)the Jews accepted
them as authoritative material.2
Josephus limited the OT (Old
Testament) to the 22books (he
combined Jeremiah-Lamentations,
Judges-Ruth) currently in the
Hebrewcanon.
Hundreds of OT references
attest to the fact that these books
are from God, using statements
such as: thus says the Lord and
the Lord said. Apocryphal and
pseudepigraphal books, however,
contain no such assertions. Jews
commonly believed that prophetic inspiration had ceased around
200b.c., so that apocryphal works
written later had to revert back
to an earlier time in order to gain
authority for theirworks.3
Important Dates
Determining when the OT books
were collected is difficult. The OT
canon was already established at
least a century before Jesus walked
the earth. The NT (New Testament)
gives evidence of a three-part canon
that was complete in Jesus time (see
Matt.7:12; Luke24:44).4 Moreover,
Josephus mentioned a threefold
division of the OT. Further, the
Jewish Council of Jamnia confirmed these same three parts of the
OT arounda.d.90.
The Old Testament Jesus Used
Our Hebrew OT and its translations are based largely upon the
Masoretic Text. The Masoretes were
Jewish scholars (ca. sixtheighth
centuries a.d.) who preserved the
OT text and added vowels (called
vowel pointing) to consonants to aid
succeeding generations in Hebrew
pronunciation. The Masoretes compiled, collated, and compared earlier manuscripts in order to come
up with a text that they regarded
as the proper Hebrew OT. Their
resultant text is extraordinarily accurate when compared with the Dead
Sea Scrolls written some 9001,000
years earlier. Their canon was composed of 24 books and three divisions: the Law (Genesis; Exodus;
Leviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy),
the Prophets (Joshua; Judges;
Samuel [1 & 2 Samuel]; Kings [1 &
2 Kings]; Isaiah; Jeremiah; Ezekiel;
Hosea through Malachi [known
as the Book of the Twelve]), and
the Writings (Psalms; Proverbs;
Job; Song of Solomon; Ruth;
Lamentations; Ecclesiastes; Esther;
11
Right: Parchment
leaf from the
Latin Psalter,
dated about 12001210. The text is
Psalm36:1-4.
Below: Sea coast
at Alexandria,
Egypt.
ISTOCK PHOTO
Bottom right: In
northern Italy, the
Trento Cathedral,
known locally as
Duomo di San
Vigilio, was the
host church for
the Council of
Trent.
ISTOCK PHOTO
13
Below: Fragment
from the
Septuagint; the
text is Exodus
26:22-25.
Important Dates
The formal establishment of the NT
canon happened later. In the eastern church it occurred with the 39th
Paschal Letter of Athanasius, the
Bishop of Alexandria, dated a.d.367.
This document was the bishops letter
to the faithful written on the occasion
of Passover. In this letter Athanasius
mentions 27 books that the church
accepted as being the NT. In the western church, the Council of Carthage
met in a.d.397. Part of the councils
work was to publish the names of the
27 NT books that the church held to
be genuine Scripture. By the middleto-late part of the fourth century, the
church evidently had no question about
the 27 books that would comprise the
NT. No really serious question has
risensince.
Conclusion
Jesus, while on earth, did not specifically mention writings that would
become what we know as the New
Testament. However, He did seem
to pre-authenticate the NT when
He told His disciples: These things
I have spoken to you while abiding with you. But the Helper, the
Holy Spirit, whom the Father will
send in My name, He will teach
Left: In northern
Africa, the ruins
on Byrsa Hill in
Carthage, Tunisia.
In the background
are the towers of a former
Catholic cathedral.
The Council of
Carthage helped
confirm the New
Testament canon.
by
Daniel P.
CALDWELL
ALONG THE
15
Replica of the
sculpture by
Italian artist
Lorenzo Ottoni
dating to about
A.D. 1690; the
figure represents
the Nile River.
ISTOCK PHOTO
ISTOCK PHOTO
fifth
cataract
first
cataract
Aswan
Atbara River
sixth
cataract
Lake
Nasser
Khartoum
fourth
cataract
goshen
Cairo
Alexandria
Ri
ve
r
EGYPT
N
ile
Mediterranean
Sea
elephantine
Barbar
second
cataract
third
cataract
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
Lake
Tana
ile
N
e
Below: Lake
Victoria as seen
from the Nile
River. The large
concrete block
marks the beginning of the Nile.
ISTOCK PHOTO
ISTOCK PHOTO
KENYA
Lake Victoria
Blu
Lake Kyoga
UGANDA
e
hit
le
Ni
TANZANIA
Lake Albert
17
1. Edward Mack, Nile in The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, gen. ed.
James Orr, (Chicago: Howard-Severance, 1915),4:2146.
2. Ralph H. Alexander, raoy> (yeor, Nile) in Theological Wordbook of the Old
Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris (Chicago: Moody, 1980),832; 1:357-58.
3. John Ruffle, Nile River in Holman Bible Dictionary [HBD], gen. ed. Trent C. Butler
(Nashville: Holman Bible Publishers, 1991),1024. Ruffle points out that some attribute the
Nile turning to red to a natural occurrence that happens at the peak of the flood season
in August when large numbers of tiny organisms turn the water red and could make it foul
and undrinkable. It would also kill off the fish which would decompose and infest the frogs
(the second plague) leading to successsive plauges of lice, flies, and pestilences. God may
have used such natural conditions with His timing to plague Egypt.
4. For interpretations of this passage, see J. A. Thompson, Deuteronomy, vol. 5
in Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press,
2008),5:171; and John D. W. Watts, Deuteronomy in The Broadman Bible Commentary,
vol. 2 (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970),234.
5. Mack, Nile,4:2146.
6. Alexander, raoy>, 832; 1:357-58.
7. C. E. DeVries, Nile in The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, gen. ed.
Merrill C. Tenney (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976),4:437-38.
8. John D. Currid, Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Books,
1997, 241.
9. Jacobus Van Dijk, Myth and Mythmaking in Ancient Egypt: The Myth of Osiris in
Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, ed. in chief Jack Sasson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson
Publishers, 2000), 1702-1706; William S. LaSor, Nile in The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia, gen. ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 536-37.
On Elephantine
Island, this
Nilometer indicates the water
level of the river.
19
First Murderer
When Cain did
not repent and
change his attitude,
his sins multiplied.
His wrong attitude toward
God expanded into a wrong attitude
toward his brother. Cain spoke to
Abel, evidently in anger, and may
have even blamed his brother for his
predicament.7 Cains resentment
grew until, catching Abel in the
field alone, he attacked and killed
his brother (Gen.4:8). First John
3:12 confirms that Cains murder of
his brother grew out of his previous
wrong relationship withGod.
God still did not respond to Cain
in anger and punishment (vv. 9-15).
Instead, He asked Cain where his
brother was, giving him an opportunity to confess and be forgiven.
Cain did not confess but denied
Above: Bronze
axe head from Ur.
Tubal-cain, who
was one of Cains
descendants, was
the first recorded
in Scripture to
make metal tools
(Gen. 4:22).
Left: Painted
ceramic plaque
depicting musicians; found at
Uruk in southern
Mesopotamia, a
possible site for
the city of Enoch,
which Cain built.
The lady on the
left plays a small
drum and the man
on the right, a
flute.
Right: Ivory
panel from the
Cathedral of
Salerno in Italy
depicts God
choosing Abels
offering over
Cains, Cain killing
Abel, and God
confronting Cain.
Panel dates to
about A.D. 1084.
PUBLIC DOMAIN
Egyptian flutes
made from bone
and lyre from Ur
decorated with a
bulls head. One
of Cains descen-
scholars take to
mean that he was
responsible for
the development
of early musical
instruments.
21
J SHUA
ISTOCK PHOTO
By Bryan E. Beyer
of Jericho; in the
background is
the Jordan River
Valley. Jericho
was the first city
Joshua and the
Israelites conquered as they
came into the
promised land.
Above: Area of
the Wadi Feiran,
which is west
of Mount Sinai
and the site of
the Sinais largest oasis. Wadi
Feiran was known
in Scripture as
Rephidim and
was the home of
the Amalekites.
Joshua led the
Israelites in a
battle against
the Amalekites at
Rephidim. As long
as Moses arms
were uplifted, the
Israelites were
successful in the
battle. Hur and
Aaron helped hold
up Moses arms.
23
Below: Valley of
Aijalon; when battling the Amorites
here, Joshua
asked God for a
miracle. The Lord
lengthened the
day, allowing the
Israelites to defeat
their enemies
(Josh. 10:12-14).
Weaponry
&Armor
LATE BRONZE AGE
(15501200 B.C.)
1
2
7
About 40,000
[Israelites]
equipped for war
crossed to the
plains of Jericho
in the LORDs
presence (Josh.
4:13, HCSB). These
objects give us
2. Bronze quiver
fragment from
Urartu. The relief
illustrates the
tree of life
flanked by priests.
4. Bronze dagger,
with no handle,
and sword dating from the Late
Bronze Age II
(14001200 B.C.).
5. Bronze Hittite
helmet from Urartu.
25
Joshuas Legacy
Israel served God faithfully throughout Joshuas days
and during the period of the elders who survived him
(24:31). Joshua led Israel in renewing the covenant during the conquest (8:3035); and at the end of his life,
he again reminded Gods people that their future lay
in faithful obedience to God and His commandments
(24:2527).7 Joshuas legacy even has touched many
Christian families today, who have Joshuas famous
words adorning their homes: As for me and my family,
we will worship Yahweh (24:15,hcsb).
I
1. See Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer, Encountering the Old Testament: A Christian
Survey, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008),16779.
2. David M. Howard, Jr., Joshua, vol.5 in The New American Commentary (Nashville:
Broadman & Holman, 1998),62.
3. Arnold and Beyer, Encountering the Old Testament,17276.
4. Donald H. Madvig, Joshua in The Expositors Bible Commentary, gen. ed. Frank
E. Gaebelein, vol.3 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992),311.
5. Arnold and Beyer, Encountering the Old Testament,174.
6. The time periods referred to in vv. 7 and 10 give us an insight into the period
of time covered by most of the Book of Joshua. Israel was sentenced to forty years of
wandering in the wilderness after the spies came back with their report (Num 14:33-34).
Verse 10 shows that forty-five years had elapsed since the time of this sentence, so the
conquest to date had occupied some five years.... From Howard, Joshua,329.
7. Ibid.,44546.
Children
IN JOHNS LETTERS
Egyptian children
playing marbles.
27
Right: Dated to
about 2477 B.C.,
a terra-cotta figurine of children
playing leap
frog. Egyptians
buried figurines
depicting servants
and scenes of everyday life to ensure
the deceased would
have assistance
and could
enjoy the
afterlife.
HAT CAN WE
know about the relationship between
John the apostle and those who read
his three letters? From a reading of
these epistles, we can know something of the issues John addressed,
but how did he regard the readers?
Within the letters is a clue to that
relationship and to its meaning for
both writer and reader. The clue is
in the words John chose to address
and identify hisreaders.
One can learn much about the
relationship between correspondents
by reading their letters and noticing
the way they address one another,
from the formal Dear Sir to the
personal DearestOne. John could
have called his readers Christians,
but the New Testament never uses
the word Christian as a term of
address.1 New Testament writers
used several other significant words
for addressing the recipients of their
letters, each for distinctive reasons:
brothers, saints, believers,
beloved, friends, and in Johns
letters little children. John had
at his disposal the language of the
classroom (disciples), the language
of friendship (friends, beloved), and
the language of religion (saints). In
fact, some of these terms John did
use. For instance, he used beloved
10 times (1John2:7; 3:2,21; 4:1,7,11;
3John1,2,5,11). He used brother
18times in his epistles, but only once
as a term of address (1John3:13).
This may have been because of
the clustering of the word brother in verses1017, where 8of the
15occurrences of the word in the
letter are located.2 Twice John spoke
of young men (1John2:13,14).
Additionally, two times (vv.14,18)
he used a Greek word for children (paidion) that occurs often in
the Synoptic Gospels, but elsewhere
Right: Located
4 miles from
Jerusalem, the village of Ein Karem
was the hometown
of Elizabeth and
Zachariah. Shown
is a lady kneeling
at the altar in the
Church of John the
Baptist where John
was supposedly
born.
By C. Mack Roark
Right: Ceramic
vase in the form
of a woman and
child; dated from
Egypts 18th
Dynasty, 14501400 B.C.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB
HOWELL/ MUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS/ BOSTON (64/2614)
29
Fasting
THE JEWISH TRADITION OF
BY LYNN O. TRAYLOR
PHOTO/ BRE
NT BRUCE
Bottom left:
Communal fasting
included wearing
sackcloth.
Right: Locusts.
Local communities
could call for a fast
when facing dire
circumstances such
as pestilence, a
lack of rainfall, or
other calamities.
Below: In
Jerusalem, the
annual celebration
of Purim, which
commemorates
God using Esther
to rescue the Jews.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MICAH KANDROS (35/93/2)
ISTOCK PHOTO
31
BSFL: Nehemiah 1
Exile
B Y T. VA N
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ JOSEPH A. CALLAWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM/ THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY/ LOUISVILLE, KY (13/6/12)
MCCLAIN
A pottery figure
of a foreigner who
came to Judea
while the Jews
were in captivity in Babylon.
Aramaic writing
on the base of the
figure suggests
the individual had
a Mediterranean
background. One
of the problems
the returnees faced
was the reaction
of those who had
inhabited the land
while the Jews
were in captivity.
33
The Audience
Palace of Cyrus
the Great
at ancient
Pasargadae (in
modern Iran) had
these jambs. This
one has a figure
of a bull-man
and a fish-man.
These figures
may represent
Cyruss religious
toleration. Cyruss
son and successor, Cambyses II
moved the capital
from Pasargadae
to Susa.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO (23/1/2)
FREE AT LAST!
FREE AT LAST!
THANK GOD ALMIGHTY,
WE ARE FREE AT LAST!
Above: Persian
gold daric dated
to about 450 B.C.
Daric comes
from dara,
which means
king. The daric
is one of the few
coins the Old
Testament mentions.
ILL
TO
RA
A
TT
LA
B
T/
AR
ST
U
ILL
35
Where to Live
Many of the returnees lived in
Jerusalem. Since farming was the
most common vocation, others
lived in the surrounding country,
close to Jerusalem. The apportionment of property likely was based
on genealogical considerations (as
inheritance of property was based
on tribal affiliation), deeds, or
other documentation of family
ownership that may have been
preserved. Other property assignments would have been based on
the personal recollections of those
old enough to remember their former homes and on the guidance
and decisions Zerubbabel and
his associates made. Of course,
some peoples previous homes
or farms may have been inhabited by those currently residing
in the Jerusalem area. If so, the
returning Jews likely had to find
someplace else tolive.
When
the
Babylonians
destroyed Jerusalem, they took
many of the Jews captive. Some
Jews who remained in the land,
however, later abandoned their
homes and fled to Egypt. Thus,
the homes of many Jews, if not
destroyed, had fallen into disrepair. Restoring all of these homes
was a hugechallenge.
36 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / SUMMER 2015
Handling Conflicts
Immediately upon
returning to Jerusalem
in 538b.c., the Jews
built an altar so they
could resume presenting burnt offerings according to the
Law of Moses. They also celebrated the Feast of Booths. In the second year of their return, workers
laid the foundation of the temple,
amidst great celebration (Ezra3:113).
Then the Jews adversaries hindered
the temple reconstruction by sending letters to the king of Persia, letters that misrepresented the work in
Jerusalem. As a result, about 17years
lapsed before work on the temple
resumed. During this time, the Jews
focused on building their own homes
(Hag.1:24).
Finally, the Lord led the prophets
Haggai and Zechariah to stir up
Gods people to finish rebuilding
the Jerusalem temple (Ezra5:12).
Tattenai was the governor of
Samaria, an area also known as the
Trans-Euphrates. Likely intent on
putting a stop to the rebuilding, he
requested that Persias King Darius
(ruled 522486b.c.) determine if his
predecessor King Cyrus had authorized the rebuilding of the temple
(vv.3-17). When Darius discovered
that Cyrus indeed had issued such
a decree, Tattenais efforts backfired
miserably. The rebuilding effort
continued, funded with tax revenues from Tattenais region. Darius
decreed, Their [the Jews] expenses are to be fully paid out of the
royal treasury, from the revenues of
Trans-euphrates, so that the work
will not stop(6:8, niv).
The Jews finished rebuilding
the temple, called Zerubbabels
Temple, in 516/515b.c. amidst great
rejoicing. God honored Zerubbabel
by declaring,
I will take you,
Zerubbabel, son of Shealtiel, My
servant, declares the Lord, and
Above: Ruins of
the Samaritan
temple on Mount
Gerizim. The returnees encountered
Samaritans living
in this area who
claimed a loyalty
to Yahweh but who
also worshiped
other gods. A
strong division
developed between
Samaritans and the
Jews who were
loyal to God.
Left: Interior of a
reconstructed fourroom house typical
of those found in
ancient Israel.
37
Excavations
in Jerusalem
unearthed this base
of a small tower
and a portion of
Nehemiahs wall.
The Churc h at P h i l ad e l p h i a
PILLARS
FAITH
OF THE
39
Pillars
Throughout history pillars have served several purposes. The Greek word stulos, translated pillar in the
New Testament, refers to that which bears responsibility or weight. Galatians 2:9 refers metaphorically
to James, Peter (Cephas), and John as the stulos of the
church, indicating they bore the weight and responsibility of the early church. First Timothy3:15 describes the
church as the stulos and support of the truth. Sometimes
people erected pillars as a memorial or witness commemorating important events or people (Gen.31:45;
35:14; Ex.24:4; and Josh.4:19).
Outside of Solomons Temple stood two pillars; they
were inscribed with Jachin (meaning He will establish) and Boaz (In Him is strength)rather than
with the names of benefactors.3 When Joash took the
Kingdom of Judah from Queen Athaliah, he stood by
these pillars as an apparent endorsement of his position
(2Kings11:14). Josiah also stood by these pillars when
he made a covenant to walk with the Lord (23:3). Many
pillars of the first century were inscribed with the
names of those who were underwriting the cost of the
construction. Similarly, many modern building projects
use engraved pavers to recognizedonors.
As an architectural feature, pillars provided stability
and supported weight. As
a testament to their
durability, pillars of ancient
structures
By Timothy Faber
Trajans Column
commemorates the
generals victory in
the Dacian Wars.
Roman Emperor
Augustus, who
ruled 27B.C.
A.D.14.
are often all that remain when everything else has crumbled. In addition to
the functional purpose, pillars are often
decorative as well. Adorned with pillars, even
the most mundane edifice can lookimpressive.
The Promise
Jesus promised the people of the Philadelphian church
(at least the overcomers among them) that they
41
Above:
Tambourine; from
agora at Athens.
Music was a regular part of wedding celebrations.
Right: Close-up of
a Jewish couple
holding hands
during their wedding ceremony.
The brides hands
are adorned with
henna.
BY SHARON H. GRITZ
43
The family sent out two invitations, one in advance giving the
day and the second when preparations were complete. Two men, one
representing each family, delivered
these invitations in person by word
of mouth. Some guests came on the
basis of the first invitation. Others
required a second personal invitation.
Once a person had been invited, firstcentury society considered failure to
attend to be a seriousinsult.
The bride prepared for her wedding day by bathing, anointing with
oils, and dressing herself with special,
festive garments. She had help and
companionship in all these activities
Wedding Preparations
In light of the importance of the
wedding celebration, families invested time, energy, and resources in preparing for this event. The major part
of the wedding involved the wedding
feast. Since the meal took place in the
grooms home, he and his family had
the most preparations tomake.
For farming communities, autumn
was the best time of year to have
a wedding. Families had harvested
their crops, providing more resources
and more time to prepare and enjoy
the festivities. Virgins married on
Wednesdays; widows, onThursdays.
Prior to the wedding day, the
couples families made invitation
lists. Those invited included all relatives of the bride and groom, plus
friends. Wealthy families invited
large numbers of people, sometimes
the entire village. Some people traveled great distances to come to the
celebration. Others came who had
not beeninvited.
Wedding Celebrations
The wedding proper involved two
events: the wedding procession and
the marriage feast. The chief moment
was the arrival of the bride at the
bridegrooms house. On the eve of
the wedding day, the groom and his
friends went to the brides house
where she was clothed and waiting
with her own family and friends.
The grooms best man, the friend of
the bridegroom, organized this and
served as a master of ceremonies.
With much laughter, shouting, music,
tambourines, singing, and dancing
the wedding party carried the bride,
often on a litter, from her familys
home to her new home in the grooms
household. The singing included love
songs passed down from generation
to generation, perhaps similar to
those in the Old Testament Song
of Songs. Since this procession took
place after sunset, the group needed
torches to travel through the dark
streets. After arriving at the grooms
house, the bride retired to her own
Right: A mosaic
of the wedding
festival of Ariadne
and Dionysus
found in situ at
Philippopolis,
Syria. The mosaic
is Roman and
dates from the 1st
cent. A.D.
from her friends and female family members. Bathing might require
a ritual bath on the day before the
wedding. Some sources suggest that
the bride had the palms of her hands,
soles of her feet, and nails stained
with henna. The bridegroom might
give her articles of clothing embroidered with gold or other thread to
wear on the wedding day. The bride
adorned herself with jewels (if her
family could afford them) and garlands of flowers. Before the wedding
party came to claim her, she put on
aveil.
The groom too prepared by bathing. He perhaps also had henna
applied to nails, hands, and feet. In
some instances the bride gave him a
gift of wedding robes for the occasion. At any rate, he wore fine clothes
and garlands of flowers around his
neck. Some grooms woreacrown.
45
The
Orontes River
flows through
Antioch. In the
New Testament
Era, Antioch was
in northern Syria;
today, however,
it is a major city
in south-central
Turkey.
Nicolaitans
By Michael Priest
PUBLIC DOMAIN
Below: Perched
on the hillside,
the theater at
Pergamum, which
dates from the
2nd cent. B.C.,
has 80 rows with
a seating capacity of 10,000. The
rows are made of
andesite except
for the honor box,
which is marble.
47
Above: Mount
Nebo overlooks
the Jordan River
Valley. Balak took
Balaam to the top
of Pisgah (Nebo)
to curse the
Israelites (Num.
23:14). Following
Balaams lead,
Balak enticed
the Israelites to
commit acts of
immorality and to
worship Baal.
Alpha
Omega
and
By Bobby Kelly
ARLY IN REVELATION,
John reported Gods self-declaration: I am the Alpha and
the Omega (Rev.1:8).1 This assertion appears again in Revelation21:6
and 22:13. The declarations strategic placement at the beginning
49
A-B-C-D. . .
HOWN RIGHT IS A
cuneiform tablet from the
royal palace at Ras Shamra
that dates to the thirteenth century b.c. The tablet is inscribed with
an incomplete abcedary, meaning
the alphabet written out. This
was usually done to help someone
learn to write the letters.
PUBLIC DOMAIN
the Lord meant with the self-identification the Alpha and the Omega.
All three instances in Revelation
begin with the Lords words of selfidentification from Exodus3:14: I
AM. This is the language God
used to identify Himself to Moses:
I AM WHO I AM. This is what
you are to say to the Israelites: I
AM has sent me to you.2 At the
burning bush, God instructed Moses
to declare to the Israelites that He
would bring them out of Egyptian
bondage. Moses, anticipating the
people would inquire about the
name of the God who sent him,
asked how he should respond. The
response I AM indicated something of Gods absolute existence.
This emphasized both that God
exists and that He is the liberator
God who is present with His people.
For the apostle John, the connection
was clear; this God who brought
Pharaoh to his knees and set His
people free in the days of Moses was
the same God who would not fail
His people in their oppression under
the RomanEmpire.
Additionally, the prophet Isaiah
reported the words of Yahweh: Who
has performed and done this, calling
the generations from the beginning?
I, Yahweh, am the first, and with
the lastI am He (Isa.41:4) In
Isaiah 43:10, the Lord declared: No
god was formed before Me, and
there will be none after Me. And
16:7,14; 19:6,15; 21:22), pantokrator indicates that God is ruler of all. This
was in stark contrast to the Roman
emperor who was autokrator (from
which comes the English term autocrat), that is, absolute ruler of the
Empire.4 While Caesar (autokrator)
might claim power and sovereignty
over the Empire, including the right
to persecute believers, Jesus (pantokrator), has eternal power and abiding sovereignty over all creation.
Thus, Caesars power is limited and
temporary. This comparison would
have comforted Johnsreaders.
The second usage of Alpha and
Omega occurs in Revelation21:6 at
the beginning of the books last major
section, which focuses on the new
creation: And He said to me,...I
am the Alpha and the Omega, the
Beginning and the End. In this
context the Alpha and Omega title
confirmed that God has the power
to make all things new, including
heaven and earthwhere crying,
pain, and death will be no more.
Only the One who existed before
time and will exist after time has
the authority to bring creation to its
appointedgoal.
The final Alpha and Omega saying is in the books epilogue. Unlike
Left: Fragment of
Revelation 3:12
4:12; dates to the
4th cent.
Far right: Palace
of Domitian on
Palatine Hill in
Rome. Emperor
Domitian, who
reigned A.D.
81-96, demanded
to be worshiped
as lord and god.
Right: Cylindrical
jar with a
lid, dated to
before A.D. 70;
from Cave 1 at
Qumran. Several
Dead Sea Scrolls
discovered at
Qumran were
stored inside of
jars like this one.
The community
at Qumran was
established by a
group (possibly
the Essenes) who
were separating
themselves from
the rest of society
as they awaited
the coming of the
Lord. While waiting, they copied
biblical and religious texts we
know as the Dead
Sea Scrolls.
51
B y Pa u l E . K u l l m a n
Housing Boom
In 20b.c., King Herod the Great initiated a major building
program that brought in more than 10,000 workers to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem.2
These workers came from cities and
villages scattered throughout
the Roman Empire. This rapid
increase of construction forces
meant new housing had to be
built inJerusalem.
The resultant housing boom
caused Jerusalems population to
expand, which in turn revitalized a
stagnant housing market. This increase
in housing construction was felt
throughout Judea. Jerusalem would be
a key destination for construction work
for the 46years that the second temple took to complete (John2:20). The
ambitious project ultimately changed
the size, population, and economics of
Jerusalem and further established its
importance to the region. That growth
attracted other merchants and suppliers anxious to conduct business with
Design
Houses in the first century were designed and built in the
most simple of details. Workers used tools such as the
handsaw, adze (stone chisel), bow drill, hammer, and mallet. Many homes today are still built with similar construction methods in rural locations in Third World nations
where the poor have few options. First-century house
design utilized the basic square or rectangular shape with
a short span across the narrowest width. This span was
accomplished using wood beams set upon load-bearing
dried mud brick walls or locally mined and cut stone. The
roof composition was constructed with dried wood poles,
thatch, or tiles (Luke5:19) that spanned perpendicular to
the thicker, wood-beam supports. The same wood beams
Below left:
Hammerhead dating 1st2nd centuries A.D.
Bottom: After
the third Jewish
revolt against
the Romans,
known as the Bar
Kokhba revolt
(A.D. 132-136),
the Jews were not
allowed to live in
Jerusalem. Many
of them thus settled in the region
north of the Sea
of Galilee. One
such community
was at Yehudiya,
which dates to
about A.D. 200
400. During the
Ottoman period,
many Arabs,
using stones and
materials they
found on the site,
resettled here
and built these
structures on top
of the centuriesold foundations
and footprints
of the earlier
structures. These
remains thus give
a good impression of what an
early Jewish village would have
looked like.
53
embers. Then
someone would
slap flat bread
dough against the
inside wall of the
oven, reaching
in from the top,
Below: Artists
rendering of a 1st
cent., four-room
Jewish home. The
design, though, was
common among the
Israelites as far back
as the 8th cent. B.C.
Persons entered the
house into an open
area, which the family used for cooking,
entertaining, and
for housing small
animals at night.
Below: An
Egyptian wooden
mallet, dated to
about 1185-1170
B.C., reflects a
design that has
changed little since
ancient times.
Types of Houses
New Testament Era house construction reflected the owners financial resources. Small, common houses were more
numerous and built of austere means. Many times, these
smaller houses were clustered around a shared courtyard,
especially in areas where a citys population density restricted expansion. The courtyard area served as an entertainment
and outdoor cooking area that neighborsshared.
Meanwhile, the wealthy would build large, spacious, and
palatial houses that usually occupied the hillside areas of cities. In Jerusalem the affluent area was known as the Upper
City in contrast with the Lower City (or the Tyropoeon
Valley) separated by the Herodian Wall.4 These affluent
houses would be multi-level structures with large and open
spaces, many of which served as sleeping areas. The larger
homes also had additional living areas designated for entertaining. Some rooms were designated as work areas for the
servants, who had their own separate sleeping quarters.
Interior finishes include exposed cedar wood beams from
Lebanon and marble from Greece or Italy. The wealthy were
not only Jewish aristocracy but also foreign ambassadors and
of course, the Romansboth government andmilitary.
House Churches
Continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house was the practice of early
believers (Acts2:46, nkjv). Houses belonging to converted
Jews served the early church well. Houses were the choice
venue for small groups of believers as the new church
began to grow in number. Once a modest home could
no longer provide adequate space, then the congregants
would move to a synagogue (if permitted), a larger house,
or the open air. These New Testament house churches
were located in numerous settings.5 Only in a.d.313, when
Emperor Constantine declared Christianity legal, did the
early congregations begin to move out of their houses into
buildings constructed specifically for worship. Thus, the
houses during the time of Jesus were not just for practical
residential use, but were also incubators that permitted
the church to grow in safety. Without the Christian homes,
believers would have been exposed in the open and would
have endured persecution due to their highvisibility.
I
1. Harry A. Hoffner, tyIB; (bayith, house) in Theological Dictionary of the Old
Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1975), 107-108.
2. Max Schwartz, The Biblical Engineer: How the Temple in Jerusalem Was Built
(Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, 2002),4.
3. John S. Holladay, Jr., House, Israelite in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. in chief
David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992),3:31416.
4. Marsha A. Ellis Smith, gen. ed., Holman Book of Biblical Charts, Maps, and
Reconstructions (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 15859.
5. For examples, see Acts 12:12; 16:40; 17:15; 18:18; Romans 16:35;
1Corinthians16:19; Colossians4:15; and Philemon12.
55
Megiddo
A Crucial Locale
By Jeff S. Anderson
Right: Megiddo
was a Canaanite
stronghold that
overlooked the
Jezreel Valley and
guarded the main
pass through the
Carmel Mountains.
Below: An ivory
game board
with 58
holes;
inlaid with
gold; from
Megiddo.
57
Right: In
the Tel Dan
inscription
King Hazel of
Syria brags that
he killed King
Ahaziah.
ABILENE
REGION IN THE
TIME OF JESUS
Sidon
Damascus
ITUREA
(T
YR
E)
City
Decapolis city
Major roads
Other roads
Ruled by procurators
Territory of Antipas
Territory of Philip
Syrian territory
Dan
hway
gs
Kin
OE
EA
NITIS
PH
ULA
Lake
Huleh
Hig
GA
NI
CI
Tyre
Capernaum
Bethsaida
Sea of Gergesa
GALILEE
BA
Galilee
Mt. Carmel
Nazareth
Je
zr
on R.
ish
Megiddo
Aruna Pass
Gadara
ee
lV
a
AURANITIS
lle y
Beth-shan
J o r d a n R.
DE
Shechem
CA
PO
Gerasa
Via
M
aris
Pella
SAMARIA
LI
AN S
EA
TA
Tiberias
Caesarea Maritima
PE
DIT
Gezer
Jerusalem
Philadelphia
(modern Amman)
EA
JUDEA
Ashdod
Jericho
Bethany
Ashkelon
Machaerus
Gaza
IDUMEA
Beersheba
Arad
Masada
Kings Hig
hwa
y
DEAD
SEA
Hebron
0
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
50 Kilometers
50 Miles
Biblical References
The Bible contains about a dozen
references to Megiddo. The first
is to a certain king of Megiddo,
who is on a list of vanquished
monarchs that Joshua conquered
(Josh.12:21). Consequently, Megiddo
was then allotted to the tribe of
Manasseh(17:11). The Book of Judges,
however, indicates that the situation
was not quite that simple. Israel was
seemingly unable to completely subdue Megiddo after all (Judg.1:27).
Later in the same book, Deborah and
Barak overcame Sisera near this site,
after which Sisera suffered a rather
unceremonious death by tent peg
in the tent of Jael the Kenite. The
Song of Deborah refers to the waters
of Megiddo as the place where God
delivered Israel(5:19).
During the Israelite monarchy,
Solomon made Megiddo a district
administrative capital along with two
other major fortified sites: Hazor and
Gezer. The gate systems at these three
sites are nearly identical. The Bible
refers to Solomons robust building
activity, which included the addition
of palaces, terraces, and city walls
(1Kings9:15). A century later, the
Bible records that Jehu killed Israels
King Jehoram and Judahs King
Ahaziah near Megiddo (2Kings9:27),
while the Tel Dan inscription boasts
that Syrias King Hazael was the one
who murdered these twokings.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB HOWELL (35/63/67)
Joppa
ERR
ANE
TRACHONITIS
Ptolemais
ME
Left: Dated to
about 2500 B.C.,
circular Canaanite
altar at Megiddo;
the altar measures 25 feet in
diameter and
Left: Unearthed
at El-Amarna,
Egypt, a terracotta letter from
Megiddos King
Biridiya to Pharaoh
Akhenaten; dated
14th cent. B.C.
King Biridiya was
complaining that
he was supplying
workers, evidently
for the time of
harvest, and his
neighbors were
not.
59
REUBEN
HIS LAND
AND HIS
LEGACY
By Robert A. Street
Left: Ruins at
ancient Heshbon,
one of the cities
the Reubenites
rebuilt (Num.
32:37). Heshbon
was on the northern border of territory of Reuben, just
south of Gad.
Below: Found at
Dibon in 1868, the
Moabite Stone
with the inscription
from Moabs King
Mesha; basalt; 9th
cent. B.C. In the
inscription, Mesha
bragged about conquering and gaining
control of Aroer.
Reubens Descendants
In the first chapter of the Book
of Numbers, the account of the
census that Moses took refers to
Jacobs descendants as the sons
of Israel (Num.1:2, nasb). The
census lists Reuben first. Elizur,
the head of the house of Reuben,
is named before the heads of the
other families (v.5). When the
census of men age20 and older
is enumerated, Reubens descendants appear first, with a total
of 46,500(v.20). A later census numbers the Reubenites
at 43,730 (26:7). Interestingly,
2Samuels account of this census (ch. 24) does not mention Reubens tribe or territory.
The tribe of Reuben was named among the twelve when
the Israelites left Sinai (Num. 10:18). Shammua was the representative from the tribe of Reuben who explored the promised land (13:4). Later, two Reubenites, Dathan and Abiram,
joined with Korah (the son of Levi) in leading 250 Israelites
in a rebellion against Moses. As an act of Gods judgment,
the earth opened and swallowed the tents and families of
Dathan, Abiram, and Korah (16:1-35).
Reubens Territory
In its Early DaysNumbers31 recounts the people of Israel
fighting and subduing the Midianites. After these lands
east of the Jordan were under Hebrew control, the sons of
Reuben and the sons of Gad asked to be granted the territory.
Heshbon Bezer
Mt. Nebo
Dead S
ea
Right: Ruins at
ancient Aroer,
which served as
a major fortress
on the southern
boundary of the
territory of Reuben.
Medeba
Baal-meon
Dibon
A r n o n River
Aroer
Tribal Allotment of
REUBEN
ILLUSTRATOR MAP/ LINDEN ARTISTS/ LONDON
61
Below: Dated
11151077 B.C.,
tablet records
names of those
Assyrias King
Tiglath-pileser I
conquered.
ETB: Revelation 1
DOMITIAN
Emperor ofRome
Bust of Domitian;
marble. The bust
originally depicted
Nero, but after
his death was
recarved to depict
Domitian.
63
Below: Ruins
of the Temple
of Domitian at
Ephesus. The
original structure
honored Domitian;
his older brother,
Lower right:
From Carthage,
a head from an
over-life-sized
statue of Emperor
Vespasian
(A.D.69-79).
OMITIAN (a.d.8196)
was the third and last of
the Flavian emperors. The
short-lived dynasty had been founded by Domitians father, Vespasian
(a.d.6979), who had been a senator and general until his elevation to
emperor by the army. Titus (a.d.7981)
was Domitians older brother and
ruled after Vespasian for a short period
oftime.
The Flavian family was not part of
traditional Roman nobility. The family came from a small village near
Rome named Falacrinae. The elevation of the Flavians to imperial status
occurred more from military success
than birth. In spite of humble beginnings, Vespasian was a highly effective
emperor and, thus, was able to establish
his two sons as hissuccessors.1
Although able to benefit from his
fathers success, Domitian was not the
By Timothy N. Boyd
Below: Cuirassed
marble torso
dated A.D. 90-96.
Romans frequently
honored emperors
and successful
generals with portrait statues wearing breastplates
(cuirasses). In
65
Above: Frieze
depicting the
arrival of Emperor
Vespasian (ruled
A.D.69-79) in
Rome. The noble
figure in the toga
in the upper right
of the frieze is the
emperor. His son,
Domitian, as praetor urbanus, welcomes his father
who is returning
to the city as
emperor.
At the Forum
in Rome, statue
and house of the
Vestal Virgins.
Domitian opposed
the Vestal Virgins
because he considered their activities immoral.
Left: A golden
Roman aureus
coin had a value
of 25 denarii; obverse,
Domitia (wife
of Domitian)
facing right;
minted in Rome
A.D. 91-92.
COIN: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS/ BOSTON (319/3)
BY
RT C. DUN
ST
O
RO
BE
J nah
ISTOCK PHOTO
A Prophet for
His Time
67
ary of Zebulun
(Josh 19:13) and
the hometown to
the prophet Jonah.
The name means
winepress on the
watering hole.
Right: A mosque
honoring the
prophet Jonah is
located near the
town of Gathhepher in the
Galilean town of
Mashhad.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART/ NEW YORK (337/10)
of Jeroboam son
of Joash (8th cent.
B.C.) and replaced
an earlier structure
constructed by
Jeroboam son of
69
The reconstructed
Nergal Gate at
ancient Nineveh.
ISTOCK PHOTO
Above:
Overlooking modern Mosul in Iraq,
which is at the site
of ancient Nineveh.
Right: An attendant god that
stood outside
the doorway to
the Temple of
Nabu. The inscription mentions
Adad-nirari III
and his mother
Sammuramat.
LIVER: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ JOSEPH A. CALLAWAY ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM/ THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY/ LOUISVILLE, KY (13/13/19)
TGP: Psalm 96
GLORY
A HEBREW UNDERSTANDING
By Stephen J. Andrews
OT SURPRISINGLY,
the most frequent use of the
Hebrew word translated
glory (kabod) occurs in the Psalms,
the praise-book of ancient Israel. Out
of the 200occurrences of the noun
glory in the Old Testament, the
Psalter employs the term 51times
with the majority referring to the
glory of the Lord (Hebrew, kebod
YHWH).1 In fact, several psalms
repeatedly mention Gods glory or
the glory of His kingdom: Psalm24,
5times; 29, 4times; 96, 3times; and
145,3times.
The Hebrew concept of glory
derives from a common West Semitic
verb (kabed) meaning to be heavy
or weighty.2 Etymologically, the
Hebrew word for liver (kabed)
may also be connected to this same
verb.3 People of the ancient Near
East considered the liver to be the
71
pleted structure
was 204 feet tall.
After revealing
his identity to his
brothers, Joseph
said, Tell my
father about all my
glory in Egypt and
about all you have
seen. And bring
my father here
quickly (Gen.
45:13, HCSB).
Right: Artists
rendering shows
a cut-away of
Solomons Temple
in Jerusalem.
Shown are the
holy area and the
most holy area,
the latter of which
housed the ark
of the covenant.
During the dedication ceremony,
the Lords glory
descended and
filled the temple.
Burning bush at
St. Catherines
monastery at the
foot of Mount
Sinai. When he
encountered God
at the burning
bush, Moses asked
to see Gods glory.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE
(Chicago:
M o o d y ,
1980), 1:426; dbk
(to be heavy) in L. Koehler
and W. Baumgartner, The
Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old
Testament [HALOT] (Leiden, Brill, 2000),2:455.
3. See dbeK' (kabed, liver) in F.Brown, S.R.Driver,
and C.H. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and
English Lexicon (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996),458;
John N. Oswalt, dbeK' (kabed; liver) in Harris, 1:426.
Compare Dohmen, TDOT, 7:1315.
4. P. Stenmans, dbeK' (kabed, liver) in TDOT, 7:21.
5. Dohmen, dbeK' (kabed, to be heavy) in TDOT, 7:16.
6. Weinfeld, dAbK' (kabod, heaviness) in TDOT, 7:23.
7. dAbK' in HALOT,2:457.
8. The noun is used about 45 times to refer to a visible manifestation of God. See Oswalt, dbeK' (kabed;
to be heavy, grievous, hard, rich, honorable, glorious) in
Harris,1:427.
9. The name Ichabod means Where is the glory?
10. Weinfeld, dAbK' (kabod, heaviness) in TDOT,
7:28.
11. In each case of these verses, the definite article
the is placed in front of the noun kabod (glory).
12. C.Hassell Bullock, Encountering the Book of
Psalms (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 188. The
seven Psalms so designated are 47; 93; 95; 96; 97; 98;
and99.
13. Scholars have debated the structure of Psalm96.
As a hymn of praise it is possible to see in the psalm
three cycles of a call to praise followed by a justification
of such praise by reference to Gods nature, attributes,
and deeds (vv.16,710, and 1113). On the structure, see
John Goldingay, Psalms, Volume 3: Psalms 90-150 (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008),101. For the partial structure mentioned here see S.J. Lawson, Psalms 76150,
vol. 12 in Holman Old Testament Commentary (Nashville:
B&H, 2006),11718.
14. Scripture quotations are from the Holman Christian
Standard Bible (HCSB).
15. Oswalt, dbeK' (kabed; to be heavy, grievous, hard,
rich, honorable, glorious) in Harris,1:427.
73
Dinners
and
Feasts
ISTOCK PHOTO
Above:
Banqueters reclining on draped and
cushioned couches, surrounded by
servants and other
attendants; dated
Antalya Province
of Turkey.
Below: Etruscan
stemmed cup;
ceramic; dated to
the 6th cent. B.C.
75
Right: Decorative
band on an Etruscan
krater shows banqueters reclining
as a musician plays,
left. Food would be
served on the lower
tables in front
of the reclining
couches.
Lower right:
Sestertius; Roman;
obverse Nero
(r. A.D. 54-68),
faces left. A sestertius was worth
about one-fourth
of a denarius.
Bottom: Octavian
denarius; bare
head right; inscription: IMP CAESAR
DIVI IVLI F; dated
38 B.C.
77
Elijah
and Messianic
Expectations
By Steve W. Lemke
79
Right: Platform in
the distance marks
the site where,
according to tradition, Elijah ascended in the chariot. In
the distance and off
to the west is the
Jordan River Valley.
Below: Basalt
relief depicting a
two-person warrior chariot running over enemy,
from a war scene;
dated 950850
B.C. Found at
Carchemish.
After King Herod had imprisoned him, John the Baptist sought
Jesus assurance that He was truly
the Messiah. Jesus provided the
evidence that He met the criteria
in Isaiah61:15 and Psalm146:59 of
preaching to the poor, bringing sight
to the blind, and raising the dead
(Matt.11:25; Luke7:22). Clearly,
Jesus was the Davidic Messiah of
Old Testamentprophesies.
The question Jesus asked His
disciples, Who do you say that I
am? (Mark8:29), may be the most
important question in human history. Simon Peter answered rightly, You are the Messiah! (v.29).
For us, the question remains. Who
do you say Jesus is?
I
1. All Scripture quotations are from the Holman
Christian Standard Bible (HCSB).
2. J. Julius Scott Jr., Jewish Backgrounds of the New
Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995), 318-19.
3. At the transfiguration, Peter suggested building
three booths to honor Jesus, Moses, and Elijah. At this
event, the Father also spoke aloud and instructed the
disciples to listen to Jesus. Peter had wanted to honor
Moses, Elijah, and Jesus as equals. The voice, in contrast,
singles out the Son. Darrell L. Bock, Jesus According to
Scripture (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 235.
4. Donald A. Hagner, The New Testament: A Historical
and Theological Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2012), 173.
81
fe owship
A stone relief of
the Lords Supper.
The period is not
identified, however the arches in
the relief appear
to be Byzantine in
style.
A WORD STUDY
Right: A young
Arab farmer, carrying a supply of
seed in the bottom
part of his long
shirt, sows the
rocky ground near
Bethlehem. An
older Arab farmer,
possibly the young
mans father, prepares the field with
a simple plow and
double-yoked team
of donkeys.
BY GARY HARDIN
Below: Terra-cotta
contract written in
Elamite script and
dated to about 600
B.C. details the
work of 3 people
who were responsible for shearing 48
sheep; from Susa.
A fellowship
could be a business
partnership.
83
Beggar on the
street outside
the Church of the
Annunciation at
Nazareth. Sharing
ones blessings
with those in need
is part of the
believers responsibility.
The Krenides
stream is located
about a mile
from ancient
Philippi; many
believe this to be
the location where
Paul baptized
Lydia.
THE CHURCHES OF
MACEDONIA
SUMMER 2015 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
85
AN ENDURING EMBLEM
The 16-pointed
Vergina Sun was a
popular ornamentation for ancient
Greeks. (Shown
left is a bronze
medallion with the
emblem.) Although
opinions vary,
many believe the
symbol represents
the four elements
of earth, air, water,
and fire plus the
12 Olympian gods.
As Macedonia
grew in power, its
people increasingly
adopted this as a
national symbol. In
the 1970s, archaeologists working in
Vergina, Greece,
found the symbol on a golden
coffin in a royal
tomb belonging to
PhilipII of Macedon,
Alexander the
Greats father.
A variant of the
emblem is on the
current flag for
the Republic of
Macedonia (also
shown left).
HE MODERN REPUBLIC
of Macedonia, founded in
1991, is a quaint tourist attraction, but hardly the strategic area of
yesteryear.1 Established in 146b.c.,
the senatorial province of Macedonia
was a landmass bridging the mainland Italian peninsula with the Asian
continent. Macedonia took in most of
the land between the coastline of the
western Aegean and the southeastern
coast where the Mediterranean and
the Adriatic meet. This access to the
three largest bodies of water, coupled
with the east-west Ignatian Way,
insured its importance to the Roman
state. Fittingly, Macedonia, which was
also the fountainhead for Hellenistic
culture and language, received the
gospel in the tongue that it had given
to the world, KoineGreek.
While most argue that the gospel arrived when Paul set foot on
Macedonian soil, history indicates that
it may have preceded him. Acts2:511
ISTOCK PHOTOS
BY RUDY GONZLEZ
Right: In
Thessalonica the
Galerius Arch
stretched across
the ancient
Ignatian Way.
Completed in
about A.D.305,
the arch celebrated the Emperor
Galeriuss victory
over the Persians
in A.D.298.
ISTOCK PHOTO
Below: Roman
aureus, gold,
minted at Cyzicus;
obverse depicts
a cuirassed and
draped bust,
right, of Emperor
Diocletian (reigned
A.D. 284305).
the
importance of Pauls
response to the
vision of the Man from Macedonia
(Acts16:610). Paul crossed the
Aegean by divine guidance, bringing
with him onto the European continent his unique apostolicimprint.4
PhilippiArriving in Macedonia,
Paul traveled along the Ignatian Way,
which took him to Philippi.5 There
he reached out to a few Jews and
some Gentile God-fearers. However,
his work in freeing a young girl
from demonic activity earned him
a beating and landed him and Silas
in the local jail (vv.1624). The next
day the authorities set them free;
but, upon learning of Pauls Roman
citizenship, they feared for having
mistreated him and urged him to
depart (vv.3539). We know that
Paul returned to Philippi on later
Left: Ruins at
Philippi. In the
bottom right corner is a portion of
the Ignatian Way.
The open area
to the left is the
forum. Rising in
the background
are the massive
remains from a
Christian basilica
built in the 6th
cent.
87
M
chapter (1Thess.1:10; 2:1920; 3:13;
4:1517; 5:23). Paul comforted their
concerns by detailing the signs that
would precede the gathering of the
church to the Lord (4:135:11).
In 2Thessalonians, Paul corrected a false impression; some
believers thought continued hostility from the locals meant they were
experiencing the day of Gods wrath
(2Thess.1:312). Paul explained that
such could not happen before the
coming of a future apostasy, the
removal of some restraining factor, and the revelation of the lawless one (2:312). The Thessalonian
Below:
Overlooking
modern Berea.
The ancient city
became part of
the Roman Empire
in 148B.C. Romes
General Pompey
trained his armies
N
DO
IA
Philippi Neapolis
Amphipolis
Pella Thessalonica
Vergina
Apollonia
Berea
Aegean Sea
church wrestled
with the nature and
timing of the last
days in the context of tribulation, something
the church would
continue to experience.7 Early in
the fourth century, Emperor
Diocletian began his Great
Persecutions, resulting in
a number of Thessalonian
Christianmartyrs.8
BereaThe third Macedonian
city Paul visited was Berea
(Acts17:1014). Unlike Philippi and
Thessalonica, which were along
the Ignatian Way, Berea was to the
south. Did Paul abandon plans to
Athens
Troas
Right: Bust of
Alexander the
Great. When
Alexander was
16, his father,
Macedonias
King PhilipII,
89
Scrolls,
Books& Seals
ISTOCK PHOTO
BY E. RANDOLPH RICHARDS
ISTOCK PHOTO
Below: The
Egyptians credited
the god Thoth
with the invention
of writing.
91
PUBLIC DOMAIN
Jeremiah, who
ministered about
626-584 B.C.
Left: Discovered
at Khirbet Qeiyafa
in central Israel,
this soapstone
seal has an incense
burner with a scarab above in the
center; a maat
Below: Library
from the old
Sumerian citystates; dates
30002350 B.C.,
Early Bronze Age.
accordion-style instead of rolled. A long book, like a full roll, would not necessarily be folded.
7. In English the word seal can be a verb, as in to seal a document, and a noun, as in the
seal on the document. Worse, the noun can refer both to the impression and also the device
to make the impression. So a king can seal a document with a wax seal made with his royal seal.
8. This would be the first image to occur to the reader. Of course, the Revelation will
also make use of the symbolic imagery of seven.
9. Gaius, The Institutes of Gaius2.147 (A.D.161). The practice was established by the
Lex Cornelia (81-80 B.C.) and was also mentioned by Cicero (Ver. 2.1.117).
10. The executor holds the ceremonial scale of balance and the heir fictitiously
buys the family; Gaius, The Institutes of Gaius2.102-104.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ MUSEUM OF THE ANCIENT ORIENT/ ISTANBUL (12/32/11)
PUBLIC DOMAIN
VERLOOKING THE
northwest corner of the
Dead Sea, Qumran has
fascinated explorers for well over
100years, beginning with British
surveyors in the 1870s. Three primary roads converged at Qumran.
The first led north to Jericho;
the second, south to Masada and
93
Jordan
The
River
By David L. Jenkins
95
2 Hasbani River
Banias River 1
Bareighit River
el-Leddan River
1. The Banias Falls
and River form one
of the headwaters
of the Jordan River.
Lake
Huleh
2. The Hasbani is
one of the four rivers that combine
to form the Jordan
River.
3. The Jabbok River
enters the Jordan
from the east, about
15 miles north of
the Dead Sea.
Sea of
Galilee
Jordan River
PUBLIC DOMAIN
mu
r
Ya
ve
Ri
r
ive
R
3
k
bo
Jab
4
5
Dead
Sea
dedicated to John
the Baptist at
Bethany Beyond the
Jordan, which is east
of the Jordan River
and in the country
of Jordan. The
church commemorates two major
events that occurred
in this area, Elijahs
ascension and Jesus
baptism.
5. Jordan Valley
near Mount Nebo;
the Dead Sea is
visible in the in the
distance.
the Sea of Galilee, the worlds lowest freshwater lake, 696feet below
sea level.1 The Jordan River thus
flows from Mount Hermon in
the far north to the Dead Sea in
the south. The distance between
Lake Huleh and the Dead Sea is
about 75miles, although the rivers
twisting route is approximately
200miles.
One of the most memorable Old
Testament scenes is that of Moses
standing on Mount Nebo and viewing the promised land to which he
was denied entrance. On a clear
day, one can stand there and see
the sparkling snows atop Mount
Hermon to the north, and follow
the Jordan River on its meandering
route south through the Rift Valley,
until its final entrance into the
Dead Sea to the south. Then, to the
far west, lies the Mediterranean,
the western boundary of the promised land. The northern part of
this valley through which the river
flows is fertile, but the southern
end, approaching the Dead Sea,
is arid desert. Between these two
points, however, areas of dense forestation grow along the riverbank.
The Yarmuk and Jabbok Rivers
are the two main tributaries of the
Jordan, joining it from the east.
Several smaller tributaries dry up
during the hotsummers.
Leaving the southern end of
the Sea of Galilee, again at about
696feet below sea level, the Jordan
River continues southward until it
enters the Dead Sea at almost 1,300
feet below sea level.2 Thus, in spite
of its twisting course, the Jordan
follows a continually plunging
journey from its lofty beginning
at Mount Hermon to its arrival
at the Dead Sea, the lowest point
on earth (on land). The dramatic
drop certainly helps explain the
rivers Hebrew name, ha-yarden,
translated, thedescender.
97
AUGUST 23Fasting in the First Century W0809; Barnabas and Pauls Missionary Journey
F00; The Church at Antioch of Syria Sp95; The
Laying on of Hands Sp89
CH RO N O LO G ICAL
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SUMMER 2015
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