1. DiscussAmericanviewpointsontheroleofgovernment.

Thehealthofademocraticsocietymaybemeasuredbythequalityoffunctionsperformedbyprivate
citizens

AlexisdeTocqueville,1835

Whenlookingbackathistoryandthefoundationsofourpoliticalinstitutionswelearnthatagovernmentis
necessary,albeitlimited.Thequestionbackin1776aswellastodayiswhatshouldthatgovernmentlook
like?Howstrongshouldthatgovernmentbe?Thedebatecontinuesonhowtobuildastrong
governmentbutnottoostrong.Ultimatelyourinalienablerighttolife,libertyandpropertyisatstake.

Forsometoday,governmentisthesolution,whileforothers,governmentistheproblem.Politicalscience
tellsusthatthecloserwearetogovernmentthemorewearelikelytotrustit.Withouttrustourpolitical
efficacyiscompromised.Thereforeitisabsolutelynecessarythatintheendgovernmentiscommittedto
protectingourindividuallibertyandguaranteeingequalityforall.Thismeansthatmajoritiesdonot
alwaysrule.Protectingminorityinterestsisvitaltoourpoliticallife.

AsJamesMadisonwroteinFederalist51,Ifmenwereangels,nogovernmentwouldbenecessary.
Determiningwhatthatgovernmentlookslikecontinuestodemandfromallofustheresolveandtenacity
presentinPhiladelphiabackinthesummerof1787.Thelegacyofourfoundingisthattodayweareall
framers.Areweuptothechallenge?

Eachunitofstudyisbrokendownintoten(10)essentialobjectives.Eachobjectiverequiresacontextof
understanding.Youwillfindthatcontexthere.Readcarefully.Eachwordmatters.Intheendwehope
thatbydistillingthecontentofAmericangovernmentandpoliticstoitsbareessentialsalargernumber
thenbeforecancountthemselvesaseducatedcitizens.Withoutsuchacitizenryourhopeforabright
futureisinperil.

2.ExplaintheuniqueAmericanpoliticalculture.

OurFoundingFathersbuiltanationbaseduponprincipledlawnotmen.Yetourdemocracyissustained
notonlybyinstitutionsbutalsobyculture.Arguablyauniquepoliticalcultureexistedhereevenbefore
theAmericanRevolutiontookplace.Americaspoliticalcultureprovidestheessentialbaseuponwhich
ourgovernmentalinstitutionsstand.

AlexisdeTocqueville,adisinterestedFrenchmen,saidasmuchwhenvisitingtheUnitedStatesin1831.
InDemocracyinAmerica(1835)hewasimpressedbyourinstitutionsbutmoresobythemannersand
customsofthepeople.DeTocquevilleobservedinAmericaanationofjoiners.Hesawacivilsociety
filledwithanabundanceofsocialcapital.JamesMadison,theFatherofourConstitution,wouldhave
agreed.Hesaid,Theverysuccessofdemocracydependsupontheknowledgeandskillsofitscitizens.
Aswastruebackinrevolutionarytimessoitistoday.TheAmericanpoliticalcultureiseasilyidentified
andequallyimportantforustomeasure.Indoingsoweinnosmallwaypeerintoourcollectivefuture.

Bydefinition,politicsisthemeansbywhichgovernmentaldecisionsaremade.Inademocracythis
meansthatgovernmentaldecisionsaremadeof,byandforthepeople.Inanycomplexsocietythereare
avarietyofideasandbeliefs.Thisiscalledhavingapoliticalideology.Thereisnoshortageof

ideologicaldiversityintheUnitedStates.Butwedoshareauniquepoliticalculture.Ournationalmotto
statesthissimply,EPluribusUnum,frommany,one.

TheAmericanpoliticalculturehasalwayssharedcertaincommontraits.Fromourbeginningswehave
valuedtheruleoflaw,alimitedgovernment,individualliberty,equalityofopportunity[notresults]anda
deepsenseofcivicduty.Alsosomewhatuniqueisourworkethic.Manyofthesevalueswerepresentin
theProtestantsubcultureofcolonialAmerica.Todaythesevaluesarepassedmoreevidentlythrough
bothfamilystructuresandeducationalinstitutions.Historicallythemortarthatholdsthiscommonculture
togetherisoursenseofselfrelianceandtrust.Manypoliticalscientistslamentthataswegrowmoreand
moredependentupongovernmentwhiletrustingthemlessandlessourAmericanpoliticalcultureis
jeopardized.

ManyhaverecognizedaseriousfissurebetweenreligiousandsecularAmericans.Thissplithasbeen
labeledtheculturewar.ThedebatebetweentheseorthodoxandprogressiveAmericansisoverwhat
kindofcountrywewanttolivein?Theorthodoxdesireacountrybasedupontraditionalmoralvalues.
Progressivesfavormoreopenandlibertarianpolicies.Compromisebetweenthesetwogroupsisalmost
impossible.Theoutcomeofthisculturewarisapolitydividedonmostissues.Politicalscientistsworry
thatsuchadivideaccentuatesourpluribuswhileforfeitingourunum.Sucharecipedoesnotbodewell
forahealthydemocracy.

3.Discussthesignificanceofpoliticalefficacy.

Thehealthofourdemocracycanbemeasuredbylookingatpoliticalefficacy.Efficacyrelatestoour
beliefthatwecanaffectourgovernmentalinstitutions.Furthermore,efficacymeasuresourconfidencein
thegovernmentsabilitytorepresentourwishes.Mostpoliticalscientistswouldagreethatahealthy
democracycouldntbesustainedbydecliningpoliticalefficacy.ItisforthisreasonthatJamesMadison
arguedforciblyinFederalist10forapluralistpoliticalsystem.Factionswouldcounterfactionswashis
hope.Pluralistsystems,unlikeelitesystems,allowformanycompetinggroupstoinfluencepublicpolicy.
Elitesystemswelcomeonlytherichorthepowerfultodoso.Pluralistsystemshelptobuildhighlevelsof
politicalefficacyasallcitizensfeeltheytoohaveavoiceintheirgovernment.Italsoprotectsminority
interestswithinamajorityrulepoliticalsystem.TheFoundersfearedatyrannyofthemajority.

4.ExplainthesignificanceofFederalism.

TheFoundingFatherswerenotimmunetosimilardividesanddifferencesofopinion.Infact,theybuilt
intotheconstitutionameanstoencouragedifferenceswhilestillmaintainingaunityforthepurposeof
protectingindividualliberty.Theycalleditfederalism.Federalismprovidedfortheseparationofpower
betweennational,stateandlocalgovernments.Inessencetheycreateddualsovereignty.Thoughthe
nationalgovernmentwassupreme,stateandlocalgovernmentshadreservedpowersthatexisted
outsidethereachofthecentralgovernment.Thoughfederalismencouragedefficacybyplacing
significantpoliticalauthorityinthehandsoflocalofficials,italsowasseenasanaturalsafeguardto
individualliberty.

Therelationshipbetweenthesesovereigngovernmentshasneverbeeneasytonavigate.TheSupreme
Courtservesastheultimatearbitrator.Delegatedpowersarethosegivenexclusivelytothenational
government.Thesewouldincludetheabilitytogotowarandnegotiateforeignpolicy.Concurrent
powersarethosethataresharedbetweennationalandstategovernments.Anexampleofaconcurrent

powerwouldbehealthcare.National,stateandlocalgovernmentsgenerallysharehealthcarecosts.
Reservedpowersaregivenexclusivelytothestategovernments.Thoughtherearefewerandfewer
examples,manyreservedpowerstodaydealwithlicensesandeducationpolicy.Rememberitwasthe
TenthAmendmentthatcodifiedintheBillofRightsourcommitmenttofederalism.

Therelationshipbetweengovernmentsatalllevels,however,shouldnotbeperceivedofasalayercake.
Ratherourevolvingfederalmodellooksmorelikeamarblecake.Thedutiesandresponsibilitiesof
governmentateverylevelisnowmostlikelyshared.Whenthenationalgovernmentappropriatesmoney
fornewroadstheycountonthelocalandstategovernmentstooverseetheseshovelreadyprojects.The
moneycomesfromWashingtonbutthedetailsincludingtheconstructioncrewsarehiredatthelocal
level.

5.Explainhowfederalismhaschangedovertime.

Donotthinkthatthiscozyrelationshipbetweennational,stateandlocalgovernmentsexistwithout
conflict.
ThestoryofAmericangovernmentisastoryoftheaggrandizementofthenationalgovernment.Over
timethenationalgovernmenthastakenonmoreandmoreauthorityandpower.Thishasbeen
somewhatexpectedduetothesupremacyclausefoundinourconstitution.TheSupremeCourt
empoweredthenationalgovernmentevenmoreinthecaseMcCullochv.Maryland(1819).Inthiscase
thecourtexpoundeduponthemeaningofthenecessaryandproperclausefoundinArticle1,Section8
oftheconstitution.Theparticularsinvolvedthecreationofanationalbank.Nosuchbankhadbeen
enumeratedintheoriginaltext.Neverthelessthecourtruledinthenationalgovernmentsfavor.The
courthasalsoaffirmedbroaduseofthecommerceclausetoexpandthereachofthenational
government.Infact,thecommerceclausehasbeenusedmorethenanyothersectionofourconstitution
toexpandthepowerofthenationalgovernment.

GreattensionexiststodayoverthemeaningofArticleIVfullfaithandcreditclause.Thisclause
guaranteesthattheprivilegesgiveninonestatewillberecognizedinanother.Whenitcomestodrivers
licensesthereislittledispute.Today,however,suchlanguagehinderstheadvancementofsamesex
marriage.ItshouldnotbeforgottenthatfederalismbestexplainstherootcauseoftheAmericanCivil
Warandthesubsequentlydifficultnarrativeofextendingfullandcompletecivilrightstoall.The
differencesbetweenstatesandtheirracialpoliciesweregivenconstitutionalprotectionbytheconceptof
federalism.

6.Explainhowblockgrants,categoricalgrantsandfederalmandatesareusedto
strengthenthecentralgovernment.

Thefederalgovernment,ourcentralauthority,hasgrownsignificantlyovertime.Apartfromits
constitutionalauthorityexpressedthroughcongressionalactionandjudicialfiat,thenationalgovernment
hasusedbothsticksandcarrotstoinducestategovernmentconcessions.

Carrotshavecomeintheformofgrants.Statesagreetoengageinfederalactivityinreturnforwhat
appearstobefreemoney.Grantsinvolvethedistributionoffederalmoneytostateauthoritiesinreturn
forcompliancewithfederaldemands.Therearetwotypesofgrants.Categoricalgrants,offeringmuch
lessdiscretion,requirethestatestospendthemoneyonspecificprojects.Thismightincludethebuilding
ofrunwaysatairportsorotherparticularinfrastructureprojects.Statespreferblockgrants.Blockgrants
providestatesmoneyinbroadcategories.Ablockgrantmightstipulateeducationasaprojectbuteach

statecanspendthemoneyanywayitwantsaslongasitisrelatedteducation.Anotherwaynational
moneyhasbeenusedforstateendsisthroughtheuseofearmarks.Earmarksareprovisionsincludedin
legislationthatbenefitparticularlocalizedprojects.Oftenseenasunfairandpoliticallydamaging,
earmarksinrecentyearshavefallenintheirpopularity.

Anotherwaythefederalgovernmenthasenforceditswishesuponthestatesisthroughtheuseofsticks.
Stickscomeintheformofmandates.Mandatesrequirestatestocomplywithfederalstandards.
Mandatesmayormaynotincludefunding.AnexampleofafederalmandatewouldbethelawNoChild
LeftBehind.NCLBrequireslocalschooldistrictstocomplywithnationallybasededucationstandards.
Wheremandatesconflictwithstatestandardsthecourtshavegenerallysidedwiththenational
government.FederalpreemptionsallowCongresstoimposenationalprioritiesuponstatesthrough
nationallegislation.

7.Assesstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdecentralizedpowerinafederalsystem.

Federalismhasbeenoneofourgrandestexperiments.Itprovidedahybridbetweenunitaryand
confederalsystems.Theformerputpowerexclusivelyinthehandsofacentralgovernmentwhilethe
latterprovidedforaloosepartnershipoflocalgovernments.Historyprovedbothtobeinadequate.What
willhistorysayaboutfederalism?

Federalismhasprovedtobehighlyeffectiveinanumberofways.Itsmostobviouseffecthasbeento
increasepoliticalactivity.Adecentralizedfederalsystemprovidesforbroaderchoices,amore
representativegovernmentandausefulcheckonfederalauthority.Politicalefficacyishigherinfederal
systems.Federalismcreateslaboratoriesofdemocracy.Stateandlocalgovernmentscanexperimenton
publicpolicylikehealthcareforinstance.Iftheseexperimentalpoliciessucceedatthelocallevelthe
nationalgovernmentcanadoptitsmostsalientfeatures.Federalismalsobringsthegovernmentcloserto
thepeople.Thisusuallybuildsgreatertrust.Ironically,somepoliticalscientistshavearguedthatby
havingmoregovernmentalunitswehavelessgovernmentintrusioninourlives.Theycheckeachother.
Forallofthesereasonsfederalismappearstobeasuccess.

Federalismhasitscritics.Somesayitencouragesaracetothebottom.Withoutuniformpoliciesand
standardstherecanexistunequalprotectionsunderthelaw.Certainlyfederalismislessefficient.There
isduplicationofservice.Wehavelawenforcementagenciesateachlevelofgovernment.Oftentimes
theyoverlap.Itisarguedthatthisisexpensiveandwastefuloftaxpayerresources.Littleevidenceexists
forthebeliefthatlocalgovernmentsarebetteratmakingpolicydecisionsthencentralizedgovernments.
Andfinallyfederalismallowscertainfactionsaccesstostateandlocalgovernmentsthatwouldnotbe
possibleinmorecentralizedsystems.Inthiswaycertainelitesandorganizedspecialinterestscan
influenceparticularregionsinwaysthatwouldnotordinarilypossible.

Althoughfundamentallyprotean,Americanfederalismcontinuestoserveasthebestmeanstolimitan
imperiousnationalgovernment.Itisaltogetherpossiblethatinthecurrentpoliticalclimatethatonecan
claimtheeraofbiggovernmentisover(devolution)whileatthesametimerecognizingtheincreasing
aggrandizement(centralization)ofthenationalstate.

8.DiscusstheaffecttheSupremeCourthasonourunderstandingoffederalism.

AswithallfundamentalandfoundationalideasinAmericangovernmentandpoliticstheU.S.Supreme
Courthasthefinalword.Interpretingfederalism,thebalanceofpowerbetweennational,stateandlocal
governments,hasnotbeeneasynorhasitbeenalwayseasytounderstand.

Hereareafewoftheessentiallandmarkcasesthathelpusgraspthemeaningoffederalismintodays
politicalarena:

McCullochv.Maryland(1819):Safeguardingindividuallibertybydilutinggovernmentalpowermayhave
beentheintentoffederalismbutfromthebeginningtherewasneveranydoubtastowhowould
ultimatelybeincharge.Thenationalgovernmentissupreme.Inthiscasetheconstitutionalityofthe
NationalBankwasinquestion.TheStateofMarylandhopedtoweakenthebankanditsinterestsby
imposingataxonit.RestingontheauthorityofthenecessaryandproperclausetheSupremeCourt
struckdownMarylandstax.Thisprecedentsolidifiedthenationalgovernmentsimpliedpowers.More
importantlythiscaselegallyrecognizedthesupremacyofthenationalgovernment.

LetsnotforgetthatwiththecaseGitlowv.NewYork(1925)theCourtwithonestrikeofthepen
exponentiallyenlargedthejurisdictionofthefederalcourtsoverareasofpersonalliberty.Thiscasewas
theopeningsalvoinwhatiscalledselectiveincorporation.Fundamentaldueprocessrightsnowfall
underthepurviewoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.WithoutquestionGitlowandothercaseslikeit
putaseriousdentinclassicalfederalism.

U.S.v.Lopez(1995):Thiscaseprovesthatfederalismisnotadeadletter.Thenationalgovernmenthas
grownexceedinglystrongbutitstillhaslimits.InthiscasetheSupremeCourtruledthattheGunFree
SchoolZonesActof1990wentbeyondwhattheConstitutionsCommerceClausecouldallow.Forthe
firsttimesincetheNewDealtheCourtlimitedthescopeandreachoftheCommerceClause.This
heraldedatriumphforconservativeswhostillchampionedfederalismandstatesrights.

Gonzalesv.Raich(2005):ThetriumphofNewFederalisminthe1990smayhavebeenaPyrrhicvictory.
InthiscasetheSupremeCourtreassertedtheauthorityoftheCommerceClauseoverconflictingState
law.InquestionwereStatelawsthathaddecriminalizedmedicalmarijuana.TheCourtruledthatthe
ControlledSubstancesAct(1970)passedbyCongresstofightillegaldrugusetrumpedanyattemptby
StateandLocalgovernmentstoalterAmericandrugpolicy.ComingfullcirclesinceMcCulloch,theCourt
assertednothingmoreandnothinglessthannationalsupremacy.Againthedrivingforcebehindthis
nationalaggrandizementwastheConstitutionsCommerceClause.

9.DiscussthesignificanceofdevolutionandNewFederalism.

Theaggrandizementofthenationalgovernmenthasnotgoneunnoticed.Conservativeshave
traditionallybeenthepartyoflimitingtheauthorityofthenationalgovernment.GroupsliketheTeaParty
andothershaveorganizedaroundthegoalofreducingthesizeofthefederalgovernment.Thisisnot
new.RepublicansoverfortyyearsagocalledforaNewFederalism.Anothernameforthisisdevolution.
NewFederalismordevolutionwasanideatoshiftpowerawayfromthenationalgovernmentandtoward
stategovernments.NewFederalismhasoftenbeencalledareturntostatesrights.NewFederalismis
anattempttoreturntoclassicalfederalism.Thismovementhashadmarginalsuccess.Welfarereform
duringthe1990sreturnedmuchoftheauthorityoverpovertyprogramstostateinitiatives.Furthermore
conservativesfavoringthisNewFederalismhavefavoredblockgrants.Attemptsmadetoreducethesize
ofthefederalgovernmentmayhaveachievedrhetoricalsuccessbutlittleinthewayofrealreform.

10.Identifythereservedpowers.HowaretheyprotectedbytheConstitution?

ThoughitwouldappearthatStateandLocalgovernmentshavelessandlessauthoritytheirlegitimacy
stillfindsimportantprotectioninourConstitutionsBillofRights.TheTenthAmendmentguaranteesthat
certainrightsarestillreservedfortheStates.Theactualtextreadsasfollows,Thepowersnot
delegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution,norprohibitedbyittotheStates,arereservedtothe
Statesrespectively,ortothepeople.Vaguelanguagelikethisshouldnotsurpriseuswhenstudyingour
Constitutionbutthemessageisquiteclear.Thenationalgovernmenthasitslimits.Furthermore,the
Stategovernmentshaveanimportantroletoplayinexercisingpoliticalpower.