Astronomical Geography 1887

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
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ROpiCAL
GEOGRAPHY.
BY
/
/
SAMUEL
A
M.
SAKK,
Teacher in the Common Schools of Ohio.
</
CIRCLEVILrLE, OHIO
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.

1887,
Copyright, 1887,
By
v\
SAMUEL
M.
SARK
<0
o Of
Printed and
Bound by the
UNION-HERALD PUBLISHING HOUSE,

CIRCLEVILLE, OHIO.
PREFACE.
Va,
TEXT BOOK
on
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
has long been needed, specially adapted to advanced classes

in
our
It is
common
schools.
the intention of the author to write such a text
book
on Physical Geography, but owing to the lack of means

the
first
section,
Astronomical Geography,
the public asking

to support
our
me
common
in
my
co-workers
in
now goes
the field
before
of education
carrying out the grand scheme of
lifting
In an
schools to a higher plane of usefulness.
experience of five years the author has found that our present system of Physical Geographies, written for high schools
and
colleges, are not adapted to the
To meet
schools.
The
common
these requirements and to encourage
deeper investigation into the broad

this little
wants of our
volume before the teachers
field of science, I
of
place
our country
author holds himself responsible for any error? that
may have
crept into the
work
but
if
any such there
be,
he
(PREFACE.
4
will feel
under lasting obligations to those
nicate the
ience
same
and patient
was
which
it
for his
work
The work
to him.
toil,
but
if
it
is
who
will
the result of exper-
supplies the
demands
written, the author will feel greatly
Circleville O.,
SAMUEL
August
22, 1887.
commu-
M.
for
rewarded
SARK.
VI
INTRODUCTION.
LESSON
i.
the
Derivation.
Greek
The word, geography,
is
derived from
ge, the earth, and graphein, to write.
signification
2.
I.
Its literal
therefore, a description of the earth.
is,
Sphere of Geography. Strictly
phy includes both an account
of those
speaking, geogra-
changes which have
been wrought by man, and those which have been produced
by Nature.
related to the
It
treats not only of the earth, but of
earth
In
its
broadest sense
it
all
things
includes As-
tronomy, Geology, Mineralogy, Zcology, Meteorology, Phys_
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Botany, and various other sciences
ics,
that instead
of
geography being a
Hence we
distinct science,
see,
is
it
collection of various sciences.
Classification.
3.
geography,
There
and physical.
political
Political Geography
place of
his
own
man
treats of the earth as the dwelling
of the society
welfare
suppress his crimes
he has organized
to
promote
government he has originated
of the
are two-logical divisions of
to
of the religion he has invented to rev-
erence a Supreme Being
manner
of his
of living etc.
Physical Geography describes the extent and explains

the cause of the various natural
Physical Geography
4.
of the earth.
subdivided into astronom-
physiographical, meteorological, zoological and botan-
ical,
ical
is
phenomena
geography.
.
Astronomical Geography
siders the earth in
its
lation to the Solar
is
the science which con-
relation to the Universe,
in its
re-
System
Physiographical Geography
6.
and
treats
of
the
land
and water belonging to the earth
Meteorological Geography
7.
atmosphere and
8
its
is
the science of the
phenomena.
Zoological Geography
treats of animals
and
their
treats of the plants
and
their
distribution over the earth.

9.
Botanical Geography
distribution.
10.
sition
Mathematical Definitions
A point has po-
(a)
but no dimensions.
(b)
magnitude which has length, but no
line is a
vol-
ume.
A straight line
(c)
tion
one that does not change
is
its
direc-
throughout.
A curve line
(d)
one that changes
is
its
direction at every
point.
(e)
plane,
Parallel lines
same
are those, which, lying in the
would never meet
no matter how
far they
be pro-
duced.
()
An
angle
(g)
The
(h)
An
as in fig.
i,
point
angle
is
the parting of
where
is
the lines meet
named from
The
size of
lines
is
which meet,
called the vertex,
a letter placed at
which reads, the angle
Fig.
(i)
two
or the angle
its
vertex
FE
G.
1.
an angle depends entirely upon the
ference in direction
of
its
sides
and not
at all
dif-
upon the
length of those sides.

(j)
right angle
is
one formed by a straight
line
meet-
ing another straight line
The
first line is
(k)
(1)
making the adjacent angles equaL
then said to be perpendicular to the second.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle.

An acute angle is less than a right angle.
Fig.
(m)
DC
is
(n)
In
fig. 2,
ADE
an acute angle
and
2.
EDB
CDB
convex surface
is
is
an obtuse angle.
egg
bulges out
one that
spherical form, like the outside of an

(o)
concave surface curves
are right angles.
egg
in, like
in
shell.
the inside of an
shell-
(p)
(q)
point of
A
A
plane has length and breadth without thickness.

circle is a plane
which
is
bounded by a curve
line,
every
equally distant from a point within called
the center,
(r)
bounds
(s)
The
circumference of a circle
is
the line which
it.
straight line
drawn from one
the other, passing through the center

(t)
is
straight line
called the radius.
is
side of the circle to
called the diameter.
drawn from center
to circumference
(u)
The circumference
equal parts called degrees

(v)
An
angle
in the arc that
An
(w)
line,
circle
is
divided into 360
measured by the number
is
subtends
Ellipse
of degrees
it
is
a plane figure,
every point of which
points within, called

is in
of a
at
is
its foci,
bounded by a curve
such distances from two
that the
sum
of these distances
each case the same.
(x)
The
tween the
(y)
(aa)
center of an ellipse
is
the point
foci.
The Major Axis is the longest diameter.

The Minor Axis is the shortest diameter.
In
h*^^^
Fig.
(bb)
3.
Fig. 3 represents an ellipse.
O and X are the foci.

D C is the major axis.
AB
midway
is
the minor axis
c\
be-
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY-
10
(cc)
solid
(dd)
Sphere
face,
has length, breadth, and thickness.

is
volume bounded by
every point of which
curved sur-
is
equally distant from a point
is
a straight line passing from
within called the center.
The diameter
one
side,
(ee)
through the center, to the other
The Axis
around which
The ends
(ff)
of a sphere
An
it
side.
of a revolving sphere
is
the diameter
turns.
of the axis are called the poles.
Oblate Spheroid
flattened at the
is
a sphere
is
a sphere elongated at
poles like an orange.
(gg)
Prolate Spheroid
poles like a lemon.
the
SECTION
LEbSON
The Universe
1,
is
the
II.
name
applied to the entire
ma-
terial world.
There are truths before which man becomes humiliated

and perplexed, although, he knows from the very nature
Among
things, the absolute necessity of their existence.
such are the eternal duration

space.
We
live,
whose bosom
in
therefore, in an expanse without limits, in
the universe
is
floating.
The
first
persons
studied the heavenly bodies fancied the Earth standing
the center of a hollow sphere
nails,
time and the infinity of
Constituents of the Universe.
2.
who
of
of
that the stars were golden
which,seen on the concave surface, the great Architect
of the universe
Modern
had used
in its construction.
science teaches us that the universe
of Nebulae, Stars, Planets, Satellites,
These bodies are divided

bodies.
Luminous bodies
into
is
composed
Comets and Meteors.
luminous and non-luminous
shine by their
own
light.
Non
luminous bodies shine by reflecting light of the luminous

bodies.
Nebulae It has long been
3.
a subject of debate
When
there existed a nebulous fluid in space.
scope was invented
it
whether
the spectro-
The
forever ended the controversy.
nebulae (nebula, a cloud) are masses of glowing gas, prob-
Hidrogen and Nitrogen.
ably,
The
light of
some
of the nebulae,
is
subjected to great var-
iations.
They
are separated from us
that light, wiiich travels at the
per second, requires
by such enormous distances

enormous rate
many thousand
some whose existence
is
86,000 miles
years to reach us from
revealed by the telescope
Many
parts of the heavens having a nebulous appearance, contain
no nebulae
but the glowing mass consists of
many
stars,
apparently, near each other, but doubtless, this appearance

is
due to the inconceivable distances they are apart from us
and they are
as the stars of our
nebulae
far
Stars.
4.
ing
lie
in the
white
own Milky Way.
beyond our
all
of the
stellar universe.
Stars are huge
balls of matter,
They
are
visible
which,
float-
their twinkling
during the night, and are
but during the day their light
extinguished by the presence of the

glorious star, the Sun,
earth.
Nearly
depth of space, give us light because they are
hot.
known by
widely separated from each other,
in reality as
The
stars are
whose rays
is
greater light of one
light
up and warm the
moving rapidly through
space, al-
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY,
13
"though, they are apparently at rest on account of the great

distances they are from us.
The Sun
firmament.
appears to be the largest and brightest star
This
The apparent
ois.
because that orb
is
cross,
so, too,
enormous distances from
is
in
is
to the
great
nearest being
brighter than the
across a river
distance
the
sun
astronomer spans the
star to star.
the nearest star, the
Sun excepted.
It
about 20,000,000,000,000 miles away. This is a truth which
Yet
our minds can form no conception.
when compared with
small
1
due
distant than the sun.
Some stars are much larger and

As the land surveyor measurer, the
Alpha Centauri
is
separated from us; the
more than 200,000 times more
the
comparatively near
feebleness of the stars
distances they are
which he cannot
is
in
magnitude made
2th
this distance is
the distances of the stars of the
visible
by the telescope
for
it
only
takes light about three and a half years to reach us from
Apha
Centauri
would be
at this
while
moment
if
it
for 3,500 years.
That
is, it
to
us.
cannon
ball
taking the earth as
eling at the rate of
its
starting point, trav-
1,320 feet per second^ would not arrive
Alpha Centauri
in less
road train running
at the
at
magnitude
the light of these distant luminaries 3,500 years
reach
12th
destroyed, the inhabitants of the
earth would continue to see

takes
a star of the
than 2,500,000 years

rate of
while a
rail-
40 miles per hour, would
These
55,000,000 years.
arrive at that star in about
dis-
tances are entirely to great for our conception, yet they are
but mere points
boundless space.
The Magnitude
5.
The
brightness.
first
in
magnitude
of a star
brightest stars are
magnitude
450, of fourth
number
65, of the second
1,100, of the fifth
we
is
200, of the third;
From
the
of stars visible to the
see but one-half of the sky, the greatest

is
With
about 3,000.
magnitude, inclusive, are

this
The
4,000, of the sixth.
scope about 20,0c 0,000 stars between the
num-
a powerful tele-
first
and sixteenth
visible.
number more than 18,000,000 belong
to our
own
Milky Way.
stellar universe, the
Constellations.
6.
stars
about 6,000.
ber visible at a time,
Of
as stars of the
increases largely in ascending the scale.
naked eye,
relative
There are about 20
above we see that the whole number
Since
known
its
while the most feeble visible to the naked
eye, are of the sixth magnitude.

of the first
depends upon
The
stars are
arranged
in
groups
and are usually named after a fabulous
called constellations
personage or some animal w hich the relative position of the

7
stars
suggested to the mythological mind.
Variations.
The
the case of the nebulae,

far as
The
is
light of
cause of
these
of the stars, as in
subjected to variations which, so
we now know occur

r
some
in
regular periods of time.
variations
is
unknown, but three
theories have been
First
It is
advanced which are worthy
believed that
all
axis
and, hence
it is
of attention.
parts of the star's photosphere,
or surface, are not (equally luminous

its
15
when
brightest
turned toward us, and darkest
that
when
it
revolves upon
the brightest side
is
the dark side meets
our view.
Second
It is
believed that the star has one or
luminous planets revolving around
between us and the
star
it
more non-
that these planets get
forming either a
total or
partial
ecilpse.
Third
the Sun
it
It
has been found that
when
Hence
becomes brighter.
comes near
a planet
supposed that the
it is
variable has a large planet revolving around
it
and that
that part of the star's photosphere nearest the planet will be

brightest.
8.
Color.
The
light
most
of
of the stars
but some are red, orange, blue, green,
is
white
etc.
We
know but little

of the elements of the stars
however, we do know that
their photospheres contain some elements known to us.
9.
Constituents of the Stars.

;
Among
Iron.
the most widely diffused are Hidrogen,
The
constituent elemets of the stars bear a striking
resemblance to each other.
It
these great luminaries has the

sent,
10.
we
Sodium and
seems probable that each
same past
history.
At
of
pre-
are not prepared to conjecture about the future.
The Milky Way. We
have already spoken
of
16
under the head of nebuhe
star-clusters
the stars visible to the
form one great
stars
naked eye, and
star-cluster,
The
sun,
all
of
millions of telescopic
known
as the
Milky
Way.
at the rate of
186,000 miles per sec-
ond, starting at one side of the Milky
Way, passing through
ray of light traveling
the
center,
years
would reach the opposite
Then
continue at
leaving the
its
last star
in
side in about
15,00a
our cluster
would
usual velocity, for several millions of years,,
through empty space and
at last arrive at other star-clusters,,
them exceeding our own Milky Way

extent and numbers.
Thus we see that the
some
of
of
clusters,
numbering about 5,000, and
floating in the
bosom
vastness
in
visible star-
isolated
other by inconceivable distances, are only so
ways
it
from each
many milky
of infinite space.
LESSON HI.
The
i.
Sol, ml
in the center of
System.
The Solar System
that portion of the universe
is
situated
known
as the
Milky Way.
2
Constituents,
The
Solar System
is
composed
of
the sun, planets, satellites, comets, meteors and an apparent
ring of nebulous matter called the Zodiacal Light.

3
all
The Sun
the other
places by
its
is
the center of the Solar System.
members
attraction
of the system
in
their
It
holds
respective
supplies the planets with light and heat, and supports
It
animal and vegetable
all
we examine
If
spots on
known
IV.]
the
it
Since
Sun
By
turns on
its
always a perfect
is
is
the
it
about 27 days
is
also that
[See Chap.
of the ecliptic
Sun
it
rotates on
its
axis,
and
we conclude, therefore,that
The Sun is 852,584 miles in
circle,
a perfect sphere.
Its
dark
notice
observing these spots,
axis in
we know that
diameter, and
earth.
Sun with a *telescope, we
inclined to the plane
is
disk
its
the
on our globe
life
photosphere.
its
that
axis
its
17
nearly 1,300,000 times larger than the
is
weight, however,
is
only about 300,000 times as
great.
The Sun
is
surrounded by a highly absorptive atmosphere
which extends about 80,000 miles above

atmosphere
float
its
surface.
In this
incandescent clouds composed of vaporized
metals and other constituent elements of a surface beneath.

It is
from these clouds whence the
existence
is
The Sun
We
our
derived
is
a variable star with a period of
1 1
years.
do not know what keeps up the Sun's great supply of
and heat, but we can theorize. A

One theory is good until a better one is
The constant supply of light and heat
light
"
light so necessary to
produced by the contraction of
Another theory
is,
its
philosopher says,
"
given.
is
supposed
to
be
cooling mass.
that meteors are constantly falling into
*Do not look at the Sun with even the smallest telescope, without proper instrucand appliances, for it is very dangerous. Some astronomers have lost their eyes.
tion
18
They
the sun from interplanetary space.

face with
ever,
now
is
Sun
heat
is
not known.
replenished, and
body
first
How
long
supply our system with light and
Certainly
we have no
it
can not
last
forever
evidence that such
if
not
the case.
is
Hence we
giving out heat becomes cooler.
in
sur-
This theory, how-
generally discarded for the
will continue to
its
and being suddenly stopped
velocity,
motion will be converted into heat.
their
the
enormous
arrive at
conclude that the Sun at some time, cold and lonely, will go
falling
through
from the poles

and before
of the
its
earth.
world "
on our own. terrestrial abode,
to the equator
mighty
tide
man
willdissappear from the face
Such we imagine
for several
is
enough energy stored up
ply us with light and heat for
Sun
is
will
be the "end of the
hundred years.
spectacle above mentioned occur,
there
ice will gradually creep
Astronomers, however, have no evidence of any
of heat
loss
The
infinite space.
not stationary but
is
it
Should the sad
need not trouble
in that
us, for
radiant orb to sup-
many thousand
years
The
moving through space towards
the constellation of Hercules at the rate of 4 miles per sec-
ond.
Many
astronomers think our Solar System
ing around Alcyone, the brightest star of

Since the Sun carries with
constantly entering
new realms
Before leaving the Sun

tent in order to get
it ail
it
let
of its
is
revolv-
the Pleiades.
attendants,
we
are
of space.
us again glance at
its
well impressed on our minds.
vast ex-
If
the
Sun were
to revolve at its actual distance
Earth, but each part of
in
yet the
still
Moon
be nearly 200,
railroad train
would perform
about 30 years.
vast extent
its
would
of the Sun.
traveling at the ordinary rate,
around the Sun
for the
at its
(240,000 miles,) around the
orbit
its
000 miles below the surface
fore
and the Earth placed
a hollow shell
would not only be enough room
center, there
19
We
its
journey
feel humiliated be-
Sun forms but a molecule
of the
luminous matter of the universe.
LESSON
Planets.
1.
the
Sun
in
A planet
an almost circular path.
2.
The Orbit
3.
The
of a planet
The
The
The
6.
the path in which
it
travels.
but nearly
orbit of the
by
Sun
planes in which the orbits of the planets
not coincide
5.
is
planets are non-luminous bodies, and shine
reflecting the light of the

4.
body that revolves around
is
IV.
lie
do
so.
Earth
is
called the Ecliptic.
plane in which the orbit of the Earth
lies is
called
the Plane of the Ecliptic.

7.
Mercury.
whose
existence
just
Mercury
is
above the Sun,
is
the nearest planet to the
may
known.
It
after that
body has
be seen
set,
in the
Sun
West,
or after a certain
20
time has elapsed,
Sun
it
may
Mercury
rises.
is
be seen
a
only planet that twinkles
and
Sun
the
it
in
tinged with red and
little
Since
the morning before the
orbit
its
presents phases
similar
is
the
between us
is
Moon.
the
to
of the
rugged with mountains higher than those

Earth.
It
has also evidences of a higher and
denser
atmosphere than
surface
Its
the
Sun
Sun
it
our
a very
in
more than
earth.
Its
35,000,000 miles
5 min.,
its axis,
its
30
sec.
is,
its
its
nearest the
farthest
light
diameter 2960 miles
its
away.
and heat as
about
is
day 24 hs.,
year 88 of our days; the inclination on
of the earth
and
the average weight of
its
its
seasons 22 days
about 7
specific gravity
its
constituent parts
is
about
weight of an equal bulk of water.
to the great eccentricity of
tion of
its
axis, its climate
is
its
ature nearly equal to the
orbit
and the
inclina-
subjected to great extremes.
Every 44 days on an average there
8.
is
from the Sun
distance
Owing
silver
when
much
as
around
revolves,
When it
heat as
six times
7 times greater than the
"
It
greater than that of the earth
volume }
that
much
mean
;
our own.
eliptical orbit
receives twice as
receives
It
is
difference
is
a change in temper-
between frozen quick-
and melted lead-"
Venus.
Owing
to
its
Venus
in
the second planet from the
comparative nearness,
and brightest planet.
mosphere
is
which
It is
it
Sun
appears the largest
surrounded by a transparent
float the
clouds that rise from
its
at-
stormy
sea, presenting the
same
spetacle to us,
we
Zl
see every day
on the Earth,
on
It rotates
axis in 23 hrs. 21 min.
its
a perpendicular to the plane

58')
and
of its orbit
is
to
very great, (49
Mercury subjected
therefore, like
it is,
Its inclination
to great
extremes of temperature.
is
Sun
revolves around the
It
the length of
its
year.
224^
in
our days, which
of
mountains are higher than
Its
those of the Earth.

Its
its
diameter
and
It
mean distance from

is
one-fifth;
7,510 miles
Sun
its
volume about
its
much
twice as
receives
the
about 66,000,000 miles,
of
four-fifths
and heat
the Sun,
The phases
gravity about five
specific
light
Venus being between us and

similar to Mercury.
is
it
the Earth.
as the Earth.
presents
of both planets,
phases
however,
are not visible to the naked e\e.
Venus may be seen

year.
It is
of a few
Sun
known
months
rises.
The
then
It is
planets
ferior planets
in
it
as the
may
then
the evening in a certain part of the
be seen
known
we have
Evening Star.
in
as the
After an elapse
the morning before the
Morning
Star.
already considered, are called in-
those which
lie
outside of the
Earth's orbit
are called superior planets.

9.
Mars
we come
Its
day
is
to
Passing the Earth
Mars
to
be dealt with hereafter,
the fourth planet in order from the
about the same length of ours
its
Sun
year about 687
22
days;
of our
its
diameter 4920 miles
its
same
axis about the
of
inclination
its
as the Earth, and, hence,
seasons
its
about the same.
Mars has
land, water, snow, clouds
You remember
as the Earth.
is
This
red.
The
mosphere.
is
due
due
is
Mars
of
is
supposed
is
and stops
This
red.
;
all
that is,
of the
and snow.
of
The
Mars,
orbit
of
very eccentric and the south pole being inclined
to-
we would
this is exactly
in that part of its orbit nearest the
summer in its southern hemisphere.
what happens
the white spot

distance of
it is
naturally expect the white spot to decrease
during the planet's
is
snow zone
Mars from
the
Jupiter.
very plausible.
is
Sun
est planet of
we
our system, and the
The mean
about 139,000,000 miles.
is
V.
Omitting the Asteroids of
soon have something to say,
Now
Hence, the supposition that
LESSON
1.
fiery
the south pole
to consist of ice
wards the Sun when

Sun,
of a
at-
reflects to us.
it
large white spot surrounds
Mars
is
acts as a sieve
Sun's light but the red which
and
our
to the absorption of a part of the Sun's light
Mars
Sun
the color of the setting
to the absorption of its light in
color
the atmosphere of
and mists the same
which we
shall
arrive at Jupiter, the largfifth in
order from the Sun.
1,400 times larger than the Earth
It is
from the Sun

it
is
about 476,000,000 miles
mean
its
23
distance
the light and heat
receives from the Sun, but one-twenty-fifth as intense as
that received
by the Earth
its
day about 10
rotate so rapidly that a point on
hrs.,
very rapid rotation the flattening of
great,
Owing
than
its
The
polar.
axis of Jupiter
a perpendicular to the plane of
no perceptible change
year
Its
is
gravity
times as
much
of
its
is
its
longer
only inclined 3
4'
Hence there
it
is
always
Jupiter
to
is
about 1^, which makes
it
is
Zodiac
in the
recognized.
easily
Saturn,
Its
weigh 300
the sixth planet in order from the

It
rotates
very
10%
hours
long.
734 times as large as the Earth.
rapidly on
year
is
very
as the Earth
Saturn.
Its
is
to
of seasons
which makes
specific
is
poles
equal to about 12 of our years.
[Lesson XIII]
Sun,
is
orbit.
its
nearly as brilliant as Venus, and
2.
its
equatorial diameter being one-sixteenth
its
it
equator travels about 27
its
times faster tnan one on the Earth's equator.

its
making
axis
its
days being only
equal to about
29^
equator to the plane of
of our years
its
orbit
26^,
the inclination
and, hence
its
seasons are subjected to changes similar to those of the
Earth
miles
its
mean
and
its
distance from the
Sun
is
about 872,000,000
specific gravity only two-thirds.
Around Saturn, 20,000

huge flat ring. This ring
miles above
is
its
equator,
rises
followed by a second and the
second by a third.
This system of multiple
about ioo miles thick but
it is
160,000 miles
in
ring's
is
only
diameter and
38,000 miles broad.
The
ring's
are not stationary, but revolve around
with greater rapidity than the planet

tion
itself.
Satura
Close observa-
has revealed that the rings are undergoing changes.
Fig. 4. Saturn
and its
rings
compared
as to size with the Earth.
The general supposition is that these rings are composed

of many little satellites, each moving independently in its
own course around the planet, and being closely packed together, they present the appearance of bright rings.
3.
Uranus.
The
six planets already
named were known
to the ancients
The
rest
25
have been discovered
in
modern
times
In
78 1, Sir William Herschel
planet in order from the Sun, and
it is
naked eye.
the
just visible to
discovered the seventh
Its
year
our years, but there being no spots on

able to
tell its
the Earth
period of rotation.
specific gravity
its
tance from the

4.
Sun
Neptunk
nearly
modern
other molecule, and after taking
of
Uranus
equal to 84 of
surface,
we
are not
The mean
1.
Neptune
dis-
still
one of
is
science.
of matter in the universe
was
It is
72 times as large as
It is
discovery of
the grandest triumphs of
account, there
its
is
Uranus
1,754,000,000 miles.
is
The
Every molecule
is
called
all
the
attracts
known
every
causes into
something that effected the motions
This led to the belief that there was another
planet beyond the orbit of this planet.
Le
Verrier, a French
astronomer, proved by a mathematical calculation that there
must be another planet beyond the orbit

wrote
to Berlin observers,
the planet to be
planet
known
Uranus,
;
its
year
Uranus, and
them where he imagined
Following Le Verrier's directions, the
was discovered
Like
telling
of
the
same evening. (September 1846.)
Neptune's
is
gravity nine-tenths,
2,746,000,000 miles.
period
of
rotation
equal to 165 of our years
and
its
mean
its
distance from the
is
un-
specific
Sun
is
26
The
intensity of
light
its
and heat
only about one-nine
is
hundredth as great as that of the earth.
The Planets
5.
ready named
General.
in
The eight
order of their sizes are
in the
planets al-
Jupiter, Saturn,
On
Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.
account of their large size they are called Major Planets,

the remainder are very small and are called
Minor Planets,
or Planetoids.
LESSON
The Asteroids
1.
VI.
The Asteroids,or minor planets
volve around the Sun between the
Their
Jupiter.
The
to
what
is
known
as
and add 4
Mars
12
each number
is
Let us write
24
;
and
about
is
discovery of the asteroids
Bode's Law.
to
of
from the Sun
average distance
260,000,000 miles.
orbits
re-
due
down
96
48
we now have
100.
16
28
10
52
7
4
This series of numbers represents the distances of the
ancient planets from the
Venus
10,
Earth
an 100, Saturn.
16,
Sun
4,
Mars
28,
Mercury
represents
;
7,
52, Jupiter
28 has apparently no planet to represent.
Kepler boldly placed an undiscovered planet
in the
gap,
but up to the discovery of Uranus the suspected planet had
not revealed
itself.
covered, and
it
When, however,
was found
Jan.
in
for
and there are
Only two
of these planets,
The
diameter.
up
added,
Ceres and Vesta, are some-
times visible to the naked eye

miles in
Bode's
filled
many others have been

now (1887) 264, known to exist
Since that time
the gap.
dis-
it.
was discovered which
180G, Ceres
1,
number
was
distance, a society of astron-
its
omers was formed, and search made
On
this planet
that the next
would represent
series, 196,
27
force
the largest being only 228

of gravity
must be
very
The inhabitants of these planets can all be clowns,

man could easily jump 50 feet high on one of their sur-
small.
for a
faces and sustain but a slight shock on descending.
are evidences of an atmosphere on
Some
It is
of
them
also
seeem
some
There
of the planets.
to rotate on their axis.
generally believed that the minor planets are the frag-
ments of a large planet shattered by coming
in
contact with
some other heavenly body.

According
about 150,000
Mars and
2.
Sun
to
!
Le
Verrier's computation there must be
of these little
bodies between the orbits of
Jupiter
Satellites
Those planets which revolve around the
as a center, are called primary planets.
Those which
revolve around the primary planets, are called secondary

planets or satellites.
Since the secondary
planets accom-
pany the primaries around the ^un, and the Sun moves
28
through space, we see that the motions of the
satellites is
a very complex subject.
The Earth has -one

Jupiter four
The
Saturn eight
Uranus
primaries
in the
direction to the
opposite
plausible hypothesis
3.
direction
to East.
hands
West
to
of a clock.
and revolution of the planets and their
how
explain
one.
a wonderful uniformity in the direction of
nearly in the same plane,
tists tc
from West
same
revolve around the Sun from
all
There being such

rotation
Neptune
their primaries the
that these planets rotate, namely?
East, or
six
Mars two
with the exception of those of Uranus and
satellites,
Neptune, revolve around
The
Moon
satellite called the
it
satellites so
has led to a very popular
now used
and
almost exclusively by scien-
the Solar System originated.
Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis
This
hypothesis
was advanced by the celebrated French astronomer, Laplace.

It
assumes that
all
the matter
now belonging
to the
Solar
System was once scattered throughout the space now occupied by that system,
in a
highly heated condition, forming
a vast Nebula which probably extended far beyond the orbit of
Neptune
By and by
overcame the
stituting
It is
it
the
mass began
to cool
repellent force
began
and the force
of heat,
of gravity
and the matter con-
to contract.
a very well
known law
t
in
Philosophy that whenever
ASTRONOMICAL GE0GRAPH1.
matter seeks *a center a rotary motion
As
29
acquired.
is
the cooling mass contracted the rotary motion
increased
sarily
came
neces-
the centrifugal force at the surface over-
the force of gravity and ring like masses of nebulous
matter were thrown
off
and collecting
in
spherical masses,
they formed the planets which for a similar reason acquired
a rotary motion and detached their

this supposition is true,
If
thrown
still
when
satellites*
the rings of Saturn
them did not break up
off several of
into globes but
remain as rings revolving around the planet.
probable that
many
if
left to
show
us
sometime do
that they will
appropriately remarks
very
" Saturn's
that
up
into
Mitchell
rings
were
made. "
ments, ncne large enough to attract the

;
so,
very
The ring which

probably broke up into many frag-
how the world was
formed the Asteroids
gle globe
It is
these rings have not already broken
little satellites,
were
while the central mass
rest,
of the
and form a
sin-
nebula contracted
and formed the Sun.
The
theory
principles,
esis,
and
it
yet
is
perfectly consistent with strict mechanical
we must remember
must be
We should also
it
is
only a hypoth-
dealt with as such
remember
that the strongest evidence to
confirm the truth of any theory
phenomena, and this
that
is
is
its
ability to
explain
strikingly true of this hypothesis.
observations tend to prove
its
correctness.
-Examples of this law are seen in every day

a whirlwind or a water-spout.
life, as
The theory
All
bt
water poured into a funnel,
30
ing sustained by so
mar^
we
facts,
entertain
shall
it
the
in
absence of positive counter evidence.
LESSON
The Moon.
i.
It
The
would take 49 Moons
Moon
to
VII.
is
make
2,153 miles in diameter.

a planet as large as the
Earth.
very
Its orbit is
one of the
foci
eliptical,
its
average distance from
When in
nearly 240,000 miles.

the earth,
of
its
it is
the center of the earth being at
that part of
said to be in perigee,
orbit farthest awa)'
it is
said to
its
and when
be
in
the Earth
is
orbit nearest
in that
opogee.
part
To
an
Moon the Earth must look at least twelve

times as large as the Moon looks to us; while the Earth's
phases would be similar to those we see in the Moon. The
eclipse of the Earth would be on a much smaller scale than
the eclipse of the Moon and the eclipse of the Sun would
be a phenomenon many times greater than we see on the
inhabitant of the
earth.
It
makes one
the Earth in
month.
27^
takes the
days.
The Earth
Sun changes
its
Moon
is
West
This period
in the
mean time
is
to
East around
called the
sidereal
traveling around the
position with respect to the Sun, so that
about
with respect to the
month, and
revolution from
29^
Sun.
it
days to make one revolution
This
the time from one
is
called the
New Moon
till
synodic
the next.
The Moon
same time
the
actly
rotates on
revolution, hence
Viewed with
as
it
we
axis
its
which
from West
East
to
accomplishes
sidereal
never see but one side of our
satellite.
Moon
appears
it
naked eye 80 miles away.
would
It
has no atmosphere, hence to an observer on the
would present
;
phere to
There
a very peculiar aspect.
no cloud
Sun's rays, there
morning or evening, but the

and goes as quick as
light of
is
is
the
in
like a flash,
came.
it
his
every place where the direct rays of the
water
no sound
no twilight
day comes
There a person can not see through
No
is
Moon
There being no atmos-
to dot the sky.
reflect the
a? a deep,
ex-
in
it
no wind
is
31
its
in
a most powerful telescope the
to the
own shadow, but

Sun do not reach
dark dungeon, through which

there to quench one's thirst
we
can not see
but everything
is
a rainless desert as quiet and voiceless as the grave.

2.
The Moon's Phases
body and like the
planets,
it
The
shines
Moon
by
is
a non-luminous
reflecting the light of
the Sun.
When
the
side turned
Moon
away from
ed toward the Sun

visible,
have
As
it
because
New
the
is
it is
between the Earth and the Sun, the

the Earth
is lit
up, because
it is
while that part turned toward us
turned
away from
the
Sun
We
turnis
in-
then
Moon.
Moon
progresses
gradually presents
its
in
the course of
its
revolution,
illuminated portion to us, and
we
get
SB
a glimpse, as
it
were, of the bright side for a
We then have
sunset.
When
the
two
lines
the Crescent
the illuminated side.
We
while after
Moon.
passing from the
and Sun, respectively, form
little
Moon
a right angle,
we
to the
Earth
see one half of
then have the First Quarter.
Fig. 5. The
Moon's Phases.
Next we see more than one-half
of the
Moon's
disk.
We
then have Gibbous Moon.
Again we have the Earth between the Sun and Moon, and
we
see
all
of the illuminated portion.
We
then have Full
Moon.
From
Full
Moon we have
similar phases in reverse order
New Moon
until
again reached,
is
when
33
the cycle recom-
mences.
From New Moon
Moon our satellite is said to wax

from Full Moon to the next New Moon,
or increase, while
it is
said to
Eclipses.
3.
plane
that
wane
to Full
or decrease.
If
the orbit of the
every time
of the ecliptic,
body would pass
directly
shut off the Sun's light.
The
plane in which the
Earth,
Hence we
half
This, however,
Moon
North
Now
Nodes.
case.
ecliptic
ecliptic.
is
per-
and the other
it.
Moon
must, therefoie, pass through the
plane of the ecliptic at two points.
nodes,
not the
performs its journey around the
of the plane of the
orbit of the
if
the
when they are
have an
is
see that one half of the Moon's journey
South of
The
between us and the Sun, and
inclined five degrees to the plane of the
is
formed
Moon coincided with the

we have a New Moon
eclipse.
If
These
Moon happens
in
the
line
points are called
at
either of these
with the Earth and Sun,
Sun and Moon are
in
we
conjunction,
the New Moon passes between the Earth and Sun we

have an eclipse of the Sun, the Earth passing through the
shadow of the Moon but if the Sun and Moon are in op;
Moon enters and is

and we have an eclipse
position, the Full
of the Earth,
hidden
of the
in the
shadow
Moon.
Since the Earth casts a larger shadow than the Moon, an
Moon lasts longer than one of the Sun.

Moon is near but not exactly at a node we have
eclipse of
If
the
partial eclipse.
34
Effects of Eclipses Upon the Ignorant.

neither
time nor space to
One
Early
in the
have
the effects of eclipses
describe
upon the ignorant masses.
We
illustration
suffice.
will
year of 1504, Christopher Columbus, and crew,
while on a voyage of discovery, were wrecked

of Jamaica.
They were on
natives refused to give
knew that an eclipse

of March 1, of that
told the natives
the point of starvation, and the
them any
of the
year.
on the coast
provisions.
Moon would
Columbus
occur on the night
Resorting to a stratagem, he
that the Great Spirit
was angry with them
because they did not treat the Spaniards better, and would
hide his face from
provisions
came
them
also, for
Indians believing that
him
when
the
Columbus had
bountiful supplies, beseeching
Spirit to receive
Such
The eclipse came and

Moon became dark, the
that night.
them again
superstition as this
told the truth
him
brought
to induce the
into his favor.
has stained
the
horizon of a
thousand years with innocent blood, but a new era

being ushered
in, full of
now
VIII.
We have other bodies revolving around the Sun
They are masses of self luminous gas

called Comets.
They travel around the Sun in very
besides the planets.
and are
is
science and progress.
LESSON
Comets
Great
elongated orbits
some
of
85
them completeing the cycle
in
few years, while others require many thousand years.

stead of
Sun from west
revolving around the
all
some
the planets,
In-
to east like
from east to west, while
of thern revolve
others strike the plane of the ecliptic at various angles.
Did you every see
projected on the sky.
Coma
or head.
comet
glorious spectacle
brightest portion
Its
Some
It is a
called the
is
times the head contains a bright spot
called the Nucleus.
The dimmer
portion flowing from the head
All parts of the
Tail.
may
Stars
ture.
far
increases
in
away from
tails
Comets
diameter.
called the
very transparent na-
of a
be seen through the
thousands of miles
when
comet are
is
where they are
travel very slow
the Sun, but their rate of travel greatly
asthey approach that body. Their brightness
increases
as
they approach that luminary.
also
Gets of gas
burst violently forth from the head towards the Sun, and
being driven back, probably by the repulsive power of the

Sun, a
tail is
formed varying from a
one hundred million miles
away from
the
ets are
length.
The
Sun no matter whether
ing to or from the

2
in
million miles to
tail
the
more than
always points
comet
is
travel-
Sun
Effects of Comets Upon the Ignorant.

usually regarded by
war, pestilence, and famine.
foolish people
Many
great comet of 1861 foretold the
as
Com-
the sign
of
people believe that the
War
of Secession.
36
It
has long been feared that our Earth would sometime
have a
collision
would destroy
us that the
that
it
mass
we need
In fact
with some of these wanderers, and that they

;
but the light of
of a
comet
informs
science
so extremely light and
rare
not apprehend any danger.
we have good
through the
is
Modern
tail
evidence that our Earth
of the brilliant
comet
of
passed
1861, yet the only
unusual phenomenon was a peculiar phosphorescent mist.

In 1776 a
comet became entangled with the
satellites
of
Jupiter, but the satellites pursued their journey around their
primary as though nothing had happened, while the comet
was thrown
entirely out of
a long-period comet,
it
its
course and instead of
now accomplishes
its
being
revolution in
about 20 years
The
following table will prove useful as a reference

Time
Comets.
of Revolu- Nearest approach Greatest distance

tion.
from the Sun.
to the Sun.
YEAKS.
En eke' s
3M
De
Vico's.
Brorsen's..
Biela's ...
Faye's
6||
1X
flalley's
3.
Meteors
Go out
are you will see what
the sky.
metallic
you fancy
iron
Sun
MILES.
MILES.
32.000,000
110,000,000
64,000,000
82,000,000
192,000.000
56,000,000
387,000,000
475,0C0,000
537,000.000
585,000,000
603,000,000
3,200,000,000
on a clear night and the chances

to
be stars shooting across
These are small bodies
revolve around the
like
and various
planets,
called meteors
which
and are composed of
compounds
of
silica.
The
greatest
It
Sun
of
meteors
14th
about the
is
November.
of
has been calculated that these bodies revolve around the

in
orbit
its
fall
37
an
and
orbit
eliptical
its
whose perhehon
lies in
the Earth's
aphelion just beyond the orbit of Uranus
inclination to the plane of the ecliptic
the motion of these bodies
yond doubt.
from east
is
The Earth
to
is
west
along
sailing
17
in
is
that
And
that
proven beorbit en-
its
Nov
counters the meteors at their perihelion point about
Hence
14th.
They do
Nov. shower.
the
uniformly distributed throughout their
Up
several groups.
been detected.
to this
about 33 years, and hence those great

a
their revolution in
November showers,
but as
they extend a
distance along their orbit, they are several years in
passing one point.
We
may, therefore, expect
showers for two or three consecutive years.
shower was
occur
but travel in
phosphorescent appearance,
only occur at intervals of 33 years

great
orbit,
time 56 such collections have
These groups complete
which make the sky put on
not seem to be
in
in
1866, while the
Nov. 1899 or
brilliant
The last
same phenomenon
great
will again
I 9*
Traveling at the rate of 30 miles per second, they enter

our atmosphere which acting as a break makes them so hot
by
its
friction that
they are usually vaporized before reach-
ing the solid earth, and leave a train of luminous matter be-
hind them.
Many, however, reach
damaging whatever happens
in
the earth, often greatly
their
way.
Some
of the
88
larger ones even explode on becoming intensely heated
the
fragments consisting of red hot stones being scattered over

an area of several square miles
Meteors bear evidences

heated condition as to be
little
of
having been
such a highly
in
in a state of fusion
How
these
bodies were "created" has never been satisfactorily
explained.
4.
The Zodiacal Light
seen at certain times

east before sunrise.
ecliptic.
Its
Its
of meteors
shape
and
its
is
that of a cone
axis
lies in
true position in the Solar
ter of conjecture.
Some think
it is
its
base
is
the plane of the
System is only
a mat-
due to a great multitude
which surround the Sun and
others attributed to an
may be
Zodiacal Light
the west just after sunset and in the
in
turned toward the Sun
The
immense number
reflect its light
of these
which are constantly entering and being burnt up
little
in
bodies
our
own
atmosphere.
What
the Zodiacal Light
is, is,
therefore, only an opinion
based upon an imperfect knowledge.
SECTION
II.
LESSON IX.
The Earth. In
i.
over the Earth.
about
and
We
like other planets
lies
between the
It
is
it
is
the planet
it
we
passed
a great deal to
say
which we
live
upon
Mars and Venus
Sun
;
its
its
mean
orbit
dis-
about 91,500,000.
was formerly supposed
and that
now have
revolves around the
orbits of
tance from the Sun

,
shall
The Earth
it.
discussing the planets
that the Earth
was stationary
rested on something,probably, the back of an ele-
The elephant was supposed to stand on the back of

a turtle. What the turtle stood on remains unanswered.
("Probably there are turtles the rest of the way down.")
Nothing is more false than such a theory. The earth
phant
rests
on nothing.
bodies,
it
Being isolated from the other heavenly
moves through empty space around the Sun.
Before studying the motions of the eartn

first
study the relations between matter and force, concisely
expressed
2.
we must needs
in several
Law
and a body
laws discovered by Sir Isaac Newton.
of Inertia.
in
body
at rest
remains
at
motion moves with uniform velocity
rest,
in
upon by some external force
straight line, unless acted
change
its
Lay
it
condition.
book or other inanimate object upon
remain there
will
moves
because
it,
to
it
until
somebody
or
the table and
some external force
has no power within
itself to
change
its
position
Hurl a stone
force,
it
power
into the air.
move onward
will
to stop than
it
and remaining
when
in
see that mat-
motion when
motion,
in
This property
called
as
New-
Law of Universal GravitationWhen you
threw,
at rest
The Law
ton's First
Law of
was
at rest.
of Inertia
known in Physics
is
Motion.
the stone into the air

force
Hence we
start.
keeping
has no more
it
is
Inertia.
3.
forever, because
had to
ter has the property of
acted upon by no external
If
the cause of
it
to the earth
fell
its
falling
We
What
external
have told you
in
previous lesson that every molecule of matter in the universe

attracted every other molecule.
tween
particles of matter
Now when you

lost
is
The mutal
attraction be-
called gravitation.
threw the stone skywards,
on account of the resistance of the
air
its
motion was
and the
attrac-
tion of the Earth.
The
body
force of gravity of a sphere or spheroid acts upon a
of matter without
centrated at
its
the square of
it
as
if
the attractive force
was con-
center, and this attraction varies inversely as
its
distance from the center.
For example, take a man
What would he weigh
Earth's surface.
miles above
its
surface
Suppose the surface

its
is
center
weighs
that
Then
the
if
80
41
lbs. at
the
transported 8,000
of the
Earth
to
be 4,000 miles from
man would be 4,000
plus 8,000 which
12,000 miles from the Earth's center, or 12,000 divided by
4,000 equals 3 times as far as
The
square of 3
when he weighed
i8olbs.
Hence he would weigh one-ninth
is 9.
of 180 or 20 lbs.
What would he weigh
at the Earth's center
Nothing because he would be
equally attracted on
all
sides
If
come
the force
of
gravity would
of the rocks, houses
to the earth
cease
what would be-
and the living beings that
it
holds
Fig. 6.
4.
Newton's Second
force has the
same
effect in
Law
of Motion.
given
producing motion, whether the
42
body on which
it
acts
is in
motion or
at rest
whether
acted upon by that force alone, or by others at the
is
it
same
time.
6 suppose a
In Fig.
sends
it
to
in
A to receive
ball at
one second
then suppose
another impulse at right angles to the line

to
in
one second
allelogram
found
at
A,
move over
A B C D, and
at C.
at right
at the
daily
Law
motion
time,
AC
of the parit
will
be
of Motion.
X,
has two motions
and revolves around the Sun

diurnal or
same
end of one second
Hence the Second
The Earth
it
angles to each other.
the diagonal
LESSON
i
B, that sends
that they both act at the
and that they be applied

ball will then
receive
to
it
Now instead of these forces acting sep-
arately, let us suppose
The
an impulse that
It
rotates on
The former
the second
its
its
axis
called
is
its
annual or yearly
motion.
2.
Cause of the Earth's Revolution
Earth was separated from the Nebulous Sun,

projectile force
moving
From
its
inertia
alone,
the
received a
it
of its
must con-
forever.
This motion, however, would be
were not
it
which has ever since been the cause
motion through space.

tinue
When
in a straight line
for the gravitation of the other
if
it
heavenly bodies
we
This attraction causes, as
shall
now
43
explain, the curved
paths of the planets.
Fig.
In fig.
S represents
7,
inertia, the
Sun
Earth would move
direction
the
but
F,
7.
Sun's attraction constantly
the
ward
or
its
its
its
true path
direction at every point,
is
between these
lines
act-
orbit causes our
by
falling to-
the Sun, and instead of traveling along the line

S,
its
for an indefinite time in the
ing upon the Earth at right angles to

planet to change
From
the Earth.
EF
along the curve
lineE B.
The
inertia is
the Sun's
these
two
world.
sometimes called the centrifugal
attraction
is
called the centripetal
force, while
force.
It
is
forces acting together that insures the safety of our
If
the centripetal
Earth would pass
off into
force
would cease
at
space along the straight
B,
line
the
B M,
44
but
if
the
Sun along
the inertia
64 days
after
would cease
the line
it
a meteor in our
started,
S,
it
at
B, the Earth would
and arriving
at that
would disappear
many
luminary
in
surface like
own atmosphere.
more simple can be
work
fully explained in a
The change
of seasons
There
Only a few
proofs of the Earth's revolution.
1st.
to
in its
Proofs that the Earth Revolves.
3.
fall
of the
like this.
XIX J
[Lesson
are
is
proof
of the Earth's revolution.
All the stars in the firmament
2d.
parent revolution
in
make one mere
ap-
one year around the Earth than the Sun.
This can only be satisfactorily explained on the supposition that

the Earth revolves around the Sun.
Law.
Kepler's First
3d.
around the Sun an
eliptical orbit,
Each
planet
and the center
describes
of the
Sun
occupies one of the foci.
Kepler's Third Law.
4th.
under Kepler's Third
Law
The Earth
which
is
as
is
also included
follows
If
the
square of the time of revolution be divided by the cube of

its
mean
same
for
distance from the Sun,

all
the quotient
will
be
the
the planets
LESSON XL
1
began
Cause of the Earth's Rotation

its
existence, after
it
When the Earth
had been separated from the
Nebulous
ter
it
Sun,its matter
began
to
accumulate around a cen-
on account of the contraction of
its
of rotation has not changed,
if
any,
Hence
cooling mass.
According
acquired a rotary motion.
45
Lockyer
to
more than
the time
one-sixty
sixth of a second in 2,500 years,
Proofs that the Earth Rotates
2.
From
1st,
for the
the laws of centrifugal force,
Sun and
stars to revolve
the only natural conclusion
is
impossible
it is
Hence
around the Earth.
that the Earth turns on
its
axis.
2d.
If
the Earth rotates on
between the
poles,
known
its
axis, its surface
must necessarily
as the Equator,
travel fastest, while the motion decreases until
poles
where
force, a
ii is
zero.
body ought
ed from the poles

happens.
its
it
reaches the
Hence from the greater
centrifugal
to loose
to the
some weight in being
equator
This
is
transport-
what
exactly
A body looses one two hundred and eighty-nineths of
weight upon being taken from either pole
From
midway
to
the equator.
a law in philosophy, that the force increases as the
square of the velocity, and since 2891s the square of
17,
if
the Earth turned 17 times faster, a body at the equator
would wiegh nothing, while a stone hurled

never
3d.
fall
Drop
fall
would
to the earth.
the earth and

stone
into the air
a plumb-line from the top of a high tower to
mark where
it
touches the ground
from the same point of the tower.
then
It falls
let
to the
46
east of the point

tates
from west
This shows that the Earth ro-
marked.
to east.
Foucault proved, by a pendulum experiment, that
4th.
the earth rotates.
The
5th.
oblateness of the earth
the legitimate result
is
of its diurnal motion.

3.
earth
Shape of the Earth.

Oblate
that of an
is
diameter
is
The
shape of the
true
The
Spheroid.
equatorial
twenty-six and five elevenths miles longer than
the polar.
4.
Proofs that the Earth
ing such a large sphere
We shall,
however, give ten proofs that
walk around an
You
it is
spherical.
know
all
flat.
that a fly can
apple, so, too, a person can travel
around the
Ships have often started at a certain place on the
earth's surface,
and by continuing
weeks, have reached the starting

possible,
2d.
The earth be-
surface everywhere appears
Circumnavigation.
1st.
earth.
its
Round.
is
if
the earth
is
The Sensible
in
many
one direction for
This would be im-
point.
not spherical.
Horizon.
A person on top
mountain can see the earth slope away
of a high
in all directions.
The
higher a person ascends, the more the circle formed by the
apparent meeting of the earth and sky,

3.
Approaching Objects.
son could
upper
half.
If
is
extended
the earth
see the lower half of an
This, however,
is
was
flat
object as soon
not the case.
When
a peras the
a ship
is
coming
and
we
into port,
first
see the
47
topmast, next the
sails,
meets our view.
lastly, the hull
Since this phenomenon occurs no matter from which
approaching
rection the ship
is
that the earth
spherical.
is
Shape of the Horizon
4th.
and sky seem to meet

cle.
us,
Now,
is
conclude, therefore,
The
line
where the earth
always the circumference of a
the Earth were
if
we
di-
would not be
flat, this
cir-
true,
near the edge some other shape would
since to a person
meet our view.
The Earth's Shadow
5th.
Moon, the Earth always
During
casts a circular
an eclipse of the
shadow upon our
Since only spherical bodies cast circular shadows
satellite.
in all directions, the
Earth must be spherical.
Walls of a
6th.
building,
if
Building.
The
opposite walls of a
built perpendicular are farther apart at the top
than at the bottom.

7th.
were
Rising and Setting of the Sun.
flat
same
the
time.
Sun would
We
it
set
If
the
everywhere
that the
does west of
Position of the
never sets.
and
know, however,
sets east of us before
8th.
rise
Sun
earth
at the
rises
and
us.
North Star.
This would be impossible,
if
The North Star

the earth
was not
spherical.
9th.
Unequal Length of Day and Night.
Earth were
flat,
If
the
day and night would everywhere be
of
AS
equal length, throughout the year,
we
case,
again infer that the Earth
Measurement
ioth.
only find that the Earth

exact amount of
its
By
is
measurement we not
an oblate spheroid, but also the
oblateness.
diameter of the Earth

nine five hundred
torial
diameter
is
not the
is
spherical,
XII.
Dimensions and Density of the Earth
i.
is
The polar
7,899 and one hundred and ninety-
and twenty-eighths miles, while the equa7,925 and
four hundred and thirty-eight
hundred and twenty-eighths miles. The circumferance
five
about
24,899miles, while the area of
Of
197,000,000 square miles.

square miles
square miles
The
tons
is
is
in
its
this only
surface
is
nearly
about 53,000,000
land area, while the remaining 144,000,000
water area.
specific gravity
weight
of the
round numbers
is
Earth
is
about 5^3, and
its
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
2.
Cause of the Earth's Oblateness
ness of the
earth
is
due to
its
rotation
bulge out at the equator, and put on

it
is
actual
LESSON
is
Since this
was
in a fluid condition.
3.
Does the
Mississippi
its
The
oblate-
which caused
present shape,
River Run up Hill
a river that flows towards the Equator has
its
it
to
when
Since
mouth
farther
from the center of the Earth than
fore,
be truly said that
away from
flows up
it
its
For
of the Earth.
Again
let
down means
to-
simplicity let us im-
his
head.
us imagine a person at the equator and another
at the poles to
ter.
would turn
direction he
ma}', there-
He would look up no mat-
agine a person at the Earth's center.
what
it
because up only means
hill,
the center of the Earth, while
wards the center
ter in
source,
49
be looking down upon the person
These persons would not look
in
the
at the cen-
same
direction,
but on the contrary, they would look at right angles to each

other.
Since up
is
away from
of the Mississippi river
center, than
Why
4.
source,
its
the earth's center, and the
is
it
over four miles farther from this
must, therefore, flow up
Some Rivers Run up Hill.
which caused the earth
force
also causes those rivers
mouth
hill
The
same
bulge out at the equator,
to
which flow up
hill to
do
so.
If
the
earth would cease to rotate, the waters of the Mississippi as

well as those of the sea
would
all
rush towards the poles,
leaving the bottom of the sea dry at the equator, while the
polar regions
would be one vast
sea,
whose surface would
everywhere be an equal distance from the earth's center.

5.
1st.
seem
to
Horizon.
meet
is
The
POINTS
place
where the earth and sky
called the Sensible Horizon.
50
Zenith.
2d.
The
Zenith
is
a point in the heavens di-
rectly overhead.
The Nadir a point directly underfoot.

North. North
the North
the direction
Nadir.
3d.
dth.
is
is
of
Star.
South.
5th.
6.
East.
South
East
is
is
the opposite direction.
where the Sun
toward the place
rises.
West West
7th.
is
toward the place where the Sun
sets.
Equinoctial Points
8th.
points
Equinoctial
Points are the
where the Sun crosses the Equator.

North, East, South and West are called the Cardi-
9th.
nal Points
The
10th.
points
midway between
the cardinal points
are called Semi-Cardinal Points.
LESSON XIII.
1.
Imaginary Lines
For the purpose
upon the Earth, we imagine
it
to
of locating places
be encircled by curve
lines,
the circumf er ences of circles.

(a)
Great Circle divides the earth into two equal
parts.
The
shortest distance
earth's surface
is
between any two points on
along the arc of a great
circle.
the
\b)
Small Circle
two unequal
one that divides the earth into
is
The
parts.
51
frequently used
most
lines
in
geography are the Equator, the Meridians, and the Parallels
The Equator
(c)
circle
which
is
is
the circumference of that
equidistant from the poles, and
great
which divides
the earth into a northern and southern hemisphere
The Tropics
(d)
grees (exactly, 23
27',
The one
equator.
are parallels which
and
north
24",)
north of the equator
of Cancer, while the one south of
lie
it is
is
about 23.5! desouth
of the
called the Tropic
called the Tropic of
Capricorn
The
tropics are situated
vertical rays
always stay within them.
The Polar
(e)
Circles are parallels
grees from the poles.

is
where they are because the Sun's
The one
in the
called the Arctic Circle, while the
hemisphere
lie
23*4 de-
northern hemisphere
one
in
the
southern
called the Antarctic Circle*
Meridians are the semi-circumferences of great cir-
(f)
cles,
is
which
which are drawn from pole
number
pole.
to
Of course there
is
an
is
one of each passing through every point on the earth's
infinite
of meridians
and
parallels, since
there
surface.
2.
Latitude. Latitude is
equator
ians
expressed
by the
in
parallels.
'
".
distance north or south of the

It is
measured on the merid-
52
Since the poles have the greatest
distance possible from
and that
the equator of any object on the earth's surface,

distance
is
of the circumference of a
latitude a place can
has no latitude.
have
is
of
circle, the greatest
360 or 90
The
Places north of the equator are
Latitude, while those south of that line are
equator
North
in
South Lat-
in
itude.
Longitude.-
3.
of
some
Longitude
established
measured on the
meridian
is
the distance east or west
expressed
in
'
".
It
upon the equator, whose
longi-
measured upon the equator by the meridians.
The
meridian from which time
Prime Meridian
of their
own
is
reckoned
is
called the
Nations usually reckon from the meridian
capitols.
For example, the English reckon
from the meridian which runs through the observatory

Greenwich, while
is
by the meridians, with the excep-
parallels
tion of those places situated
tude
is
we Americans reckon from Washington.
place east of the prime
meridian
a place west of this meridian
is
Since there are only 180
in
in
be situated more than 180

180
is in
East -Longitude
West Longitude.
a semi-circumference, the
greatest longitude a place can have
less than
at
is
180
in east longitude,
for
it
if
a place
will fall in
west longitude.
The prime meridian and the poles have no longitude.

The place where the prime meridian crosses the Equator
has neither latitude nor longitude.
Value of Degrees of Latitude
4.
measured on the meridians, the value

is
one three hundred and
great
On
circle.
of a
sixieth of the
Since
it
latitude
degree of
is
latitude
circumference of a
account of the Earth's flattening at the poles,
the Earth's surface does not curve as fast as

those points as
53
does
at the equator,
we approach
and hence the merid-
ians in high latitudes represent the circumferences of larger

circles than they
One degree
than
it is
at the
do
near the Equator
at or
of latitude
equator
is,
therefore, longer at the poles
The
following table will prove
useful as a reference.
Place.
Equator.
20 degrees
"
40
60
80
LENGTH OF A DEGREE IN MILES.

68.69$
68.781
68.884
69.222
69,375
69.396
"
**
"
;
5.
Value of Degrees of Longitude The
degree of Longitude
the Equator
it is
is
value of a
subjected to great variations.
On
one three hundred and sixtieth of the Earth's
circumference, while at any other place
it is
one three hun-
dred and sixtieth of the parallel passing through that place.
The
parallels, as
we have
seen, decrease in length as
we
ap-
proach the poles, and, hence, the value of a degree of longitude must also decrease as the latitude increases,
poles are reached, at which place, the value
is
until
zero*
the
5A
Consult the following table

LENTH OF A DEGREE IN
Place.
Equator
69.16
66.82
59.95
48.98
34.67
17.96
15 degrees
"
30
45
65
75
90
Zero
The above
a degree on the
for
common
figures are given in
graphical or Nautical mile
is
equator or about 2025 yards.
measuring distances
true
Longitude and Time

enough
in 24hrs., in ihr.,
360
or
it
pass over one
from one Noon
while
sixtieth of 15
one second of time
it
to travel
till
it is
the next
around the Earth
over one twenty-fourth of
will travel
;
known
is
For our present purpose
Sun appears
of longitude
used
It is
XIV,
to say that the time
Since the
24hrs.
sixtieth of
around the earth on any
LESSON
.
Geo-
at sea.
parallel,when the length of one degree
miles.
one three hundred and
How long is the 45th parallel ?

How can we find the distance
is
MILES.
in
or
will travel
one minute of time

15' of
longitude
it
will
and
in
over one sixtieth of 15' or
15" of longitude.
Since the value of so

to so
many
many
units of longitude,
units of time
is
always equal
or vice versa a certain
num-
ber of units of longitude
of time,
value
in
it is
evident that
is
may be
the other
is
known,the
found.
The International Date Line or Sunday Line
2.
end.
passes through the Pacific ocean
It
east of this line
it
is
always one day
than immediately west of
Monday
east of this line
travel around the earth

if
a day.
line or
is
where the days and nights are assumed to begin and
the place
but
always equal to so many units

the value in either
if
55
we
travel
Tuesday west
we would
of
If
it.
is
it
we
from east to west we loose a day,
we
gain
see the necessity of a correction at
this
around the earth from west
Hence we
week
in the
earlier
For example, when
it.
it is
Immediately
to east
soon have a remarkable confusion of dates.
Navigators, however, are
in the habit of
making
this
cor-
rection at the 180th meridian from Greenwich.

3.
Time Varies
When the Sun's
pendicular upon any meridian,

that meridian
vertical rays fall per-
Noon (M,
it is
meridian) on
east of this meridian the Sun's vertical rays
have already passed, hence,

ridian) at such places.
it is
afternoon (P
The Sun's
M, postme-
vertical rays,
have not yet reached those places situated west of

ridian, and, hence,
it is
forenoon
however,
this
(AM, antemeridian)
at
mesuch
places
4.
I
Problem
Honolulu,Sandwich Islands,
575 5 2 west of Greenwich.
1 1'
'
east longitude.
When it is
is in
Sidney, Australia,
five
longitude
is
in 15
minutes after four o'clock
56
on Sunday morning
the
week
Sidney
at
Solution
5.
180th meridian,
we
time,
it is
and 157
be
52',
which
over the differ22
is
to the
Divid-
8'.
28 min., 32sec. ot time.

180th meridian by exactly this
2 o'clock,
28sec,
36rnin.,
Now we
M. Sunday
have seen that
this line
it is
at
one day
than immediately east of
time immediately west of this line must, therefore,
2 o'clock,
The
ihr.,
immediately west of
The
it.
we have passed
find that
the above meridian.

later
westward from Honolulu
earlier at the
must be
it
the hr. and day of
is
we have
ing this by 15
Honolulu, what
Going
ence between 180
Since
at
36 min., 28sec.
difference
the difference
A M Monday.
between the 180th. meridian and Sidney
between 180
and
28
11' is
151 ,
is
49*,
which divided by 15 gives ihr., 55mm., i6sec. but since

Sidney is west of the 1 80th meridian, it will be ihr., 55mm.,
;
16 sec. earlier at the former than at the latter place, which
time
the differance between 2hr
is
55min.,
A M,
i6sec, which
Monday.
Can you
If
is
.,
36mm.
equal to
28sec.,and ihr.,
41mm.,
and I2sec,
Ans.
solve this problem
by going
east
from Honolulu?
you can, do so
LESSON XV.
1.
ferent
Projections.
methods
of
The
term projection means the
drawing maps.
dif-
Maps.
2.
A Map
is
57
drawing representing the whole
or part of the earth's surface.
Mercators
3.
Mercator's
Projection.
Projection
represents the parallels and meridians as straight lines.
made
region around the poles are
to
The
appear much larger
an eastern and western direction than they really are.

therefore, not a true representation of the earth's
in
It is
surface,
but as they show relative positions correctly, Mercator's projections are
used by navigators and also
in
physical geogra-
phies.
Orthographic Projections. An
4.
Projection represents the earth's surface as

to
an observer viewing
Projections.
from the earth.
projection represents the earth's surface as

to
would appear
it
at a great distance
it
Stereographic
5.
Orthographic
Stereographic
it
would appear
an observer standing on the earth.
There are two stereographic
projections used
more
fre-
quently than others, the Equatorial and the Polar.
An
Equatorial Projection
is
one
in
which the equator
is
taken as the center.
Polar Projection
is
one
in
which one
of
the poles
is
taken as the center.
Concave Projection
is
one used to represent a small
portion of the earth's surface, as a State.

6.
Directions-
In
all
maps
the top represents north
58
the right side east
bottom south
ihe
and the
left
side
west
Hemispheres.
7.
The
hemisphere
is
half a
sphere.
equator divides the earth into a Northern and Southern
The
Hemisphere.
idian east
of
20th meridian west and the 160th mer-
Greenwich divide the earth
into
an Eastern
and Western Hemisphere
great circle can also be passed through the Earth so
dividing
it
into
two parts that nearly
one part and the land
The
the water will be in
The first is called the

second the Land Hemisphere.
the other.
in
Water Hemisphere and
all
the
pole or center of the land hemisphere
is
near Lon-
don, England, while the center of the water hemisphere
near the island of
New
Zealand.
LESSON
Day and
I.
rotation of the
and
Earth on
its
is
lit
while the opposite side

lies
hidden
in
its
XVI.
Day and Night are caused by the
Night.
turned towards the Sun

tion,
is
axis
The
up, and
is
it is
turned
own shadow,
side of the
day on
away from
and, hence,
it is
Earth
that por-
the
Sun
night on
the non-illuminated portion
As
the Earth rotates
hence,
all
it
presents
all
of
its
parts to the Sun,
parts of the Earth have day and night.
The Great Circle of
2.
59
Illumination.
The
line
which separates the illuminated from the non-illuminated

parts of the Earth
is
the circumference of a great circle and
is
called the Great Circle of Illumination.
The Shape of the Earth's Shadow. The
3.
shadow
the Earth's
on the Earth and
is
its
that of an
immense cone with
apex about 850,000 miles
The
Length of Days.
4.
shape of
its
base
distant.
rotation of the Earth also
causes the stars to rise in the east and set in the west
but
on account of th Earth's yearly motion, the time that elapses
from the time a

is
not as great as the time that intervenes
age
of the
The
time that elapses from one
Day.
mean length is
The exact time
The
noon
that
It is
23hrs.
it
between one pass-
till
takes the Earth to
56mm.
the next noon
is
make one
rota-
between two successive passis
called the Sidereal
4sec. long.
Difference Between the Sidereal and Solar
Day Explained. In
Fig.
resents the earth with the
the earth travels along in

da)'
again
it
24hrs.
ages of a star over a given meridian
passes
length of the solar day varies
tion or the time that intervenes
Day.
it
Sun over the same meridian and the next.
called the Solar

its
star passes a meridian until
and changes
its
8,
S represents the Sun
Sun over the meridian A.

its
orbit
from
to 2 in a
rep-
Now
sidereal
position with respect to the Sun, but on
account of the enormous distance
to a fixed star,
no change
60
in position will
ies,
be noticed with respect to one
and hence, as a fixed star
When the
every time the earth makes one rotation.
over
is
in 2, the
Sun has
8.
Therefore, the Sun will be
behind the star by exactly the time
from
to
star is
not yet arrived over that point, but
directly over the meridian C.
rotate
bod-
appear over a meridian
will
Fig.
oi these
it
takes the earth
to
C,
LESSON XVIL
Before discussing
The Earth's Revolution.

variation of the solar day we must
i.
the motion of the earth in

ler's First
Law,
its orbit.
the
thoroughly understand
We
have seen, Kep-
that the earth describes an eliptical orbit
around the Sun and that the center
one
of the
center, the earth
parts of
all
When
Sun,
is
not the
is in
that part
When
from the Sun
it
is in
it is
The
The
locity
the
in
Earth's orbit
is
its
which
orbit
perihelion distance
aphelion
is
93,000,000
577,000,0,00 miles in
same
is
(Greek,
aphelion
its
the
near and
peri,
its
rate at
faster at perihelion than at aphelion
all
times,
but
mean
ve-
Its
extent.
about 19 miles per second or 1,500 times faster than
is
fast railroad train
The
relative rate of the earth's revolution
pressed
is
(Greek,
The earth's
earth does not travel the
moves
not
is
orbit nearest
its
that part of
about 90,000,000 miles while
miles.
of
said to be at
apo,fromand Helios, Sun),

is
this
same distance from the Sun
said to be at Perihelion
Helios, Sun)
farthest
Since
elipse.
Sun occupies
of the
its orbit*
the earth
it is
the
foci of
61
in
what
as follows
The
is
known
as Kepler's
is
concisely ex-
Second Law, which
radius-vector of a planet sweeps over equal areas in
equal times.
By
the radius*vector of a planet,
we mean
the line connecting that planet and the Sun,

In fig.
line
9 suppose the Sun

is
the radius-vector
travel from
to
at S,
.
and the Earth
Now
in a certain
at
it is
evident that
when
the
suppose the Earth to
period of time
(say one
month,) the radius-vector will have described the area
Now,
the Earth
is
CS D,
nearest the
Sun
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY:
62
and the radius-vector, therefore,
shortest, that
must travel
it
fastest
to describe an equal area in an equal time.
FE
greater than
is
but the areas,
being described
in
B,
AB
C, while
E F and
is
Thus
greater than
SDC are
all
E,
each
equal,
one month
^Sw^
/diiiiiP^
a/
lk^l_
\n
oEss^HKBl
^(J
bT
Fig.
2.
It
Cause of the Variation of the Solar Days.
may be
seen from Fig.
in its orbit, the
8.,
that the faster the earth travels
greater will be the the arc
the longer the solar day.

els,
9.
C, and hence,
Again the slower the earth
the shorter will be the arc
trav-
A C and therefore, the shorter
the solar day.
Therefore,
earth in
its
the
orbit
is
difference
in
the
rate of travel
of the
the cause of the varation in length of the
solar day.
3.
"
Equated Time."
Equated
Time
is
true
clock
Twenty-four
time.
This
solar day>
4.
Sun
of
Now when
mean
its
rate,
it
Sun
will
rate, the
Sun
to
come
the earth travels in
Sun
1st,
From September
said to
is
A before
is
than
8, that
the
1st, to
Equation of Time.
difference between
the
Sun
is
Sun
A, hence,
mean
its
the clock
advance of the
in
24th. the
slow.
Sun
is fast.
and true time are the same.
solar
is
hind the clock and the equation of time
is
the
of
Time
day and the mean
Sun
must be added
is
From June
is fast.
The Equation
the true
Sun
slow.
December
Thus on February nth,
14^
is
minutes be-
written plus 14}^,
shown by
it
make
correspond to the time shown by a correct clock.
On May
of time
is
14th, the
written
Sun
4,
to the time
is
4 minutes
because
it
fast,
the
solar
because
it
it
be slow.
April 15th, the
the above dates the equated
day.
crbit faster
orbit slower than
its
From December 24th, to

From April 15th to June 15th,
5.
it
Sun
of true or
said to be fast.
is
September
that at times
to the meridian
and hence, Sun time
clock and the Sun
At
its
arrives over the meridian
indicates noon,
15th, to
ahead
a true clock
be seen by consulting Fig.
behind the clock and
is
When
at other times
the earth travels in
takes longer for the

the
Time
and Sun Slow. Since

of the mean Sun, it follows
Fast
must be behind, and
time.
hours measure the mean length of
also called Astronomical
is
measures the time

it
its
63
a sun-dial to
and the equation
must be subtracted from
64
Sun time
On July
1st
to
make
it
correspond to equated or clock time
25th, the equation of time
is
plus 6
on
November
minus 165^.
LESSON
The
1.
fixed star
Zodiac.
XVIII.
By consulting Fig.
we
see that
and the Sun are together when the earth
they will not be together
when
the earth
is at 2,
is
if
at 1,
but, on the
other hand, the Sun will be to the east of the fixed star.
As the earth progresses in its orbit,

move eastward among the stars until
the
it
Sun continues
makes one apparent
This zone or belt
revolution in the heavens.
to
is
called the
about 9 wide. The Zodiac is divided into 12

Each sign,
equal parts each part being called a Sign.
Zodiac and
is
therefore, contains one twelfth of
360 or 30
The Earth moves through one
twelfth of
month and hence, the Sun appears

of the
the
Zodiac every month
Sun and major
named
as follows
planets,
In
also
12
Ram.
Taurus, the Bull.

Gemini, the Twins.
Cancer, the Crab.
orbit
every
move through
a sign
may be
found
the Zodiac
Aries, the
to
its
constellations
of stars
65
Leo, the Lion,

Virgo, the Virgin*
Libra, the Balance
Scorpio, the Scorpion,
Sagittarius, the Archer.
Capricornus, the Goat.
Acquarius, the Water-bearer.

Pisces, the Fish.
They must
diac of the
not be confounded with the signs of the Zo-
same name and should be learned
named above.
Since the stars
order
in the
make one more apparent
revolution around the Earth than the Sun, every year,
lows that
in a
it
fol-
year of 365 days, the Earth makes 366 rev-
olutions.
Length of Different Years Explained

The exact
time that it takes the Earth to make one revolution is called
2.
the Sidereal Year.
Sun and a
is
It is
the time from one meeting of the
fixed star in the Zodiac until the next.
Its
length
365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 9.6 seconds.
The
of the
attraction of the
Sun on
Earth tending
make our
to
the equatorial protuberance
planet settle
pendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, causes
down
the
equator to meet the plane of the ecliptic before
one complete
revolution
equator crosses
places
where
it
the plane
would cross
hence,
the
of the
ecliptic
this plane
if
places
the'
it
makes
where
precede
per-
Earth's
the
those
Earth were a
66
a perfect sphere
hence, this motion of the earth
the Precession of the Equinoxes.

ical
Year, and
next.
It
lion to the
if
next
Anomalistic Year.
were
would be no difference between the anom-
and the sidereal year, but these points are constantly
hence,
The
it
a complete revolution in
21,000
takes longer for the Earth to travel from
to the
next than
it
does to
make one
revolu-
anomalistic year measures
365 days, 6 hours 13
At present we
are at perihelion Jan-
minutes, 49 seconds.
urary
the
48 minutes and 46.05
the Earth's aphelion and perihelion points
one perihelion
tion.
5 hours,
this is called the
moving forward making

years
Trop-
called the
Again we may take the time from one perihe-
stationary, there
alistic
is
the time from one vernal equinox to
measures 365 days,
seconds.
Now
is
This
termed
is
In about 4,600 years perihelion and the vernal
1st.
equinox will correspond.

3.
Effect of the Change of Aphelion and Perihelion
Since
we
are in perihelion Janurary
miles nearer the

in
Sun
in winter,
1st.,
we
are 3,000,000
north of the equator, than
summer, while we are 3,000,000 miles nearer the Sun,
south of the equator, in
summer
than
in winter.
This
dif-
ference so intensifies the solar heat that Australia and other

places in the southern hemisphere have a higher temperature than places of a corresponding latitude in the northern
hemisphere.
About 10,000 years ago the reverse must have
been
Earth being
true, the
at perihelion
at the
67
time of our
northern summer.
Effkct of the Precession of the Equinoxes.
4.
evident that the Earth's axis changes
its
It is
direction on account
of the precession.
The
years
axis revolves
around
a.
point in the heavens in 25,870
hence, the north star of to-day will not be the north
star several thousand years
from now.
LESSON
The Change of
Seasons.
XIX,
The
Change
Seasons
of
caused by the revolution of the Earth together with the

clination of
its
axis
and the constant parallelism of
its
is
in-
axis.
First, The inclination of the Earth's axis to a perpennearly
23^
always points
in the
dicular to the plane of the ecliptic
23
(exactly
27' 24").
Second,
rection,
in
is
The Earth's
namely, towards the north star
what part
parallel to
Now
axis
its
orbit the
any former
the
upon the
of
hence,
Earth may be,
its
it
same
matters not
axis
is
always
position.
more nearly perpendicular the Sun's rays
earth, the
one-half of the
di-
more heat they produce, and
Earth
is
illuminated at a
since
time, the
fall
only
point
68
where the Sun's
vertical rays reach the Earth,
is
the pole of
the illuminated portion*
and
10 represent
in figure
the Earth at perihelion and ap-
The
helion.
south pole
is
now
turned towards the Sun, and
rays
perpendicular
fall
Tropic of Capricorn
have summer
while in
isphere,
|
in the
on the
We
its
now
southern hemthe
northern
hemisphere which receives the oblique rays,
the Earth
is
Sun's rays
winter.
is
it
at
When
or aphelion, the
perpendicular upon
fall
The northern hemisphere is now turned toward the Sun and we have sum-
the Tropic of Cancer.
mer north of
ter south of
the equator and winit.
On the 2 2d.
on the
2 2d.
Sun's rays
Fig.
the equator
phere
at the
in the
We
March and again
of
September, the
perpendicular upon
10.
former
hemisphere and spring
have spring
fall
of
now
in
we have autumn
the northern
southern and autumn
in
at
in
the southern
the latter,
we
northern hemis-
see that the three circumstances mention-
ed
at the
beginning of
this
paragraph,
all
play an important
part in producing the change of seasons, for

parallelism of
clination,
its
69
if
either the in-
or the revolution of the
axis,
Earth was wanting, different portions of the earth would not be

constantly turning towards the Sun, and hence, there would
be no cause to which the change of seasons could be
attrib-
uted.
At the equator the days and nights are
always of an
equal length, (12 hours each.)
On
rays
the 22d, of
fall
March
as
we have
already seen, the Sun's
perpendicular upon the equator, and the oblique
rays must, therefore, just reach the poles, hence, the days
and nights are an equal length

This
is
called the
it
over the Earth.
Vernal Equinox (Latin aequus, equal
As
and nox, night).
all
moves forward
the^earth
in its orbit,
gradually presents the northern hemisphere to the
and
vertical rays reach higher latitudes
its
Sun,
The
every day.
rays must, therefore, reach places beyond the north pole, and
in spite of the Earth's rotation, the
place,
and
in utter
it
is
darkness.
fall
earth
is
upon the
not set at that
perpetual day, while the south pole
The
cede from the equator
The
Sun does
is
left
Sun's vertical rays continue to re-
until
June
21st,
when they
cease.
then near aphelion and the Sun's vertical rays

tropic of cancer.
Solstice (Latin, Sol, the Sun,
This
and
is
called the
stare, to stand
Summer
so
named
because the Sun upon reaching his northern and southern
70
seems
limits
and
is
to
the point
be stationary a short time
vertical rays stop receding
where the Sun's
from the equator.
heavens)
in the
now
Since the Sun's vertical rays
23^ north of the equator, it

23^ beyond the north pole,
follows that
2 1st the Sun's vertical rays again
until
they once more
upon that
the 22d of September and
rays also reach
From
or to the artic circle.
June
fall
it
we
approach the equator
circle.
then
fall
This they do on
have the
Autumnal
Equinox
All this time the north pole has been exposed to sunlight,
we see that at this place day lasts six months Twilight now lasts about a month then all is dark and cold.
From the autumnal equinox the Sun's vertical rays again
hence,
recede from the equator into the southern hemisphere until

the 2 1 st of
December when they
Capricorn
The Sun has now reached the Winter
and
upon the
tropic of
Solstice,
his rays pass over the south pole to the antarctic circle.
The
south pole
now
one continued night

ion
fall
and
it
at
has perpetual day and the north pole
The Sun
at this
time
is
near perihel-
once reapproaches the equator, reaching that
place on the 22nd of March, when
it
recommences a
tropical
year.
LESSON XX.
1.
Zones.
A zone
is
a division of the Earth.
Of these
71
there are three principal kinds, namely,Mathematical, Phys-
and Zones of Time
ical
Mathematical Zones.
2.
The
Earth
mathematical or astronmical zones.
five
by the
tropics
The
3.
and the polar
Frigid Zones.
is
divided into
They
are bounded
circles.
The Frigid Zones
called the
lie
between
The one which surrounds
the polar circles and the poles.
the north pole
is
North Frigid, the one which
surrounds the south pole the South Frigid.
The Temperate
4.
between the
lie
The one north
of
North Temperate, the one south
of
and the polar
tropics
the equator
is
called the
the equator
is
called the
The Torrid
5.
The Temperate Zones
Zones.
circles
South Temperate Zone.
Zone.
The Torrid Zone
The
the Earth included between the tropics.

fall
that belt of
Sun's rays
perpendicular upon one part or other of this zone every
day
of the year.
Width of the Zones. The width

follows
Frigid 23^ Temperate 43
6.
as
is
The width
of a zone
axis of the planet

inclined
be 30
7.
lines
30
;
it
the torrid 6o
23^,
;
Zones
Torrid 46
is
depends upon the inclination of the
surrounds.
instead of
of the
the Earth's axis were
If
the frigid zones
would each
and each of the temperate 30 wide.
Physical Zones.
Physical
Zones are bounded by
drawn through places having the same mean annual
temperature
These
lines are called
Isothermal Lines
72
Zones of Time.
8.
order to
in
time in travelling from east to
avoid
west or from west
railroad
men have
Zone
therefore, one twenty-fourth of
is,
divided the Earth into 24
All places situated within any one
same
the
Zone
This
The
time
45
West
150
105
15
West African
60 ,
Mountain
East Australian
Ural
9.
tical
90
La
135
is
East Hindostan
165
45, Caucasus; 30
75
fall in
than one half of
ceed the night
wide.
have
to
Time.
120
it
will
in the
called Univer-
Central Atlantic
75 Eastern
135
90
East Alas;
180
Caledonian
150
East Asia
105,
West Hindostan
Bosporus; 15
either hemisphere,
is
West Alaskan
Length of Day and Night.

rays
New
called
30
Pacific
Corean
Plata
120
Central Alaskan
Transitional; East 165
Siam
each
360 or 15
called Railroad or Standard
East Brazilian
Central
Zones
being the time of a certain meridian of that
it
is
east,
to
Zone are made
following meridians are used
sal
kan
time,
confusion of
6o c> ,
Scandinavian.
When the Sun's ver-
it is
evident
that
be illuminated, and the day
more
will ex-
proportion that the illuminated part of
a parallel exceeds the ncn-illuminated part.
Since the Sun's rays at times pass over the poles to the
polar circles,
it
follows that day in the frigid zones
ceed one complete rotation of the Earth.
may
The following
exre-
ference table exhibits the length of the longest day in the
given latitudes.
Greatest Length of Day or Night.
Latitude.
Equator
hours
12
Tropics
30 Degrees
73
*'
13.5
14
40
50
60
15
"
"
"
16.3
18.7
Polar Circles
24
67^
69K
1
2
3
4
"
"
"
73.3
78.3
84
month
5
6
Poles
io
Altitude
mean
its
By the
distance in degrees above the horizon.
distance from the horizon to the Zenith

circle,
heavenly body
altitude of a
the greatest altitude a
we
Since the
one fourth of a
is
body can have
is
90 degrees.
Let us suppose you were standing on the north pole
at
you would see the Sun
at
the time of the vernal equinox
the horizon, and his altitude would then be zero
pose you
travel to the south
travel, the
then for every degeee you
Sun's altitude increases one degree
you
travel to
you
will
Columbus, Ohio, which
have traveled 90 minus 40
the altitude of the
50
Sun
at
but sup-
in
is
north latitude
40
equals 50
Columbus on
Suppose
2d of
and hence
March
is
What
is
the Sun's altitude on 21st of June
Sun appears
till
to
move
north
23^ from
the
Since the
March equinox
the 2 1 st of June, the Sun's altitude must be 50^ plus
equals 73 %
Since the Sun appears to
the September equinox
till
the 21st of
23^
move south from
December,
his altit-
74
tude at Columbus on the later date must be 50

equals
be the Sun's altitude
will
at
degrees
~^
May 1st,
equals
his altitude
in
is
91
.
now
others
his
60- 3?equals
^L
have increased
will
equals io-f.
altitude
Columbus
at
plus
50
is
What Next
My Dear Students
company and drank from
visited the
Our work
the
same cup
of
knowledge.
penetrated into the mighty depth of space
wonders
we have
all
forth into the world
men and women; and

works
Trusting that by
of the heavens.
been strengthened
ness to the Great Master
to explore the
we have enjoyed each
For some time
finished.
our voyage,
go
time from the vernal equinox
Hence the Sun
ao days.
Our minds have

and
The
one day.
1st?
91
1 1
is
days, he will
91
^L x 40
Therefore,
to
in
Columbus May
March 2 2nd to June 2ist,

travel-^- divided by 91
Since the Sun travels north from
to
23^
26^.
What
23^2
minus
Mind
in
of Creation
our gratefulthat
we may
and make strong, pure, and noble
that
we may meet
of Nature,
bid
again in
you
all
new
fields,
Farewell.
THE END.
Corrections.
[LESSON
Opogee
VIII,]
on page 30 should be apogee,
page 23 should be
[LESSON
XVIII.J
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION
....
.....
Derivation
Sphere
Geography
of
Classification
Mathematical Definitions
Stars
Magnitude
Variations
Color
...
.
Way
LESSON
The
Solar System
14
Constituents of the Stars
The Milky
.7
.11
.12
.14
.11
Constellations
.5
11
II.
Constitutents of the Universe
Nebulae
LESSON
The Universe
PAGE.
.15
.15
14
.15
III.
.16
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY
76
Constituents
...
The Sun
16
16
LESSON
IV,
Planets
Mercury
Venus
20
Mars
23
LESSON V,
Jupiter
22
Saturn
23
Uranus
24
Neptune
25
The
26
Planets in General
LESSON VL
The
26
Asteroids
Satellites
27
Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis
LESSON
27
VIL
The Moon
The Moon's Phases
30
31
Eclipses
Effects of Eclipses
33
upon the Ignorant
34
.....
LESSON
Comets
Effects of
77
Comets upon
VIII.
the Ignorant
34
36
Meteors
The
Zodiacal Light
.....
The Earth
of Inertia
Newton's Second
Law
of
Motion
41
X.
of the Earth's Revolution
40
...
Motions of the Earth
38
38
>
LESSON
38
IX,
of Universal Gravitation
Cause
LESSON
Law
Law
35
Revolves
42
,42
44
LESSON XL
Cause
of the Earth's Revolution
Proofs that the Earth Rotates
Shape
of the
Earth
round
>
>
is
>
44
45
.46
.46
LESSON XII.
Dimensions and Density of the Earth
Cause
of the Earth's Oblateness
Does the Mississippi River Run up
48
48
Hill
48
78
Why
some Rivers Run up
Points
Hill
LESSON
Imaginary Lines
Latitude
Longitude
Value of Degrees
of Latitude
Value
of
of
Degrees
51
49
50
XIII.
49
52
Longitude
53
53
...
LESSON XIV.
Longitude and Time
International Date Line
Time Varies
Problem
Solution
-55
-55
55
54
56
LESSON XV.
Projections
Maps
Mercator's Projection
57
Orthographic Projections
Hemispheres
-57
57
-57
Stereographic Projections
Directions
5^
.57
-.
5^
LESSON XVI.
Day and Night
58
The Great
Circle of Illumination
The Shape
of the Earth's
Length
Days
of
-59
59
59
Shadow
79
Day Explained 59
Difference between the Sidereal and Solar
JLESSON XVIL
The Earth Revolution
Law
Kepler's Second
Cause
" Equated
Time "'
Sun Fast and Sun Slow

Equation of Time
Days
62
.62
27
...
of the Varation of the Solar
.60
63
63
LESSON XVI1L
The Zodiac
Length
of different
Effects of the
Years Explained
Change
of
64
65
Aphelion and Perihelion
Effects of the Precession of the Equinoxes
66
67
LESSON XIX.
The Change
of
Seasons
-67
>
LESSON XX
Zones
Mathematical Zones
The
70
Frigid Zones
71
71
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY*
80
The Temperate Zones

The Torrid Zone
Width
of
Zones
Physical Zones
Zones
of
Length
of
Time
Contents
-71
71
----
Corrections
What Next
71
Day and Night
Altitude
72
71
-.
72
73
74
-
74
75
ADVERTISEMENT,
A Copy
of the
Astronomical Geography
will
be
sent
post-paid to any address on receipt of 75 cents.

S.
M.
SARK,
Circleville,
Ohio.
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':.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Teacher in the Common Schools of Ohio.

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.

UNION-HERALD PUBLISHING HOUSE,

has long been needed, specially adapted to advanced classes

the intention of the author to write such a text

on Physical Geography, but owing to the lack of means

the public asking

carrying out the grand scheme of

schools to a higher plane of usefulness.

colleges, are not adapted to the

these requirements and to encourage

deeper investigation into the broad

volume before the teachers

author holds himself responsible for any error? that

crept into the

any such there

under lasting obligations to those

the result of exper-

written, the author will feel greatly

The word, geography,

ge, the earth, and graphein, to write.

therefore, a description of the earth.

Sphere of Geography. Strictly

phy includes both an account

changes which have

been wrought by man, and those which have been produced

treats not only of the earth, but of

tronomy, Geology, Mineralogy, Zcology, Meteorology, Phys_

Botany, and various other sciences

collection of various sciences.

treats of the earth as the dwelling

suppress his crimes

government he has originated

are two-logical divisions of

of the religion he has invented to rev-

erence a Supreme Being

Physical Geography describes the extent and explains

subdivided into astronom-

physiographical, meteorological, zoological and botan-

siders the earth in

lation to the Solar

the science which con-

relation to the Universe,

and water belonging to the earth

the science of the

treats of the plants

distribution over the earth.

A point has po-

magnitude which has length, but no

one that does not change

one that changes

are those, which, lying in the

would never meet

the lines meet

called the vertex,

which reads, the angle

an angle depends entirely upon the

length of those sides.

one formed by a straight

ing another straight line

making the adjacent angles equaL

then said to be perpendicular to the second.