TWI Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course (DIS 4

TWI
Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

(DIS 4)
Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge, CB1 6AL
UK
Issue 1.0 Rev 0

Issue date: 1 April 2006
Page 1 of 532

Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.4U COURSE (DIS 4) ................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................2
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................16
1. THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL (CSWIP) .16
1.1. TWI ...................................................................................................................16
1.1.1. Company Profile .......................................................................................16
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................16
1.1.3. Non-profit Company .................................................................................16
1.1.4. Global Benefits..........................................................................................17
1.1.5. Confidential Consultancy..........................................................................17
1.1.6. TWI Certification Ltd................................................................................17
1.1.7. Certification Management Board ..............................................................17
1.1.8. The Management Committees: .................................................................18
2. CSWIP CERTIFICATION FOR UNDERWATER INSPECTORS.........................................20
2.1. Inspector Categories ........................................................................................20
2.2. The CSWIP 3.4U Examination.........................................................................20
2.2.1. The Theory Examination...........................................................................20
2.2.1.1. The Question Papers: .........................................................................20
2.2.1.2. Practical Examination ........................................................................21
2.2.2. Concrete Examination ...............................................................................21
CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................25
1. GENERAL BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................25
1.1. Safe To Operate................................................................................................25
1.2. Government Legislation ...................................................................................25
2. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS ..........................................................................................25
2.1. Materials ..........................................................................................................25
2.2. Working Life.....................................................................................................25
2.3. Loading.............................................................................................................26
2.4. Environment .....................................................................................................26
2.5. Maintenance .....................................................................................................26
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2.6. Weight...............................................................................................................26
2.7. Dimensions .......................................................................................................26
3. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY MONITORING SYSTEM ....................................................26
4. GUIDANCE ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ...........................................................26
4.1. United Kingdom ...............................................................................................27
4.2. Guidance from the UK Regulations .................................................................27
4.2.1. Specific Guidance .....................................................................................28
4.2.2. Environment ..............................................................................................28
4.2.3. Steel And Concrete....................................................................................28
4.2.3.1. Steel....................................................................................................28
4.2.3.2. Concrete Structures ............................................................................30
4.2.3.3. Loads ..................................................................................................30
4.3. United States of America..................................................................................30
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations ........................................................31
4.3.1.1. Planning..............................................................................................31
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel ...................................................................................32
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................32
6. PIPELINES .................................................................................................................32
6.1. Pipeline Laying ................................................................................................33
7. OFFSHORE OIL TERMINALS ......................................................................................34
8. FUTURE TRENDS ......................................................................................................34
8.1. Drilling .............................................................................................................34
8.2. Design Practices ..............................................................................................42
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................................45
1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................45
1.1. Terminology .....................................................................................................45
1.1.1. Basic Components Of Steel Platforms ......................................................47
1.1.2. Basic Components Of A Concrete Gravity Structure ...............................53
1.1.2.1. Common Concrete Components ........................................................53
1.2. A Semi-submersible Rig ...................................................................................58
1.3. Drill ship ..........................................................................................................60
1.4. Steel Production Platforms ..............................................................................60
1.4.1. Brent A Statistics.......................................................................................61
1.5. Concrete And Steel Gravity Platforms .............................................................63
1.5.1. Cormorant A Statistics ..............................................................................64
1.5.2. Disadvantages of Concrete Structures.......................................................65
1.6. Compliant Towers ............................................................................................66
1.7. Tension Leg Floating Platforms.......................................................................69
1.8. Floating Production Systems ...........................................................................71
1.9. Seabed Facilities ..............................................................................................72
1.10. Pipelines .........................................................................................................85
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................92
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................92
1.1. Stress ................................................................................................................92
1.2. Types Of Stress .................................................................................................93
2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS .....................................................................................96
2.1. Yield Stress .......................................................................................................96
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2.2. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) ......................................................................97
2.3. Stress Concentration ........................................................................................98
2.3.1. Stress Intensity Factor .............................................................................100
3. CRACK STOPPING OR BLUNTING ............................................................................102
4. RESIDUAL STRESSES ..............................................................................................102
5. FORCES ON A STRUCTURE .....................................................................................102
5.1. The Steady Force On A Structure In A Fluid Flow........................................102
5.1.1. Drag Coefficient......................................................................................103
5.2. Vibrational Forces On A Structure In A Fluid Flow .....................................104
5.3. Wave Loadings ...............................................................................................105
5.3.1. Structural Design For Wave Loadings ....................................................106
5.3.1.1. Static Loads ......................................................................................106
5.3.1.2. Dynamic Loading.............................................................................107
5.4. Structural Response To Wave Loading ..........................................................108
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................111
1. GENERAL COMMENTS ............................................................................................111
2. CATEGORIES OF DETERIORATION AND DAMAGE ....................................................111
3. ACCIDENTAL DAMAGE ...........................................................................................111
4. CORROSION ............................................................................................................112
5. FATIGUE .................................................................................................................112
6. WEAR .....................................................................................................................113
7. EMBRITTLEMENT ....................................................................................................115
8. STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION ...............................................................................115
8.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials.............................................115
8.1.1. Steel.........................................................................................................115
8.2. Stage Two - Fabrication.................................................................................118
8.2.1. Steel Structures Fabrication Defects .......................................................118
8.3. Avoiding Problems by Design ........................................................................120
8.4. Stage Three Installation .................................................................................121
8.5. Possible Damage Caused During Installation...............................................122
8.6. Stage Four In-Service.....................................................................................122
8.6.1. Steel In-Service Defect Categories .........................................................122
8.7. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Both Steel And Concrete ..............125
8.7.1. Inter-tidal And Splash Zones...................................................................125
8.7.2. Risers.......................................................................................................125
8.7.3. Conductors And Conductor Guide Frames .............................................125
8.7.4. Caissons...................................................................................................125
8.7.5. Overloading.............................................................................................126
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................129
2. STRUCTURAL DETERIORATION ...............................................................................129
2.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials.............................................129
2.1.1. Concrete ..................................................................................................129
2.1.1.1. Portland Cement...............................................................................129
2.1.1.2. Mixing ..............................................................................................130
2.1.1.2.1. Setting.....................................................................................130
2.1.1.2.2. Hardening ...............................................................................131
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2.1.1.3. The Importance Of Water ................................................................133
3. CONCRETE..............................................................................................................133
3.1. Aggregates......................................................................................................133
3.1.1. Water Content .........................................................................................134
4. CONCRETE AS A MATERIAL ..................................................................................134
5. REINFORCED CONCRETE ........................................................................................134
5.1. Reinforcement Design Philosophy .................................................................135
6. PRE-STRESSING ......................................................................................................136
7. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS ........................................................................................137
8. STAGE TWO - FABRICATION ...................................................................................138
8.1. Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects ........................................................138
9. STAGE THREE INSTALLATION.................................................................................139
10. STAGE FOUR IN-SERVICE .....................................................................................139
10.1. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures....................139
10.1.1. Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack ...........................................139
10.1.1.1. Sulphate Attack ..............................................................................139
10.1.1.2. Chlorides ........................................................................................140
10.1.1.3. Carbonation ....................................................................................141
10.1.1.4. Reinforcement Corrosion ...............................................................143
10.1.1.5. Corrosion Of Built-in Components ................................................144
10.1.1.6. Cracking .........................................................................................144
11. STANDARD TERMINOLOGY ...................................................................................145
12. ADDITIONAL IN-SERVICE DEFECTS.......................................................................151
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................155
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................155
2. TYPES OF MARINE GROWTH...................................................................................156
2.1. Soft Fouling ....................................................................................................157
2.2. Hard Fouling..................................................................................................164
3. FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF MARINE GROWTH..........................................165
3.1. Depth ..............................................................................................................165
3.2. Temperature ...................................................................................................166
3.3. Water Current ................................................................................................166
3.4. Salinity............................................................................................................167
3.5. Food Supply....................................................................................................167
3.6. Cathodic Protection .......................................................................................167
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................................170
1. ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN CORROSION .............................................................170
2. THE CORROSION PROCESS......................................................................................171
2.1. The Anodic Reaction ......................................................................................172
2.2. The Cathodic Reaction ...................................................................................173
2.3. Seawater Corrosion........................................................................................175
2.4. Electrochemical Aspects Of Corrosion ..........................................................175
3. ELECTRICAL THEORY .............................................................................................176
CHAPTER 8 ................................................................................................................180
1. CORROSION CELLS .................................................................................................180
1.1. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell....................................................................180
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1.1.1. The Electrochemical Force Series...........................................................180
2. CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION.......................................................................183
3. PITTING ..................................................................................................................184
4. INTER-GRANULAR CORROSION ...............................................................................188
5. GRAIN BOUNDARY CORROSION .............................................................................190
6. STRESS CORROSION CRACKING ..............................................................................191
7. FRETTING CORROSION ...........................................................................................192
8. EROSION CORROSION .............................................................................................194
9. CORROSION FATIGUE .............................................................................................196
10. BIOLOGICAL CORROSION .....................................................................................197
CHAPTER 9 ................................................................................................................200
1. POLARISATION AND CORROSION RATE ..................................................................200
2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES..................................203
2.1. Temperature ...................................................................................................203
2.2. Water Flow Rate.............................................................................................204
2.3. The pH Value Of The Water...........................................................................205
CHAPTER 10 ..............................................................................................................209
1. CORROSION PROTECTION .......................................................................................209
2. CATHODIC PROTECTION .........................................................................................210
2.1. Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method.....................................211
3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEMS ..............214
4. CATHODIC PROTECTION: IMPRESSED CURRENT METHOD ......................................214
4.1. Practical Considerations For Installing ICCP Systems ................................216
4.2. Reference or Control Electrodes....................................................................219
5. USING COATINGS TO PROTECT THE STRUCTURE ...................................................220
5.1. Paints..............................................................................................................220
6. INHIBITORS (CONTROLLING THE ELECTROLYTE) ...................................................222
6.1. Anodic Inhibitors............................................................................................223
6.2. Cathodic Inhibitors ........................................................................................223
6.3. Adsorption Inhibitors .....................................................................................224
7. CORROSION PROTECTION BY DESIGN ....................................................................224
8. ANODIC PROTECTION .............................................................................................224
CHAPTER 11 ..............................................................................................................227
1. MONITORING CORROSION PROTECTION .................................................................227
2. INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................227
3. CATHODE POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT ...................................................................228
3.1. High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE)................................................................228
3.2. CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes .............229
4. CURRENT DENSITY MEASUREMENTS .....................................................................230
5. CALIBRATION PROCEDURES FOR HAND-HELD CP METERS ...................................231
5.1. Necessary Equipment .....................................................................................231
5.1.1. Procedure.................................................................................................232
5.1.1.1. Proving The Calomel Cells ..............................................................232
5.1.1.2. Calibration Of The Meter.................................................................233
5.1.1.2.1. Calibration Of A Bathycorrometer.........................................233
6. OVERALL CALIBRATION OF ROV DEPLOYED CP METERS ....................................234
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6.1. Calibration Of An ROV Deployed Contact CP Meter ...................................234
6.2. Calibration Of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes ....................................................234
7. OPERATING PROCEDURES ......................................................................................235
8. NORMAL CATHODE POTENTIAL READINGS AGAINST AG/AGCL ............................236
CHAPTER 12 ..............................................................................................................239
1. JOINING METAL COMPONENTS ...............................................................................239
2. FABRICATING OFFSHORE STRUCTURES ..................................................................239
2.1. Welding Processes..........................................................................................239
2.1.1. Solid Phase Welding ...............................................................................240
2.1.2. Thermo-chemical Welding......................................................................240
2.1.3. Electric-resistance Welding.....................................................................241
2.1.4. Unshielded Arc Welding.........................................................................241
2.1.5. Radiant Energy Welding .........................................................................242
2.1.6. Flux Shielded Arc Welding.....................................................................242
2.1.7. Gas Shielded Arc Welding......................................................................244
3. TYPES OF WELDED JOINT .......................................................................................246
3.1. The Butt Joint .................................................................................................246
3.2. T Joint ..........................................................................................................247
3.3. Lap Joint.........................................................................................................247
3.4. Corner Joint ...................................................................................................247
3.5. Cruciform Joint ..............................................................................................248
4. TYPES OF WELD .....................................................................................................248
5. WELDING METALLURGY ........................................................................................249
5.1. Further Considerations for Weld Control......................................................251
6. WELDING TERMS ...................................................................................................252
6.1. Plate Preparation Terms................................................................................252
6.2. Terms Defining Weld Features ......................................................................253
6.3. Welding Process Terminology .......................................................................254
6.4. Welded Nodes and Nozzles.............................................................................255
7. WELD DEFECT TERMINOLOGY ...............................................................................256
7.1. Cracks.............................................................................................................257
7.2. Cavities...........................................................................................................258
7.3. Solid Inclusions ..............................................................................................259
7.4. Lack of Fusion and Penetration .....................................................................260
7.5. Imperfect Shape..............................................................................................261
7.6. Miscellaneous.................................................................................................262
8. DEFECT CATEGORIES AND REPORTING...................................................................263
8.1. Reporting Defects in Welds ............................................................................263
8.2. Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters ......................................................264
8.2.1. The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge ................................................264
8.2.2. Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge ......................................................265
CHAPTER 13 ..............................................................................................................268
1. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION .......................................................................................268
2. PRODUCING ULTRASOUND .....................................................................................268
2.1. What Is Ultrasonic? .......................................................................................268
2.2. Frequency of the Wave...................................................................................270
2.3. Speed of the Wave ..........................................................................................272
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2.4. Types of Ultrasonic Wave ..............................................................................272
2.4.1. Waves That Propagate Through Solids...................................................272
2.4.1.1. Longitudinal or Compression Waves...............................................272
2.4.1.2. Shear or Transverse Waves ..............................................................273
2.4.2. Surface Waves.........................................................................................274
3. VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES .......................................................................275
4. ULTRASONIC WAVELENGTH ..................................................................................277
5. FURTHER EFFECTS OF ULTRASONIC PROPERTIES IN MATERIALS............................279
5.1. Acoustic Impedance (Z)..................................................................................279
5.2. Pressure or Stress Magnitude (p)...................................................................279
5.2.1. Acoustic Attenuation...............................................................................279
5.3. The Decibel System ........................................................................................279
5.4. The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave ...................................282
5.4.1. Law of Reflection....................................................................................282
5.4.2. Law of Refraction....................................................................................283
5.4.2.1. The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex ...........................287
5.4.2.2. Refracted Compression Wave in the Steel.......................................288
5.4.2.3. The Refracted Shear Wave in the Steel............................................288
6. TEST FREQUENCY...................................................................................................289
7. ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS ..................................................................................289
7.1. Types of Transducers (Probes) ......................................................................291
7.1.1. Single Crystal Probes ..............................................................................291
7.1.1.1. Probe Selection.................................................................................292
7.1.2. Twin Crystal Probes ................................................................................292
7.1.3. Compression or Zero Degree Probes ......................................................293
7.1.4. Angle Probes ...........................................................................................293
8. COUPLANT .............................................................................................................294
9. THE ULTRASONIC BEAM ........................................................................................294
9.1. The Dead Zone ...............................................................................................294
9.2. The Near Zone................................................................................................295
9.3. The Far Zone..................................................................................................295
10. PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASONIC TESTING ..................................................................296
11. ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS ................................................................................298
11.1. The Flaw Detector........................................................................................299
11.2. A-scan Flaw Detector Controls....................................................................300
11.2.1. A-scan Display ......................................................................................301
12. A-SCAN CALIBRATION AND THICKNESS MEASUREMENT .....................................302
12.1. Calibration and Reference Blocks................................................................303
12.1.1. Reference Block ....................................................................................303
12.1.2. Calibration Block ..................................................................................303
12.2. Pre-calibration Checks ................................................................................304
12.2.1. CRT Display..........................................................................................304
12.2.2. Time Base Linearity ..............................................................................304
12.2.3. Linearity of Amplification ....................................................................304
12.3. Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness .............................................305
12.3.1. Setting Sensitivity .................................................................................305
12.3.2. Setting Resolution .................................................................................306
13. THE 6 DB DROP METHOD FOR PLOTTING LAMINATIONS .....................................306
13.1. The 6 dB Drop Method Explained................................................................307
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14. THE USE OF ANGLE OR SHEAR WAVE PROBES .....................................................308
14.1. Lamination Plotting......................................................................................308
15. DIGITAL THICKNESS METERS ...............................................................................309
15.1. Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings ......................................310
16. CONVERTING UNDERWATER DTM READINGS .....................................................310
17. PROCEDURE FOR TAKING WALL THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS ............................311
18. ACCURACY OF THE READINGS OBTAINED WITH A DTM .....................................312
19. CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT ...........................................................314
CHAPTER 14 ..............................................................................................................316
1. HISTORY OF MAGNETISM .......................................................................................316
2. TYPES OF MAGNETISM ...........................................................................................316
3. THEORY OF MAGNETISM ........................................................................................317
3.1. Polarity...........................................................................................................318
3.2. Magnetic Field ...............................................................................................319
4. FLUX DENSITY (B) .................................................................................................322
4.1. Remanence or Residual Magnetism ...............................................................326
4.2. Retentivity.......................................................................................................327
4.3. Permeability () .............................................................................................327
4.4. Coercive Force...............................................................................................327
4.5. Reluctance ......................................................................................................327
4.6. Demagnetising................................................................................................328
4.6.1. Measuring the Residual Field..................................................................328
4.7. AC Aperture Coil............................................................................................331
4.8. Reversing DC Aperture Coil ..........................................................................332
4.9. AC Electromagnets.........................................................................................332
4.10. Other Methods to Demagnetise....................................................................333
5. PRODUCING MAGNETIC FIELDS ..............................................................................333
6. MAGNETISATION ....................................................................................................333
6.1. Use of Permanent Magnets ............................................................................333
6.1.1. Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets .....................................334
6.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets..........................335
6.1.2.1. Advantages .......................................................................................335
6.1.2.2. Disadvantages...................................................................................335
6.2. Electromagnet (or Yoke)..............................................................................336
6.2.1. Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets ............................................336
6.2.2. Advantages ..............................................................................................336
6.2.3. Disadvantages..........................................................................................337
6.3. Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece.....................337
6.3.1. Alternating Current .................................................................................338
6.3.1.1. Advantages .......................................................................................340
6.3.1.2. Disadvantages...................................................................................340
6.4. Induced Magnetism Using a Coil...................................................................340
6.4.1. Evenly Spaced Coil .................................................................................341
6.4.2. Close Wrapped Coil ................................................................................342
6.4.3. The Right Hand Rule...............................................................................344
6.4.4. Advantages ..............................................................................................346
6.4.5. Disadvantages..........................................................................................346
6.5. Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques ....................................346
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6.5.1. Continuous Magnetisation.......................................................................346
6.5.2. Residual Magnetisation ...........................................................................347
7. HOW DEFECTS INTERACT WITH THE INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD ..........................347
8. DETECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD ....................................................................348
8.1. Burmah Castrol Strips....................................................................................349
8.2. Berthold Penetrameter ...................................................................................349
8.3. Gauss Meter ...................................................................................................350
9. DETECTING THE DISTORTION IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD (FLUX LEAKAGE) .............351
9.1. Visual Detection .............................................................................................351
9.1.1. Ink Properties ..........................................................................................351
9.1.2. Ink Colours Used Underwater.................................................................352
9.2. Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 .................................................352
9.2.1. Settling Test.............................................................................................352
9.2.2. Fluorescent Inks ......................................................................................353
9.2.3. Non-fluorescent Inks ...............................................................................353
9.2.4. Carrier Fluid ............................................................................................353
10. LIGHTING AND VIEWING CONDITIONS..................................................................353
10.1. Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks) ................................354
10.2. Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks..............354
10.2.1. Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light.......................................354
10.3. Testing the Ultraviolet Light ........................................................................354
10.3.1. Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure...........................................................355
11. CLEANING STANDARD..........................................................................................356
12. ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT APPLIED IN MPI ..........................356
13. MPI TEST PROCEDURE.........................................................................................359
14. INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS .......................................................................360
15. REPORTING INDICATIONS .....................................................................................361
16. RECORDING INDICATIONS ....................................................................................362
16.1. Ultraviolet Photography ..............................................................................362
16.2. Cast...............................................................................................................363
16.3. Foil Packets (Magfoil)...............................................................................363
16.4. CCTV............................................................................................................363
16.5. Rubberised Tape Transfer............................................................................363
17. FACTORS AFFECTING MPI SENSITIVITY...............................................................363
17.1. Surface Condition (1) ...................................................................................364
17.2. Lighting (2)...................................................................................................364
17.3. Ink Condition (3) ..........................................................................................365
17.4. Field Strength (4) .........................................................................................365
17.5. Ink Condition (5) ..........................................................................................365
17.6. Geometry of the Work Piece (6)...................................................................365
17.7. Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7) ..........................................365
18. GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND LIST OF STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO MPI.................365
18.1. Glossary .......................................................................................................365
18.2. MPI Standards..............................................................................................367
CHAPTER 15 ..............................................................................................................370
1. INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY .........................................................................370
1.1. Light and Photography...................................................................................371
2. THE CAMERA .........................................................................................................372
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2.1. Lens Aperture .................................................................................................372
2.2. Shutter Speed..................................................................................................373
2.3. Relationship between Aperture and Shutter Speed ........................................374
2.4. How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras ......................................374
2.5. Bracketing Getting the Exposure Right.......................................................375
3. FOCUSING THE CAMERA .........................................................................................375
3.1. The Lens Focal Length...................................................................................376
3.2. Depth of Field.................................................................................................377
3.3. Framing the Subject .......................................................................................379
4. LIGHT AND UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY .............................................................380
4.1. Colour Absorption..........................................................................................381
4.2. Loss of Light Intensity ....................................................................................381
5. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT FOR UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY...........................................383
5.1. Electronic Strobe Lighting .............................................................................383
5.1.1. Strobe Placement.....................................................................................383
6. CLOSE-UP WELD MOSAIC PHOTOGRAPHY .............................................................384
7. SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS FOR OFFSHORE PHOTOGRAPHY........................................386
7.1. MPI Photography...........................................................................................386
7.2. Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry.....................................................387
8. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR INSPECTION PHOTOGRAPHS ....................................389
9. ROV MOUNTED CAMERAS ....................................................................................390
10. RECORDING PHOTOGRAPHS AND CARE OF EQUIPMENT ........................................390
10.1. Care of Equipment .......................................................................................391
CHAPTER 16 ..............................................................................................................395
1. THE SCOPE OF USE FOR VIDEO UNDERWATER .......................................................395
1.1. Diver Hand Held ............................................................................................395
1.2. Diver Head (Hat) Mounted ............................................................................396
1.3. Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV)..................................................................397
1.4. Fixed Remotely Operated CCTV....................................................................398
2. TYPES OF VIDEO CAMERA ......................................................................................398
2.1. Tube Cameras ................................................................................................398
2.2. Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Cameras.......................................................399
2.3. Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras....................................................399
3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES WITH CCTV RECORDING............................399
4. EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................401
5. PICTURE QUALITY ..................................................................................................401
6. HOW VIDEO IS USED ...............................................................................................402
6.1. Commentary ...................................................................................................402
6.2. What to Say.....................................................................................................402
6.3. Terms used to Direct Camera Movements .....................................................402
6.4. Video Logs......................................................................................................403
6.5. Care of Equipment .........................................................................................404
CHAPTER 17 ..............................................................................................................408
1. VISUAL INSPECTION ...............................................................................................408
2. CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) ..................................................................409
3. PHOTOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................409
4. CATHODIC POTENTIAL READINGS ..........................................................................409
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5. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TECHNIQUES..................................................................409
6. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI) ...............................................................410
7. RADIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................410
8. ALTERNATING CURRENT POTENTIAL DROP (ACPD) .............................................410
9. ELECTRO MAGNETIC DETECTION TECHNIQUES (EMD OR EMT)...........................410
10. ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD MEASUREMENT (ACFM) ...................................410
11. FLOODED MEMBER DETECTION (FMD) ...............................................................410
12. SUMMARY OF INSPECTION METHODS AND THEIR USE .........................................411
13. TAKING MEASUREMENTS .....................................................................................411
14. LINEAR MEASUREMENT .......................................................................................412
14.1. Ruler .............................................................................................................412
14.2. Magnetic Tape..............................................................................................412
14.3. Flexible Tape Measures ...............................................................................412
14.4. Electronic Methods ......................................................................................412
15. CIRCULAR MEASUREMENTS .................................................................................412
15.1. Callipers .......................................................................................................412
15.2. Vernier Gauges ............................................................................................412
15.3. Specialist Jigs...............................................................................................412
16. ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS .................................................................................413
16.1. Protractor.....................................................................................................413
16.2. Pendulum Gauges ........................................................................................413
17. DENTS AND DEFORMATIONS ................................................................................413
17.1. Profile Gauges..............................................................................................413
17.2. Pit Gauge......................................................................................................414
17.3. Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge ...............................................414
17.4. Casts .............................................................................................................415
17.5. Straight Edge................................................................................................415
17.6. Taut Wire......................................................................................................415
CHAPTER 18 ..............................................................................................................419
1. LEGISLATION RELATING TO INSPECTION OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES ....................419
2. THE IMPORTANCE OF QA AND QC .........................................................................420
2.1. Databases and Trend Analysis.......................................................................420
2.2. The Importance of Documentation and Record Keeping...............................421
2.2.1. Types of Reporting Systems ...................................................................421
3. REASONS WHY INSPECTION IS REQUIRED ..............................................................422
4. CONTINUITY OF INSPECTION ..................................................................................423
5. DESIGN STAGE .......................................................................................................423
5.1. Structural Marking Systems ...........................................................................424
5.1.1. Unique Identification System..................................................................424
5.1.2. The Alpha Numeric System ....................................................................425
5.1.3. The Box Matrix System ..........................................................................425
5.2. Clock Orientation and Datum Points.............................................................426
5.3. Safety Critical Elements (SCE) ......................................................................427
6. PRODUCTION OF THE RAW MATERIALS ..................................................................427
7. FABRICATION STAGE ..............................................................................................428
8. LAUNCHING AND INSTALLATION ............................................................................428
8.1. Base Line Survey ............................................................................................428
8.2. In Service........................................................................................................429
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8.2.1. Damage Survey .......................................................................................430
9. HOW THE CRITERIA OF NON-CONFORMANCE SYSTEM IS APPLIED .........................430
10. DOCUMENTATION IN AN ANOMALY BASED REPORTING SYSTEM .........................432
10.1. Work Scopes and Workbooks in an Anomaly Based System........................433
10.2. Damage Register ..........................................................................................434
10.3. Data Sheets...................................................................................................434
10.4. Data Sheet Design........................................................................................435
11. WRITTEN REPORTS...............................................................................................436
12. VERBAL REPORTING ............................................................................................437
13. CORROSION PROTECTION AND COATING INSPECTION REPORT REQUIREMENTS ...438
14. PROCEDURE FOR THE CLOSE VISUAL INSPECTION OF A WELD .............................438
15. SUMMARY OF OTHER RECORDING METHODS USED UNDERWATER .....................440
15.1. Scratchboards ..........................................................................................441
15.2. Sketches ........................................................................................................441
15.3. Photography .................................................................................................441
15.4. CCTV............................................................................................................441
15.5. Radiography .................................................................................................441
15.6. Casts .............................................................................................................441
15.7. EMD, EMT and ACFM Incorporating Computer Recording ......................441
15.8. Sampling.......................................................................................................441
16. CERTIFICATION OF PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT .................................................441
16.1. CSWIP Grade 3.1U Diver Inspector............................................................442
16.2. CSWIP Grade 3.2U Diver Inspector............................................................442
16.3. CSWIP 3.3U ROV Inspector ........................................................................442
16.4. CSWIP 3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller .........................................442
17. EQUIPMENT CERTIFICATION .................................................................................443
18. INSPECTION PLANNING AND BRIEFING .................................................................443
18.1. Real Time Data Gathering ...........................................................................444
18.2. Briefing.........................................................................................................445
18.3. Management of the Inspection .....................................................................445
18.4. Managing Individual Tasks..........................................................................446
19. PERSONNEL RESPONSIBILITIES .............................................................................447
19.1. The IDVB......................................................................................................447
19.2. The Operator, Client, Operating Company, Duty Holder ...........................447
19.3. The Clients Project Manager......................................................................447
19.4. The Clients Representative {Client Approved Representative (CAR)} .......447
19.5. The Legal Representative .............................................................................448
19.6. The Contractor .............................................................................................448
19.7. The Inspection Controller ............................................................................448
19.8. The Superintendent, Offshore Manager, Party Chief ..................................448
19.9. The Dive Supervisor .....................................................................................448
19.10. The Captain ................................................................................................448
19.11. The OIM .....................................................................................................448
19.12. The Divers ..................................................................................................449
19.13. ROV Supervisor..........................................................................................449
19.14. ROV Pilots..................................................................................................449
20. DECOMMISSIONING ..............................................................................................449
CHAPTER 19 ..............................................................................................................452
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1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................452
2. RADIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................452
3. PRODUCTION OF RADIATION ..................................................................................453
3.1. X-ray Production............................................................................................453
3.2. Production of Rays ......................................................................................453
4. SAFETY ..................................................................................................................456
5. HOW THE METHOD WORKS ....................................................................................456
5.1. Radiograph Quality........................................................................................458
6. ELECTRO MAGNETIC DETECTION TECHNIQUES (EMD OR EMT)...........................458
6.1. How the Method Works ..................................................................................459
7. ALTERNATING CURRENT POTENTIAL DROP (ACPD) .............................................462
8. ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD MEASUREMENT (ACFM) .....................................463
8.2. Application of the Technique..........................................................................464
9. FLOODED MEMBER DETECTION (FMD) .................................................................465
9.1. Radiographic FMD.....................................................................................465
9.2. Ultrasonic FMD .............................................................................................467
10. GENERAL POINT FOR ALL FMD READINGS ..........................................................467
CHAPTER 20 ..............................................................................................................470
2. HP WATER JETS .....................................................................................................470
2.1. Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice ..................................471
2.2. Management of any Injury .............................................................................472
3. STANDARD OF SURFACE FINISH .............................................................................472
4. AREA TO BE CLEANED ...........................................................................................473
5. GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF PROFILE GRINDING....................................................473
6. SPECIFIC APPLICATION OF PROFILE GRINDING .......................................................474
APPENDIX 1 ...............................................................................................................477
1. TYPES OF DRAWING ...............................................................................................477
2. ENGINEERING DRAWING ........................................................................................478
2.1. Multiple views and projections ......................................................................478
2.2. Showing dimensions .......................................................................................479
3. FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION .....................................................................................479
4. THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION ....................................................................................480
5. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INCLUDED ON DRAWINGS ..........................................480
6. SIZE OF ENGINEERING DRAWINGS ..........................................................................480
7. HOW DRAWINGS ARE USED IN OFFSHORE INSPECTION..........................................481
8. ISOMETRIC DRAWING .............................................................................................481
9. EXERCISE IN PRODUCING AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING FROM A THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTION ...............................................................................................................481
APPENDIX 2 ...............................................................................................................492
1. WHAT IS REQUIRED ...............................................................................................492
2. POINTS TO NOTE ....................................................................................................492
APPENDIX 3 ...............................................................................................................497
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1. ROV CLASSIFICATION ...........................................................................................497
2. CLASS 1 PURE OBSERVATION ................................................................................497
3. CLASS II OBSERVATION WITH PAYLOAD OPTION ..................................................498
4. CLASS III WORK CLASS VEHICLES .........................................................................499
5. CLASS IV TOWED OR BOTTOM CRAWLING VEHICLES ...........................................506
6. CLASS V PROTOTYPE OR DEVELOPMENT VEHICLE ................................................507
7. GENERAL WORK COMPLETED BY ROVS ................................................................507
8. PIPELINE SURVEY ...................................................................................................508
8.1. Pipeline Features ...........................................................................................508
8.2. Pipeline Inspection Tasks...............................................................................509
9. MANIPULATORS .....................................................................................................509
9.1. Force Feedback..............................................................................................509
10. SUBMERSIBLES .....................................................................................................510
10.1. Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (AUV) .....................................................510
11. MANNED SUBMERSIBLES .....................................................................................511
APPENDIX 4 ...............................................................................................................514
2. DIVER COMMUNICATIONS ......................................................................................514
3. NORMAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS ..................................................................514
4. VOICE PROCEDURE.................................................................................................514
4.1. The Phonetic Alphabet ...................................................................................515
APPENDIX 5 ...............................................................................................................516
1. CATEGORY A (DEFECTS) .......................................................................................516
2. CATEGORY B (AREAS OF CONCERN)......................................................................518
3. CATEGORY C (BLEMISHES)....................................................................................522
4. GENERAL CONCRETE TERMS..................................................................................529
4.1. Reporting........................................................................................................530
5. WEATHERING .........................................................................................................530
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Preface
PREFACE
The Certification Scheme For Weldment
Inspection Personnel Organisation and
Examination
1. The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Governments Board of
Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
1.1. TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent
organisation for TWI Certification.
1.1.1. Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at
Great Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with
engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated
technologies (surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
1.1.3. Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned
by its Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is
internationally renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to
implement established or advanced joining technology or to solve
problems arising at any stage - from initial design, materials selection,
production and quality assurance, through to service performance and
repair.
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Preface
1.1.4. Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of
joining technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and
organisations - representing virtually all sectors of manufacturing industry
from over 60 countries around the globe - benefit from TWI services.
1.1.5. Confidential Consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R & D in confidence for both industry and
governments. As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams
able to help solve problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will
send its specialists anywhere in the world at short notice on
troubleshooting missions.
1.1.6. TWI Certification Ltd
This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
1.1.7. Certification Management Board
The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification
Ltd is the Certification Management Board
Professional Board of TWI
Certification Management Board

(TWI Certification Ltd)
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders
Certification Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
Certification Scheme for
Welder Training Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection
Management Committee
Responsibilities of the Board

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Preface
Thus the Certification Management Board:
Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with the
requirements of the industries served by the scheme
In turn, appoints specialist Management Committees to oversee
specific parts of the scheme.
The Certification Management Board comprises 12 representatives of
industry and other parties with a valid interest in the certification
schemes, for example, fabricators, client organisations, design
authorities and training associations. This ensures that the certification
schemes truly reflect the needs of industry.
1.1.8. The Management Committees:
Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations
Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that the
examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of industry
Discuss new certification ideas.
It can therefore be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which
provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to
demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation.
The scope of CSWIP includes Welding Inspectors, Welding Supervisors,
Welding Instructors and Underwater Inspection personnel
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Preface
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Preface
2. CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors

Requirement documents: all CSWIP examination requirements documents are
available free of charge and may be downloaded from the website
www.cswip.com.
2.1. Inspector Categories
There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector
scheme:
3.1U Diver Inspector
3.2U Diver Inspector
3.3U ROV Inspector
3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller
2.2. The CSWIP 3.4U Examination
The 3.4U course this prefaces is a CSWIP approved course. The
examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical examination
and a practical assessment.
2.2.1. The Theory Examination
The theory examination is in 3 parts, A, B and C. Parts A and B will be
one three hour long paper and part C will consist of one paper for which
3 hours is allowed.
2.2.1.1. The Question Papers:
Part A - 50 multi-choice questions
Part B - General inspection principles and applications six written
answer questions from five sections. You must answer one question
from each section and one additional question from any of the five
sections. The sections contain questions about:
Magnetic particle inspection
Ultrasonic inspection
Corrosion protection systems
Underwater visual inspection
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Preface
Non-destructive testing (general knowledge)
Part C - Application aspects of inspection: eight written answer
questions from seven sections. You must answer one question from
each section and one additional question from any of the five
sections. The sections contain questions about:
Remotely applied inspection systems
Recording and processing data
Quality assurance
Inspection planning and briefing
Capabilities and limitations of ROVs and submersibles
Care and deployment of equipment
2.2.1.2. Practical Examination
The Practical examination is in 7 parts:
Data recording
Commenting on the video inspection of a component
Written reports
Written description of a component
Technical drawing evaluation
Telex prcis
Work scheduling
2.2.2. Concrete Examination
This consists of 20 multi-choice questions and reporting on 8
photographs of typical concrete blemishes. This is an optional extra that
may be taken at the same time as the examination.
The theory examination is in 2 parts, A and B 3 hours in total is
allowed during which time both papers must be answered.
Part B Consists of two sections.
Section A One mandatory question from a choice of two on the
inspection of an underwater inspection of a riser, pipeline or structure.
Section B - Six written answer questions from five sections, which
contain two questions each. The sections contain questions about:
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Preface
Underwater visual inspection
Recording methods
Corrosion protection systems
Care and calibration of equipment
Recording and reporting of data
Data recording
Commenting on video of an inspection task
Written reports
Description (written)
Technical drawing evaluation
The theory examination is in 2 parts, A and B 2 hours in total is
allowed during which time both papers must be answered.
Part B Six written answer questions from six sections, which contain
two questions each. The sections contain questions about:
Technique preparation
Corrosion protection
Magnetic particle inspection
Ultrasonics
Visual inspection, photography and CCTV
NDT techniques (general knowledge
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Preface
Magnetic particle assessment of three ferritic steel welds using
various magnetisation techniques with fluorescent inks and
ultraviolet light
Practical weld toe grinding of a 150mm length of weld to a
specific requirement
The theory examination is in 2 parts, A and B 2 hours 40 minutes in total
is allowed during which time both papers must be answered.
Part B Five written answer questions from five sections, which
contain two questions each. The sections contain questions about:
Underwater visual - steel
Underwater visual - concrete
Recording methods, photography and CCTV
Corrosion protection
Visual inspection, photography and CCTV
Visual examination of an underwater steel structure
Cathodic potential measurements
Ultrasonic digital thickness measurements
Underwater photography
Use of CCTV with oral commentary
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Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
Engineering Offshore Structures
1. General Background
Historically it is true to say that in the initial stages of development of offshore oil
platforms the designs evolved from land-based structures and were constructed
on site. The engineering design knowledge was either borrowed or extrapolated
from traditional fields of civil engineering and naval architecture. During the
1950s, however, new technology began to be developed for this type of
structure. Since then many advances have been made particularly in the field of
materials. Governments legislation in the various host countries with offshore
oil has also played a role in shaping the design of production platforms and the
various other structures seen offshore. Economics are very important and play
a leading role in platform design. For example it is only possible to justify the
expenditure for a massive eight-legged steel of a huge concrete gravity platform
when the hydrocarbon reserves in a particular field are large enough to not only
warrant the initial capital cost but will also guarantee a good income for a long
period of time. There is also a growing concern for the environment and this
consideration influences certain aspects of structural design. Another factor of
prime importance is safety of personnel. There are two facets to this:
1.1. Safe To Operate
The first facet is the usual concern of engineers to design a structure which
is elegant if possible, conservative in its use of materials, fit for the design
purpose, able to operate for the prescribed length of time, safe to operate
and within the allowed budget.
1.2. Government Legislation
The other facet is government legislation. This is put in place to ensure that
structures are fit in all aspects, including safety, for the purpose they are
designed to fulfil.
2. Design Specifications
The requirements for an offshore platform will necessitate the consideration of a
number of factors and involve drawing up DESIGN SPECIFICATION. The full
design specification will contain many different factors, but by way of illustration
the following list should serve to indicate some factors affecting load bearing
and cost.
2.1. Materials
These should be readily available from suppliers in the required form and
should meet the requirements of the design specification.
2.2. Working Life
This may typically be 25 years
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2.3. Loading
The platform should provide a safe working environment for the purpose of
recovering hydrocarbon reserves. It must be capable of withstanding the
loads imposed on it by the drilling and other works performed in and on the
work areas and it must withstand the forces imposed by wind and wave
action.
2.4. Environment
The open sea, which will impose very harsh conditions indeed on the entire
structure but especially the jacket. Due consideration must be made to the
effects of corrosion because of this environment.
2.5. Maintenance
This should be kept to the barest minimum. Cue consideration must be
given to the underwater maintenance being especially singled out wit a view
to not only minimising bit but also to use the most cost effective means of
achieving any necessary works.
2.6. Weight
The weight of the deck modules must be considered so that the jacket can
be designed to support this weight. The all-up weight will have ramifications
on the cost and on the seabed design of the foundations.
2.7. Dimensions
The size of the structure will be dictated by the work functions required to be
carried out and will be strongly affected by the requirements to keep the
topside weight to the minimum.
3. Construction Activity Monitoring System
At the same time as the Design Specification is drafted it is possible for the
QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) function to be implemented. This can take the
form of an Activity Monitoring System that would compile: Full certification for the location of all components, normally by way of
as built drawings
o This would normally include any concessions, repairs and the
actual location of J tube and temporary access holes
Full material certification
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) and inspection certification, which would
include personnel qualifications
4. Guidance On Design And Construction
With these engineering requirements in mind as the basic starting point design
and structural engineers will be able to obtain guidance as to what minimum
standards are acceptable to the appropriate authority or government body
whatever country they are operating in. As an example of these types of
guidance two different sets of national regulations will be illustrated.
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Chapter 1
4.1. United Kingdom

There is a history of legislating in United Kingdom waters going back to
1972 when Parliament enacted legislation that provided for the health, safety
and welfare of persons working on offshore installations. This was The
Mineral Workings (Offshore Installations) Act 1971
The Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 followed this.
Subsequently in 1975 The Petroleum and Submarines Pipelines Act
1975 was enacted, providing for all pipelines and offshore installations not
covered by the 1971 act.
Using the powers embodied in the 1971 Mineral Workings (Offshore
Installations) Act in 1974 the United Kingdom Department of Energy
authorised, The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey)
Regulations 1974 (SI 289).
This Statutory Instrument (SI) was followed, in April 1984 by, Offshore
Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. The latest
amendment to this document was dated 1990
Both of these Statutory Instruments are now superseded as indicated later in
this Chapter.
4.2. Guidance from the UK Regulations
The guidance given in the UK regulations in the early 1970s followed good
engineering practice and provided design engineers what was then the most
up to date basic information as to the forces and loads acting upon any
offshore structure, with specific emphasis on the North Sea environment. It
is worth examining these regulations in a little detail because a good number
of North Sea structures in the UK sector were designed and installed during
this period.
At that time a distinction was made between Primary Structure and
Secondary Structure; Primary Structure was defined as meaning all
structural components of an Offshore Installation, the failure of which would
seriously endanger the safety of the installation. Examples are, for fixed
Installations, piles, jacket legs and bracings, concrete caissons and towers,
and main deck girders, for a mobile Installation, lower hulls or pontoons,
columns, main bracings and deck beams and Secondary Structure,
defined as, The structural elements which are not primary structure are
secondary structure. Examples are deckhouses, walkways and helicopter
decks The Guidance also specified that the latest edition of any British
Standard or Code of Practice should be used where appropriate and further
that standards and/or codes other than British may be used provided that
the Certifying Authority* was satisfied there was an equivalent degree
of safety and integrity
* In SI 289 in 1974 and the other legislation in force up to 1996 there were five authorised certifying authorities.
The current legislation now in force has revoked this authorisation and now requires verification not certification
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4.2.1. Specific Guidance
In SI 289 1974 The Guidance gave specific advice on: Clearance above waves (air gap)
Hazardous areas
Layout of equipment and systems
Fendering
Pipeline risers
Location of accommodation and working areas
Escape routes
And various other subjects concerned with the safety of personnel and
structure
4.2.2. Environment
Environmental considerations were also dealt with in some detail advising designers to determine parameters on: The speed and direction of winds and the effect of averaging
period and height above the surface of the sea on their
characteristics
The heights, periods and directions of waves, the probability of
their occurrence and the effect of currents, seabed topography
and other factors likely to modify their characteristics
The water depth and variations in water level from tide and storm
surge
The speed and direction of tidal and other currents
Air and sea temperatures
The extent of snow and ice accumulations
The extent to which marine growth may form on the submerged
sections of the installation.
To assist the designer in determining these parameters various tables
were provided showing the then, current relevant data. Comprehensive
guidance was also given on corrosion protection and site investigations.
4.2.3. Steel And Concrete
Both these materials were considered in some detail with design
parameters being indicated.
4.2.3.1. Steel
This material may fail in service for a number of reasons as will be
detailed in later Chapters. The Guidance notes in the 1970s
considered a number of specific items.
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Chapter 1
Fatigue Life
Throughout its service life a structure is exposed to environmental
loading. This causes cyclic stress variations in its structural members.
Of these forces wave loading is the main source of potential fatigue
cracking, for example, supposing a 20-year service life, wave action
will result in approximately 108 cycles of stress variations. Any other
source of cyclic loading could also contribute to fatigue damage and
should therefore be considered as well. Unless otherwise agreed with
the Certifying Authority the calculated fatigue life derived by the
methods indicated in the Guidance Notes should be not less than 20
years, or the required service life if this is greater. The procedure for
the fatigue analysis is based on the assumption that for welded
structures it is only necessary to consider ranges of cyclic stress in
determining the endurance (i.e. mean stresses are neglected).
In most situations the potential fatigue crack is located in parent
material (e.g. at a weld toe) and the relevant cyclic stress is accepted
as the range of maximum principal stress at the potential crack
location. (Note: In estimating the maximum principal stress, shear and
torsional effects may be neglected where they are small).
For nodal joints the stress range to be used in the fatigue analysis is
the hot spot stress range at the weld toe.
Figure 1.1 refers.
Specific Joint Design

The objective is to minimise stress concentration areas
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Buckling
This is another prime possibility for component failure and must
therefore warrant special attention.
The Requirement for Destructive Testing
This is considered in order to minimise potential failures and as part
of the overall QA.
4.2.3.2. Concrete Structures
As with steel failure in service could occur due to a number of factors
some specific to concrete.
Limit State Design
Limit States
Shear
Fatigue
Deflection
Cracking
Cover Over Reinforcement
Reinforcement Detailing
4.2.3.3. Loads
The prime categories of load considered are: Dead Loads
Imposed (Operational) Loads
Hydrostatic Loads
Environmental Loads
Deformation Loads
Accidental Loads
The 1974 Guidance indicated the required minimum considerations
for designers to take account of, along with the then current best
advise on how best to determine these loads.
4.3. United States of America
As an historical contrast to this legislation another example of this type of
guidance, from the United States of America, which is aimed at American
waters is, API Recommended Practice for PLANNING, DESIGNING, and
CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS, which was published
by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in 1984. These regulations lay
down in broad terms the minimum standards for the design and construction
of offshore structures in offshore environments as indicated below. The
major difference between the US and the UK regulations at that time was
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Chapter 1
the fact that the US offered advise and cited recommended practice but did
not authorise certification authorities. Nor does it now.
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations
US regulations are intended for use in the American offshore
environment, but, because they are based on good engineering practice,
in common with the old UK regulations, the guidance follows much the
same ground. This is not surprising, as the structures will have to
withstand very similar forces and loadings.
4.3.1.1. Planning
The US Guidance, which was given for this aspect of the design
function considers such items as: Function
The function for which the structure is intended such as drilling,
producing, storage, accommodation, or a combination of these.
The Location
Orientation
Water Depth
All of these factors being considered with a view o giving guidance
as to what parameters should be applied.
The environmental conditions are considered and designers are
specifically advised to make best use of all available statistical and
mathematical modelling data todevelop the description of
operating and extreme environmental conditions.
Operating Environmental Conditions
(Those conditions which are expected to occur frequently during
the life of the structure) are important both during the construction
and the life of a platform.
Extreme Conditions
(Those conditions which recur quite rarely during the life of the
structure) are important in formulating platform design loadings
The Recommended Practice also indicated minimum
requirements for considering the effects of: Wind
Waves
Tides
Currents
Ice
Earthquakes
Sea-floor Instability
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Scour
Marine Fouling
Site investigations with a view as to the impact on the structures
foundations are also considered.
As with the UK guidance loads are given full consideration and are
defined as: Dead Loads
Live Loads
Environmental Loads
Construction Loads
Dynamic Loads
(If a comparison of this list is made with paragraph 4.2.3.3 it appears
that the UK old regulation considered this subject more fully. This is
not the case because the US regulation considered some types of
loads together. For example hydrostatic loads, which are considered
separately in the UK, are associated with dead loads in the US).
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel
The behaviour of steel under stress is considered.
Bending
Buckling
Were both given due consideration.
Fatigue
This is dealt with in the same manner as for the UK along with
similar design advice.
Joint Design
This was also covered in a similar way.
Concrete structures are not considered in this particular publication.
5. Conclusion
It is obvious from the comparisons made here and from common engineering
experience that the engineering requirements for offshore structures anywhere
in the world will be similar. The only marked changes will be due to local
conditions either imposing greater loadings on the structure or perhaps the local
environment being more aggressive. The basic engineering will not change but
some components may have to be more massive or higher-grade materials may
be required to meet these local requirements.
6. Pipelines
Offshore pipelines are used to transport oil or gas from platform to loading
towers or to shore. They are fabricated from high-grade steel pipe (e.g.API-5LX)
which is bitumen wrapped for corrosion prevention and coated with a layer of
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Chapter 1
reinforced concrete to provide a weight coating which gives additional protection
as well.
The sizes normally vary from 50 mm (2) to 914 mm (36) and the wall thickness
normally varies according to the pressure rating required.
6.1. Pipeline Laying
The methods for laying pipe has evolved since the 1950s and utilises lay
barges on which standard 12 m lengths of pipe are welded together along
the centre of the specially designed and fitted out deck of the vessel.
Each joint is X-rayed and then coated with bitumen and wrapped with a
protective sheathing.
As new lengths of pipe are added the assembly is fed over the stern and the
barge is moved forward, usually by pulling on anchors, which have been laid
by an associated anchor-handling vessel.
An alternative approach is laying pipe from a reel barge. The earliest
application of this technique occurred during World War II when a 76 mm
(3) diameter pipe was laid across the English Channel in Operation PLUTO
(Pipeline Under The Ocean). This early application utilised floating reels with
the pipeline being unwrapped from them as they were towed along.
The modern application requires the pipe to be prepared on land and then
wound onto the reel which is mounted on the stern of the reel laying vessel
which itself is moored at a specially designed pier. The vessel then proceeds
to the required site and lays the pipeline by un-reeling it over the stern as the
barge steams forward.
The welding and preparation work on land is carried out in a spooling yard,
where the pipe sections are supplied in 12 m (40 ft) lengths. These are
welded together to form stalks, usually about 518 m
(1700 ft) long. All the welds are X-rayed and coated and the stalks are
stowed in racks alongside the spooling dock.
At the start of spooling, the first stalk is moved into the roller system. The
end is welded to a stub of pipe on the reel and is pulled onto the reel. The
second length is then welded to the end of the first, the weld is X-rayed and
coated and the procedure is then repeated for subsequent stalks.
All welding and loading operations are performed at the shore facility and
therefore are less affected by weather conditions.
The major area of criticality is establishing and maintaining even tightness
of the wraps on the reel. This is to avoid potential breakthrough of one wrap
into another, which would cause damage to the pipe.
The reeling and un-reeling of the pipe actually causes yielding of the steel
and the maximum diameter pipeline that can be laid is 600 mm (24).
See Figure 1.2
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Figure 1.2
MSV Norlift, Laying the 10in pipeline between
the Neptune and Mercury fields
7. Offshore Oil Terminals
Large oil tankers are cheaper to run than small tankers. This philosophy of
building large tankers was reinforced in the 1950s when the Suez crisis forced
tankers from the Gulf to detour around the South of Africa in order to reach
Europe. As tanker sizes increased the number of ports that could handle
tankers decreased and public opinion was against allowing such tankers too
close to inhabited areas. Many solution were proposed to solve this problem of
shrinking docking facilities which included artificial harbours, artificial offshore
islands, multiple buoy mooring systems, tower mooring systems and Single
Point Mooring systems (SPMs).
The SPM is the most widely used because of its relatively low operational cost,
reliability and flexibility. This configuration is illustrated in a later Chapter.
8. Future Trends
The future is likely to see continued development of current trends and
techniques in all areas of offshore engineering, with the probability of new
techniques being evolved to enable the exploitation of reserves which are
currently marginal or beyond the range of present day techniques.
8.1. Drilling
This is a branch of engineering, which has seen numerous developments
the results of which have made recovery of reserves more efficient and more
effective. Cost reduction and further development of marginal reserves will,
no doubt, cause a continuation of developments of the present techniques
and trends. There will surely be, for instance, increased use of: -
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Chapter 1
Horizontal Drilling
This enables more formation to be exposed to production and reduces
reservoir problems such as associated gas and water production. It is useful
for thin and tight, low permeability reservoirs. Fewer wells are needed to
achieve optimum reservoir production than with conventional drilling. Figure
1.3 refers.
Figure 1.3
Diagram Of Bottomhole Assemblies
These Bottomhole Assemblies Are Designed For
Drilling A Straight Hole (Left) And A Directional Hole (Right)
Extended Reach Drilling
This can reduce the number of platforms required to develop a field as a
greater reservoir area can be drained from one central platform. Horizontal
distances up to 7000 m have been achieved.
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Slim Line Well Design

Involves cost-effective casing design around an optimal production conduit,
can also reduce the number of wells needed to achieve optimum reservoir
drainage.
Rig Automation
Will allow several labour-intensive tasks such as pipe handling to be carried
out automatically. For instance, on the rig package developed for Norske
Shells Troll platform, only one driller and an assistant man the rig floor. On a
conventional rig, between five and seven people would be needed to carry
out equivalent tasks. All pipe-handling operations are carried out from a
specially designed control cabin. Removing personnel from the drill floor
means more cost-effective and potentially safer operations. See Figures 1.4
to 1.11.
Figure 1.4
The Drill Floor Showing
The Drill String Being Broken Out
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Chapter 1
Figure 1.5
The Derrick.
The Pyramidal Derrick Supports
The Crown Blocks And The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey
Figure 1.6
Photograph Of Crown Block
The Pulleys That Make Up The Crown Block
Allow The Cable To Hoist Heavy Loads.
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Figure 1.7
Drawworks
The Drawworks Reels The Drilling Line In Or Out Over The Crown Blocks To
Raise Or Lower The Travelling Block (Shows The Spool-Like Drawworks
Without The Drilling Line
Figure 1.8
Travelling Block
The Yellow Travelling Block Moves Up And Down In The Derrick,
Suspended By The Black Wire Rope, To Lift Or Lower The Drillstring Or
Casing
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Chapter 1
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service The University of Texas at Austin
Figure 1.9
Breakout Cathead. The Breakout Cathead Allows The Driller To Make A
Connection Using The Power Of The Motor
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin
Figure 1.10
Spinning chain
The Spinning Chain (Centre Photograph) Turns Pipe Rapidly, But Is A
Dangerous Way To Screw Pipe Together Because Of Potential For Catching
And Damaging Clothing And Fingers. Mechanical Spinning Devices Are
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Now Favoured Over Spinning Chains
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin
Figure 1.11
Slips
The Rig Crew Sets Wedge-Like Pipe Slips (Near The Bottom Of This
Photograph) In The Rotary Table To Hold The Pipe While Another
Component Is Added To The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin.
Temporary (Lightweight) Topsides On Platforms

This design can make production platforms lighter and cheaper than
traditional platforms, which include permanent integrated drilling facilities.
For example, Norske Shells Draugen and Troll platforms are designed so
that the derrick set can be removed at the end of the drilling and completion
phase. Shells Gannet Platform is another lightweight design. Figure 1.12
refers.
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Chapter 1
Figure 1.12
Gannet Platform North Sea
Central Sector
Tender Assisted Operations
These operations also help to minimise the weight of the production platform
by providing most drilling support equipment on a floating anchored, shipshaped tender in calm waters or an anchored semi- submersible unit for
deeper or harsher environments.
Mobile Drilling Units
These are jack-up or semi-submersible rigs, depending on water and they
can be used to drill production wells (with well completion on the seabed and
production pipelines led to a nearby facility) where size and economics of
the reservoir do not justify the installation of a platform.
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8.2. Design Practices

Todays fixed platforms are lighter, slimmer and simpler than the giant
platforms built in the 1970s. There is scope for further simplification, for
example of topsides, which account for more than half the capital cost of a
platform. Figure 1.13 refers.
Topside costs can be reduced, for instance by standardising designs and

reducing sparing (duplication of equipment).
Another option is to examine alternatives to conventional platform designs.
Studies of a purpose-built production jack-up unit, a concrete gravity
structure and a tripod tower platform have shown that all three are
technically viable and could offer cost saving for applications in water depths
around 100 m.
Greater use of sub-sea satellite technology instead of building a platform
can reduce costs, especially where infrastructure already exists nearby
which can be used as a host platform. As indicated by the relative sizes of
the pie charts in Figure 1.13, the capital costs of constructing a sub-sea
satellite 20 km from an existing platform are much lower than the costs of
constructing an additional platform. However, in such an instance, the long
term technical integrity of existing facilities, platforms and pipelines must be
ensured, given that they may be in continued use beyond the original design
life which was probably in the order of 20 years anyway.
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Chapter 1
Bibliography
Engineering Aspects of North Sea Operations. The Shell Approach
PP Tapper
The Gatwick Press
The Offshore Challenge
Shell Briefing Service
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
(SI 289)
BSI
Offshore Installations Guidance on Design and Construction
HMSO
API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms
American Petroleum Institute
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
Offshore Structures and Installations
1. Introduction
Offshore hydrocarbon deposits may be gas or oil or a mixture of the two. They
are found at different depths in the seabed, they are of different sizes and the
recovery of the reserves can be easy or difficult depending on the actual
geology of the particular well. These factors influence the design of offshore
structures and combine to be one of the basic reasons for there being different
types of offshore installations. Some of the biggest installations are in the North
Sea and consist of concrete gravity structures. Then there are the more
common steel platforms, which can be of the eight-legged type or may be of a
lightweight four-legged variety. There are also jack-up rigs, which are mobile,
and tension leg platforms (TLP), which float. Apart from these production
facilities there are also, seabed wells, manifold centres and thousands of
kilometres of pipelines. Another common structure seen worldwide is the single
point mooring (SPM) which come in a variety of designs, some of which
incorporate storage facilities.
1.1. Terminology
The production platforms are the most massive installations and they may
be of steel or concrete construction, steel being the most prevalent. Both
types have standard components and a through working knowledge of this
terminology is necessary to be able to communicate with other engineers.
Much of this terminology also applies to the other types of structures and
therefore a review of this topic for platforms forms the basis for a
comprehensive working technical vocabulary.
See Figures 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3
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Figure 2.1
Steel Platform
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Chapter 2
1.1.1. Basic Components Of Steel Platforms

Common terminology for the components making up the steel sub-sea
structure, the jacket, which is constructed of steel pipe work and piled
into the seabed.
Modern Jackets
Figure 2.2
The Jade Jacket
Kvaerner Manufactured The Jade Jacket At Methil
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Figure 2.3
A Four Legged Jacket
Built For The Compression Platform
Installed As Part Of CMS 2
Can
One of the sections making up a leg
Conductor Guide Frame
Horizontal sections of framework, which restrain and guide the
conductors
Leg
The main vertical component, constructed from a number of sections
welded together, supporting the rest of the structure
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Chapter 2
Member
One of the horizontal, vertical or diagonal components of the jacket
Node
A point on the welded steel structure where two or more members meet
and are joined. Figure 2.4 refers.
Figure 2.4
Typical Node
Pile Guides
Steel cylinder in which the pile is supported while it is driven into the
seabed. Pile guides are mounted in clusters around each leg at various
levels. They are often removed on completion of piling operations
Pile Sleeves
These are long steel cylinders, grouped around the base of the legs into
which the piles are located before being driven into the seabed. The tops
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of the piles should be level with the tops of the sleeves on completion of
piling. See Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5
Pile Sleeves
Additional to these components are a number of appurtenances
(attachments). The more important of these are: Caissons
Open bottomed tubular components terminating at various depths for the
purpose of the intake or discharge of water or waste
Conductors
Tubes for drilling purposes connecting seabed wells to the topside.
Figure 2.6 refers.
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.6
Conductors
Flowline Riser Bundles
Pipe work-bringing oil or gas from satellite wellheads into the platform
Oil And Gas Risers
Vertical pipeline extending the full height of the jacket and used for
transporting oil or gas. Production risers carry oil or gas up from the
seabed wellheads. Export risers take the processed hydrocarbons down
to pipelines. Refer to Figures 2.7 and 2.8
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Conductor
Sea level
Export or Import
Riser
Vertical
Diagonal brace
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp
Node
Pile
Pile
Flow-line
Seabed
Figure 2.7
Steel Structure Terminology
Batter
Sea level
Export or Import
Riser
Conductor
Vertical
Diagonal brace
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp
Node
Pile
Pile sleeve
Flowline
Seabed
Figure 2.8
Steel Structure Terminology
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.9
Processing Takes Place on Statoils Gullfaks A Platform
North Sea
1.1.2. Basic Components Of A Concrete Gravity Structure
Gravity structures may be made of steel or a mixture of steel and
concrete but the most usual material is concrete itself. They are
anchored to the seabed by their own mass hence the term gravity.
Common features of this type of design are the large diameter columns
supporting the deck module and numerous ballast/storage tanks making
up the base. See Figure 2.9 and 2.12
1.1.2.1. Common Concrete Components
Some components are common to all concrete structures. The
following list defines a number of these.
Anchorage Point
This is an essential part of the tensioning components in pre-stressed
concrete structures. The anchorage point is cast into the concrete at
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the ends of the tensioning tendon or bundle of tendons. It grips the
tendon and thereby transfers the load from it to the structural
concrete. It is commonly encased in protective concrete domes.
Figure 2.10
Breakwater Walls
Concrete walls in the splash zone, containing cast in holes that
dissipate the wave energy and thus protect the structure within the
walled area
Cachetage Point
This is an alternative name for Anchorage Point. Refer to Figure 2.10
Figure 2.10
Cross-sectional Drawing Of A Cachetage Point
Jarlan Holes
A term used to describe the cast in holes in the Breakwater Walls.
See Figure 2.11
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.11
Close-up Photograph Of A Jarlan Hole
Support Columns
These are the concrete, or steel, columns supporting the deck
module. See Figure 2.12.
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Figure 2.12
Support Columns and Support Domes
On A Condeep Design Concrete Platform
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Chapter 2
Support Domes
These are the tops of the tanks at the base of the structure, which
may store oil, water or drilling mud. See also Figure 12.12
Terminology With Different Offshore Structures
Having introduced the terminology associated with production
platforms the discussion should be extended to other types of
offshore structures and vessels. There are a number of different
configurations for structures that are designed to fulfil different
functions.
Jack-up Rigs
These rigs are used for wildcat drilling, production drilling and
workovers. See Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13
A Three-legged Jack-up Drilling Platform
With Tow Still Attached Starting To Jack-up
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The jack-up platform consists of a main platform, which is watertight
(the hull) and floats for transit. Attached to the hull via a rack and
pinion assembly are the tubular steel lattice frame legs. The gears
lower the legs to the seabed and the hull is then jacked up by this
same method to clear the water. On completion of the drilling the
whole operation is reversed and the rig is towed away to a different
site.
1.2. A Semi-submersible Rig
These are used for the same tasks as jack-ups and may be self-powered or
not. Figures 2.14 to 2.16 refer.
Figure 2.14
The sgard B Semi-Submersible Production Platform Is Linked To
The Semi-submersible Accommodation Flotel Safe Britannia
In deeper water the legs of a jack-up platform would be so long as to give
concern about the stability of the legs unless they were much larger in
section. Therefore this type of rig is not used in water deeper than about 60
m. At greater water depths the semi-submersible platform is employed. The
rig has large hollow legs and pontoons, which can be flooded or pumped dry
at, will thus ballasting the platform. When moving from site to site the rig is
ballasted up to reduce water drag during transit and, when drilling, the rig is
ballasted down to improve stability. It does float at all times and therefore
when drilling it is kept in place usually by anchors but it may keep position by
dynamic positioning (DP). That is the main engines run all the time and
computers especially programmed for the task with current data on weather,
tide, sea state and various navigation inputs control the thrust to the various
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Chapter 2
thrusters (propellers) to keep the vessel stationary in the sea directly over
one point on the seabed.
Figure 2.15
Delivery of the sgard Hull by the Mighty Servant 3
Figure 2.16
The Turret of the sgard A Floating Production Vessel
Merges with the Internal Pipe Work
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1.3. Drill ship
Again the drill ship is used for the same tasks as a jack-up but in deeper
water it is more weather dependant. It is also more manoeuvrable and
mobile. See Figure 2.17
Figure 2.17
Drillship Discovery 1
Either DP or anchors normally keep drillships on station dependent on the
water depth, site and project parameters. See Figure 2.17
1.4. Steel Production Platforms
With steel fixed platforms the jacket supports the substructure, which
contains all the necessary facilities. The jacket is built in a fabrication yard
and if it is a large six or eight-legged jacket designed to support full
production facilities it may well have modified legs designed as floats, or
additional ballast tanks may be installed so that it can be floated out to the
site. Smaller steel structures, which have been designed, and built as a
result of advances made in materials, better understanding of the forces
imposed on offshore structures and different design concepts are loaded
onto a barge which carries them out. Both these types of platform are
sometimes referred to as steel piled structures because the jacket is piled
into the seabed once it is in the upright position with piles either driven
through the legs or positioned around the main legs and driven through pile
sleeves, so-called skirt piles. One example of the large fixed production
platform is the Brent A, which is installed in ShellExpros Brent Field in the
North Sea.
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Chapter 2
1.4.1. Brent A Statistics
Water Depth
140 m
Substructure
Jacket Type
Self-floating steel construction
Number of legs
Number of piles
32 (skirt piles)
Weight of jacket
14,225 tonnes
Weight of piles
7,316 tonnes
Superstructure
Production capacity 100,000 bbl/d oil and 200-mmscfd gas
Height of deck above sea level
21.7 m
Deck area
2300 m2
Deck construction
Plate girder
Weight of deck
1,507 tonnes
Weight of deck facilities
2,354 tonnes
Weight of modules and equipment
14,762 tonnes
See Figure 2.18
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Figure 2.18
ShellExpros Brent A Production Platform
North Sea
An example of a lightweight platform servicing seabed wellheads and
facilities is the Gannet A platform in ShellExpros Gannet Field in the
central North Sea. The structure itself is of the same basic design, but is
much less massive than the production platform. Figure 2.19 refers
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.19
ShellExpros Gannet Platform
1.5. Concrete And Steel Gravity Platforms
The first gravity structure was installed in the North Sea in the mid-1970s
while the first steel gravity platform was installed offshore in the Congo in the
late-1970s.
The concept of a concrete structure came about because of some of the
problems associated with steel structures, namely the necessity for a large
number of heavy and large piles and the corrosion problem with steel in a
hostile environment. Concrete gravity structures required no piles and were
immune to corrosion.
Initially there were perceived additional advantages of storage space within
the base cells and potentially huge deck space which could be fitted out in
calm sheltered water which in turn would minimise on-site commissioning
thus reducing expensive offshore construction manpower.
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Figure 2.20
ShellExpros Brent D Platform
North Sea
Apart from Brent D illustrated in Figure 2.20 there are numerous examples
of this type of structure constructed to different designs, such as Condeep,
CG Doris and McAlpine Seatank. To give some idea of the scale of this type
of platform the main statistics for Cormorant, A which is a four-legged
design, installed in the Cormorant Field in the North Sea are detailed here.
1.5.1. Cormorant A Statistics
Water Depth
150 m
Substructure
Storage Capacity
1,000,000 bbls
Caisson shape
Square
Caisson height
57 m
Number of legs
4
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Chapter 2
Weight in air
294,655 tonnes
Superstructure
Production capacity
60,000 b/d oil and 30-mmscfd gas
Height of deck above MSL 23 m

Area of deck
4,200 m2
Deck construction
box girder
Weight of deck
5,593 tonnes
Weight of deck equipment 3,593 tonnes

Weight of modules
19,011 tonnes
1.5.2. Disadvantages of Concrete Structures

In spite of the initial optimism for the design of concrete structures it has
been found that there are a number of disadvantages for this type of
structure.
There are stability problems during tow-out to site that have to be
counteracted by limiting the topside weight thus reducing the apparent
advantage of large deck space fitted out in sheltered waters.
The very heavy lift derrick barges now operating are able to operate in
comparatively wide weather variations which has reduced the cost of
offshore installations thus limiting the apparent cost advantage of
concrete constructions.
Concrete as a material cannot withstand tensile forces. This in turn
means the use of the base storage cells must be carefully monitored at
all times t avoid any possibility of the storage of crude oil causing a buildup of differential loadings between cells thus causing excessive tensile
stresses. Also pressure must not be allowed to build up in the cells,
vapour pressure must not exceed 2 bar (30 psi). Another consideration is
that oil temperature in the cells must not exceed 38o C in order to avoid
thermal stresses. Another, problem associated with the storage of crude
oil is that if it is not carefully monitored emulsions formed by the interaction of oil and associated water can accumulate permanently within the
cells. Reservoir sand must not be allowed to accumulate and build up
either and therefore steps have to be taken to eliminate this from the
crude before it reaches the cells.
At least one of the main shafts will house utilities and because it is some
100m tall and very narrow ventilating it is difficult which necessitates the
use of breathing apparatus by maintenance staff working there. This in
turn makes routine maintenance and operations of the equipment
difficult.
Stagnant water accumulated in the structure encourages the growth of
aerobic bacteria, which consume oxygen, which in turn generates ideal
conditions for the formation of Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). The
growth of SRBs in turn leads to the production of Hydrogen Sulphide
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H2S. This problem necessitates the creation of safety zones and special
procedures to avoid risk to personnel.
1.6. Compliant Towers
This design is a tall, slim steel structure that is designed to sway slightly, that
is complies with the effects of the wave action. The design is conceived as a
half-way house between fixed and floating structures. It is possible to use
the design in water depths up to some 1000 m in moderate environments.
The Baldpate GB 260 Platform is located in 1,650ft of water, in Garden
Banks (GB) block 260, 120 miles off the Louisiana coast. This is the first
freestanding offshore compliant tower ever, as well as one of the tallest
freestanding structures in the world. The tip of the flare boom extends
1,902ft above the seafloor. Figures 2.21 to 2.25 refer.
Figure 2.21
GB 260 Compliant Tower
Gulf Of Mexico
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.22
Artist Impression Of
GB 260 Compliant Tower
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Figure 2.23
GB 260 Base On Tow Barge
During Tow Out To Site
Figure 2.24
GB 260 Jacket
Before Float Out
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.25
GB 260 Base Launch
1.7. Tension Leg Floating Platforms
Tension Leg Platforms (TLP) consist of a hull anchored to the seabed with
vertical tendons. Vertical movement is constrained by the tendons thus
allowing production wells to be located on deck. An example of this type of
structure is Conocos TLP in the Hutton Field in the North Sea which was
installed in 1984. This design is suitable for deep-water production and
some engineers believe the technology could be extended to water depths
of 3000 m. See Figures 2.26 to 2.28
Figure 2.26
Statoils Snorre B TLP
North Sea
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Figure 2.27
Diagrammatic Layout Of
A Typical TLP
Figure 2.28
Snorre B Anchor Points Under Tow
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Chapter 2
1.8. Floating Production Systems
Floating production systems (FPS) are a variation on the theme of TLPs and
consist of a floating vessel with production facilities connected to seabed wells
by flexible risers. Vessels may be purpose built, or converted and may be
mono-hulls or semi-submersible. Tankers, for example can be converted for this
task relatively quickly and cheaply. In this case they are usually known as
Floating Production and Storage Operations (FPSO). These vessels are quite
weather dependant, which is why purpose built vessels, have been developed
and why semi-submersibles are used for this concept. Semi-submersibles do
not have oil storage capacity, which therefore has to be provided separately.
FPSs were first introduced in the 1970s and today they have potential for
development for deep water drilling. Figures 2.29 to 2.31 refer.
Figure 2.29
The sgard A FPSO Measures 278m in Length
and has a Displacement of 184,300t
Figure 2.30
Terra Nova FPSO
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Figure 2.31
Terra Nova FPSO Schematic
1.9. Seabed Facilities
The first sub-sea production Christmas tree was installed by Shell offshore
California in 1961. Since then there has been a steady increase in these
facilities with the early wellheads being installed and serviced by divers.
Developments now allow these tasks to be completed remotely thus,
importantly extending the depth range for installation and maintenance.
Apart from seabed wellheads there are also manifold centres such as the
Underwater Manifold Centre (UMC) in Shells Cormorant Field, Linear Block
Manifolds (LBM) as installed in Shells Osprey Field and Sub-sea Isolation
Valves (SSIV) as installed throughout the North Sea. Currently there are
more than 650 sub-sea wells worldwide of which approximately one third are
installed on the UK continental shelf. These structures can offer advantages
over platforms.
To reach remote pats of the field inaccessible to the existing platform
To develop a field too small to warrant the cost of a fixed platform where
process facilities can be provided as required by a floating facility
To develop a wide spread field using dedicated FPS and linking the wells
with pipelines
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Chapter 2
To develop a number of smaller fields all in the same district again using
FPS
Some of these facilities are illustrated below. See Figures 2.32 to 2.49
Figure 2.32
Artist Impression
Alvheim Field Schematic
Figure 2.33
Anasuria FPSO
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Figure 2.34
Balder Field FPU
Figure 2.35
Artist Impression
Balder Field Schematic
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.36
Balder FPU Turret
Being Installed
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Figure 2.37
Machar Field Seabed Manifolds
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.38
Dunbar Sub-sea Choke Manifold
Figure 2.39
Schematic Seabed Four Well Layout
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Figure 2.40
Gannet Sub-sea Isolation Valve (SSIV)
Assembly Installation
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.41
Artist Impression Gullfaks Field Schematic Layout
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Figure 2.42
Gullfaks Hinge-over Sub-sea Template (HOST)
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.43
Artist Impression Leadon Field Infrastructure
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Figure 2.44
Renee Field Manifold
And Wellheads
Figure 2.45
Snohvit Seabed Wellheads
And Protection Frame
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.46
Renee Field Schematic Layout
Figure 2.47
Turret Details On Norne FPSO
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Figure 2.48
Vixen Sub-sea Tree
Figure 2.49
Vixen Wellhead Structure
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Chapter 2
1.10. Pipelines
Pipelines are used extensively for the transport of crude oil and gas and
there are many hundreds of kilometres of sub-sea pipelines throughout the
world. Figures 2.50 to 2.59 indicate some of these facilities and how they are
laid.
These structures may appear to be simple on an initial cursory inspection
but they are carefully designed and a good deal of specialised design effort
goes into their construction. Traditional pipelines are constructed of steel am
may be made up of nominal 40 foot (12.1 m) lengths of pipe sections up to 3
feet (0.9 m) in diameter which are welded together. Figure 2.50 shows a lay
barge in operation.
Alternatively smaller diameter steel pipe up to 2 foot (0.6 m) diameter can be
laid up onto special reels and then laid in long lengths off the back of
specially designed reel-laying vessels. Modern developments in materials
have led to the widespread use of composite pipes made up of a variety of
polymers. One such pipe is known as Coflexip. This type of pipe is
commonly laid from specially designed reels off the back of suitable vessels.
Figures 12.49 to 12.53 give an indication of reel laying operations.
A typical field joint in a pipeline is illustrated in Figure 12.54 that indicates
some of the complexities of the design and fabrication of this joint.
Figure 2.50
Lay barge LB 200 Operating In
Dunbar Field
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Figure 2.51
Dunbar Field Double Wall Interpipe
Figure 2.52
Gullfaks Flowline Bundle
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.53
Beach Launched Pipeline Bundle Showing PLEM About To
Enter The Water
Figure 2.54
A General View of CSO Apache Reel Laying Vessel
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Figure 2.55
Onshore Facilities and Jetty for Fabrication, Preparation
And Loading Pipelines Onto Reel Laying Vessels
Figure 2.56
Pipe Sections Stockpiled Ready for Fabrication
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.57
Pipeline Fabrication in the Sheds at the Pipe Yard
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Figure 2.58
Stern View of the CSO Apache Reel Laying On the Cook Project
Figure 2.59
Diagram of a Standard Pipe Length Field Joint
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Chapter 2
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Loading on Offshore Structures Engineering Concepts
CHAPTER 3
Loading On Offshore Structures Engineering
Concepts
1. General Introduction
When any structure is being designed the engineers will, as a matter of course,
consider the forces exerted by wind, water, weight of equipment and working
loads. The material that the structure is built from supports these forces. The
forces set up stresses within the material.
Stress is a convenient way of defining the load a material is required to
withstand in such a way that comparisons with the loading on other structures of
different sizes and shapes can be made. It also allows comparison with the
mechanical properties; for example, how near the working stress of any
member is to the yield stress or ultimate tensile stress of the material and
comparisons of stresses in different parts of the structure identify those
members that are carrying the heaviest loads.
1.1. Stress
Stress is defined as the Force (or load) divided by the cross-sectional area
carrying that load. Stress is denoted by the Greek letter (sigma) and is
defined mathematically
As a simple example of how the concept of stress is applied consider the

following. Figure 3.1 illustrates a connecting rod. The rod experiences a
tension force of 700 N (Newton). Estimate the average stress at each of the
cross-sections P and Q
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Connecting Rod
Solution
Section P
From the diagram the force acting on the section P is 700N
outward from the surface. The cross-section area is:
A = r2 =19.6 x 10-6 m2
Then using
= A
= 35.7 x 106 N m-2

= 35.7 MN m-2
Section Q
Again from the diagram the force is 700N outward from the
surface. The new cross-section area is
A = r2 =7.07 x 10-6 m2
Then using
F = A
= 99.0 MN m-2
1.2. Types Of Stress
When a material is required to support of transmit a load, it does so by
creating a force between the atoms of the material by moving them from
their equilibrium position. This can occur in a number of ways.
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Tensile stress
This is created in the material when the atoms are pulled apart. See Figure
3.2
Figure 3.2
Tensile Loading On A Solid
Compressive stress
This is the exact opposite of tensile stress. The atoms are pressed together
as illustrated in Figure 3.3. Usually tensile stresses are thought of as positive
(+) stresses and compressive stresses as negative (-) stresses.
Figure 3.3
Compressive Loading of a Solid
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Chapter 3
Bending stress
Structures are sometimes loaded in such a way that there is a mixture of
tensile and compressive stresses in it. A simple beam supported at the ends
and loaded in the middle is a good example as illustrated in Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4
A Simple Beam with a Point Load
The top surface is observed to get shorter as it experiences compressive
stresses, and the bottom surface gets longer as it experiences tensile
stresses. This type of loading gives a stress distribution that varies from
maximum compressive stress on one side, to zero at an unstressed layer
called the neutral axis, to maximum tensile stress at the other side. In this
type of structure, there are both tensile and compressive stresses. Most
braces in platform structures experience this mixture of stresses.
Shear Stress
Another way in which the atoms can be moved to create a force is when
layers of atoms are pushed past each other. This is called shear.
Shear stress () is defined mathematically thus
The symbol generally used for shear stress is the Greek letter tau. Shear
stress is illustrated in Figure 3.5.
As a note of interest, in general, fluids and gasses at rest, cannot produce
shear resistance when stationary, and so are subjected to pressure only,
which acts at right angles to any surface.
Also as well as the shearing action shown in Figure 3.5 most rotating motion
is transmitted by shear; for example, the drive shaft of a car or the force to
tighten a valve. This is often referred to as Torsion.
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Figure 3.5
Shear Loading of a Solid
Every material will have a characteristic way of reacting to stress. The
particular reaction for a given material will be determined by the material
properties.
2. Properties Of Materials
Materials are identified by their characteristic qualities such as; hardness,
rigidity, conductivity, magnetic or not and so on. In order that engineers can
compare one material with another it is necessary to quantify these material
properties. Among those properties commonly considered when selecting a
material for a particular application are: Stress
Strain
Youngs Modulus
Toughness
Electrical Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Density
Hardness (wear resistance)
There are others but these will serve to illustrate the principle. It is not
necessary here to consider all these properties but some comments on those
affecting load bearing should be of some benefit.
2.1. Yield Stress
When a component is loaded, the material initially behaves elastically. This
means that when the load is removed, the component returns to its original
size and shape. This will continue while the component is in use, unless the
yield load is exceeded.
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Chapter 3
Yield Stress is therefore the stress at which the material will no longer
behave wholly elastically.
If the loading is continued beyond the yield point, the material will deform
and some of that deformation will be permanent. Therefore, if a structure or
part of it is dented or bent, this indicates that it has been loaded above the
yield stress.
2.2. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
If loading is continued well into the yield region, it reaches a maximum value
known as the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
Ductile Fracture
Attempts to load beyond this value will result in the material failing by ductile
fracture. Ductile fracture can be identified by a large amount of local
deformation in the region of the fracture.
Loading a material beyond its UTS can occur within the material at
microscopic sites such that there is no noticeable deformation. This
type of failure can be caused by:
Brittle Fracture
This occurs due to the metal becoming harder locally than the surrounding
matrix. This local hardening may be as a result of:
Differences In The Material Microstructure
This can occur during either the smelting process or during the
welding process. In either case the root cause is incorrect
management of the cooling process leading to local quenching. This
leaves some of the grain structure in a brittle state.
Hydrogen Embrittlement
On an offshore structure hydrogen embrittlement may be caused
because of overprotection from an impressed current cathodic
protection system. Hydrogen embrittlement may also be caused due
to incorrect welding techniques.
In either case the fracture surfaces do not display any deformation.
Fatigue Fracture
Cyclic loading causes this. In a corrosive environment such as seawater a
structure will have a design finite fatigue life. The vibrations caused by wave
and wind actions as well as drilling operations on platforms apply the cyclic
loads. Local components may fail prematurely, however due to macroscopic
variations. The mechanism for failure is the cyclic loadings cause metal to
become harder locally than the surrounding metal (a form of workhardening). This local brittleness prevents the metal from flexing normally
and can lead to failure. The signs of fatigue failure are the same as brittle
fracture in that there is no local deformation.
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This lack of noticeable local deformation has been one of the driving forces
behind the development of the science of non-destructive testing which is
considered in depth in later chapters. See Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6
Typical Tensile Test Characteristics For
Ductile And Brittle Failure
2.3. Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is caused within a material because geometric
irregularities magnify applied stresses locally. These irregularities can be large
or small including; holes, notches, sharp corners, inclusions and cracks. What is
vitally important about a stress concentration is its shape not its size. Professor
Inglis first developed the theory of stress concentration at the beginning of the
20th century when studying the cause of the formation of cracks from the
corners of hatch covers in the decks of merchant ships.
The effects of stress concentration can be illustrated by considering an elliptical
hole in a large flat plate made of an elastic material such as mild steel as shown
in Figure 3.7
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.7
Stress Concentration
The applied stress is enhanced locally by a factor of:
Where 2l is the length of the major axis of the hole and r is the radius at the
sharper end, the minor axis.
This factor is called the stress concentration factor Kt. For a circular hole
l = r and the stress concentration factor becomes 3.
As r gets smaller compared to l the elliptical hole becomes crack-like and the
stress concentration factor increases. Figure 3.8 refers.
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Figure 3.8
Stress Concentration With Hole Shape
2.3.1. Stress Intensity Factor
Currently the science of fracture mechanics has evolved to the extent
where predictions on component failure can be made dependant upon
the shape of the crack and the stress intensity factor Ki and it can be
shown by theoretical analysis that:
Ki = a
Further analysis proves that: Ki = Y a
Ki = Stress intensity factor
Y = Factor based on the shape of the structure
= Nominal stress
= Crack Length
The Factor Y is dimensionless and depends only on the shape of the
structure.
There are several handbooks available to the engineer and particular
values of Y may be found by consulting them. To illustrate this point the
value of Y for a semi-elliptical flaw is shown in Figure 3.9.
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.9
Y For A Semi-elliptical Surface Flaw
This theory can be developed further to show that failure will occur when
the stress intensity factor (Ki) reaches a critical value, the plane strain
fracture toughness (Kic). When conditions are such that the material does
fail it is possible to write: Ki = Y a = Kic
Kic is a material property, which is constant for a given material, and its
value can often be found by reference to appropriate handbooks.
Example
The strength of plain carbon steel is 460 MN m-2 assume this is
controlled by surface cracks and estimate their depth.
A typical value for Kic for plain carbon steel is 170 MNm-3/2 and Y for
an edge crack in an infinite plate is 1.12.
Hence
Y a = Kic
Then
a = Kic/Y
Thus
a = 170/1.12 x 460
And
a = 0.0347 m = 34.7 mm which is crack depth
This is obviously an extreme example and it is used merely to illustrate

the method and to underline the fact that plane carbon steel is a very
tough material.
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3. Crack Stopping Or Blunting
From the discussion above it should be obvious why one of the standard
emergency remedial procedures, when a crack has been discovered, is to drill a
hole at the tip of the crack. This is often referred to as crack blunting or
stopping. Whatever the stress intensity factor is prior to the hole being drilled,
after the hole is drilled it reduces to 3. This same principle is applied to the toes
of welds which are ground out if undercutting is severe and it applies when an
inspection procedure calls for crack-like defects to be ground out, thus reducing
the a/b ratio and reducing Ki
4. Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are set up within the structure during manufacture. They may
have arisen from thermal stresses caused by welding during manufacture or by
mechanical stresses set up by force-fitting members of a structure together. It is
possible to remove these by a stress relieving treatment. If, for whatever
reason, this is either not done, or is incorrectly applied, residual stresses will
remain in a material, The working stresses then set up during the operational
life of the structure will add to the value of the residual stress. This means that
the structure is subjected to a higher stress in service than the design predicted,
as the designer would have calculated only the working stress.
5. Forces On A Structure
The stresses on the structure will be affected by the forces that the structure
experiences. These are of two types; steady and vibrational. Several different
effects produce these forces; for example the weight of the equipment, the
reaction of the drilling force, the hydrodynamic forces due to wind and wave
action.
5.1. The Steady Force On A Structure In A Fluid Flow
The steady force exerted by a fluid as it passes a stationary structure is
known as the drag force. Therefore if a structure is placed in a current of
water (the tide) or air (the wind) it will experience a force in the direction of
the flow trying to move it in that direction. This can be illustrated in a simple
way by placing a walking stick in a swiftly flowing stream. A holding force
must be exerted to keep the stick in position. This holding force is equal and
opposite to the drag force on the walking stick caused by the stream. Figure
3.10 Refers
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.10
Force On A Cylinder In A Steady Flow
The size of this drag force depends on several factors that are related by a
simple formula: Drag Force (Fd) = Cd AV2
Where
V is the velocity of the fluid flow
(Note that the force on the cylinder in the flow varies with the square of the velocity. For
example, double the flow speed and the drag force is increased four times, treble the
flow speed and the drag force is increased by nine times)
A is the projected area at right angles to the direction of the fluid flow
(Which for a cylinder of diameter D immersed to a depth h is given by
A = Dh)
is the density of the fluid

(As water id denser than air, the drag force on a cylinder in water would be greater than
that of air flowing at the same velocity.)
Cd is the drag coefficient

(This is a number that takes into account the shape of the structure and the roughness
of its surface.)
5.1.1. Drag Coefficient

For illustration consider a disc of diameter D in a fluid flow of velocity V. If
a hemisphere of the same diameter as the disc is fixed on the front of the
disc, we find that the drag force is reduced. As nothing else has
changed, it means that the drag coefficient of this shape is less than that
of a disc. If a cone is now added behind the disc, we find that the drag
force is further reduced. Again, as nothing else has changed it means
that the drag coefficient has reduced. See Figure 3.11.
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Figure 3.11
Change Of Drag Coefficient With Shape
5.2. Vibrational Forces On A Structure In A Fluid Flow
Consider the example of a cylinder in a fluid flow as outlined in paragraph
5.1 but this time look at the flow pattern behind the cylinder. Figure 3.12
illustrates this. Notice that the flow behind the cylinder is not symmetrical but
that vortices are shed alternatively form each side.
Figure 3.12
Von Karmen Vortices Shed From A
Cylinder In A Fluid Flow
The effect of this is to place on the cylinder an alternating force at right
angles to the fluid flow and drag force direction. Figure 3.13 refers.
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.13
Variations In Side Forces On A
Cylinder In A Fluid Flow
These cyclic forces generated by the wind and water flowing past the
structure causes the vibrations that are so important when considering the
fatigue life of a structure.
5.3. Wave Loadings
Waves provide an oscillatory motion to the structure, producing forces that
act in addition to the forces produced by tidal currents.
These forces deform of try to overturn the structure
The waves have a predominant direction for their maximum effect,
but can come from any direction, since they are wind generated
Waves produced in a storm are generally short and very confused
o However, when produced by winds blowing over a long
distance, or fetch, the waves tend to moderate into long, high
swell waves with a long period
A period of 14 seconds produces a wavelength of about 300 m
The height of the waves is independent of the period, but depends
upon the stability of the waves and the energy content
For the purposes of classification by the Duty Holder and for insurance,
there are standards for any design; these are based on statistical data. As
much information as possible is collected over as long a period as possible
on: Wave heights
Wave directions
Wave periods
The analysis of these data produces two main results: -
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The maximum wave to be expected in a given time span, generally a
100 year period. (This is only a statistical quality adopted for design,
so more than one of these waves, or even larger waves, might
actually occur
An energy spectrum of the waves (i.e. the graph of the energy in the
waves at different periodic times)
5.3.1. Structural Design For Wave Loadings
Structures are therefore designed for two conditions:
Static loading, using the maximum 100 year storm wave
Dynamic loading, using the energy spectrum
Owing to the directional properties of the waves, the structure will be
designed and placed so that the largest waves from the predominant
direction are taken on its strongest orientation, but all other directions
should be considered.
Inaccuracy in placing the structure can create loads greater than the
design loads in that direction.
5.3.1.1. Static Loads
The static analysis based on the 100year storm wave is
straightforward, but requires a great deal of work, since both the
direction and position of the wave crest, relative to the structure, will
produce different effects on different parts of the structure.
A wave, being an oscillatory motion, contains water particles with
both velocity and acceleration.
The velocity will produce drag forces, as mentioned above
The acceleration will produce inertia forces, in the same way
as any car which is slowed down requires a breaking force
Considering the wave force on a circular member (diameter D)
submerged to a depth (L) of an offshore jacket:
Total wave force = drag force + inertia
= Cd D L V2 + (mass x acceleration)
Cd is the drag coefficient
is the density of water
V is the velocity of the water
The mass considered is the mass of water, which moves around the
structure, which equals:
Coefficient x x D2/4 x L
The coefficient is found by experiment to have a value
between 1.5 and 2.0 and is called the inertia coefficient
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Chapter 3
(Cm) but this will depend upon the roughness of the surface
and the period and height of the wave.
The wave force then is equal to:
( Cd D V2 + Cm D2/4 a) L
Where a is the acceleration of the water
Note the importance of the diameter D in these expressions, and
hence the necessity of keeping the thickness of marine growth
to a minimum
The above expression applies only to members that have a small
diameter relative to the wavelength, but this does encompass most
steel structures
The forces on large concrete gravity structures are found by
considering the pressure variations around them
5.3.1.2. Dynamic Loading
The dynamic response of a structure can be demonstrated easily by
swinging a weight on the end of a string, as a pendulum.
If the movement of the hand holding the string varies in
frequency so will the deflection of the weight at the other end
of the string
If the amplitude of the hand movement is fixed and the swing
or displacement of the weight is noted, it will be observed that
as the frequency of oscillation of the hand increases, so the
amplitude of the swinging weight will change
o First, the amplitude will increase up to a maximum
value; the frequency of the hand movement at this
condition will be the natural frequency of the system
o Thereafter the amplitude will decrease
Another observation is that as the weight displacement
increases, the direction of the swing well be the same as that
of the hand movement. The motion of the hand and the weight
are in phase
Once the maximum amplitude of the weight has been
exceeded, it will be noticed that the weight is moving in the
opposite direction to the hand movement and the motion is
then said to be out of phase
o As the frequency of the hand motion is further
increased, the amplitude of the weight reduces to
almost nothing
The peak displacement of the weight occurs at a point called
the natural frequency
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This frequency will decrease with increasing length of string
and increasing weight
Thus using the hand movement of the example, at certain
frequencies of forcing the displacements produced can be very large
5.4. Structural Response To Wave Loading
When a structure is placed in the sea it will experience a range of wave
energies and frequencies causing the structure to deflect
As the frequency of the wave energy peak approaches the natural frequency
of the structure, so the deflection of the structure increases and with it the
stress
The further the peaks of wave energy, frequency spectrum and natural
frequency are separated, the lower the maximum deflection of the structure
The same analysis applies to diving and other floating vessels in heave, roll
and pitch. Thus vessels designed for use in one part of the world may be
unsuitable for use in another, where the frequency spectrum differs
The natural frequency decreases as the height of the structure increases.
Thus new designs of structures are being developed for open water
applications such as the compliant tower and the TLP, which have natural
frequencies below the wave energy peak.
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Chapter 3
Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Failure of Stressed Materials
The Open University
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Chapter 4
CHAPTER 4
Deterioration Of Offshore Steel Structures
1. General Comments
As soon as any piece of engineering equipment, such as an engine, pipeline,
bridge or offshore structure is brought into service it starts to wear out because
of use and if it is not maintained it will eventually cease to operate satisfactorily,
either by no longer carrying out the function for which it was designed or by
failing in a catastrophic manner. The possible causes of deterioration of an
offshore structure including accidental damage, corrosion, fatigue, wear and
embrittlement are discussed in this chapter.
2. Categories of Deterioration and Damage
Broadly speaking the modes of deterioration may be classified into 6 groups: Gross structural damage
Corrosion and erosion
Fouling defects
Coating defects
Scour
Metal and weld defects
Specific types of deterioration and damage within these groups may be
categorised as: Deformation of the structure caused by impact
Loss of concrete matrix through impact or internal flaws
Missing bolts
Coating damage through abrasion or impact or deterioration
Damaged cables or ducts caused by impact or deterioration
Unstable foundations through poor geology
Missing members caused by accidental damage or failure
Debris, which may cause impact damage or create fouling or overload
the CP system
3. Accidental Damage
Engineers will try to anticipate all the different modes of failure when they first
design a structure but deterioration due to accidental damage is difficult to
design against (this does not prevent the guidance notes for offshore structural
design from recommending that engineers in fact do just that). In the United
Kingdom safety cases have to be submitted to the HSE for evaluation and
assessment in an attempt to prevent accidental damage from being a threat to
safety. Because of the difficulties associated with preventative design one of the
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Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
prime methods for dealing with accidental damage is the implementation and
effective execution of reporting procedures for informing the appropriate
responsible persons as soon as any accidental damage is caused.
This type of damage is also likely to occur on any structure because of the
reliance placed on being serviced by boats and helicopters. This presents a real
possibility for damage caused by accidents such as collisions and the dragging
of either anchors or trawls across seabed installations. Ideally, as indicated
above should this type of accident happen it should be reported and surveyed
as soon as it happens, but in the past, at least, such accidental damage was
mainly discovered during routine inspections, the event not having been
reported.
There have been numerous examples of this type of damage and just by way of
illustration the Northwest Hutton suffered an accident during installation that
resulted in a main leg suffering loss of member straightness. An accident
involving a stand-by vessel and Brae Bravo resulted in a horizontal member just
above the splash zone suffering a similar fate.
4. Corrosion
Because steel is placed in a hostile environment, namely salt water, one of the
ever-present deterioration mechanisms on the structure will be corrosion
Corrosion takes place in two different ways
First of all, uniform corrosion is the process whereby metal is removed
uniformly from all over the surface, so that progressive thinning of the
member or pipe wall goes on until the thickness is reduced so as to
necessitate the renewal of the component
Secondly, pitting corrosion is a very localised corrosion, which takes
place in an otherwise corrosion free material, creating a pit in the surface
of that material
o These pits deepen with time and if another failure mechanism
does not take over, the pit will penetrate the full thickness of the
material, causing leakage in the case of a pipeline or service duct,
and so necessitate local repair
Corrosion attacks of both kinds are accelerated by erosion, increase in
temperature, increase in oxygen content, added chemical attack from biological
sources and loading on the member from either external loading or residual
stresses caused in manufacture. This last is known as stress corrosion. As this
is such an important deterioration mechanism in the offshore environment
corrosion is more fully explained in Chapter 7.
5. Fatigue
Fatigue is the local failure of the material by crack growth caused by cyclic
loading. The cracks can grow from flaws in the material, such as a welding
defect or notches caused by accidental damage. Alternatively, they can initiate
in regions of highly stressed material, which are brought about by residual
stresses or stress concentration. Fatigue cracks can also start from pits created
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Chapter 4
by corrosion. This condition is known as corrosion fatigue and is covered in
Chapter 7.
Fatigue causes more in-service failures of machines, vehicles, bridges and
similar structures than any other mode of failure
The main reason for fatigue failure being so prevalent, and therefore so
important, is that it can occur when the applied stress is significantly lower than
the yield stress of the material. Indeed even if the stress intensity is kept below
the fracture toughness limit Kic crack growth can occur
Fatigue is a cumulative form of failure, in that a crack is initiated at some point
of stress concentration and then propagates through the material by acting
virtually as its own stress raiser
The final fatigue crack is the result of the accumulation of the small-scale events
associated with each of a great many load cycles. The fatigue crack thus
eventually reduces the cross-sectional area to such an extent that final failure
occurs by rapid fracture, often with gross deformation the remaining un-cracked
area
Fatigue cracking does not affect the material properties therefore fracture
toughness remains unchanged. Different materials do however have varying
resistance to fatigue although the experience of service failures and laboratory
testing has demonstrated that fatigue is difficult to predict. This is because the
process is sensitive to a large number of variables including: Number of load cycles
Stress or strain amplitude
Mean stress level
Temperature
Environment
Microstructure of the material
Surface condition
For design purposes the metallurgist and the design engineer centre their
interest on the results of laboratory tests that assess the number of loading
cycles N of a given type that the sample survives before fracture occurs.
Measurements of N are made as a function of the stress amplitude a. When N
is plotted on a logarithmic scale against a the S-N curve for the material is
obtained and this is used for design purposes.
6. Wear
Wear is normally thought of as the loss of material from surfaces that have been
rubbed against one another and it is often measured in terms of the mass lost in
a given time under specified conditions. More precisely, wear involves a
redistribution of material that adversely alters the surface. In the offshore
environment wear is the thinning of material due to uniform corrosion or erosion
of a combination of the two. In the wider sense wear can be caused by a
number of different mechanisms.
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Adhesive
When two surfaces rub together it causes friction and to explain this it is
postulated that some welding of the two contact surfaces occurs within the
contact area
The mechanism of adhesive wear follows directly from this. When the two
surfaces slide over each other material breaks away and does so at the
weakest sections. This is found to be the hills which make contact as indicated
in the sketch in Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
Adhesive Wear
The junction at which the surfaces are in contact have been strengthened by
work hardening and therefore the fractures take place within the materials, at
some distance away from the interfaces between the points of contact. Each
surface tears out some material from the other and both surfaces become
roughened as they gouge and score one another. Wear is rapid and for this
reason, sliding combinations of similar metals are usually avoided in good
engineering practise.
Abrasive Wear
In the mechanism for abrasive wear a hard particle in one surface indents,
groves and then cuts material from the other surface. In service, the main cause
of abrasion between sliding metals is the presence on one of the two surfaces
of particles of hard materials, such as carbide in steels, work hardened wear
fragments or hard oxide films. The particles may also be airborne dirt such as
grit
Wear Caused By Fatigue
When there is relative motion between two surfaces in contact the state of
stress at any given point on or near the surfaces varies with time and this may
cause fatigue the slow growth of cracks. The development of such cracks may
eventually detach pieces of material from the surfaces, thereby constituting
wear
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Chapter 4
Chemical And Corrosive Wear

Chemical effects are most commonly exemplified by the repeating cycle of the
formation, removal and reformation of oxides
7. Embrittlement
In this case the material changes its properties from being ductile to brittle. This
can be a localised effect. Brittle materials fail due to crack propagation so that
they are susceptible to fatigue as well as to brittle fracture. Embrittlement in
service could come about due to incorrect welding procedures or by the
absorption of a gas, generally hydrogen. Embrittlement has been encountered
in natural gas pipelines and could come about from the absorption of hydrogen
produced in an overprotected impressed current corrosion protection system.
The temperature of the environment affects the brittle behaviour of steel, brittle
fracture being more likely to occur at low temperatures
This effect is also known simply as Brittle Failure
8. Structural Deterioration
The foregoing paragraphs outline the modes of failure associated with any steel
structure and these failure systems will now be put into the context of offshore
steel structures. Concrete structures are considered in Chapter 5. A convenient
way of illustrating these types of failures is to divide the life of a structure into
four stages. At every stage defects leading to deterioration and then failure can
occur.
8.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials
During the manufacturing of the raw materials several defects can be
included into what will become either the parent plate or the concrete matrix
surrounding the reinforcement. A selection of possible manufacturing
defects are laid out below by way of illustration
8.1.1. Steel
Casting defects that can occur
Fishtails
These may occur in steel produced by traditional mills. During the filling
of the moulds while molten steel is being poured into the moulds it is
possible for some of the liquid steel to splash up the sides of the mould.
This will then cool on coming in contact with the cold sides of the mould
and will solidify. The remainder of the steel continues to be poured in and
then covers the solidified splashes. When the ingot is removed from the
mould, the splashes which form shapes similar to fish tails, adhere to the
surface. If these fish tails are not removed before rolling they may be
rolled into the surface without bonding, thus causing a reduction of
material thickness. Figure 4.2 refers
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Figure 4.2
Fishtails
Inclusions
These will always be present in commercial steels. They are there
because of the way iron ore is found and steel is made. The basic
ingredient, iron, which usually contains entrapped non-metallic inclusions
and typically something over 4 wt% carbon, 1 wt% of both manganese
and silicon and there are smaller amounts of both sulphur and
phosphorus both of which are highly undesirable. Figure 4.3 refers
Because this is the case, in any standard specification the chemical
analysis of any unalloyed carbon steel will always involve the
determination to the big five, carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus, though none of them are likely to be present in any amount
exceeding 1.5 wt%. The inclusions present in the steel will become
aligned as the steel is subsequently worked and therefore give rise to a
so-called fibre structure.
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Chapter 4
Figure 4.3
Inclusions
In fact silicon and manganese are beneficial as deoxidizers and as solidsolution strengtheners. However, sulphur and phosphorus have an
embrittling effect and are usually kept below 0.05 wt% unless deliberately
increased to impart specific properties such as machinability
Banding And Segregation
Steel as it cools from the molten state forms solid grains that will have
different chemical compositions and orientations within the forming solid
material. This is caused by the way the cooling occurs and in individual
grains it gives rise to coring where different sections of dissimilar
chemical compositions can be viewed through a microscope within each
discrete grain. This effect will also manifest itself within the entire
solidifying mass where it can be viewed as bands, which give, rise to its
name of banding the results of which are macro-segregation within the
material caused by the chemical in-homogeneity.
Banding can become troublesome in alloyed steels where there is more
solute to become segregated and where any alloying elements are
required to cause a specific response to heat-treatment. Even in
unalloyed carbon steels macro-structural segregation of phosphorus,
silicon, manganese and carbon may give rise to directional properties.
See Figure 4.4
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Figure 4.4
Left Micrograph Shows Banding
And Right Shows Segregation
Laminations
Occasionally the structural effects of segregation can become
pronounced to the point that the material behaves as if it were made up
of different layers. This is referred to as lamination and, particularly in
thick sections of approximately 40 mm or greater, can cause serious
problems in welded structures where the laminations provide paths of
easy crack propagation. This possibility of laminated steels developing
internal ruptures is of serious concern to any structural engineer
8.2. Stage Two - Fabrication
While the structure is being built there are a multitude of problems
associated with all the aspects of fabrication. Ensuring that the correct
materials are being used, verifying the correct fit-up and tolerances are
applied and many other specific construction details are important daily
tasks for all construction staff throughout the fabrication period of any
structure.
8.2.1. Steel Structures Fabrication Defects
With steel structures the major fabrication processes involve welding and
therefore some of the problems associated with this process will be
outlined.
There are numerous variables associate with welding and each of these
can be subjected to either human or system errors some of which are
listed herewith.
o Incorrect machining of the angle of bevel
o Improper pre-heat treatment
o Poor fit-up
o Using improper weld consumables
o Incorrect storage of weld consumables
o Incorrect post-heat treatment
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Chapter 4
These possible faults have to be guarded against during the fabrication
stage of any offshore structure
During the actual welding process again there are a number of possible
weld defects that must be avoided. These are fully explained in Chapter
8. For illustration a short catalogue follows: Lack of root penetration
This is a weld defect associated with both submerged arc and manual
metal arc welding. Setting too low a voltage with the submerged arc
process causes the defect and incorrectly positioning the weld rod is the
cause with manual metal arc. In either case the result is a crack-like
defect in a very sensitive part of the weld
Slag inclusion
Another example of a weld defect is slag inclusion. It is possible for this
defect to occur when manual metal arc welding is the weld method
utilising a multi-pass technique. The cause of the defect is slag from the
previous run is imperfectly cleaned off. This leaves isolated pieces of
slag that remain and are over-welded by the next run. These inclusions
form the sites for potentially dangerous notches
Porosity
This is a weld defect that must always be guarded against. There may be
many causes for this fault such as:
o Air contamination of the weld pool
o Dirt or damp finding their way into the weld
o These contaminants breakdown in the weld and produce either:
o Nitrogen
o Hydrogen or
o Carbon Monoxide
These gases dissolve in the weld pool and then, as it cools they come
out of solution forming gas bubbles, which is porosity in the weld
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking
This final example of a fabrication defect is a type of cracking normally
formed in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) some time after the weld is
completed. The cracking may occur almost immediately, some hours
later or even days after the weld is finished. The cause is hydrogen
initially dissolved in the weld pool permeates through the weld into the
HAZ in sufficient quantities to embrittle the martinsitic structure and
cause cracking. It is possible for cracks not to occur on cooling but for
the hydrogen to make the HAZ more susceptible to crack propagation
under in-service loads
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8.3. Avoiding Problems by Design

Designers are aware of the problems associated with fabrication and the
processes that accompany it and over time have evolved new designs to
minimise these problems. It is well known for example that stress is
concentrated at any site where there is a sharp change of geometry such as
in weld toes and traditional tubular joints. See Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5
Stress Concentration Areas
As illustrated in Figure 4.5 the stress concentration may be lowered by
profiling the weld cap to make the geometry more contoured and less
angular.
By alterations to the design concept the stress concentration areas may be
removed from the nodal areas by utilising cast joints thus removing the
welding to less highly stressed regions. Figure 4.6 refers.
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Chapter 4
Figure 4.6
Cast Node
8.4. Stage Three Installation
Steel structures are commonly constructed on their side and then floated
into position where they are rotated to the upright position by flooding ballast
compartments in the jacket legs. This rotation imposes a bending moment
on the structure that may impose stresses on the structure that are
transiently greater than the working stresses the structure will subsequently
withstand. Of course the flooding operation is conducted as carefully as
possible and some modern steel structures have been positioned with the
ballast tanks pre-flooded to minimise the stresses involved. The method is
illustrated in Figure 4.7, which shows the sequence of events with a selffloating structure.
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Figure 4.7
Self-floating Structure
8.5. Possible Damage Caused During Installation
At any time during the launch and installation stages of the structure
damage may be caused through, accidents, piling operations, grouting
defects, stress induced failure, seabed anomalies. There is always a
possibility of the structure being out of its final position or being out of final
orientation.
8.6. Stage Four In-Service
This is the stage in the life of a structure where underwater inspection first
becomes pre-eminent. The major categories of defects that cause concern
are outlined below.
8.6.1. Steel In-Service Defect Categories
Fouling
This term covers both marine growth building up on the structure and
debris collecting on and around it. Fouling may cause structural damage,
galvanic corrosion, see Chapter 8, overloading of the CP system and
may cause safety hazards to divers and ROVs.
Coating Damage
All types of coatings, paint, bituminous, epoxy, metallic may suffer from
defects caused either when they were applied or subsequently because
of deterioration or accidental damage. See Chapter 10
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Chapter 4
Cracks
These may be caused by latent flaws initiated during any of the earlier
stages in the life of the platform. They are certainly associated with
welded joints especially on nodal areas and cracking may be the end
result of a defect initiated at the fabrication stage. As stated earlier in this
chapter, fatigue is the major cause of component failure in-service.
An example of this type of damage is conductor guides that failed due to
fatigue cracking on one North Sea structure. The failure is illustrated in
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8
Failure Of A Conductor Guide
This type of failure may be avoided if the crack is identified at an early
stage, before it propagates. It can be considered to be a notch at this
stage and profile grinding will remove this effect. This will reduce the
weld throat thickness and the wall thickness, however provided this is
kept within design parameters and a smooth profile is achieved the
possibility of failure is more remote. Profile grinding is more fully
discussed in Chapter 20.
Corrosion
This is a most important form of structural deterioration and it is
examined in detail in Chapter 5. A great deal of underwater inspection
effort goes into monitoring corrosion
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Physical Damage
This form of deterioration is generally caused by either collision or impact
damage caused by components being dropped. As mentioned earlier all
accidental damage, indeed any incident, should be reported immediately
so that it can be assessed. Figure 4.9 illustrates damage caused to a
horizontal diagonal member by a 24 m length of caisson pipe that had
fallen off from three levels above and pierced through the member. No
one was aware that anything had happened.
Figure 4.9
Sketch Indicating Damage Caused
By A Caisson Section That Failed In Service
Scour
The foundations of a structure are an obvious area susceptible to
movements of material on the seabed. Any movement is likely to weaken
the foundations which, of course, jeopardises the whole structure
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Chapter 4
8.7. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Both Steel And Concrete
The in service defects enumerated for steel can also affect concrete.
Concrete structures may suffer from cracks, the reinforcement may corrode,
physical damage is certainly possible and scour is also quite possible.
Cracks in the concrete surface are less serious than cracks in steel
because, as indicated in the concrete section, offshore structures fall into the
prestressed category and are therefore kept in compression.
There are other considerations that do affect both steel and concrete
structures and that may cause defects in service such as detailed following.
8.7.1. Inter-tidal And Splash Zones
The inter-tidal and splash zones on any structure are regions of particular
susceptibility to deterioration.
Corrosion is more aggressive in this area and must be more carefully
monitored
Marine Growth build-up is greater in the top 30 m of the sea and is
particularly dense in the inter-tidal region. This increases mass and drag
in a part of the structure, which can be more vulnerable to these effects.
Marine growth may also affect corrosion rates
The risk of physical damage is greater in this region due to the risk from
floating objects and, in those parts of the world that are susceptible,
icebergs may collide with the structures. Certainly this is possible
offshore Canada for example
8.7.2. Risers
These components are common to both types of structures, although on
concrete platforms they may be installed inside the shaft it is not
uncommon to have them mounted externally as well. These items are
considered as part of the associated pipeline and therefore are inspected
annually because they can suffer the same deterioration as the pipelines.
The clamps, guides and flanges are subjected to the same regime.
8.7.3. Conductors And Conductor Guide Frames
As with risers these components are common to all platforms and they
are exposed to the same risk of failure as risers, perhaps more so as
there are greater vibrations possible with these components than the rest
of the platform. Furthermore conductors are normally kept in place by
guides rather than clamps which allows relative movement between the
conductor and its guides, hence wear must be monitored and is a real
possibility for fatigue cracking to occur.
8.7.4. Caissons
Caissons are another group of components that are carefully monitored
on an annual basis. There is a common problem with this component
when it is used as a pump caisson. The pump is commonly suspended
from the surface inside the caisson. It is common for the pump to be at
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about 18 m water depth level inside the caisson. Conditions therefore at
this point on the inside of the caisson are near perfect for corrosion to
progress at excessive rates. This has caused component failure on more
than one occasion.
8.7.5. Overloading
Changes in the working practices and other commercial factors may lead
to extra items of equipment being installed, such as a newer, bigger
crane. This may lead to overloading if not carefully monitored.
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Chapter 4
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 5
CHAPTER 5
Deterioration Of Offshore Concrete Structures
1. General Comments
This chapter looks at concrete as a building material suitable for offshore
structures. Following the format of Chapter 4 the various modes of deterioration
will be considered. Effects such as accidental damage, and fabrication defects
may occur with concrete in similar fashion to steel and generally the comments
made in Chapter 4 regarding these items apply. Otherwise this chapter will
concentrate on aspects of deterioration specific to concrete
2. Structural Deterioration
The format of illustrating types of failures by dividing the life of a structure into
four stages laid out in Chapter 4 will be continued in this chapter.
2.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials
The fabrication of concrete structures has the potential for producing several
defects included into what will become the concrete matrix surrounding the
reinforcement. A selection of possible manufacturing defects are laid out
below by way of illustration
2.1.1. Concrete
This is a composite material consisting of cement, fine aggregates and
coarse aggregates. The cement is the binding agent and contains the
reactive agents; therefore this will be examined first.
2.1.1.1. Portland Cement
This is the most popular and therefore most important of the cement binders
and the comments made here will be confined to this material. This type of
cement is made up of a mixture of about 75% limestone (CaCO3) and 25% clay,
which is principally aluminosilicate; it does have a significant iron and alkalioxide content. These raw materials are ground together and fed through a kiln
where various chemical reactions occur. The resultant constituents are laid out
in table 5.1
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Deterioration of Offshore Concrete Structures
Constituents Of Portland Cement

Compound
Name
Compound
Chemical Formula
Equivalent
Oxide Formula
Shorthand
Nomenclature
Mineral
Name
Density
-3
(kg m )
Typical
wt%
Tricalcium
silicate
CaO.Ca2SiO4
3CaO.SiO2
C3S
Alite
3150
55
Dicalcium
silicate
Ca2SiO4
2CaO.SiO2
C2S
Belite
3280
20
Tricalcium
aluminate
2CaO.Ca(AlO2)
3CaO.Al2O3
C3A
Aluminate
3030
12
Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O
C4AF
Ferrite
3770
Hydrated
calcium
sulphate
CaSo4.2H2O
CSH2
Gypsum
2320
3.5
Alkali oxides
and other
constituents
K2O.Na2OcaO
CaO.SO3.2H2O
1.5
Table 5.1
Constituents Of Portland Cement
2.1.1.2. Mixing
When water is added to the cement hydration begins and two things
happen; the mix is transformed into a paste and heat is evolved in an
exothermic reaction
2.1.1.2.1. Setting
This is the first stage in the process of forming concrete into a
structural building material once the water is added to form the
paste it is called setting. The setting period is the length of time
the mix remains workable
The setting period will last for a few hours during which time heat
is evolved at a very high rate, reaching a maximum of
approximately 200Wkg-1 at about 30 seconds, and then falling to a
low value. During this period the compressive strength is barely
measurable
The pH value of the mixture also rises very rapidly during the first
minute after water is added, starting at about 7 going up to a
maximum of about 12.9 after about 3 hours and then settling to a
constant 12.6
Its pH number specifies the acidity or alkalinity of any aqueous solution.
This is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions present in the
solution. This is commonly written in shorthand form by using square
brackets [H+]. The pH number is defined by: pH = log10 1/[H+]
or
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Chapter 5
pH = -log10 1/[H+]
In these solutions at 298K (0oC) there is a fixed relationship between
[H+] and [OH-] which is: [H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 (mol l-1)2
or
log10 [H+] + log10 [OH-] = -14
Therefore in terms of pH
[H+] = 10-pH mol l-1
and
[OH-] = 10-(14-pH) mol l-1
Hence pH 1 is extremely acidic and pH 14 is extremely alkaline. Pure
water, which is neutral, has a pH value of 7.
There is a fuller explanation of the pH system in Chapter 6
2.1.1.2.2. Hardening
The next stage is hardening which begins when setting ends.
In the hardening period heat is again evolved reaching a peak of
about 1% of the initial exothermic maximum after about 10 hours.
The compressive strength increases during this period, the
process continuing over a number of years until it reaches its
maximum of some 50 MN m-2 after about 27 years.
During the hardening process silicon ions form together to form
polymers. This reaction is exothermic which goes some way to
explaining the heat output during hardening.
The sequence of events during the hydration process is thought to
be: On adding water to the cement there is an initial period of
about one minute of very rapid hydration, with C3S and C3A
being the main reactants. This is accompanied by a high
rate of heat evolution, silicate polymerisation and a rapid
increase in [OH-] which causes a similar rise in the pH
number
The reaction rate then slows dramatically as the surface
cement grains become coated with silicate and aluminate
gels. Concurrently the gypsum dissolves so that [Ca2+] and
[SO24-] both increase rapidly to a peak after about 2
minutes
This peak and subsequent fall is due to the formation of
ettringite which is a fine, needle-like crystal phase
The cement paste cohesion during the setting period is due
to gel-to-gel contact between adjoining grains. This is
increasingly aided by the formation of ettringite crystals
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The gel coating is permeable to Ca2+ and OH- both of which
diffuse out during the setting period thus increasing the pH
number. At the same time water diffuses in continuing the
hydration of the cement grains. The silicates and
aluminates do not diffuse through the gel coat but either
add to it or build up in solution inside it, thus they are not
present in the liquid outside
The water inside the gel coating eventually builds to such a
pressure that the coating ruptures, then peels away from
the grain forming gel foils and fibrils and also some tubules.
The grain locally is then exposed to contact with the outside
liquid and further hydration continues
As each grain sprouts multitudes of these fibres they grow
and multiply and start to interlock and the paste starts to
harden. Concurrently with this Ca(OH)2 precipitates out of
the supersaturated solution and forms portlandite which is a
plate-like hexagonal crystal
The continued hardening of the cement comes from the
multiplication, growth and interlocking of gel fibres and
crystal species such as portlandite. Over a longer time
scale C2S participates in the hydration process forming the
same products as C3S but developing more slowly and
long-term polymerisation of the silicate in the gel all
contributes to the hardening process, as does the gel
drying out below its saturation point
Summarising the parts played by the individual constituents then: Alite
Major ingredient, initial gel formation contributes to setting,
hydration products, fibres and crystals, make a major contribution
to strength, particularly in the early stages of hardening
Belite
Same hydration products as Alite but reacted more slowly,
contributes to increase in strength at later stages of hardening
Aluminate
Contributes to setting through gel and ettringite formation, but
contributes little to hardening
Ferrite
This along with Aluminate acts as a flux in the cement kiln during
the initial manufacture of cement powder. Its hydration products
play little part in either setting or hardening. It gives colour to
cement
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Chapter 5
Gypsum
Controls the hydration rate of the Aluminate and is a constituent of
ettringite which contributes to setting.
2.1.1.3. The Importance Of Water
Water is an important constituent of concrete firstly because of the
hydration process but also because it materially affects the final
strength of the concrete. Pores form in the interstices between fibres
and between fibres and crystals and these invariably contain water.
This gel water constitutes some 15% by weight of the hydrated
cement. Combined chemically with the hydrated compounds in the
cement is a further 25% by weight, which means that some 40% by
weight of water is required for complete hydration. The pores are
basically responsible for the tensile strength of concrete being only
about 10% of its compressive strength. Excessive amount of water in
the initial mix have other effects on the final material.
Both compressive strength and stiffness decrease with increasing
water-cement ratio
The stiffness increases with increasing hardening time
The stress-strain curves are non-linear. The Youngs Modulus has no
unique value, which is the same as with polymers. This means that
either a secant or a tangent modulus is used
3. Concrete
Concrete is made by adding cement to aggregates and mixing them together to
form a versatile building material.
Composite materials normally display material characteristics that are better
that the characteristics of the individual constituents. With concrete the
composite can be considered in two ways:
Either the aggregates toughen the cement paste by introducing
numerous weak interfaces into the material
Or the cement paste provides the means of binding together the
aggregates into a low cost useful material
The actuality lies between the two.
3.1. Aggregates
In a concrete mix the aggregate consists of a mixture of sand, with a mean
particle size of less than 2 mm, and crushed rock or gravel, with a mean
particle size greater than 2 mm. There must be sufficient cement paste to
bind these materials together and using graded aggregate that contains
particles of a range of sizes can in fact reduce this. The small particles fit
into the spaces between the large particles and the cement only has to flow
into any remaining spaces. In this case the usual ration of aggregate to
cement is about 5:1 and the typical proportion of sand to gravel is about 3:2.
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The actual shape of the stones in the gravel affects the final mix. Stone
crushed from quarried stone will be angular and give a stronger but less
workable mix than stones from river gravel which are smooth and rounded
giving a more workable mix but with less strength.
3.1.1. Water Content
Water content is as important in the concrete mix as it is in cement
mixes. A mix containing 40% water by weight will be totally unworkable
but concrete with a high water: cement ratio will result in a lower strength
material than a similar mix made with a lower ratio water: cement. This is
because quite large pores can develop if compaction is inadequate. It
can be seen from this that the actual water content of any mix is very
important and must be high enough to allow the mix to be worked but at
the same time be low enough to allow the concrete to attain its full
strength.
One method of overcoming this problem is to use flow-enhancing
admixtures (plasticizers), which can keep the water: cement ration
low
4. Concrete As A Material
Concrete as a material can be compared to stone in that it can withstand
compressive loads very well indeed but it cannot withstand tensile loads. As a
building material then it is only safe to use it in situations where it is subjected to
compressive stresses only. Its big advantage over stone is that it can be cast on
site into almost any required shape.
5. Reinforced Concrete
In order to exploit concrete as a building material to its full potential steel
reinforcement bars, made from mild steel, which has been heavily cold-worked,
are combined with it. This reinforcement may be assembled into quite complex
shapes on site prior to the concrete being poured. Shuttering is then used to
retain the required shape while the concrete is setting. The complex
reinforcement is the result of having to resist stresses other than, for example,
the main tensile stresses due to bending. See Figure 5.2
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.2
Placement Of Reinforcement
To Counteract Crack Formation
5.1. Reinforcement Design Philosophy
A point to note in reinforced concrete structures is that if full advantage is to be
taken of the high strength of the steel reinforcement that surface of a beam, for
example, which is under tensile stress is allowed to crack. This allows the
steel to carry all the tensile forces. This also explains the placement of the
reinforcement in Figure 5.2, which is positioned close to the surface that is
under the tensile load.
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This leads to one problem with reinforced concrete, which is that the concrete
on the tension side is cracked which means that it is doing no work and
therefore represents a weight penalty on the structure. Additionally vibrations
and environmental forces can cause the cracks to open and close repeatedly
which leads to gradual deterioration and crumbling of the concrete and may
expose the reinforcement to corrosion
6. Pre-stressing
A way to overcome the problem of cracking is to ensure the entire structure is
kept in compression. This is known as prestressing.
There are two techniques prestressing and post-stressing. In both cases hightensile steel wires with a tensile strength of 1500 to
1800 MN m2 are employed to apply compression.
The technique can be applied in a factory environment in the
manufacture of standard prestressed components that can be
transported to the site
Or the method can be applied on site. In this case the technique is
post-tensioning and the cables are laid through ducts deliberately
left empty for the purpose. The cable is then tensioned up and the
duct filled with grout under pressure. Figure 5.3 refers.
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.3
Diagram Of A Prestressed Beam
7. Production Problems
The forgoing will serve to introduce concrete as a material and a selection of
possible production problems will serve to illustrate what may go wrong at the
manufacturing stage.
Too much water in the mix can result in a loss of both compressive
strength and stiffness and by creating large pores within the matrix it may
promote in-service cracking
A reaction between the alkalis in the cement and susceptible, mainly
siliceous materials, in the aggregates is a possibility. This expansive
reaction is known as alkali/aggregate reaction (AAR). The process is
quite slow taking a number of years to develop. The symptoms in the
latter stages are cracking and spalling. This is not a problem on offshore
structures as the quality of manufacture was and is high. There have
been no reports of this defect on any offshore concrete structure to date
Exudation is a viscous, gel-like material, which can form a deposit on the
surface of the concrete. As this is associated as a symptom of AAR it is
unlikely to be seen on offshore structures as indicated above and the
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more-so as it is likely to be dissolved in the seawater anyway, unless it
were on a dry surface out of the water
Rust stains are possible on these structures and the worst-case scenario
is that it indicates corrosion of the reinforcement. There could be other
causes however, such as corrosion of embedment plates or even nails
cast into the surface being left over from the shuttering operation. This is
a possible serious anomaly and therefore rust stains must always be
treated seriously
Incrustation, which is caused by the leaching of lime from the cement,
will leave a white crusty deposit on the concrete surface. Once more this
is unlikely to be identified on offshore structures due to the QC at
manufacture and the possibility of the deposit being dissolved by the
seawater
8. Stage Two - Fabrication
Comments made in Chapter 4 regarding fabrication problems apply to concrete,
of course, and items specific to concrete are enumerated here
8.1. Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects
There can be numerous fabrication defects with concrete as with steel and a
selected sample will once more serve to illustrate the types of faults that
may be encountered.
Honeycombing
This is a common construction defect that leaves the surface of the concrete
looking like a honeycomb with numerous voids forming between coarse
aggregate grains. The cause is inadequate compaction during the forming
which allows air to be trapped between the concrete surface and the inside
face of the shuttering. This reduces the cover over the reinforcement and
leaves voids on the surface, which may degenerate more quickly than a firm
surface. See Figure 5.4
Figure 5.4
Honeycombing
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Chapter 5
Efflorescence
This is the deposit of salts, usually white, coming out from the concrete
mass. It may indicate a reaction between the constituents of the cement and
the water used for mixing. Underwater these deposits may well be dissolved
Inadequate cover over reinforcement
The recommended minimum cover of concrete over reinforcement in very
severe conditions, such as surfaces exposed to seawater is
60 mm as stated in CP 110. If the cover is inadequate the reinforcement
may corrode which will be manifest by rust stains
9. Stage Three Installation
Concrete structures are commonly built from the base up using a continuous
slip forming technique in a dry dock. When the construction reaches a
predetermined level the dock is flooded and the structure then floats while work
continues. The structure is then towed to position already upright. It is then
ballasted down by controlled flooding of tanks built into the base. Stresses are
thus minimised and the main consideration with this type of structure is its
stability during the tow. This limits the towing speed and weather perimeters
that can be tolerated.
10. Stage Four In-Service
The major categories of defects that could cause concern in concrete structures
are outlined below.
10.1. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures
Concrete can deteriorate because of either chemical or physical
deterioration. Because concrete is permeable to various ions it is susceptible
to chemical attack. Physical damage is possible externally and possibly
internally, should the reinforcement corrode, for example it would cause the
concrete surrounding it to crack.
10.1.1. Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack
It is unlikely that any significant deterioration will occur in concrete of the
quality that is normally specified for offshore structures. Never the less,
deterioration may occur in concrete that has not been properly
compacted or because of environmental pollution.
10.1.1.1. Sulphate Attack
The Tricalcium aluminate, C3A, in the cement can react with
magnesium sulphate, which is present in concentrations of about
0.5% in seawater. The reaction is expansive which will lead to
cracking but the presence of chlorides inhibits the degree of
expansion. The net result is softening and disruption of the concrete
in the form of solution and crumbling.
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) is a form of Portland
cement low in C3A content and the use of this type will minimise the
risk of this problem occurring. This type of cement has a higher
content of Tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C4AF, than other Portland
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cements which gives it a darker colour. There are detailed
requirements for the use of this cement in CP 110 and BRE Digest
174. The British Standard for this cement is BS 4027:1996
10.1.1.2. Chlorides
Chlorides do not attack plain concrete when present in the
concentrations that are normally present in seawater, but they may
greatly accelerate the corrosion of the reinforcement by destroying
the passivity of the concrete coating.
Chloride, [Cl-] ions react with the oxide film on the steel by becoming
incorporated into the oxide lattice and increasing the electrical
conductivity of the film. The effect of increasing [Cl-] moves the
corrosion/passivity boundary to higher pH levels. If carbonation is
occurring concurrently this will reduce the pH of the combined water
in the concrete, which in turn reduces the concentration of [Cl-]
necessary for corrosion to occur according to the pH value. See
Figure 5.5
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.5
The Concentration Of Chloride Ions
In Concrete Plotted Against pH
10.1.1.3. Carbonation
Carbon dioxide is present in the air and can attack the concrete
directly. It has the effect of destroying the normal passivity of the
concrete coating over the reinforcement, thus leading to
reinforcement corrosion. The permeation is generally limited to a
penetration of approximately 50 mm, which will take many years to
accomplish. Figure 5.6 refers
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Figure 5.6
Depth Of Carbonation Layer
Plotted Against Time
CP 110 recommends 60 mm cover over the reinforcement for
concrete exposed to very severe conditions. To illustrate the
likelihood of carbonation being a problem in the normal course of
events it is possible to apply:
x = Dt
hence
t = x2/D
where
t = time in years
x = depth of penetration
D = Diffusivity of CO2
(Taken as 1.4 x 10
-13
-1
m s )
thus (where x = 60 mm as being the recommended minimum cover)

t = (60 x 10-2)2/1.4 x 10-13 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 815 years
In the normal course of events than 815 years would elapse before
the steel starts to corrode because of carbonation! While this is not a
realistic situation, potentially any cracks could radically reduce this
time by providing a path for the carbonation, it gives an indication that
carbonation is normally a slow process.
It has been found, however that in cracks less than 0.3 mm wide
CaCo3 precipitates from the cement and acts as a seal. A further
point to note here is that offshore structures are of a prestressed
design and are therefore unlikely to crack.
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Chapter 5
10.1.1.4. Reinforcement Corrosion

The normal pH of concrete is approximately 12.5 and the pore water
incorporated within the concrete at this pH reacts with the steel to
form hydrated iron oxide, Fe2O3, which is insoluble at this pH and
therefore form a passive film. The Pourbaix diagram in Figure 5.7
shows the possible environments when considering the electrode
potential and the pH surrounding the steel.
Figure 5.7
Pourbaix Diagram For
Steel In Concrete
If the passivation is destroyed for any reason the reinforcement will
corrode. This is an expansive reaction, which leads to cracking and
then spalling of the concrete accompanied by rust staining. Once the
cracks are wider than 3 mm or spalling has occurred seawater will
come in contact with the steel and corrosion may proceed more
quickly.
The first signs of this type of corrosion are rust staining and cracking
following the line of the reinforcement.
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It almost goes without saying that the inter-tidal zone is the area most
at risk due to the high oxygen concentration along with the possible
increase in chloride ion concentration.
By contrast the submerged part of the structure is less at risk mainly
because the oxygen content in seawater is low.
10.1.1.5. Corrosion Of Built-in Components
This form of deterioration is perhaps more likely than reinforcement
corrosion. There are a number of different types of steel components
cast into the structure such as riser clamp supports, steel skirts and
towing eyes. Should any of this steelwork be in contact with the
internal reinforcement the exposed steelwork acts as an active anode
and the reinforcement becomes the cathode, as shown in
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8
Corrosion Of Cast-in Items
10.1.1.6. Cracking
It is generally accepted that all concrete structures will contain cracks;
indeed this is a design philosophy in reinforced structures. As detailed
above these cracks can be caused by: Overloading
As in the case on the tensile face of a reinforced beam
Shrinkage
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Chapter 5
May be caused at the fabrication stage
Thermal Stresses
Can be caused at the fabrication stage during the setting period
As the presence of cracks in concrete structures will not normally
impair the performance and furthermore as the structure is in
compression anyway any cracks will be of much less significance
than a crack found in a steel structure. As stated above, provided the
crack width is less than 3 mm there should be no corrosion to the
reinforcement. Never the less all cracks must be reported and there is
a standard terminology applied to this class of defect.
11. Standard Terminology
There are a number of standard terms used to precisely describe flaws in
concrete. The following list enumerates several of them.
General Cracking
An incomplete separation into one or more parts
Cracks in concrete are further classified by:
Direction
Longitudinal, transverse, vertical, diagonal or random
Width
Fine less than 1 mm, medium 1 to 2 mm, wide over 2 mm see Figures
5.9 to 5.10
Depth
Figure 5.9
Medium and Wide Cracks
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Figure 5.10
Wide Crack with Rust Staining
Pattern Cracking
A series of fine interlocking cracks over an area. Caused by either surface
shrinkage or expansion of the sub-surface matrix
There are a number of other common concrete defects that have not been
mentioned earlier but do have standard terms as listed below.
Spalling
This is the loss of material from the surface of the concrete. It is usually
conically shaped and is caused by either an impact or by pressure from within.
It may well be associated with reinforcement corrosion in which case it will
probably follow the line of the reinforcement and in this case it will not have the
typical conical shape, see Figure 5.11
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.11
Spalling
Delamination
This is the loss of a large sheet of surface material that exposes the coarse
aggregates. Caused by the build-up of internal pressure over a large area,
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12
Delamination
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Disintegration
This involves the general breakdown of the matrix with numerous small
fragments breaking away from the surface. This is a very serious problem
caused by internal chemical reactions, such as AAR that causes the concrete to
become soft. It is a most uncommon problem and there are no instances of it on
offshore structures to date
Scaling
A local or general flaking or peeling away of the surface layer, occasionally
there is some loss of aggregate particles. Weathering or chemical reactions
between the concrete and the environment may be the cause of this defect.
Even if scaling is present it will only become a problem if it becomes very
progressive provided there is adequate cover over the reinforcement in the first
case. As this defect is associated with poor quality control it should be unlikely
to be found on platforms
Pop out
This appears as small roughly 10 to 50 mm diameter, conically shaped
fragments breakaway from the surface. This defect is similar in appearance to
spalling but the fragments are smaller. The cause is internal pressure and may
be caused by excessive water in the mix. This defect is again unlikely given the
QC applied to offshore platforms see Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Pop out
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Chapter 5
Erosion
This is long-term deterioration caused by abrasive action. The abrasive particles
may be air or water-born and it may become evident on platforms in the intertidal region later in the life of the structure. This is a long-term problem most
unlikely to cause any concern until several years have passed
Stains
The most serious stain on concrete surfaces is rust staining. This may be the
early sign of reinforcement corrosion and therefore all such stains must be
reported. It is possible that subsequent investigation and document checks will
show stains to be benign as there are a number of causes that are of no
structural significance
Reinforcement may have been included to withstand construction
stresses and subsequently is un-important
Mesh reinforcement that is not structurally significant could possibly
corrode and would then look cosmetically poor but once again be of no
real significance
In any case the rule is to report and allow the responsible engineers
make the judgement. See Figure 5.11.
In Artic waters freeze/thaw damage is quite possible. The repeated freezing and
thawing of moisture in the porous concrete surface in the splash zone causes
high stresses in these pores due to water expansion during freezing. This in
turn causes small fissures which then fill with water on the next annual cycle
and so on
Marine organisms that bore into the concrete have seriously attacked concrete
structures in tropical water. The organisms involved seem to have an affinity for
limestone and include:
Boring worms
Mussels and
Sponges
The boring sponge Cliona and the boring mussel Lithophaga are both known to
do considerable damage. The sponge confining its activities to the outer
surfaces and the mussel penetrates deeply into the interior where it fashions
ovoid cavities
Probably the most destructive mussel is the species Lithophaga
antillarum that can grow up to 10 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter. This
species is common in tropical waters world wide
There are several other marine organisms that also bore into concrete such as:
Gastrochaena which is a bi-valve mollusc
Upogebial which is a burrowing mud shrimp
There are also other creatures that make their homes in concrete.
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This problem has been known for a number of years in the Persian Gulf and the
current method of dealing with it is to fit a cladding to the concrete surface to try
to prevent access to the marine organisms in the first place thus preventing the
problem.
As a resume Table 5.14 is laid out to summarise the in-service types of defects
mentioned so far in this chapter.
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Chapter 5
Defect Type
Reported
As
Description
Cause
Details
Reported
General
Cracking
Cracking
Jagged
separations with or
without a gap
Overloading,
steelwork
corrosion or
shrinkage
Length,
depth and
width
Pattern
Cracking
Cracking
As above but
covering an area
Volume changes
between interior
and exterior
Surface
area,
width and
depth
Exudation
Surface
deposit
Viscous, gel-like
substance; often
associated with
cracking
Alkali Aggregate
Reaction (AAR)
Severity,
area and
thickness
Rust Stains
Surface
deposit
Brown stains
Corrosion of
surface steelwork,
tie wires or
reinforcement
Severity,
area and
thickness
Incrustation
Surface
deposit
White, crusty
deposit
Leaching of lime
from cement
Severity,
area
thickness
Popout
Concrete
loss
Shallow conical
depression
Increase in internal
pressure
Area and
depth
Spalling
Concrete
loss
Conical shaped
fragment
expressed from the
surface
External impact or
internal pressure
Area and
depth
Delamination
Concrete
loss
Loss of a large
area of the
concrete surface
Internal pressure
Area and
depth
Lack of vibration
Area and
depth
Honeycombing Construction Voids between

defect
coarse aggregate
particles
Table 5.14
Possible In-service Defects in Concrete
12. Additional In-service Defects
The Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 was produced in 1984 as
currently remains the most comprehensive document for classification of
defects on offshore structures. Apart from the defects already mentioned there
are a number that are defined in this publication an extract of which, showing
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photographs of the anomalies is listed in the appendix to these notes, Appendix
5. The document groups defects into 3 categories:
Category A (Defects)
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Category C (Blemishes)
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Chapter 5
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Materials
The Open University
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Chapter 6
CHAPTER 6
Marine Growth
1. Introduction
Once any structure is placed into the sea marine growth will colonise it. This
build-up will have two effects:
First
The profile area of any component presented to the water flow will be
increased. This will increase the force on the structure overall.
Second
Marine growth will change the texture of the surface from a smooth, round steel
or painted surface, to a surface made much rougher by the presence of the
marine growth on it. This roughness will increase with time as the surface
becomes more irregular due to parts of the dead marine growth sloughing off.
The effect or this is to increase the drag coefficient. Both these effects increase
the force on the structure. Information on the types and amounts of marine
growth build-up is required to confirm or modify the design-predicted loads on
the structure. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 refer.
Figure 6.1
Flow conditions Around
A Cylinder
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Marine Growth
These two effects of marine growth will have a knock-on effect with the
structure that will manifest itself
By producing an increase in mass without any significant change in
stiffness. This causes a reduction in the structures natural frequency
By increasing the added mass of water and the drag forces on the
structure. Marine growth being most abundant at and just below the
water level coincides with the zone of maximum wave and water force.
So the forces on the structure are increased in the region of maximum
water force
By affecting the corrosion rate, either by accelerating or retarding it
By reducing the effective area of the service inlets and outlets, hence
reducing system efficiency
By obscuring the important features on the structure, such as diver
orientation marks, valve handles anodes and similar objects
By making inspection impossible before cleaning
These effects give marine growth such an importance that it is necessary to
examine the problem in a little more detail.
2. Types of Marine Growth
From the engineering standpoint there are two main categories of fouling; soft
and hard.
Those organisms that have a density approximately the same as
seawater cause soft fouling. They are important because of their bulk,
but are generally easy to remove
Organisms causing hard fouling are much denser and more firmly
attached to the structure and therefore are more difficult to remove
These organisms will colonise the structure at different rates and at different
depths dependant on the natural propensity of the particular species. Some
guidance is available to designers as indicated in Table 6.3. Using this and
other data designers can predict the most propitious time of the year to launch
and install a structure.
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Chapter 6
Type
Settlement
Season
Typical
Growth Rate
Typical
Coverage
(%)
Typical
Terminal
Thickness
Depth
(Relative To
MSL)
Comments
25 mm in1 yr
100
150 200 mm
0 to 30 m
But faster growth rates are

found on installations in
the North Sea
30 mm (L) in 3
mths
50 to 70
About 10 mm
(tubeworms
lay flat on the
steel surface)
0 to mud line
Coverage is often 100%

especially on new
structures 1 to 2 years
after installation.
Tubeworms also remain
as a hard, background
layer when dead
50 mm in 3
mths
100
Summer 30
70 mm
0 to mud line
A permanent hydroid turf

may cover an installation
and obscure the surface
for many years
Hard Fouling
Mussels
Jul Oct
50 mm in 3 yr
75 mm in 7 yr
Solitary
tubeworms
May Aug
Soft Fouling
Hydroids
Apr Oct
Winter 20
30 mm
Plumose
Jun Jul
50 mm in 1 yr
100
300 mm
-30 to 120 m
Usually settle 4 to 5 years

after installation and can
then cover surface very
rapidly. Live for up to 50
years
Soft coral
Jan Mar
50 mm in 1 yr
100
About
200 mm
-30 to 120 m
Often found in association

with anemones
2 m in 3 yrs
60 to 80
Variable up to
6 m long
-3 to 15 m
May be several years

before colonisation begins
but tenacious holdfast
when established. Present
on some installation in
Northern and Central
North Sea
Seaweed Fouling
Kelp
Feb Apr
Table 6.3
Typical Distribution Of Marine Growth
In The North Sea
(Extract from Offshore Installations: Guidance on design,
construction and certification Forth edition 1990)
2.1. Soft Fouling

Organisms in this group include
Algae
This is often referred to as slime and is generally the first organism to inhabit
an offshore structure. As it is very light sensitive, it is seldom observed in
any quantity below 20 m (76 feet). This is a very large family of organisms
and even includes kelp, thus is goes from the very small to the very large.
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Marine Growth
Bacteria
This, like algae, will be amongst the first inhabitants of an offshore structure
and will be present in depths will in excess of 1000m (3333 feet)
Sponges
These are often found as a fouling species on offshore platforms and are
present at depths greater that 1000m (3333 feet)
Figure 6.4
Different Species Of Sponges
Sea Squirts
These are soft-bodied animals and sometimes grow in large colonies
Figure 6.5
Different Species Of Sea Squirts
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Chapter 6
Hydroids
These grow in colonies and from their appearance can be mistaken for
seaweed, but they are in fact animals related to sea anemone. The colonies
can produce dense coverage to depths of 1000m (3333 feet)
Figure 6.6
Close Up Photograph Of
A Hydroid
Figure 6.7
Different Species Of Hydroids
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Marine Growth
Seaweeds
There are many types of seaweed that attach themselves to underwater
structures, but of these, kelp produces the longest fronds, which in the North
Sea, grow up to 6m (20 feet) in length under favourable conditions
Figure 6.8
Green Seaweed (Left) Bladder Wrack (Ascophyllum) (Right)
Figure 6.9
Kelp
Holdfast (Centre)
Laminaria Digitalis (Left) Laminaria (Right)Bryozoa
This has a moss-like appearance, and is really an animal with tentacles
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Chapter 6
Figure 6.10
Different Species Of Bryozoa
Anemones
These are sometimes called anthozoans, which means flowering animals.
The cylindrical body is surmounted by a radical pattern of tentacles and
looks a bit like broccoli. It attaches itself to the structure by a basal disc, and
this attachment is so firm that attempts to remove it often result in tearing the
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Marine Growth
body of the anemone. The colours and shapes are extremely variable even
within the same species
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Chapter 6
Figure 6.11
Anemones
Dead Mens Fingers (Alcyonium Digitalum)
Colonies have been observed on pier piles, rocks on the foreshore and
offshore structures. These colonies often grow to 150 mm (6 inches) in
length. When submerged, many small polyps arise from the finger-shaped,
fleshy main body, each polyp having eight feathery tentacles. It is white to
yellow or pink to orange in colour, but when out of the water it is flesh
coloured and the similarity to the human hand gives it its common name
Figure 6.12
Dead Mens Fingers
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Marine Growth
2.2. Hard Fouling

Composed of calcareous or shelled organisms, the common types in this group
include
Barnacles
The common species is Balanus Balanoides. These grow in dense colonies to a
depth of 15 20m (49 67 feet), but are observed to depths of 120m (394 feet)
Figure 6.13
Barnacles
Mussels
The main species is Mytilus edulis. The hard-shelled mollusc attaches itself to
the structure by byssal threads at the hinge of the shell. These thread
attachments are very strong and mussels generally form dense colonies. Main
colonisation is to depths of 20m (67 feet), but mussels are found to depths of
about 50m (164 feet)
Figure 6.14
Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis)
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Chapter 6
Tubeworms
The full title for this species is calcareous serpulid tubeworm. This often forms
on flat surfaces. It is white in colour, very firmly attached to the surface of the
metal and difficult to remove. It also grows in colonies and these have been
known to fill a warm water outlet, arranging themselves parallel to the flow to
obtain maximum nutriments. Power cleaning is required to remove this growth,
so firmly is it attached. Although the main growth occurs to depths of 50m (164
feet), tubeworms are found to depths of 100m (328 feet)
Figure 6.15
Tubeworm
3. Factors Affecting The Rate Of Marine Growth
If no steps are taken to prevent growth, such as application of an anti-fouling
solution or paint, the formation of bacterial slime occurs in two to three weeks.
As indicated in Table 6.3 marine growth can mature very rapidly with barnacles
and soft fouling having been known to attach themselves and reach maturity on
three to six months. It generally takes two seasons for mussel colonies to
develop. Often on top of the dead earlier fouling. The type of organism, its
development and growth rate will depend on several factors, including the
following.
3.1. Depth
Figure 6. 4 gives a generally accepted diagrammatic representation of the
combined effects of weight and volume on the various types of marine
fouling in British waters. This should be read in conjunction with Table 6.3,
which contains information more specific to the design function. The diagram
shows clearly that the most weight is added in the vicinity of the surface
which is the region of highest water-induced loading The total column in the
diagram is not the sum of the others, but an estimate of a balanced colony.
Note that the long lengths of seaweed have not been included.
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Increase in depth reduces light intensity, which therefore reduces the ability
of organisms such as algae to photosynthesise. Algae therefore gradually
disappear with depth and there is also a change in species to red algae at
the greater depths. Algae growth at depths below 30m (98 feet) has been
observed in the North Sea due mainly to the clarity of the water.
Figure 6.4
Diagrammatic representation Of The
Distribution Of Marine Growth With Depth
3.2. Temperature
In general, a rise in water temperature will increase the growth rate of a
colony. The growth rate approximately doubles with a 10o C rise in
temperature. There will of course be a limit and most organisms cease
growth at 30o 35o C. As the temperature variation is greatest near the
surface, there is seasonal growth in the marine colonies near the surface,
and continuous, slower growth as the depth increases.
3.3. Water Current
The speed at which the water flows over the surface plays an important part
in the type of fouling colony that develops. There are two aspects to
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Chapter 6
consider, the first being that of the larvae attaching themselves to the
structure.
It is suggested that at speeds greater than 1 knot, many larvae are unable to
attach themselves. However, once attached, most fouling can withstand
water currents of more than 6 knots. At high water velocities, weakly
attached fouling is removed leaving only the firmly attached hard fouling.
Also, colonies growing on dead or dying fouling become loose and may be
sloughed off. The larvae can attach themselves to structures during slack
flow periods, on in localised spots of slower flow or dead water, such as
crevices and locations between hard fouling
The second aspect to consider is that in general, once the organism is
established, a strong current brings more food and growth is accelerated
3.4. Salinity
In nearly fresh water, fouling is usually confined to algae slime. As the
salinity increases, so the amount and type of fouling increases. First
hydroids and barnacles and finally mussels occur. The normal salinity of
seawater is about 3% - 3.5% and the size of mussels, for example,
increases five-fold from a salinity of 0.6% to 3.5%.
3.5. Food Supply
Growth of the fouling is obviously dependent on the quantity of nutriment
available. Growth rates seem to be faster in coastal waters then those a few
miles offshore where the water is deeper. Investigations suggest that the
slow currents that circulate around platforms become enriched with
nutriments from sewage and other waste that will increase the growth rate.
3.6. Cathodic Protection
There are two types of corrosion protection widely used on North Sea
structures (see Chapter 5) On those that use sacrificial anodes, the patterns
of marine growth on the structures themselves seem normal, but the anodes
generally remain clear of growth. The other system, which uses an
impressed current to cancel the corrosion-induced ionic currents between
the structure and the sea, suggests, on a limited amount of evidence, that
the marine growth rate is increased. Currently the mechanism that
encourages an increased growth rate in not understood, more data is
required before the observations of increased growth can be confirmed.
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Marine Growth
Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
E & F N Spon
ISBN 0-419-13540-5
A Handbook For Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
OTI 88 539
Structural Materials
The Open University
Butterworths
ISBN 0408 04658 9
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Corrosion
CHAPTER 7
Corrosion
1. Energy Considerations In Corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy from the
system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS. When
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
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Chapter 7
various types) is such an important material in building and industry the
corrosion of iron has a special term, rust. Figure 7.1 refers.
Figure 7.1
Changes In Energy Levels Of
A Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2. The Corrosion Process
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 7.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 7.2
Simple Structure Of An Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
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However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ionic.
Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which
means that the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to
as a cation.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a
negative charge. This may be referred to as an anion.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having
a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell.
The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing
one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion.
2.1. The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its
ionic state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction
involving the metal and other species present in the environment. This
process is also called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by
a chemical equation thus:
M
Mz+ + ze-
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as

those indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as
oxidation Figure 7.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 7.3
Anodic Reaction
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Chapter 7
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons.
This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.4, which represents a free rusting
iron surface immersed in seawater.
Figure 7.4
Anodic Sites On Surface Of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place
in the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution
of ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 7.4
2.2. The Cathodic Reaction
These free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be used up if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical
corrosion process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons
are neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions
such as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions.
A part reaction is illustrated in Figure 7.5
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Corrosion
Figure 7.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by
positive ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a
negative charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons
because for its electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence
shell yet occurs naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers.
Figure 7.6
Cathode Reaction
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Chapter 7
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where
negative ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte
where they combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of
this reaction is known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in
metallic corrosion are:
Hydrogen evolution
2H+ + 2e
+
Oxygen reduction (acid solutions) O2 + 4H + 4e

Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic
solutions)
Metal ion reduction
H2
2H2O
4OH-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
M3+ + e
M2+
Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic

while oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in
contact with air is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the
reaction encountered in seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is
normally found in chemical process streams. The common denominator with
all these reactions is that they consume electrons and this is the most
important point to note.
2.3. Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to
interpret virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in
seawater; corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is:
Fe2+ + 2e
Fe
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: The cathodic reaction is:
4OH-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations
thus:
2Fe + 2H2O + O2
2Fe2+ + 4OH-
2Fe(OH) 2
This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is

unstable in oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt:
2Fe(OH) 2 + H2O + O2
2Fe(OH) 3
This final product is the familiar rust.

2.4. Electrochemical Aspects Of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT
For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply:
There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons
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Corrosion
There must be a cathode. This does not normally corrode
There must be an electrolyte. This is the name given to the solution
that conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while
seawater is
There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the
cathode
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.7 and all
electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
Figure 7.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched
on already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3. Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and is
given the symbol I.
In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current which, if
maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel wires of negligible
cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum, will produce between the wires a
force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per m length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference between
two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
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Chapter 7
In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical potential
between two points of a wire carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the
power dissipation between those points is 1 watt
The flow of electric charges is impeded by a quantity called resistance and
between any two points there is always some resistance to the passage of the
current. The unit of resistance is the ohm which has the symbol .
The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being the resistance
between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of 1 V
applied between these points produces in the conductor a current of 1 A
During the majority of this chapter all discussion and illustrations will be in terms
of electron or ion flow and as far as possible positive and negative notations will
be avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often occurs when corrosion is
studied. This confusion arises because of an historical accident that resulted in
producing what is now called conventional current. Electron flow is exactly
opposite to conventional current, which is what causes the confusion when
studies in corrosion so often involve discussion on electron or ion flow. To avoid
such problems for the rest of this chapter Figure 6.8 illustrates the two types of
flow.
Figure 7.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
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Corrosion
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Corrosion For Students Of Science And Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
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Types of Corrosion
CHAPTER 8
Types of Corrosion
1. Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 7, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of
the metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
1.1. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid
(electrolyte) a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in
water and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a
voltage and a current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside
connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and
which the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
1.1.1. The Electrochemical Force Series
Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid
at a temperature of 25oC, the potential of various metals is measured
and given in a table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or
Electromotive Series, (see Table 7.9). From the table, it will be seen that
any metal will be anodic to any metal higher in the table and cathodic to
any metal lower in the series. It must be remembered, however, that the
table only applies under the standard conditions stated.
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Chapter 8
Metal Atom
Electrode Reaction Atom to Ion
Gold
Au
Au+ + e-
Au
+++
Gold
Au
++
1.68
-
+ 3e
Platinum
Pt
Pt
Mercury
Hg
Hg++ + 2e-
+ 2e
Pd
Pd
Silver
Ag
Ag+ + e-
2Hg
Hg2
Ca 1.2
+ 2e
++
0.83
0.80
-
+ 2e
Cu
Cu + e
Copper
Cu
Cu++ + 2e+
0.52
H2
2H + 2e
Lead
Pb
Pb++ + 2e++
Sn
++
0.00
-0.13
+ 2e
-0.14
-0.25
Nickel
Ni
Ni
Cobalt
Co
Co++ + 2e-
+ 2e
Ti
Ti + e
Indium
In
In+++ + 3e-
Cd
-0.34
-0.34
++
+ 2e
-0.40
++
-0.44
Cd
Iron
Fe
Fe
Gallium
Ga
Ga+++ + 3e+++
+ 2e
Chromium
Cr
Cr
Zinc
Zn
Zn++ + 2e-
Manganese
Mn
++
Mn
+++
+ 3e
+2e
-1.67
-1.70
Beryllium
Be
Be++ + 2e-
+ 3e
Magnesium
Mg
Mg
Sodium
Na
Na+ + e-
Ca
++
Potassium
-0.76
-1.05
Al
Ca
-0.71
Al
++
-0.52
Aluminium
Calcium
-0.28
Thallium
Cadmium
0.34
Hydrogen
Sn
0.80
Copper
Tin
0.85
Palladium
Mercury
Ca 1.42
++
Potential in Volts Standard
+ 2e
-2.34
-2.71
+ 2e
-2.87
K +e
-2.92
Table 7.9
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these
are called Galvanic Series. Table 7.10 give the series for seawater. The
same rule applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e.
metals found higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them.
For example, zinc is lower in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc
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Types of Corrosion
is connected to mild steel and immersed in seawater zinc will be the
anode and corrode and mild steel will be the cathode and not corrode. If
on the other hand mild steel, in the form of a ships hull is connected to
manganese bronze, the ships propeller, the mild steel now becomes the
anode and corrodes and the manganese bronze propeller is the cathode,
which does not corrode.
Gold
Silver
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (Passive)
70% Ni, 30% Cu (Monel)
78% Ni, 13.5%Cr, 6%Fe (Passive)
Nickel (Passive)
88%Cu, 3%Zn, 6.5%Sn, 1.5%Pb
88%Cu, 2%Zn, 10%Sn
5%Zn, Ni, Ba, Cu
Silicon Bronze
Copper
Red Brass
Aluminium Bronze
Admiralty Brass
Yellow Brass
78%Ni, 13.5%Cr, 6%Fe (Active)
Nickel (Active)
Manganese Bronze
Tin
Lead
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless Steel (Active)
18-8 Stainless (Active)
50-50 Lead-Tin Solder
13% Chromium Stainless Steel (Active)
Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Mild Steel
Aluminium 24S-T
Aluminium 17S-T
Aluminium A17S-T
Cadmium
Alcad
Aluminium 52S-T
Aluminium 52Sh
Galvanised Iron
Zinc
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium
Table 7.11
Galvanic Series In Seawater
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This type of corrosion cell, consisting of two dissimilar metals, is easy to
identify, but corrosion can occur in a much more localised way, caused
by small-size effects that can lead to corrosion pits and thereby cause
considerable damage. This type of corrosion and some others are
discussed below.
2. Concentration Cell Corrosion
Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 25 to 100 m
wide and commonly involves chloride ions in the electrolyte. The stages in the
process are:
Corrosion will at first occur over the entire surface of the exposed metal at a
slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice. During this period of time the
electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition and normal anodic
and cathodic processes take place. Under these conditions positive metal ions
and negative hydroxyl ions are produced so as to maintain equilibrium within
the electrolyte
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of
more oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in
contact with air. In turn then the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is replaced
more easily at metal surfaces rather than in any small crevices. This creates a
low oxygen situation within the crevice that in turn impedes the cathodic
process and the production of hydroxyl ions is therefore reduced
This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice which causes
negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to
maintain minimum potential energy overall. The metal ions, water molecules
and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions,
which it is thought, react with water in a hydrolysis reaction resulting in
corrosion products. This can be described by a simplified equation thus
M+ + H2O
MOH + H+
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution

process, which, in turn, makes the problem worse, as does the accompanying
increase of anion (chloride) concentration within the crevice. An important
feature of active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic that is once
started they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the
electrolyte in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation
shown in Figure 7.12. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while
that outside is cathodically protected.
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Types of Corrosion
Figure 7.12
Crevice Corrosion
3. Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface.
The point of initiation may be:
A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate of
precipitate
A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film
Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or
residual tensile stresses.
All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect free. All
metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and these are known as
defects, these may occur in a number of ways:
Vacancies
This is where there is an atom missing from the lattice site
Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom occupies a lattice site

that would have been occupied by a host atom
Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site that is not a normal
lattice site and it is squeezed in between atoms of the host lattice. The
interstitial atom may be either a host atom or a foreign atom. Figure 7.13 refers
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Chapter 8
Figure 7.13
Point Defects In A
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where they
cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals. They also
play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen embrittlement,
selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely on the diffusion of
species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of atoms
are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line defects. An
example of this type of defect is the dislocation and two specific examples of
this type of dislocation are:
Edge Dislocations
This is where an unfinished plane of atoms is present between two other
planes. Figure 7.14a refers
Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its immediate
neighbour. Figure 7.14b refers
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Types of Corrosion
Figure 7.14
Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of clean
mild steel
The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the steel under the
water. This consumes oxygen by the normal cathode reaction in what is a
neutral solution at this stage
This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is obvious that
the wetted area around the water/air interface has more oxygen diffusion from
the air that the centre of the drop
This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region, which
dissolves
The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the cathode diffuse
inwards and react with iron ions diffusing outwards, causing the deposition of
insoluble corrosion product around the depression, or pit
This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic process in
the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be autocatalytic. Figure 7.15
refers
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Chapter 8
Figure 7.15
The Mechanism Of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath A Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
One of the most damaging environments for producing pitting and crevice
corrosion in one of high chloride ion content. The resistance of alloys to these
forms of corrosion in seawater has been ranked and is laid out in Table 7.16
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Types of Corrosion
Metal Or Alloy
Resistance
Hastalloy C276
Inert
Titanium
Cupronickel (70/30) + Fe
Good
Cupronickel (90/10) + Fe
Bronze
Brass
Austenitic Cast Iron
Moderate
Cast Iron
Carbon Steel
Incoloy 825
Low
Carpenter 20
Copper
316 Stainless Steel
Poor pit initiation at crevices
Ni-Cr Alloys
304 Stainless Steel
400 Series Stainless Steel
Table 7.16
The Relative Crevice Corrosion Resistance
Of Metals And Alloys In Quiet Seawater
It can be seen from Table 7.16 that mild steel has moderate resistance to
crevice corrosion. However, some caution should be exercised when referring
to this table, as there is a good deal of conflicting evidence about material
susceptibility.
4. Inter-granular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of
precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the
preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in
many alloys. These intrusions are of two types:
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Chapter 8
Intermetallic (intermediate Constituents)
These are species formed from
metal atoms and having identifiable chemical formulae. They can be either
anodic or cathodic to the metal
Compounds
These are formed between metals and non-metallic
elements, such as; hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen
Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important constituents of
steel, are both cathodic to ferrite
In principle any metal that has intermetallics or compounds at grain boundaries
will be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion. For example, it has most
frequently been found in austenitic stainless steels but it may occur in ferric and
two-phase stainless steels and nickel base corrosion resistant alloys.
Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains are cathodic while
others are anodic and Intergranular corrosion initiates as indicated in Figure
7.17.
Figure 7.17
Corrosion In Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the phase is below the phase and will therefore
corrode
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5. Grain Boundary Corrosion
The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode.
This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves in the form of a line.
Figure 7.18
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay. In this
case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe of the weld
and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the anode and corrosion
sets in, often giving quite significant visual indications of its presence. Figure
7.19 refers
Figure 7.19
Weld Decay Or Preferential Corrosion
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6. Stress Corrosion Cracking
This type of corrosion is a form of Intergranular corrosion that increases in
severity when the material is subjected to a tensile load and a specific
environment.
The effects are to concentrate the corrosion on a limited number of grain
boundaries that are at right angles to the direction of loading.
A common feature of stress corrosion cracking that repeatedly occurs is the
unexpectedness of its manifestation. Often a material that has been chosen for
its corrosion resistance is found to fail at a stress level well below its normal
fracture stress.
It is rare that there is any obvious evidence of failure and it presents itself in
components that are apparently unstressed.
Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the hoop residual
stresses that are the result of the fabrication process. Stress-relieving heat
treatments are a vital part of the quality control for these components because
of this.
It is currently agreed that there is no one mechanism for producing stress
corrosion cracking, but rather a number of significant factors.
Parkins has compiled a list of alloys and combinations that lead to this type of
cracking. It is referred to as The Stress-corrosion Spectrum and is reproduced
below as Table 7.20
Electrolyte Requirements
Alloy
Characteristics
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
Corrosion dominated (solution
requirements highly specific)
Carbon steels in NO-3 solutions
Intergranular fracture
along pre-existing paths
Al-Zn-Mg alloys in Cl- solutions
Transgranular fracture
along strain generated
paths
Cu-Zn alloys in NH3 solutions

Fe-Cr-Ni steels in Cl- solutions
Mg-Al alloys in CrO2-4 + Cl- solutions
Cu-Zn alloys in NH3 solutions
Stress dominated (solution

requirements less specific)
Mixed crack paths by

adsorption, decohesion
or fracture of brittle
phase
Ti alloys in methanol
High strength steels in Cl- solutions
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Table 7.20
The Stress Corrosion Spectrum
(After Parkins)
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Types of Corrosion
For this cracking to occur there must be tensile stress, which may be applied
directly during the working life of the structure, or it may be present as a
consequence of the installation or fabrication process
In general alloys are more susceptible than pure metals although copper is one
known exception
A particular metal may crack in the presence of a relatively few chemical
species that may be present in small concentrations
In the absence of stress the alloy is usually inert to the same environment that
would otherwise cause cracking
Even with particularly ductile materials stress corrosion cracks have the
appearance of a brittle fracture
It is usually possible to determine a threshold stress below which stress
corrosion cracking does not occur.
7. Fretting Corrosion
Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under
load subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance it shows pits and groves in
the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in
bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion that occurs in the
atmosphere rather than under aqueous conditions.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic
components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance
and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the
extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of
fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railroad tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are: The interface must be under load
Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interface must be sufficient to
produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to produce slip
or deformation on the surfaces
The relative motion need only be as little as 10-10 m but it must be cyclic in
nature and does not occur between surfaces in continuous motion. There are
two theories proposed for fretting corrosion; wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear
both of which are shown schematically in Figures 7.21 and 7.22
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Chapter 8
Figure 7.21
Schematic Illustration Of The
Wear-oxidation Theory Of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 7.22
Schematic Illustration Of The
Oxidation-wear Theory Of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
Fretting corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them. See Figure 7.23.
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Types of Corrosion
Figure 7.23
Possible Fretting Corrosion
Between Riser And Riser Clamp
8. Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
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Chapter 8
The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the
deposit of silt or dirt to be prevented thus preventing the formation of any
differential-aeration cells in the crevices beneath
A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area,
which minimises the formation of differential-aeration cells that are
normally a common cause of attack. Stainless steels in particular benefit
from improved corrosion resistance because oxygen replenishment
maintains its protective oxide film
Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is
concentrated within the flow, as in a pipeline for example
These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable.
Taking the case of turbulent flow, however the situation is much more
straightforward.
The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing wear. This
obviously increases the corrosion rate
This effect can easily occur inside a pipe because turbulence can be caused by,
sudden changes in bore diameter, sudden changes in direction (i.e. pipe
bends), a badly fitted joint or gasket, any deposits that may be either
circumferential welds or silt deposits. Figure 7.24 refers.
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Types of Corrosion
Figure 7.24
Effects Of Flow In Pipes
9. Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels
well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metals fatigue resistance
is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in
Chapter 4 yields: Firstly the formation of slip bands
Next the nucleation of an embryo crack in the order of 10 m long
Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths
Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at
right angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the
Pourbaix diagram as shown in Figure 7.2, it can also occur at stress levels
much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is also true that
while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity factor during
much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected by it. Figure
7.25 illustrates this point.
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Chapter 8
Figure 7.25
General Characteristics Of Corrosion Fatigue Curves
There is some evidence that offshore structures behave in the way indicated by
the stress corrosion fatigue graph indicated in Figure 7.25, although the actual
effect may well be attributable to hydrogen embrittlement.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in
the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to
inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
10. Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or
ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal
By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action
By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic
conditions
o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions
created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick
deposits of corrosion products, or under mud
o There are indications that because oxygen is unable to diffuse
through the heavy marine growth the effect of this organism is to
take the place of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction
By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms
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Types of Corrosion
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 8
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Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
CHAPTER 9
1. Polarisation And Corrosion Rate
When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal,
both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms occur
on its surface according to the formula: Men+ + ne-
Me
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm2,
the other of 1 mm2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The units of currents density are Am-2 (amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: i
and i
and at equilibrium (Eo)
as the exchange current density.
i = i = io and io is known
The electrode potential and the equilibrium potential can then be calculated
according to the Nernst equation: E = Eo +
0.0001983 T
log10 Mn+
Where
Eo = standard electrode potential

Mn+ = metal ion activity
T = absolute temperature
If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i I this applied net current will be
the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in
current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value
Ei and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential
is called polarization and is given the Greek letter (eta).
= Ei - Eo
There are two main polarization components to consider.
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Chapter 9
Concentration Polarization
Caused by the difference in concentration
between the layer of electrolyte nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of
the electrolyte. See Figure 7.26
Figure 7.26
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive cations that in
turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions with the most densely
populated layer nearest to the electrode being the Helmholtz and the second
more diffuse being the Guoy-Chapman. In this layer the potential changes
exponentially. This distribution is commonly referred to as the double layer
Activation Polarization Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction.
The polarization of an anode is always positive and that of a cathode always
negative. Figure 7.27 refers
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Figure 7. 27
Anodic And Cathodic
Polarization Curves
It is the usual case in corrosion that two, or even more electrode reactions can
take place simultaneously at an electrode site; for example the cathode and
anode reactions will commonly occur in this way. In this case the anode and
cathode current densities are alike and the electrode shows a mixed potential
(Emix), which is equivalent to the point of intersection between the anodic and
cathodic over-potential curves. Figure 7.28 refers.
Figure 7.28
Over-potential Curves For Two Electrode
Reactions Occurring Simultaneously At An Electrode Site
As stated earlier activation polarization is directly proportional to the current
density. However, this is only true for low polarization values (>30 50 mV).
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Chapter 9
Above this level there is a linear relationship between activation polarization and
the logarithm of the current density, which is given by the Tafel equation.
= a + b log10 i
Polarization curves are therefore drawn as a rule as a function of log10 so that
straight lines are produced; such plots are often called Tafel lines.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2. Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
As indicated in paragraph 5 the corrosion rate is predictable within certain
parameters and corrosion engineers work this out when designing a protection
system. There are however, environmental factors that effect the overall
corrosion reaction and these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors
considered will be:
Temperature
Water Flow Rate
The pH of the Water
2.1. Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature.
Thus temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this
effect.
Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do
corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures.
Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the
corrosion rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine
solution at a pH of 7.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was
increased from 180o F (82o C) to 250o F (121o C).
Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are
particularly susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly.
The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 7.29.
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Figure 7.29
The Effect Of Temperature On
Corrosion Of Steel In Seawater
2.2. Water Flow Rate
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 7.30 illustrates his findings.
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Chapter 9
Figure 7.30
Effect Of Seawater Velocity On Corrosion
Of Steel At Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3. The pH Value Of The Water
The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the
electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a
pH between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The
resume starts by considering water, which is neutral.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with
one of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in
the form of an equilibrium thus: H2O
H+ + OH-
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: [H+] . [OH-] = constant
(I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10-14 (STP) and this
value and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous
solution of the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are
neutralised by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Water as indicated by the equilibrium equation represents a neutral
substance as it contains both acid, (H+) and alkali (OH-) in equal quantities.
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The modern method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH,
which indicates the amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of
0 to 14 and is defined thus: pH = -log [H+]
(II)
The term in square brackets is the concentration of hydrogen ions

expressed as a molarity.
As an example of how the pH system works take a solution with a
concentration of 10-8 M if this is substituted into equation (II) it gives: pH = -log [10-8] = 8
Similarly a concentration of 10-2 yields a pH of 2.
In pure water [H+] = [OH-] and this can be substituted into the equilibrium
equation (I) to give: [H+] . [OH-] = 10-14
Substituting [H+] for [OH-]
[H+] . [H+] =10-14
[H+]2 = 10-14
[H+]
= 10-7
Hence the pH of pure water at STP is 7, which is the mid-point for the pH
scale that is laid out below: -
Figure 7.31
pH Scale
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Chapter 9
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 10
CHAPTER 10
Corrosion Protection
1. Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,
inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of
the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables;
the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix
diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
Figure 10.1
Pourbaix Diagram For
Iron In Water
It can be seen from Figure 10.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values: -
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Corrosion At intermediate electrode potentials and over a very wide range of
pH values corrosion takes place and metal is removed
Passivity
At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH values,
there is a passivity region. This it the region in which a corrosion product film is
formed, that in most cases is an oxide film. It is worth noting that the diagram
only indicates that an oxide film is formed; it does not mean that the oxide film
gives protection. The properties of the film must be known in order to determine
this
Immunity
At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the pH
range, the rate of corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be immune
2. Cathodic Protection
Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 10.1 it is also possible to
determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion.
Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at point C
Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at point B
Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D
Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the
methods of cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for
offshore structures.
This section considers cathodic protection and Figure 10.2, based on work in
this field by LaQue shows the correlation between a corrosion rate/current
density curve and a potential/current density curve.
Figure 10.2
Variation Of Cathodic Potential With
Current Density For Steel In Seawater
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Chapter 10
In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by
determining an acceptable corrosion rate (r) this information is input to a graph
such as Figure 10.1 to determine a value for current density (I). This level of
current density will ensure the required corrosion rate is achieved. All that
remains is to read off from the graph the value of the necessary potential to
match this current (E). In this example the value is 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) and
referring back to Figure 10.1 shows this to be in the immunity region of the
Pourbaix diagram.
From this example and the diagrams it would seem that potentials more
negative that 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) would produce even less metal loss. There
are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very much more negative
potentials.
At potentials much more negative than 1000 mV (Ag/AgCl) the possibility of
hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen embrittlement
Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials that
produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage barrier
coating such as paint if it is present
These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed
current protection system but non-the-less are quite valid which makes the
choice of 800 to 900 mV (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for
offshore platforms.
2.1. Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method
With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the
cathode in a massive corrosion cell as indicated diagrammatically in Chapter
7, Figure 7.7. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of
the anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the
process its name. Refer to Figure 10.3
Figure 10.3
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
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The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium. Table 10.4
indicates some additional parameters for these anode materials.
Sacrificial Anodes
Property
Composition (%)
Zinc Alloy
Aluminium Alloy
Magnesium Alloy
(C-sentry)
(Galvalum 1)
(Galvomag)
Al: 0.4 0.6
Al: remainder
Cd: 0.075 0.125
Cd: <0.02
Cu: <0.005
Cu: <0.006
Cu: 0.02
Fe: <0.0014
Fe: <0.1
Fe: <0.03
Pb: <0.15
Pb: <0.02
Mg: remainder
Si: <0.125
Si: 0.11 0.21
Mn: 0.5 1.3
Zn: remainder
Zn: 0.3 0.5
Ni: 0.001
Al: <0.01
Pb: <0.01
Sn: <0.01
Zn: <0.01
Density
7060 kg m-3
2695 kg m-3
1765 kg m-3
Capacity
780 Ah kg-1
2640 Ah kg-1
1232 Ah kg-1
Wastage
10.7 kg Ay-1
3.2 kg Ay-1
4.1 kg Ay-1
1518 ml Ay-1
1180 ml Ay-1
2296 ml Ay-1
Output
6.5 A m-2
6.5 A m-2
10.8 A m-2
Ecor (Ag/AgCl)
-1050mV
-1050mV
-1700mV
(Weight)
Wastage
(Volume)
Table 10.4
Some Properties Of Anode Metals
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question, which is implied by Table 10.4, is how much anode material
will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
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Chapter 10
To answer the first part of the question an example will be given: An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode cathodic
protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What anode
material should be used and how many anodes are required?
Total wetted surface area of structure
Current required for uncoated steel
= 2500 m2
= 110 mA m-2
Zinc Anode output (Table 10.4) = 6.5 A m-2

Total current required
= 2500 m2 x 110 mA m-2 = 275 A
Anode surface area to supply 275A
= 275 6.5 = 42.5 m2
given semi-cylindrical anodes of 0.063 m2
Minimum number required
= 42.5 0.063 = 671
This number could not supply the required current for the period required
because as the anodes depleted the volume would diminish.
However, instead consider 2510 anodes as the required number of
anodes.
Still the current required is 275 A for 10 years = 275 x 10 = 2750 Ay
Total output required from each anode = 2750 2510 = 1.10 Ay
Take the approximate volume of 1 anode
= 1.57 x 10-3 m3
From Table 10.4 volume wastage rate for zinc = 1.518 x 10-3 m-3 Ay-1
Hence
1.518 x 10-3 x 1.10 = 1.67 x 10-3 m3 Which is the total
wastage of the zinc anodes after 10 years assuming regular wastage and
uniform conditions
Anode material should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would react to
quickly
Aluminium anodes will last longer but this example serves to illustrate the
method for calculations
To answer the second part of the question sacrificial anodes are partly
evaluated by means of their capacity, which indicates the number of
ampere-hours that can be supplied by each kilogram of material and for
other parameters that are indicated in Table 10.4. This gives an indication of
how long the anode will last when considered with the example given above.
Reference has been made here to both current density and potential
required to provide adequate protection and an illustration has been given.
More detailed guidance is available for the corrosion engineer as for
instance BS 7361-1: 1991 Cathodic protection, Code of practice for land and
marine applications The British Standards Institution.
A natural phenomenon does occur which assists in the protection of
structures. Calcium, magnesium and other metal ions are present in
sufficient quantities in seawater to react with the hydroxyl ions produced by
the negative potential of the cathodic steel surface. The reaction precipitates
insoluble calcium and magnesium salts, known as calcareous deposits.
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These form a strongly adherent film that reduces the current requirement
and may reduce environment-sensitive cracking.
3. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sacrificial Anode Systems
The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems are
summarised in Table 10.5
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems
Advantages
Disadvantages
No external electric power required
Current output decreases with time
No danger of overprotection
Comparatively difficult to increase

protection by retro-fitting anodes
No running costs
Initial costs are comparatively high
Active from day of immersion
Adds considerable weight and drag

to the structure
A well proven and reliable method

Table 10.4
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes
4. Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method
An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same
principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference
electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in
subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 10.5
shows the system diagrammatically.
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Chapter 10
Figure 10.5
The Principle Of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using A Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, platinised niobium and lead/silver alloys are
used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to prevent
any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: 2H2O
O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the

oxidation of hydroxyl ions: 4OH-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas: 2Cl-
Cl2 + 2e-
Table 10.6 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials.
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Material
Consumption
Recommended Uses
8 x 10-6
Marine environments and high purity

liquids
High Silicon Iron
0.25 1.0
Potable waters and soil or

carbonaceous backfill
Steel
6,8 9.1
Marine environments and carbonaceous

backfill
Iron
Approx 9.5

backfill
Cast Iron
4.5 6.8

backfill
Lead-Platinum
0.09
Marine environments
Lead-Silver
0.09
Marine environments
Graphite
0.1 1.0
Marine environments, potable water,

and carbonaceous backfill
Platinum
Platinised Metals
Table 10.6
Some Impressed Current Anode Materials
And Their Properties
(From Brand)
4.1. Practical Considerations For Installing ICCP Systems
Anodes made from materials such as listed in Table 10.6 are capable of
supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a
structure with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in
practice anodes are usually distribute at regular intervals over the whole
structure. This is because: The high current density that would be present in the immediate
vicinity of a single anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly
cause embrittlement as previously discussed.
The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one
and reduces the probability of this type of damage
Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that
makes it difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total
distribution potentials. Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes,
each one protecting a smaller area thus minimising the areas at risk
of inadequate protection
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Chapter 10
When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have any doubts
about protecting any particular area of the structure sacrificial anodes may
be installed to work in conjunction with the ICCP system
The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to
provide 160 mA m-2 utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference
electrodes. Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and 50 reference
electrodes. In general in the North Sea the most common anode materials
are Platinum sheathed Titanium and Lead/Silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity.
The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the
positive terminal must be connected to the anode. Should these
connections be reversed the structure would corrode catastrophically.
Figures 10.7 and 10.8 refer.
Figure 10.7
Diagrammatic Layout Of An
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
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Figure 10.8
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution Of Anodes And Dielectric Shield
As indicated above the actual distribution of the anodes on any structure
may be either: Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around
it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure. Figure 10.8 refers.
Two problems are associated with this method. One is the possibility of
shadow areas where inadequate protection is provided. This problem
can be solved by the use of sacrificial anodes complementing the ICCP
system as indicated earlier. The second problem is the possibility of
current flowing directly from the anode to the adjacent structure. This
could cause embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this
dielectric shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also
the current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as well the
possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See Figure 10.8
There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are at
about 80 V potential with some 1000A current. If divers are employed
adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated from the system
Remote From The Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from the
anode to the adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes the current
density is higher and therefore there is still a possibility of coating
damage and embrittlement.
As discussed earlier design considerations generally favour more anodes
distributed around the structure.
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Chapter 10
There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some distance
away from the structure is may be possible to ensure safety by imposing
a 12 m (40 ft) exclusion zone around the anode. See Figure 10.9
Figure 10.9
Diagram Of ICCP System
With Anodes Remote From Structure
4.2. Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or
(SCC) or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications
with reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system.
They determine the current required from the power source, without these
items the system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure
10.10 refers.
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Figure 10.10
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On An Offshore Structure
5. Using Coatings To Protect The Structure
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
5.1. Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture
and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete
barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface
of the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond
onto the metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation
is required such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also
be strong and the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the
electrolyte as is possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents
making up the topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission
coefficients.
Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They
consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings
are highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most
chemicals and hydroxyl ions (that are be produced by the cathodic
reaction)
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Chapter 10
Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex
silicates with a solvent-based self-curing binder give good protection
to steel surfaces. These coatings are frequently over-painted by
another system and are used on components such as ladders in a
marine environment
Concrete is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it
provides a passive environment for the steel pipe as well as adding
weight.
Metallic coatings such as galvanising, using zinc, impose a
continuous barrier between the metal surface being protected and the
surrounding environment. These coatings may be applied in a
number of ways.
Electroplating utilises a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The
component and rods of the plating metal are immersed in the
electrolyte and a potential is applied between the component and the
rods. The component becomes the cathode and the rods the anode
so metal ions of the plating material deposit from the solution onto the
component
Hot dipping involves the component being immersed in a bath of
molten coating metal. Galvanising is accomplished by this method.
See Figure 10.11
Figure 10.11
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed in
the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s-1 that flatten and adhere on
impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can be
applied by
Rolling
Explosive welding
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Buttering (building up a welded coat on the surface to be protected)
Sheathing
o Aluminium roll-bonded to duralumin is marketed as Alcad.
Some offshore risers are sheathed with monel (cupronickel)
See Figure 10.12
Figure 10.12
Monel Cladding On
An Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the
melting point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in
powder form and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed
to baste for several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of
the component.
6. Inhibitors (Controlling The Electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing
corrosion: Making the electrode more positive
Making the electrode more negative
Changing the electrolyte pH
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: The anodic reaction
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The cathodic reaction
Ionic conduction through the electrolyte
Electron conduction through the metal
Only the first three are affected by the electrolyte, electron conduction through
the metal is not considered here. The properties of the electrolyte that can be
affected by using inhibitors are: The conductivity of the electrolyte
The pH of the electrolyte
The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or
strengthening passive films
As an example of how this can be achieved consider steel in seawater. If
distilled water is substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the
electrolyte is reduced and a passive film will form on the surface of the steel.
6.1. Anodic Inhibitors
Anodic inhibitors increase the polarisation of the anode by reaction with the ions
of the corroding metals to produce either thin passive films or salts of limited
solubility that coat the anode. See Figure 10.13
Figure 10.13
Anodic Inhibitor
6.2. Cathodic Inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions
In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate
insoluble compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode
from the electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site.
In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls
the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen
on the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow
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hydrogen atoms to diffuse into steel and cause hydrogen
embrittlement
6.3. Adsorption Inhibitors
Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming
long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed
from the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of
oxygen to the surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the
double layer and reduce the rate of dissolution
In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones.
7. Corrosion Protection By Design
This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in this chapter.
The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus: Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells
Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate
drainage, etc.)
Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors
Choose the material with the best properties for the environment
8. Anodic Protection
In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that
maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix diagram. This allows the
formation of a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the
normal corrosion process. However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous
solutions and therefore is not used on offshore structures. Aluminium does form
such a film naturally and some types of aluminium can benefit from this
because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon.
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Chapter 10
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 11
CHAPTER 11
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1. Monitoring Corrosion Protection
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
2. Inspection Requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are
therefore as follows: Visual inspections of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current
nodes) for wear
Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there
are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of
the Pourbaix diagram
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection
Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting
and loss of wall thickness
The specific visual inspection requirements are detailed in Chapter 12 Visual
inspection. The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 14
The potential measurements, usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
Taking contact readings with a CP meter
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o By hand employing a diver with a hand-held instrument
o By mounting a contact probe on an ROV
Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV
Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors
with readout in a surface control room
Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by:
Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor
and usually for a specific requirement. This method is not used for
regular inspections
Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes
incorporated into the impressed current system
3. Cathode Potential Measurement
The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated
into an instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the previous
Chapter these electrodes are commonly: High purity zinc
Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC) or
Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete
structures)
3.1. High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE)
High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remote mounted
monitoring systems as shown in Chapter 10 Figure 10.10. The site for mounting
the electrode is selected because it is, a representative site, it is an area of
marginal protection, it is an area of high stress and it is installed as part of the
impressed current system. The electrode is connected to a meter in the surface
control room. See Figure 11.1
Figure 11.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
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Chapter 11
The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is
Silver/silver chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and
proximity applications whether diver or ROV deployed.
3.2. CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes
Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they
form a cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in
several contact CP probes, including the Bathycorrometer, the Morgan
Berkeley Rustreader, that are hand held, and ROV probes. They are
commonly used as proximity probes also. The probe contact tip is placed on
the cathode and the meter gives the readout in mV of the electrical potential
between it and the half-cell. Figure 11.2 refers for a hand-held meter. Figure
11.3 illustrates an ROV contact probe and Figure 11.4 diagrammatically
shows the proximity method.
When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a sound electrical
connection is made between the structure and the positive terminal of the
surface control room installed meter, as indicated in Figure 11.4
Figure 11.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
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Figure 11.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By An ROV
Figure 11.4
Proximity CP Measurement
4. Current Density Measurements
Current density may be measured using a specialised probe and may be
conducted by either a diver or, more usually an ROV. This type of inspection
would be undertaken for a specific purpose such as investigating a particular
area of the structure that was suspected of being under-protected or following
up a visual inspection that had identified more corrosion than was anticipated.
Specific procedures will be provided for this type of survey.
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Chapter 11
As stated earlier impressed current systems may have reference electrodes
installed to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 10.10 shows a ZRE
monitoring potential and Figure 11.5 illustrates a monitored anode.
A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the
structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room.
Thus the current can be constantly monitored.
Figure 11.5
Monitored Electrode
5. Calibration Procedures For Hand-held CP Meters
It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are
accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method
of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose that is
detailed here.
5.1. Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three
screw-on calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors,
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which should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the
cells can be proven as described below.)
High impedance (10 ) voltmeter
Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector
Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which contains
inhibitors)
Log sheets
5.1.1. Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are
chemically saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as
reference cells.
5.1.1.1. Proving The Calomel Cells
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell,
however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed, and provided there is no damage to the casing they
should remain saturated.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial. (Commonly
the phials are glass or clear plastic)
Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3
Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse each
one only as far as the filling hole in the phial
While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the negative
terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal and record the
reading
Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes
1 and 3
2 and 3
Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 2 mv
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used
If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one to use
If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used
If all of the readings are out the pair giving the least reading may be used (with
clients acceptance)
Rinse the electrodes in fresh water. Figure 11.6 refers.
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
5.1.1.2. Calibration Of The Meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the
same whether it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
5.1.1.2.1. Calibration Of A Bathycorrometer
There is slight difference in the application if the meter is a
Bathycorrometer being calibrated with the specifically designed
screw-on cells. In this case the following procedure applies.
Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater
(not drawn from the fire main)
Remove the contact probe tip from the meter
Screw the calomel reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer
instead of the tip
Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge
the semi-permeable membrane. (The meter display may be left
out of the water to assist taking readings.)
Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes
maximum)
The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the
meters own Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly.
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Record the reading on the log
Acceptable readings are between 0 to -10 mV. (The reading will
be negative as the Ag/AgCl cell built into the hand-held meter is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter).
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is essentially
the same as for ROV deployed meters and the procedure is
outlined under paragraph 5.2 below.
6. Overall Calibration of ROV Deployed CP Meters
It is common for CP readings to be displayed on the ROV monitor in the control
room in real-time. This display is electronically displayed via an analogue to
digital converter. This circuitry must be calibrated before use as will as the
electrode. This is simply accomplished by applying a known voltage to the input
for the display. If there is any discrepancy in the display is can either be
adjusted electronically or a calibration curve may be prepared. The calibration
of the contact meter is detailed below.
6.1. Calibration Of An ROV Deployed Contact CP Meter
Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into
a plastic bucket on deck
Take the zinc block, attach the clamp and electric wire and place the block
into the same bucket
Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high resistance
voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode
Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its electric
connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector)
Take a reading from the voltmeter. Acceptable readings are
1.00 V 5 mV. Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc block and disconnect it from the clamp
Soak the CP probe assembly in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30 minutes
Place the zinc block into the same bucket as the probe and make
submerged contact between the probe tip and the zinc.
Take a reading from the ROV system in the control room on the calibrated
video display. This reading should be the same as that recorded from the
calomel 10 mV
Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc and calomel cells from the seawater, wash in fresh water,
dry and store.
This procedure may be adopted for hand held meters also as indicted
previously.
6.2. Calibration Of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes
Before initiating this procedure ensure that the insulation on the conductors
for the proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation
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Chapter 11
test meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of
the copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes
Immerse the Ag/AgCl probe in the same bucket for the same time
Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel
electrode
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 10 mV
Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only)
positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp
and electrical connection
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V 5 mV
The procedure for calibrating an ROV proximity probe applies to a hand-held
probe.
7. Operating Procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a batterycharging log. (Usual requirements for battery-operated equipment is 14 to 16
hours from fully discharged)
Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are usually
supplied with spare tips)
Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use. (This
allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable membranes.)
Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate
calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet
Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the appropriate
log sheet
Take a reference reading on zinc on the inspection site prior to starting the
survey
For each contact reading ensure that there is correct metal-to-metal contact
between the probe tip and the cathode surface.
With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection to the
structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface instrument
For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and the
cathode is correct
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During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly recorded
on the appropriate log
On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc
Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any batteryoperated equipment as necessary and complete the battery-charging log
Notes:
Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver

chloride, on trickle charge continuously if required
If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take
check readings periodically during the survey
8. Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl

Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure
Over-protected structure
>-1.10 V (>-1100 mV)
Zinc
-1.00 to 1.05 V (-1000 to 1050 mV)
Protected Steel
< -0.80 V (<-800 mV)
Unprotected Steel
-0.45 to 0.65 V (-450 to 650 mV)
Calomel (K Cl)
0 to 0.01 V (0 to 10 mV)
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Chapter 11
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 12
CHAPTER 12
Welding And Welding Defects
1. Joining Metal Components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four
ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material
is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where
the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by
fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting
or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by
metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from
the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a
bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are
glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding.
2. Fabricating Offshore Structures
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main types of welding.
2.1. Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven
major groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics
and thus similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance Welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
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Welding and Welding Defects
2.1.1. Solid Phase Welding
These processes bring the two sides of a joint into intimate atomic
contact by mechanical pressure or atomic diffusion or a combination of
both. With this type of welding, as its name suggests, the materials to be
joined do not melt. The oldest form of welding of this type is the
blacksmiths weld, where the two pieces of metal to be joined were
heated and hammered together on an anvil until the metals joined. Often
known as hammer welding, chains used to be made in this way.
Modern examples of this type of welding are:
Cold pressure welding This is used with ductile metals such as
copper. The joint is made by mechanical pressure at room temperature
Hot pressure welding
This is where heat is used to make
metals ductile. The process is then similar to cold pressure welding
Explosive welding This impacts the parts together; it also causes local
distortion and heat
Friction welding The two pieces are rubbed together generating heat
and also local distortion
Figure 12.1
Friction Welding
Diffusion welding This is where high temperatures are created for a
sufficient time to allow atomic diffusion across the joint
2.1.2. Thermo-chemical Welding
A gas flame generates sufficient heat to fuse the joint. Alternatively, an
exothermic reaction can be used, whereby super-heated molten metal is
produced. This is then poured into the joint. For example:
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Chapter 12
Gas Welding
Here a mixture of gases (usually acetylene and
oxygen) is burnt in a torch to provide a high temperature flame; filler
metal is added as necessary
Thermic Welding A mixture of iron oxide and aluminium is ignited in a
ladle to produce molten iron and alumina slag; the work pieces are
preheated and surrounded by a mould into which the molten iron is cast.
(Railway tracks are welded this way)
2.1.3. Electric-resistance Welding
This is the process whereby heat is produced by passing an electric
current across the faces of a joint. For example:
Spot-welding
This is mainly used on sheet metal. The parts are
pressed together by electrodes and the pressure point provides the path
for low-voltage high current electricity. This causes resistance heating at
the point and results in a spot weld
Figure 12.2
Spot Welding
Seam Welding
The parts to be welded are run through a pair of
wheels; these replace the electrodes, but have the same effect
2.1.4. Unshielded Arc Welding
This type of welding produces an arc for only a very short period of time and the
contamination of the weld by the air is either accepted or rectified later. For
example:
Stud Welding
Many different techniques are used here including the
fusible collar method, which involves the use of round studs. The stud and collar
are held against the work and a current is passed through; the collar collapses,
allowing the stud to drop into a molten pool
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Figure 12.3
Stud Welding
2.1.5. Radiant Energy Welding
In this process the work and usually the heat source are in a vacuum.
The usual heat source is a stream of electrons and this type of welding
produces a deep, very narrow weld. For example:
Electron Beam Welding A high-energy beam of electrons is focused
onto the work piece. This beam is powerful enough to vaporise a hole
through the material and the keyhole thus formed is carried forward with
the work. The major disadvantages are that the work must be in a
vacuum and the cost of the necessary plant is very high
Laser Welding
This process has only recently become available. It
works in a similar fashion to electron beam welding, but does not require
a vacuum. This process is highly specialised
From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection,
the following welding processes are the most widely used
2.1.6. Flux Shielded Arc Welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is
formed between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus
formed melts and fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the
filler metal and the flux is used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
This is the most widely used
technique. In this process, heat to melt the work piece is supplied by an
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Chapter 12
electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and melts down forming
small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the flux forms molten
slag that protects the weld together with protective gases formed at the
same time
Figure 12.4
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
Submerged Arc Welding
This method applies the flux separately in the form of a powder. The
electrode is a continuous wire and is fed automatically. The arc and weld
pool are totally submerged under the flux powder
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Figure 12.5
Submerged Arc Welding
Common faults associated with this method are:
Lack of fusion
Porosity
Weld profile anomalies
Slag inclusion
Undercut
2.1.7. Gas Shielded Arc Welding
This method generates heat by an arc and the weld pool and arc are
both shielded by with an inert gas. The gas can be argon of helium,
which is common with the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) process, or the gas
may have carbon dioxide or oxygen added, as with Metal Inert Gas
(MIG) welding. For example:
Metal Inert Gas or Metal Active Gas
In this process an arc is maintained between the end of a continuously
fed thin wire electrode and the work piece. The electric current is passed
into the wire through a copper contact tip near the end of the gun. The
arc melts the wire and the base metal and this molten and cooling metal
is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield directed from a nozzle
concentric with the wire.
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Chapter 12
With the MIG process the gas shield is argon or helium or a mixture of
these inert gases and the process is widely used to weld, light alloys,
nickel and aluminium. With the MAG process, which is more frequently
used in steel, the gas shield is a mixture of Argon, CO2 and O2. Wire is
usually of the solid type but fluxed core wires are used when better
metallurgical properties are required in the joint. See Figure 12.6.
Figure 12.6
Metal Inert Gas Welding
Common faults associated with MIG are:
Porosity
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Excess penetration
Cracking
Arc strike
Undercut
Tungsten Inert Gas
In this process the arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the weld. The high melting point of tungsten ensures that
no tungsten is melted into the weld pool. Filler metal in the form of a solid
wire is added separately into the weld pool as required. A gas shield
issuing from a nozzle concentric with the tungsten electrode shields the
tungsten filler rod, the arc and the weld metal from the atmosphere. The
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gas shield is normally pure argon but helium or argon mixtures may be
used for specialist applications.
Figure 12.7
Tungsten Inert Gas
Common faults associated with TIG are:
Arc Strike
Burn though
Porosity
Lack of fusion
Tungsten inclusion
Undercut
Oxide inclusions
3. Types of Welded Joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast
majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures.
Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
3.1. The Butt Joint
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at
an angle of between 135o and 180o. This joint is used to join pipe sections
end to end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See
Figure 12.8.
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.8
Butt Joint
3.2. T Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5o to 90o. This
configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other
areas. See Figure 12.9.
Figure 12.9
T Joint
3.3. Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between
them is 0o to 5o. See Figure 12.10.
Figure 12.10
Lap Joint
3.4. Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30o and 135o. See Figure 12.11
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Figure 12.11
Corner Joint
3.5. Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the
same axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a
cross. See Figure 12.12.
Figure 12.12
Cruciform Joint
4. Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: -
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Chapter 12
A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as: The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 12.13
Figure 12.13
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
5. Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 12.14.
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Figure 12.14
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is
to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is
copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in
order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a
material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (Trecry).
Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
In the diagram of the weld, Figure 12.14, this temperature is reached at point 3
so that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the recrystallisation temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region
can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld.
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Chapter 12
The temperature continues to fall between point 3 and 4, which is ambient
temperature. Figure 12.14 only shows what is happening along the line AA; but
of course this happens throughout the section. This then, leads to the different
regions of the weld as shown in Figure 12.15 below and is a graphic indication
of the way temperature gradients have to be managed in any weld.
Figure 12.15
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
quenching) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as martinsite. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
5.1. Further Considerations for Weld Control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also
be considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in
the weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get
into the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid
metal of the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in
metal reduces and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in
the weld metal; or sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal.
Hydrogen diffusing into the HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which
may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause
differential expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in
the weld or in the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless
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a stress relieving procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as
a residual stress, so that the normal working stress in imposed on top of and
added to this residual stress, thus giving an in-service stress that is higher
that the normal design working stress. The effect of residual stresses will be
at the very least that the fatigue life is shortened. At the moment, there is no
way that these residual stresses can be measured during the course of a
routine inspection. (ACFM may be developed for this purpose).
6. Welding Terms
There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that
are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These
terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990:
Welding, brazing, soldering and braze
welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for
symbolic representation on drawings
BS EN 22553:1995:
Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN ISO 5817:2003:
Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for
imperfections
BS EN 13622:2002:
Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used
for gas welding equipment
BS 499-1:1991:
Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing
and thermal cutting
(This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS EN 13622:2002)
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is
compiled below.
6.1. Plate Preparation Terms
Double V butt weld
a butt weld in which the prepared faces will

form two opposing Vs in section, welded from
both sides
Included angle of a butt weld the angle between the prepared faces
Included angle of a fillet weld the angle between the parent plates
Parent plate
the metals that are to be joined by the weld
Prepared angle, weld prep
the angle of bevel between the prepared face

and the perpendicular
Prepared face
the bevelled portion of the parent plate prior

to welding
Root gap
separation between the parent plates to be

joined
Root face
the un-bevelled portion of the parent plate

adjacent to the root gap
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Chapter 12
Single bevel butt weld
a butt weld that has only one prepared face,

welded from one side only
Single V butt weld
a butt weld in which the prepared faces will

form a V in section, welded from one side
only
Figure 12.16 refers
Figure 12.16
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
6.2. Terms Defining Weld Features
Cap, Face of the weld
the visible face of the completed weld
Excess weld metal
the weld metal lying outside the line joining

the weld toes
Toe of the weld
the junction between the cap and the parent

plate
Root
the point where the back of the weld

intersects the back face of the parent plate
Weld zone
the area containing the weld and both heat

affected zones
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent plate that has been

affected by heat from the welding process but
which has not melted
Throat thickness
the total thickness of the weld metal
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Effective throat thickness
(design throat thickness)
weld thickness for design purposes, usually a

line between both toes and the root
Weld width
the shortest distance between the toes of the

weld
Toe blend
the transition between the weld material and

the parent plate
Leg (of a fillet weld)
the distance from the root of the weld to the

toe of the weld
Figure 12.17 refers
Figure 12.17
Weld Feature Terminology
6.3. Welding Process Terminology
Filler rod
the filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long
used in MMA welding
Filler bead
when the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler

rod the successive passes are called filler beads
Run or pass
the weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod
Weldment
an alternative term to describe the weld zone
Fusion zone
the edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and
the root face along which the weld metal fuses with the
parent plate
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Chapter 12
Root bead
weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back
wall of the parent plate
Figure 12.18 refers
Figure 12.18
Weld Process Terminology
6.4. Welded Nodes and Nozzles
Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost
exclusively on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will
usually be nodes or nozzles.
Node
a node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only

has preparation on the minor member, a single bevel weld.
The minor tubular is called the brace and it is this member
that has the preparation. The major tubular is known as the
chord. In joints where both members are the same size the
through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle
Both tubular members have preparation, which also means

that the chord has a hole to match the brace. This is a full
penetration butt-welded joint. This type of joint is commonly
found in pipelines and where fluid flow is required.
Figure 12.19 refers.
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Figure 12.19
Nodes and Nozzles
7. Weld Defect Terminology
An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but
subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding
terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO
5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this
standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect
are listed in 6 categories.
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Lack of fusion and penetration
Imperfect shape
Miscellaneous
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will
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Chapter 12
assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other
engineers.
7.1. Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; Longitudinal
Transverse
Edge
Creature
Centreline
Fusion zone
Weld metal
Parent metal
Figure 12.20 and 12.21 refer.
Figure 12.20
Cracks
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Figure 12.21
HAZ Cracking
7.2. Cavities
There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category.
Porosity
gas pores that may be located in different locations
Elongated cavities
a string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis
Shrinkage cavity
a cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal

while it is in a plastic state
Wormhole
an elongated or tubular cavity formed by gas

trapped during the solidification process, this
may have a herringbone appearance on a
radiograph
Crater
a depression caused by shrinkage at the end

of a run if the heat is removed quickly
Crater pipe
a hole in the centre of a crater again caused

by shrinkage
See Figure 12.22
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.22
Cavities
7.3. Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld
pool before it solidifies.
Inclusion
slag or other foreign matter trapped during

welding, this has a more irregular shape than
a gas pore
Oxide inclusion
metallic oxide trapped during welding
Tungsten inclusion
tungsten inclusion from the tungsten

electrode used in TIG welding
Copper inclusion
copper inclusion from the nozzle in MIG, MAG

or submerged arc welding caused by poor
welder control
Puckering
oxide covering on the weld or bead that has

irregular surfaces and a deeply entrained
oxide film, which may occur when materials
that form refractory oxides are welded
See Figure 12.23
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Figure 12.23
Slag Inclusions
7.4. Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Lack of fusion
the weld metal has not bonded, this

can be either
Between weld metal and weld metal (lack of inter-run fusion)

Between weld metal and parent metal (lack of sidewall fusion)
Lack of sidewall fusion
no union between the weld metal and

the parent plate
Lack of root fusion
no bonding at the root of the weld joint
Lack of inter-run fusion
no fusion between adjacent beads in a

multi-pass weld
Incomplete root penetration
no weld metal extending into the root

of the weld
Figure 12.24 refers
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.24
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
7.5. Imperfect Shape
Excess weld metal
weld metal lying outside the plane

joining the toes
Excess penetration
excess weld metal protruding through

the root
Root concavity
Incompletely filled grove
a shallow grove in the root

a grove caused by insufficient weld
metal being laid onto the cap
Undercut
a grove in the toe of the weld where

parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current
Overlap
weld metal spilled over from the cap

onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the
parent metal
Burn through
a collapse in the weld pool caused by

excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld
Unequal leg length
(not a standard term but internationally

understood), describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint
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Poor restart

understood), an irregular start or pickup after one bead is ended or
interrupted and the next arc strike is
imperfectly aligned with the previous
bead
Misalignment

understood), poor fit-up resulting in the
parent plates being out of alignment
either laterally or angularly
See Figure 12.24 and 12.25
Figure 12.25
Imperfect shape
7.6. Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike
burn marks on the parent metal caused

by striking arcs with the welding rod off
the line of the weld
Excessive dressing
grinding away too much weld metal

and leaving the weld below the depth
of the parent plate
Grinding mark
groves or marks on the parent plate

caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools
Tool mark
marks indented into the parent plate

caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools
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Chapter 12
Hammer mark
obvious damage caused by a hammer

blow
Torn surface
surface irregularity caused by breaking

off temporary attachments
Surface pitting
small depressions on the parent plate
Spatter
spots of weld metal thrown out from

the weld pool and attaching
themselves to the parent plate
Dog scar
a welding scar left over after removal

of a dog, which is a temporary metal
fixing used to stabilise the parent
plates during the welding process
See Figure 12.26
Figure 12.26
Miscellaneous Defects
8. Defect Categories and Reporting
Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: Planar Defects:
These have a large surface area but small volume such as
cracks and laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional.
Volumetric Defects:
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that
have a large volume compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3
dimensional and will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This
category of defect is caused during fabrication, not in-service, while planar
defects may be caused by in-service deterioration.
8.1. Reporting Defects in Welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections volumetric
defects will seldom be identified as they are usually caused during
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fabrication. Planar defects may be observed as these could be caused by
stress or fatigue failure leading to crack-like features becoming evident. This
type of discontinuity will be of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is
also the zone where it is most likely to be found. This is because at this point
there is a region that has been heated and melted causing grain structure
changes as outlined earlier. Also in this area the geometry of the weld
changes, which may create a notch effect that, is an area where stress is
increased above the average for the rest of the component.
Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least; The type of defect
describe the defect with correct terminology
Location
state the global location, i.e. what component

is damaged, where on the component is the
damage (state the clock position), give the
relative location, i.e. is it on the HAZ, in the
toe, on the weld cap or in the parent plate
Dimensions
state the start position and give length. If the

defect is a crack-like feature state whether it
is continuous or branching, the orientation
and if it is measurable give width and depth
Description
describe the feature, if it is a crack is it

branching, if it is state the orientation of the
branches
8.2. Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters

During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the
weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the
required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and
for the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of
measuring gauges, templates and devices that are employed. These
instruments are available for in-service inspections a review of a selection
will be of interest for underwater applications.
8.2.1. The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge
This is a gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld
reinforcement height, leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill.
Figure 12.27 refers
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.27
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
8.2.2. Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as
indicated in Figure 12.28
Figure 12.28
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
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Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
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Chapter 12
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Ultrasonic Inspection
CHAPTER 13
1. Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as
it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress
pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a
wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in
its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and
the reflected wave will give information about the length of the waves path
through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured and the presence of flaws can be detected. For offshore applications
this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion monitoring and occasionally for
weld inspection.
2. Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 13.1 refers.
2.1. What Is Ultrasonic?
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human
hearing. The frequency spectrum at Figure 13.1 refers.
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Chapter 13
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x )
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 108 m sec-1
Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec-1
Sound Waves
Frequency
Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of sound)
(kHz)
(Travelling at the speed of light)
Infrasound
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
2 x 10-2 kHz (20 kHz)
Sonar uses frequencies in the audio range
Human hearing range
10
2.5 kHz
10
LF
10
MF
10
HF
Radio frequencies
10
10
UHF
10
SHF
10
EHF
10
10
10
10
11
3.8 Red
10
12
7.6 Visible
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
10
18
10
19
10
20
10
21
10
22
10
23
Ultrasonic frequency test range

10 MHz
VLF
VHF
Infra-red
Ultra-violet
X-rays
-rays
Cosmic radiation
Table 13.1
The Frequency Spectrum
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The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is from 20 kHz up to
approximately 6 MHz. For most practical ultrasonic testing the frequency
range from 0.5 to 6 MHz is used. Frequencies lower than 0.5 MHz are not
used for test purposes and the lower frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 MHz
are used for testing materials with very large grain structures such as
concrete or cast iron. Frequencies from 2 to 6 MHz are used for testing
materials with fine grain structures including steels.
2.2. Frequency of the Wave
The number of oscillations it causes per second determines the frequency of
a signal. The basic unit of frequency is the Hertz, abbreviated Hz. One Hertz
is one complete cycle of an event per second.
The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in
seconds. Therefore: -
See Figure 13.2, which displays a graph for an alternating voltage
Figure 13.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 13.2 in that as
the sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front
that causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensely and compressively stressed and relaxed.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 13.3 may be calculated thus: -
The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
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Number
Engineering
Prefix
Symbol
1,000,000,000
109
giga
1,000,000
106
mega
1,000
103
Kilo
0.001
10-3
milli
0.000001
10-6
micro
Table 13.4
Number Prefixes Used With Frequency
The frequency calculated above would normally be written as 10 kHz and
the period of the signal as 100 sec.
2.3. Speed of the Wave
So far only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have
been considered. However, the wave itself is passing along through the
material. (Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and
down, but as well as this, the wave travels forwards).
Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of sound for a given
type of wave in a given material. That is, the speed of travel of a sound wave
is different for different types of wave and the speed of travel is also different
in different materials.
2.4. Types of Ultrasonic Wave
Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing
the atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two
types of wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that
propagate as surface wave along the surface skin of the material.
2.4.1. Waves That Propagate Through Solids
The two type of wave that propagates through a solid are discussed
below.
2.4.1.1. Longitudinal or Compression Waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, VL is the velocity
of propagation of these longitudinal or compression waves. With this
type of wave propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is
the same as the direction of the wave propagation. Figure 13.5 refers.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
2.4.1.2. Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus VT is
the velocity of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation
of the atoms in this mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of
motion of the propagating wave. Figure 13.6 refers.
Figure 13.6
Transverse or Shear Wave
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Figure 13.7
Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the
Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material
If Figure 13.7 is compared with Figure 13.5 it may be seen that both
diagrams represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main
difference is in the movement of the atoms. Whereas in the
compression wave the atoms are compressed and pulled apart in
the direction that the wave is moving, the shear wave atoms are
displaced pass each other that is sheared.
2.4.2. Surface Waves
Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have
uses in underwater inspection.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is
elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface,
thus resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily
damped out if the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This
mode of travel is not used underwater.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main
types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series
of modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains
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Chapter 13
mentioned so far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves
are applied for testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie
very close to the surface of the part. They are also used to test the
quality of bond in laminate materials.
Love Waves
Love waves travel on the surface of the material without a vertical
component of displacement, which makes them analogous to a surface
compression wave motion.
Table 13.7 summarises properties of these modes of propagation.
Type of
Wave
Symbol
Condition
Atomic Motion
Single
Velocity
Comments on
Underwater Use
Longitudinal
or
Compression
VL
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Longitudinal
that is, in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Used for
thickness and
lamination
measurement
Shear or
Transverse
VT
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Transverse
that is, at right
angles to the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Used for defect

sizing
Raleigh
(often
referred to as
surface
waves)
VS
Semi-infinite
free surface
Compound
that is, motion
up and down as
well as in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Not used
underwater
Lamb (plate
waves)
VRN
Thin sheet
Compound
No
Not used
underwater
Thin rods
VO
Small diameter
bars
Compound
Yes
Not used
underwater
Table 13.7
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
3. Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
Methods for calculating some of the single value velocities are shown in Table
13.8
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Type of Wave
Velocity of Sound
Compression or Longitudinal
Shear or Transverse
Symbols Used
Symbol
Meaning
V* (meters second-1)
Velocity of sound (meters second-1)
E (Newton meter-2)
Elastic modulus
G (Newton meter-2)
Shear modulus
(kilograms meter-3)
Density
Poisson ratio
* In some books, C is used as the velocity of sound

Table 13.8
Ultrasonic Velocities
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here in a
selection of materials is shown in Table 13.9.
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Chapter 13
Material
Acoustic Velocity (ms-1)
Density
(kgm-3)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
VL
VT
VS
VO
Aluminium
6350
3100
2900
5100
2710
70.8
26.5
Araldite
2500
1200
Concrete
4600
2000
Brass (Naval)
4430
2120
1950
3490
8100
98.4
36.4
Copper
4660
2260
1930
3710
8900
122.7
45.5
Lead (Pure)
2160
700
630
1200
11400
16.1
5.6
Air
333
Bronze,
Phosphor (5%)
3530
2230
2010
3430
8860
Lead,
Antimony (6%)
2160
810
740
1370
10900
Steel
(Structural)
5940
3250
213.3
82.9
Steel
5850
3230
2790
5170
7800
Steel
Stainless 302
5660
3120
3120
4900
8030
Steel
Stainless 410
7390
2990
2160
5030
7670
Water
1490
1000
Motor Oil
1740
870
Transformer
Oil
1380
920
Nylon
2620
1080
1100
3.59
1.28
Polyethylene
2340
925
940
2.26
0.80
Perspex
(Plexi-glass)
2730
1430
1180
6.33
2.41
7850
Table 13.9
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
4. Ultrasonic Wavelength
A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property
indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one
complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity
of any ultrasonic test is being assessed.
The method of calculation is shown in the following equations.
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For example, to calculate the wavelength for a 20 kHz ultrasonic compression

wave in aluminium: -
Now calculate the wavelength for a 5 MHz compression probe in steel.

(Answer
1.17 x 10-3m or 1.17mm)
What would the wavelength be if it were a shear wave?
(Answer
6.46 x 10-4m or 0.646mm)
Because the wavelength depends on the velocity of sound, the wavelength of
the ultrasonic signal will change when it passes from one material into another.
For example, when an ultrasonic compression wave passes from perspex into
steel, (perspex would be the material used for the shoe of the transducer and
steel the work piece), the wavelength in steel would be larger than that in the
perspex as the velocity of sound in perspex is smaller than the velocity in steel.
Refer to Table 13.9 and Figure 13.10 below.
Figure 13.10
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
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Chapter 13
5. Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials

As the ultrasonic signal propagates through a material a pressure or stress front
will be initiated in the material which will present resistance to the passage of
the sound wave energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties
of the material. This is a useful parameter of a material and must be determined
if the pressure or stress magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be determined.
5.1. Acoustic Impedance (Z)
The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance
(Z). It is the product of density () and acoustic velocity (V). That is: Z=xV
(For a compression wave, V would be VL).
5.2. Pressure or Stress Magnitude (p)
The pressure or stress magnitude (p) of the ultrasonic wave is proportional
to the acoustic impedance (Z), the frequency (f), and the displacement
amplitude of the atoms (d). That is,
p = 2 z f d
Now from this the acoustic power density (J) of the ultrasonic wave is given
by the equation: -
5.2.1. Acoustic Attenuation

A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave
as it passes through the material. Large amounts of attenuation will
reduce the penetrability of the wave and a loss of the back wall
reflection could be caused by this effect.
The main physical phenomena that attenuate the ultrasonic signal are,
Scattering
Diffusion
Viscous damping losses
Relaxation losses
The first two are due to the wave motion of the ultrasound and the
second two are due to the effect of stressing the atoms in the material.
5.3. The Decibel System
It is usual to measure the amplitude performance or how much a signal is
attenuated in terms of the ratio of one signal to another; e.g. input to output;
in the case of an amplifier the output is larger than the input, while with an
attenuator the reverse is the case. It is therefore consistent to measure the
attenuation of a signal using this technique. It is not an absolute
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measurement but gives the relationship of the decay of the power in a signal
as it passes through a piece of material. Figure 13.11 refers.
Figure 13.11
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the
peaks of the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
P1 and P2 can be any successive two peaks.

The ultrasonic signal from the probe is, however, a voltage and the ratio of
the power
P1/P2
Is given by the ratio
V12/V22
Now as
P = IV
And
I = V/R
Then
(V) 2
This then gives the attenuation as 10 Log10 V1/V2 dB

This reduces to 20 Log10 V1/V2 dB
This last expression is a standard ultrasonic formula for calculating the
attenuation of a signal in dB.
For example, what is the attenuation of the ultrasonic signal between the
first and second echo for the signals shown in Figure 13.12
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.12
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes
= 20 log10 (1.5)
= 20 x 0.1761
= 3.52 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would it
be if V2 were one-tenth V1?
(Answer 6 dB and 20 dB)
The last two results calculated are most important as they are both utilised in
practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is
halved that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop.
A table showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as
Table 13.13.
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Decibel Gain
Ratio V1 to V2
Comments
1.0
No change, the ratio is 1:1
1.26
1.6
2.0
2.5
10
3.2
12
4.0
14
5.0
16
6.3
18
7.9
20
10.0
Double the value (half for loss) ration 2:1
Four fold (or quarter for loss) ratio 4:1
Ten fold (or one tenth for loss) ratio 10:1
Table 13.13
Decibel Gain for the Range 0 to 20 dB
5.4. The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave
Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a know
speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the
laws of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it
passes through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to
determine what happens when the wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties
(e.g. water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the
back surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack
or a porosity bubble are boundaries also.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of
travel of the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law
of reflection for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the
law of refraction (Snells Law) for the wave that passes into the second
material (material 2).
5.4.1. Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal
angle to the interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same
as the angle that the incident wave makes with the same normal angle.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.14
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0o the reflected angle is also 0o so the
wave is reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling
in the same material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of
the signal or the mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for
thickness measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
5.4.2. Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will
pass into the second material. The path in the second material will still be
a straight line, but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with
the direction of the incident wave, as it will have been turned through an
angle that can be determined by Snells Law.
Snells Law of Refraction states that: -
Angle need not be larger that as shown in Figure 13.14. The value of
is determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The
wavelength will always change between the two materials. See Figure
13.15
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Figure 13.15
Snells Law
The constant in Snells Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two
materials, so that Snells Law can be written: -
As there are two velocities of sound in a material, VL and VT, if the

incident wave can cause these then there will be two resulting refracted
waves.
Now an incident compression (longitudinal) wave at an angle can
produce two stress waves, or forces, at the interface, as it has a
component parallel to the interface given by sine that will produce a
shear wave in material 2 and a normal component given by cos that
will produce a compression wave in material 2. See Figure 13.16.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.16
Force Exerted by the Incident
Wave on the Interface
Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident
direction by an angle determined by Snells Law and the velocity of
sound in the two materials. Figure 13.17 refers.
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Figure 13.17
Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and
Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials
The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material
2 is determined from Snells Law, which gives: -
VL1 = velocity of sound in 1

VL2 = velocity of sound in 2
Therefore L is the angle whose sine is equal to: -
The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in
material 2 is again determined using Snells Law, except that this time
the velocity of sound of the shear wave VT2 is used in the equation, so
that: -
Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in
material 2 T is the angle whose sine is: -
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Chapter 13
Example:
Determine the resultant wave angle and wavelengths when an ultrasonic
compression wave of 50 kHz travelling in perspex meets an interface
with steel at an angle of 10o to the normal.
From Table 13.9
VL in perspex is
VL in steel is
VT in steel is
2730 ms-1
5850 ms-1
3230 ms-1
The incident compression wave in perspex will, on meeting the interface,

produce three ultrasonic waves.
A reflected compression wave in the perspex
A refracted compression wave in the steel
A refracted shear wave in the steel
See Figure 13.18.
Figure 13.18
Diagram of Wave Configuration
from a Perspex Block at 10o
5.4.2.1. The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the
angle of incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10o
to the normal.
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The wavelength of the reflected wave will be the same as the incident
wave, as they are both compressive and travelling at the same
speed. The wavelength is calculated from the equation: -
5.4.2.2. Refracted Compression Wave in the Steel

For this wave Snells Law gives the angle of refraction thus: -
The wavelength of the compression wave in steel is: -
5.4.2.3. The Refracted Shear Wave in the Steel

Similarly Snells Law gives: -
The wavelength of the shear wave in steel is given by: -
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Chapter 13
First and Second Critical Angles

If the last calculations are followed and projected it will be seen there
are two critical angles. These are angles of inclination of the incident
wave at which the ultrasonic compression or shear wave will not pass
into material 2 from material 1.
The first critical angle is when the refracted compression wave angle
(path 4 in Figure 13.17) is 90O. This means, of course, that the only
wave transmitted is the shear wave.
As the incident angle to the normal increases, the second critical
angle is reached. At this angle, the shear wave is passing along the
interface as a surface wave, having gone through a change of mode.
Show that for the data given in the previous example, the first critical
angle is 27.8O and the second critical angle is 57.7O.
6. Test Frequency
The test frequency used for flaw detection in land-based equipment varies with
different applications. Table 13.19 gives some examples of frequency and
application.
Applications
Frequency Range
Concrete
25 100 kHz
Wood
Natural rocks
Coarse grain metal structures (e.g. cast iron,
copper, stainless steel)
200 kHz 1 MHz
Finer grain metal structures
400 kHz 5 MHz
Plastics
200 kHz 2.25 MHz
Forgings
1 10 MHz
Welds
1 2.25 MHz
Table 13.19
Selected Applications and Frequencies
7. Ultrasonic Transducers
A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form to another.
In the case of the ultrasonic transducer, it transforms high frequency electrical
signals to the same high frequency mechanical signals and vice versa. There
are two possible types of device for doing this. At the lower frequency end of the
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scale (below 100 kHz) a magneto-strictive device is used, and above this range
Piezo electric devices are used. At the moment, ultrasonic non-destructive
testing uses mostly Piezo electric devices, while magneto-strictive devices are
widely used in sonar and underwater signalling.
Magneto-strictive devices use the expansion and contraction of magnetic
materials under the influence of a varying magnetic field, to generate a
mechanical pulse from a magnetic signal. The device also works in
reverse, the input of a mechanical signal generating a magnetic signal.
The Piezo electric transducer makes use of the property that certain
crystalline and ceramic materials have whereby, if the material is
subjected to a mechanical extension of contraction, it generates an
electrical signal related to the size of the mechanical input. This effect is
also reversible, although the efficiency of the conversion is dependent on
the type of use. Early transducers were made from quartz, and Rochelle
salt crystals, but now they are made from a range of synthetic crystalline
and ceramic materials that include barium titanate, lithium sulphate and
potassium zirconium titanate.
In practice the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to
enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with electrodes;
often silver foil, to apply the voltage across the crystal if it is acting as a
transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from it if it is acting as a receiver. The
crystal is attached to the case by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing
but also as a backing to the crystal. The backing has a significant influence on
the transducers performance. Its impedance controls the bandwidth of the
transducer and the damping of the crystals ring. For maximum damping, the
impedance of the backing must equal the impedance of the crystal. Also, it must
have the ability to attenuate completely the sonic energy transmitted from the
back of the Piezo electric element so that this signal is prevented from returning
to the back of the Piezo electric crystal, which would thereby produce an
unwanted signal.
A shoe is added to protect the crystal from physical damage or wear, and also
from the environment. Most transducers are completely sealed units.
Furthermore, the shoe can be shaped to act as a lens. In this respect, sound
waves behave like light waves and acoustic lenses are designed in a similar
manner to light lenses.
The index of refraction is the ratio of the velocities of sound in the lens to those
in the other acoustic media (e.g. sea water), as defined by Snells Law.
The shoe should absorb as little of the sound as possible and so its impedance
is usually selected to be between the crystal and the material with which the
transducer is in contact. Shoes are often constructed of perspex.
Also, a probe that operates in a shear mode can be produced from a Piezo
electric crystal that operates in a longitudinal mode, by having a wedge-shaped
shoe. The wedge shape directs the longitudinal wave at an angle to the surface
of the test part. Depending on the angle of incidence, this will produce partial or
total conversion of the longitudinal wave into a shear wave, as previously seen.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.20
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
7.1. Types of Transducers (Probes)
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only
necessary to be familiar with the main types.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test
specimen with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is
dependant on the actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types
of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
7.1.1. Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that
both transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic
characteristics of this transducer are quite specific and the selected
crystals possess particular characteristics. The crystal must transmit the
signal, stop ringing, ring down to rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring
up to produce electrical energy that is passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely
separated from the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure
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13.20 indicates the main design features of a single crystal compression
probe.
7.1.1.1. Probe Selection
Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output
characteristics.
Single crystal probes have:
Advantages
Good power output
Greater penetration
Disadvantages
Poor near zone resolution
Cannot measure thin plate accurately
Twin crystal probes:
Advantages
Good near zone resolution
Initial pulse and dead zone are contained in the shoe
Can be focused to any depth
Can measure thin plate
Disadvantages
Less power output
Less penetration
7.1.2. Twin Crystal Probes
This type of transducer has separate crystals for transmission and
reception. The two crystals are mounted in the same housing but are
carefully isolated from each other electrically and acoustically. The
material properties of the crystals are quite different from those of the
single crystal probe because the two crystals are not required to ring
down in order to receive. One is constantly transmitting while the other is
constantly receiving. The electrical isolation is achieved by providing two
co-axial connectors one for transmit and one to receive, while the
acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork. This is the arrangement
for the transducers mounted on the Baugh and Weedon Sea Probe and
the Wells Krautkramer D meter. Figure 13.21 refers.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.21
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
7.1.3. Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into
the test specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and
the signal passes directly through the specimen at the normal. This type
of probe may be single or twin crystal. Figures 13.20 and 13.21 refer
7.1.4. Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the
material at an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the
case of normal angle probes. The angle is determined to either match
the weld angle of preparation or to introduce the beam at an angle most
propitious to reflect from internal defects. As has been shown this type of
probe, in accordance with Snells Law, can produce shear and
compression waves, purely shear waves or surface waves depending on
the probe angle. Figure 13.22 refers.
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Figure 13.22
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
8. Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists
between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance
between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids,
greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land
based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between
the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece
must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as
this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it
would not enter the work piece.
9. The Ultrasonic Beam
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
9.1. The Dead Zone
This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that
cannot differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference
caused by ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is
due to the crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking
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Chapter 13
time to return to rest. During this ringing period spurious harmonic
frequencies are produced and while the crystal is being stimulated
electrically it cannot simultaneously be stimulated mechanically. The volume
of this region is extremely dependant upon the electronic circuitry that
governs pulse length, amplifier recovery time gain setting and selection of
the crystal itself.
This region is usually of the order of 1 to 3 wavelengths in depth and the
probe designer will normally construct the probe so that it is contained within
the dimensions of the shoe. This region of the beam cannot be used for
testing.
9.2. The Near Zone
This is the name given to the cylindrical portion of the beam that extends
from the face of the crystal to a predictable depth. As it commences at the
crystal face it includes the dead zone. The depth or length of the near zone
is calculated using the expression: -
D = crystal diameter
4 = constant
= wavelength
This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in
one material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an
allowance must be made for the change in near zone length as the
ultrasonic beam travels from one material into another with a consequent
change in wavelength.
It is possible to identify reflectors in the near zone but it is not possible to
size defects because of the variations in signal intensity that is a
characteristic of this region.
9.3. The Far Zone
In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical
shape to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight
beam. The boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of
the maximum power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of
reduced power, either a 6 dB or 20 dB drop.
The angle of spread of the cone is defined as , (in Figure 13.22 the cone
angle is indicated as being /2, which shows the actual angle of spread from
the edge of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle
at the face of the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the
angle of spread of the far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is
/2: -
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= wavelength
D = diameter of the crystal
k = constant
for 6 dB drop k = 0.56

for 20 dB drop k = 1.06
This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness
measurement, flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic
energy of the beam decays exponentially according to an inverse square
rule and is therefore predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable
interfering signals in this region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected
signal. Figure 13.23 refers.
Figure 13.23
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam
and the Beam Energy Envelope
10. Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic
beam due to absorption by the flaw. This often involves the transformation of
energy due to the internal friction of the defect or a failure to transmit energy
across the air gap of the defect. This is sometimes referred to as the shadow
method. It can be referred to as a through transmission technique also. Figure
13.24 refers.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.24
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic
inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 13.25
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Figure 13.25
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
11. Ultrasonic Test Systems
From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able
to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the first type of test is used or
the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if
the second method is employed. A versatile test system will measure both the
parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement the main use of
ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time the ultrasonic
signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 13.25 illustrates.
A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo
flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in
Figure 13.26
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Figure 13.26
Basic Block Diagram
of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System
The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles)
electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and
converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo
electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set
up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces
such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is
reflected back along the transmission path.
This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes
these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to
the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission
with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to
be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected
signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw
detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter
The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous
signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display
continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to
allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal.
11.1. The Flaw Detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending
on the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray
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oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo
system. With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation.
A-scan
beam path
Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the
B-scan
Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views
C-scan
Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect
P-scan
Adds all of the above together and gives a threedimensional computer impression
The most commonly used diver deployed flaw detector is an A-scan
instrument. As an example of this type of instrument Figure 13.27 gives a
drawing of the control panel of a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011.
Figure 13.27
Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon
PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel
11.2. A-scan Flaw Detector Controls
All A-scan flaw detectors have the same basic controls because they are all
manufactured to the same standards and specifications. Some may have
additional features or built in computer chips but the basic controls are all
the same. The standard controls are all illustrated on the drawing in Figure
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Chapter 13
Course Range Control This adjusts the pulse repetition
frequency (PRF) in steps, which sets the basic pulse
transmission rate of the set. This control is calibrated in
centimetres up to 100
Fine Range Control
This control adjusts the PRF
continuously within the step set on the Course Range Control.
These controls together set the time base of the set and
calibrate to different ranges as required for different tests
Delay Control This control moves the whole time base (Xaxis) across the screen without altering the PRF. This control
is used with the two range controls to complete the calibration
procedure
Battery Indicator A meter to indicate battery life
Reject Control This control suppresses incoming signals and
cleans up the display. It is analogous with the squelch control
on a radio set. Care must be exercised with the use of this
control as it may adversely affect sensitivity
Fine Gain Control
This is calibrated in 1 or 2 dB steps
depending on the manufacturer here it is 2 dB. The gain
controls are analogous with the volume control on a radio and
together adjust the amplitude of the screen display and affect
the sensitivity of the set
Course Gain Control This is a calibrated attenuator
calibrated in 20 dB steps
On/Off Control Switches the set on and off. In this set this is
also a fine gain control
Transmit Coaxial Connector The coaxial connector to the
transmitting crystal in a twin crystal probe is connected here
Single/Double Probe Switch Selects the mode of operation
of the set for either single or twin crystal probe operation
Receive Coaxial Connector The coaxial connector to the
receiving crystal in a twin crystal probe is connected here
Charging Connection
connected here
The lead to the battery charger is
11.2.1. A-scan Display

If a thickness measuring system using a twin crystal probe with the unit
displaying the information on a CRT is considered it will serve to illustrate
how this type of flaw detector works.
On the CRT a spot moves across the screen at a fixed speed set by the
controls. This has two effects; the first is that as the speed is constant the
distance measured across the screen represents time. The second is
that the phosphors coating the inside of the screen have an after-glow
that persists in between pulses to give an apparently constant display.
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The signal processor via the control panel can adjust the speed of
scanning of the spot. Thus the display can be adjusted for different
distances or thicknesses of material.
The transmitted signal is indicated on the screen by the first rise or peak,
and a second peak indicates the reflected signal. This second peak
should represent the thickness of the material provided there is a clear
defect free path as it will be the reflection from the back wall.
If there is a defect inside the material this may present a reflecting
surface to the signal. This situation is discussed later in paragraphs 13
and 14.
Taking the second signal to be the reflection from the back wall the
distance between the two peaks is the time (t) taken for the ultrasonic
wave to travel across the material and return. The thickness of the
material can then be calculated in the following way.
Figure 13.9 gives the speed of the longitudinal wave (VL) in a selection of
materials. For example, take the test material to be structural steel; the
velocity of the longitudinal wave (VL) is 5940 ms-1. The time taken for the
wave to cross this material and back is t seconds, measured from the
trace on the CRT screen. The product of VL and t then gives the distance
travelled by the ultrasonic wave in this test. This distance is twice the
thickness of the material as the wave has to travel there and back, so the
thickness of the material (d) is given by the following expression: d = (VL x t)
If a through transmission method was used, see Figure 13.24, that is
where a receiver is placed on the opposite side from the transmitter, the
thickness of the material would be given by: d = VL x t
These expressions are based on Newtons Laws of Motion and are the
basis for ultrasonic testing. However, as stated earlier A-scan
instruments are provided with controls to adjust the CRT display, which is
part of a calibration procedure. This procedure adjusts the instrument for
time base and therefore electronically adjusts the value of VL.
12. A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement
With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or
X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis
gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this
signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of
thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo.
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be
used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in
this process but following is outlined the procedure for a standard instrument so
as to illustrate the various stages that must be completed to ensure a valid test
is completed.
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12.1. Calibration and Reference Blocks
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the
contracting party.
12.1.1. Reference Block
A reference block is produced to agreed measurements and
specifications, is manufactured to the same tolerances and surface finish
as a calibration block and is used in the same way. The difference
between this and a calibration block is that the reference block is
intended to be used only for the specified task and is not intended to be
used for general work on any other components.
12.1.2. Calibration Block
There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic
testing. The two most popular are the V1 and the V2 calibration blocks. A
calibration block is manufactured to standard specifications and to
international standards. It is produced from specified material and is
machined to close tolerances and laid down standard of surface finish.
All the dimensions on the block are also specified and it is used to
calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. A sketch of the V1
calibration block in Figure 13.28 shows all the major dimensions.
Figure 13.28
IIW V1 Block
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12.2. Pre-calibration Checks
For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged
Switch on the set and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the
manufacturers recommended time. This allows the CRT and other circuits
to reach operating temperature and stabilise.
12.2.1. CRT Display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot
will normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the
screen
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse
(the first transmitted pulse) on the screen
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be
between 10 mm and 1 m depending on the actual instrument).
Select and connect the required probe. (For thickness measurement and
lamination testing this will be a 0o or normal angle compression probe
either single or twin crystal).
12.2.2. Time Base Linearity
Place the probe onto a calibration block and use the course and fine
range (time base) controls to display four back wall echoes on the
screen. Adjust the back wall echoes so that they are equally spaced
along the X-axis, then adjust the second and fourth so that they are on
the fifth and tenth divisions on the graticule. Provided this is achieved the
time base is linear.
12.2.3. Linearity of Amplification
Set the reject or suppression control to off or zero. Place the probe over
the 1.5 mm diameter hole on a V1 calibration block. Adjust the gain
controls to display the height of the reflected signal to 80% (8 divisions
on the graticule) full screen height.
Note the gain settings.
Use the fine (2 dB or 1 dB) gain control to increase the signal by 2 dB.
This represents the difference in height between 80% and 100%, that is
a ratio of 4:5, which will in fact increase the signal on the screen by of
its displayed height and the signal should be at full screen height.
Readjust the fine gain control to attenuate the signal back to 80% full
screen height.
Attenuate the signal by 6 dB. This represents a decrease of and the
signal therefore should reduce to 40% of full screen height.
Now attenuate a further 12 dB. This represents a decrease of of the
displayed signal and the height should then be 10% of the full screen
height.
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If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not
linear and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves
stripping it down to readjust internal trim settings.
12.3. Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness
Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that
is 25 mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling
A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen.
Adjust the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal
amplitude to 75% full screen height
Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that
four back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the X-axis
As the screen on the CRT has a graticule that is divided into 10 equal
segments the four echoes are adjusted to 2, 5, 7, and 10 divisions along
the X-axis. See Figure 13.29
Figure 13.29
A-scan Flaw Detector
Calibrated to 100 mm
12.3.1. Setting Sensitivity
On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to
conform to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest
specified flaw. This may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size,
although this would be a very sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size
that may be achieved is of the order of 1 to 2 .
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or
the procedure agreed with the contracting party.
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The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected
signal from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the
screen and is not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for
laminations is to adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo
from the parent plate is displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall
echo from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into
a reference block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 13.28 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole.
12.3.2. Setting Resolution
The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is
adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of
displaying several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at
the maximum range of the test. This may be accomplished using an
agreed and specified reference block.
The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the
step, cut out and back wall on the V1 block. Figure 13.30 refers.
Figure 13.30
A Method For Setting
Resolution
13. The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations
It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding
is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will
be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected
signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan
based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
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If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks
with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give
a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a
careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
13.1. The 6 dB Drop Method Explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is
very strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal
displayed on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is
reduced to the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB
reduction in signal strength, which gives this method its name. The reason
for this reduction at this point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is
being reflected from the flaw while the remainder of that signal is now not
reflected but continues on its transmission path through the material.
The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on
the surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire
outline of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.
The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary. Figure 13.31
refers.
Figure 13.31
6 dB Drop Method
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14. The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes
Angle probes as their name indicates propagate the ultrasonic signal into the
material at an angle. As mentioned earlier the actual angle will be determined
by the expected orientation of the flaws that are being scanned for. Most
frequently these will lie on the fusion boundary of a weld and therefore the
probe angle will be the same as the angle of preparation. This will ensure that
any signal reflected from a flaw will be returned along the same path as the
transmission signal because the angle of reflection will equal the incident angle.
There are standard probes available for 45o and 60o as these angles are
common preparation angles in structural welds. Other angles may be calculated
by trigonometry and the application of Snells Law. Figure 13.32 refers.
Figure 13.32
Angle Probe Scanning
the Preparation Face of a Weld
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to 1/10th using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect
size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
14.1. Lamination Plotting
Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be
reflected from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is
scanned with a compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area
may be marked out in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure
13.33
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.33
Scanning for Laminations
15. Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring
system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a
CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the
BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the
time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can
then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is
shown in Figure 13.34.
Figure 13.34
Schematic Block Diagram of
the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters
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Of course in a working digital thickness meter the CRT is replaced by either a
liquid crystal display (LCD) or a light emitting diode (LED) digital display. For
underwater use the LED is preferred as it is easier to read in low light.
The most widely used instrument for thickness measurement underwater is the
digital thickness meter. Instruments manufactured by Baugh and Weedon,
Wells Krautkramer, and Cygnus have all been employed for this purpose.
15.1. Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings
For the purpose of stating a typical procedure for taking digital thickness
readings the Baugh and Weedon Sea Probe (See Figure 13.38) will be
considered. This instrument has been used extensively in offshore
applications and a procedure for this type of DTM will also be valid for any
other type.
A block diagram of the instrument as shown in Figure 13.35 will help to
illustrate the procedure.
Figure 13.35
Block Diagram of a Sea Probe
Digital Thickness Meter
If Figure 13.35 is compared with 13.26 it will be seen that the circuitry is
exactly similar except for the method of display.
16. Converting Underwater DTM Readings
With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure
13.35) and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness.
With these instruments this reading is based on the value of VL for structural
steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact
the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel
components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the
circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given
above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material
To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply
divide the meter reading by the value of VL for steel and multiply by the value of
VL for the new material.
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Chapter 13
For example, if a measurement is made on aluminium the reading obtained is
multiplied by 6350 and divided by 5940 to give the correct thickness
measurement for aluminium. Say the meter indicates
30.5 mm. Then the required thickness for aluminium is: -
17. Procedure for Taking Wall Thickness Measurements

The actual procedure for taking wall thickness readings will be: Ensure the DTM is fully charged prior to use
Ensure that a properly qualified inspector is available to conduct the
survey
Take calibration readings and record these onto the appropriate data
sheet. (Strictly speaking this is a confirmation reading as the type of
instrument referred to here is factory calibrated as indicated in
paragraph14.1.1.1.)
These readings are best done on a reference block in the form of a step
wedge to confirm the instrument is in calibration over its entire test range
Record the serial number of the instrument, and the calibration or
reference block
Complete a visual inspection of the test surface.
This should be clean and free from marine fouling and rust cleaning
standard SA 2.
For a Sea Probe coatings should be removed. (This is not necessary
with a Cygnus DTM)
Take a calibration reading on the work site
Take a reading and record the result. Continue this process to complete
the survey.
Any readings that are outside the CNC must be repeated to verify
accurate results. Any readings thinner than expected may indicate either
laminations, reduced material thickness or possibly an internal flaw.
These readings should be checked with a flaw detector to verify the
situation.
On completion of the survey take a final calibration reading on the work
site
Wash off the meter in clean potable water, dry and store in a clean, dry
environment
Report all results
Figure 13.36 illustrates a typical ultrasonic data sheet
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Figure 13.36
Typical Ultrasonic Inspection
Data Sheet
18. Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam
generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at
all
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Chapter 13
If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to
different sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the
DTM
Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion
pit because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the
meter will only display the depth to the back wall
If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so
much reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at
all
Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the
reflected signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will
be displayed
All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the
major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of
the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose.
Figure 13.37
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
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Figure 13.38
Sea Probe SP 200
Underwater Digital Thickness Meter
19. Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Wash off all housings with potable water
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufactures recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged get it repaired
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Magnetic Particle Inspection
CHAPTER 14
1. History of Magnetism
Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE3O4)
attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and
suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction.
This gave rise to its name loadstone, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning way or course. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in
early navigational devices.
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an artificial
magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar produced a
power in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This power, named
after him, was called magnetism.
In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and
magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a currentcarrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as electro-magnetism.
2. Types of Magnetism
There are three types of magnetism: Ferromagnetism This is shown by materials which can be strongly
magnetised and which show good magnetic properties
Paramagnetism
This is shown by materials, which are weakly attracted by
strong magnetic fields
Diamagnetism
This type of magnetism is shown by materials that are
repelled by a strong magnetic field. This externally applied magnetic field
induces a like magnetic field within the material; hence repulsion occurs.
Table 14.1 lists some common materials and their magnetic properties.
FERROMAGNETIC
PARAMAGNETIC
DIAMAGNETIC
Iron
Platinum
Bismuth
Nickel
Palladium
Antimony
Cobalt
Most non-ferrous metals
Most non-metals
Steel
Oxygen
Concrete
Table 14.1
Magnetic Properties Exhibited

by a Selection of Materials
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Chapter 14
3. Theory of Magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called
domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north
pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the
combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and
by electron spin, which is the rotation of the electron about its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised, the domains lie distributed randomly and
their magnetic effects cancel each other. See Figure 14.2

Figure 14.2
Magnetic Domains
If an external magnetic field is applied to the material the domains are aligned
north to south in a common direction. Hence, one end of the material will be the
north pole and the other the south pole. Figure 14.3 refers.
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Figure 14.3
Material in a Magnetised State
3.1. Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These
poles are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to
be concentrated at these points. The north or north seeking pole of a
magnet is said to be the pole that points towards the earths North Pole; the
south pole of the magnet pointing towards the earths South Pole. Magnetic
poles show attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles
attracting. See Figure 14.4
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.4
Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract
3.2. Magnetic Field
This is described as the area surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic
forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic
field. These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael
Faraday as a means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density)
of a magnetic field. The symbol used for magnetic flux is and the SI unit is
the weber (1 Wb = 108 Mx). The CGS unit is the Maxwell (Mx) and 1 Mx =
10-8 Wb. Table 14.5 tabulates the units used in magnetism. The Tesla is the
SI unit used in practical magnetic particle inspection (MPI).
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SI Units
Tesla
CGS Units
weber
Gauss (G)
Maxwell (Mx)
Equivalent Units
Flux Density
Flux
SI
CGS
SI
CGS
Tesla (T)
Gauss (G)
weber (Wb)
Maxwell
(Mx)
104
108
Tesla (T)
weber (Wb)
1 T m2
108
Maxwell (Mx)
10-4
Gauss (G)
10-4
108
10-8
10-8
1 Mx cm-2
Table 14.5
Units of Flux and Flux Density
The magnetic lines of forceAre considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual
movement occurs
Travel from the north pole to the south pole externally
Travel from south pole to north pole internally
They form a closed loop
They all have the same strength
Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles
They do not cross
They seek the path of least resistance
They are in constant tension
Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an
area of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability They
prefer to travel in materials that easily accept magnetic fields
See Figure 14.4 and 14.6
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.6
Magnetic Field Surrounding a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed
circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 14.7 and 14.8.
Figure 14.7
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Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor
Figure 14.8
Diagram of a Magnetic Field
Surrounding a Conductor
(Figures 14.6, 14.7 and 14.8 attributed to University of Iowa)
4. Flux Density (B)

Magnetic flux density is a term used to describe the amount of magnetism
within a specimen and is abbreviated by the letter B. When a magnetising force
is applied, lines of force of magnetism will be created within the specimen, the
number of lines depends on the size of the magnetising force. These lines
represent the magnetic force, and the flux density is the term applied to the
quantity of them that emerge per unit cross section of the specimen.
The unit of flux density is defined as the density of a magnetic field in which a
conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that field has a force of 1 Newton
per metre acting on it. This unit is called a Tesla (T). In the CGS system of
units, this was called a gauss (G) and 1 G = 10-4 T (1 T = 104 G). Flux density is
measured as B Tesla. Table 14.5 refers.
When a magnetic field is induced in a work piece by an electric current flowing
in a cable arranged either as a coil or parallel conductors the input electrical
force is called the magnetising force (H), and can be defined in the following
way. Consider a very long coil (like a solenoid) uniformly wound with N turns per
meter and let the current flowing in this coil be 1 ampere.
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Chapter 14
Then the magnetising force H in this coil is N x 1 ampere-turns per meter. (In
common practice the word turns is omitted so that the units H are Am-1. In the
CGS units this used to be called Orsted (Oe) and: -
This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how
much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI.
In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B = o H. The value
of o is 4 x 10-7 (T Am-1) and represents the permeability of free space
(sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant).
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of
B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol r
(for air r = 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000).
Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 14.9
gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic
materials, including steel.

Figure 14.9
Variation of Relative Permeability
With Magnetising Force
When magnetising a piece of steel using and electrical magnetising force, we
do not get a uniform increase in flux density with a uniform increase in
magnetising force see Figure 14.10.
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Figure 14.10
Induced Magnetic Field
The flux density rises rapidly to point A on the diagram and thereafter rises very
much less rapidly as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field;
i.e. there is a very small rise in flux density for a very large rise in magnetising
force.
The shape of this characteristic and the saturation value varies from material to
material.
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.11
Variation of Flux Density With
Magnetising Force
The graph shown in Figure 14.11 shows flux density values for different
magnetising currents for a field being set up in one direction by a DC supply. If
the field is set up by an AC supply, then the magnetic field will experience a
complete reversal of direction for each cycle and successive cycles will trace
out a loop for the relationship between magnetising force and flux density. This
is known as the HYSTERESIS LOOP - refer to Figure 14.12.
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Figure 14.12
Hysteresis Loop
In Figure 14.12 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 14.10.
After point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then
passes through Hc to Br then to P, which is the maximum flux density for the
magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and
the flux density reduces to Hc and as the current increases in the opposite
direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out
the hysteresis loop P, Hc, P, Hc, P. The loop shows that energy is used up
each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is
rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get
quite hot. The value of Br indicates that when the magnetising force is removed
the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual
magnetism in the USA) and Hc is the magnetising force required to remove it.
This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by
gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops
get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 14.16 following
refers.
4.1. Remanence or Residual Magnetism
Remanence or residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains
in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. (Note that residual
magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been
magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism
may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not
reach the saturation level.)
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The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with
magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use
the ideas of relative permeability and remanence have given them a more
fundamental explanation.
4.2. Retentivity
When the magnetising force is removed, the amount of magnetism retained
varies from material to material and this effect was know as retentivity that is
a measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation
induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to
retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing
force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point Br on the
hysteresis curve, Figure 14.12). The amount has been related to the permeability
of the material and the general rule was that material with high permeability
having low retentivity while those with low permeability have high retentivity.
Modern permanent magnets are generally made from low permeability/high
retentivity special alloys that have been subjected to large magnetising
forces. See Table 14.13.
4.3. Permeability ()
Permeability has been defined as the ease with which a material can be
magnetised. Of course, it is only some of the ferromagnetic group that are
usefully magnetised. Those that are easy to magnetise are: Soft iron
Low carbon steel
These were said to have high permeability. As a contrast high carbon steel,
which required more magnetising force to produce the same amount of
magnetisation, was said to have low permeability. See Table 14.13
4.4. Coercive Force
The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point Hc
on the hysteresis curve.)
4.5. Reluctance
This is another term that has been in use for many years in MPI. It is a term
used to describe the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance
in an electrical circuit, however it does not have units while resistance does
of course. (This term is sometimes used as the opposite of permeability; low permeability
would indicate high reluctance and visa versa).
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Low Permeability
High Permeability
(Difficult to magnetise)
(Easily magnetised)
High Retentivity
Low Retentivity
High Remanence
Low Remanence
High Reluctance
Low Reluctance
High Coercivity to demagnetise
Low Coercivity to demagnetise
Table 14.13
The Relationship Between Permeability and Retentivity
4.6. Demagnetising
After a work piece is magnetised for inspection a residual magnetic field will
remain, the strength of this field will depend on the retentivity of the material.
4.6.1. Measuring the Residual Field
Applying a Field Strength Indicator to the work piece will assess the
magnitude of the residual field. This is a sensitive meter that has a small
bar magnet mounted on a bearing built in. This magnet will swing to align
itself with any magnetic field that is present in the test area. These
meters may be calibrated, in which case the magnitude of the residual
field may be read off directly, or they may be un-calibrated.
It must be emphasised that these meters are only for measuring residual
field strength. They are far too sensitive to measure the magnitude of the
induced field applied for an inspection and will be damaged if they are
attempted to be used for this purpose. See Figures 14.14 and 14.15
Figure 14.14
Field Strength Indicator Diagram
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.15
Field Indicator
This residual field should be removed: Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that
would reduce the sensitivity of the inspection
A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a
different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field
interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be
unpredictable
On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earths
magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly
magnetic
After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive
electronic or electrical equipment
Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow
As required before any other process is initiated that may be
affected by stray residual magnetic fields
The process is illustrated in Figure 14.16 and only requires that the
hysteresis be collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by
reducing the magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in
the diagram. Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil
around the site to be demagnetised then using a rheostat to wind down
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the current as opposed to switching it off which would leave a residual
field.
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.16
Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop
To Demagnetise a Material
There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with
a rheostat.
4.7. AC Aperture Coil
A pre-formed coil consisting of a large number of windings with internal
diameters up to approximately 1 m is connected to an AC supply. The
supply is switched on, which generates a strong magnetic field surrounding
the coil. This equipment is bench mounted. Any component that is to be
demagnetised is passed slowly through the coil along its axis and withdrawn
approximately 1 to 2 m. As the component is withdrawn it cuts fewer and
fewer lines of flux, which collapses the hysteresis. See Figure 14.17
Figure 14.17
AC Coil
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As an alternative to withdrawing the component it may be left in place and
the current reduced by a rheostat as outlined above. This also collapses the
hysteresis again demagnetising the component, which may then be
removed.
4.8. Reversing DC Aperture Coil
This is a time consuming method, which will not be used offshore but is
applied when it is necessary to demagnetise strong residual fields that have
been induced by a DC force or strong permanent magnets.
The component is placed in the coil then a DC is applied that is high enough
to produce a magnetic field stronger than the residual field. The polarity is
then reversed and the current reduced in measured steps to ensure the
residual field is reduced by each step. This process is continued until the
residual field is reduced to zero. See Figure 14.18
Figure 14.18
Reversing DC Coil
4.9. AC Electromagnets
If an AC induced the residual field it can be removed by stroking with an
electromagnet. The stroking is accomplished in a circular manner ensuring
the return path is as far removed from the metal surface as possible. Figure
14.19 refers.
Figure 14.19
Demagnetising With an AC Yoke
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Chapter 14
This method can also be applied with a permanent magnet.
4.10. Other Methods to Demagnetise
Demagnetising can be accomplished by heating the component up to the
Curie point (700 720o C). This method is not applied offshore.
It is possible to demagnetise by vibrating or beating the component but this
has no practical application.
5. Producing Magnetic Fields
This system of inspection is based on the phenomenon that the path of the
magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material is distorted because inhomogeneities
(like cracks, blowholes, inclusions, grain boundaries etc.) have different
magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding material.
All systems of magnetic non-destructive testing need some method of detecting
this distortion of the magnetic flux, most often called flux leakage. Of course all
such systems need a method for producing the magnetic field in the first
instance.
6. Magnetisation
The magnetic field can be set up in a magnetic material in the following ways: Align the test piece North South in the earths magnetic field
Heat the test piece to the Curie point and align North South
Induced Magnetism by the use of a permanent magnet
Induced Magnetism by passing an electric current directly through the
work piece
Induced Magnetism by passing an electric current through a conductor
close to the work piece
The first two methods are only of interest in a laboratory and are of no further
interest.
The last three methods are applied underwater mainly by diver inspectors but
some also by ROV
6.1. Use of Permanent Magnets
(This also applies to electro-magnets)
A U shaped magnet is used, the work piece completing the magnetic path
or circuit between the poles. The lines of flux that normally exist between the
poles are concentrated in the work piece, instead of returning through the air
because the work piece completes the magnetic circuit in the same manner
as a keeper normally acts. Figures 14.20A and B refer. The direction of the
magnetic field set up using a permanent magnet is shown in Figure 14.20A.
The maximum disturbance to the magnetic field and hence the maximum
flux leakage is caused by defects that are at right angles to the field. This of
course is true no matter how the magnetic field is produced. Figure 14.20C
and D refer.
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Figure 14.20
Permanent Magnets
Inducing Magnetic Flux
6.1.1. Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets
The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN
ISO 9934-1:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current).
The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at
least 18 kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The
area that can be inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the
pole spacing at right angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak
the field will be insufficient to give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a
dense accumulation of iron particles from the detection medium will
make the patterns difficult to interpret, especially in the region of the pole
pieces.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between
the pole pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped
pole pieces, flat for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work
pieces. For more complicated shapes, for example when examining the
weld at 12 oclock on the joint of a vertical diagonal member on a node,
the pole pieces need to rotate as well as being shaped in order to make
good contact. Figure 14.21 refers
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.21
Flexible Pole Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and
removed from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this
system does need an electrical supply.
6.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets
Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages
and the use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception.
6.1.2.1. Advantages
Magnets are cheap and readily available
No power supply is required for permanent magnets
There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece,
thus arching or damage to the surface is avoided
They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily
They are relatively lightweight
6.1.2.2. Disadvantages
All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a
magnet is used it will loose a small amount of its strength
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They only produce a direct longitudinal field. There is no skin effect.
The magnet will have to be physically removed from the work piece
which will take some force if it is a 18 kg lift magnet or stronger.
There is no control over field strength; the magnet only has one
value. This may cause saturation in some circumstances.
The magnetic poles on the magnet may attract the iron particles in
the indicating medium and mask defect indications in the region
adjacent to the poles.
Good pole contact is extremely desirable to ensure maximum flux
density in the work piece.
6.2. Electromagnet (or Yoke)
Electromagnets are constructed of a soft iron laminated core around which
is wound very many turns of insulated copper wire thus forming a coil. The
reason for using a laminated core is to reduce inductance when the current
is flowing.
If an AC electromagnet is used the induced magnetic field will exhibit the
skin effect.
The method of application is as shown for a permanent magnet.
6.2.1. Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets
The strength for an electromagnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO
9934-1:2001.
The requirement is that the electromagnet must be able to lift 4
kilograms with pole spacing up to 300 mm. As with permanent magnets
the inspection area should be between the poles. See Figures 14.21 and
14.22.
Figure 14.22
Electromagnet
6.2.2. Advantages
Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field
The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density
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Chapter 14
The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the
metal surface
Mains power can be used there is no need for a transformer
Will not damage the work piece
Lightweight
AC electromagnets can be used to demagnetise
6.2.3. Disadvantages
A power supply is required
Only longitudinal magnetisation can be generated
Mains voltage is carried directly in the yoke
There must be good pole contact on the metal surface to ensure
adequate flux flow in the work piece
6.3. Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece
Induced magnetism is achieved by using contact prods to pass an electric
current directly through the work piece. Sometimes these prods are clamped
in place but mainly they are hand held. (This method has been a recommended
method for magnetisation in Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and
Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977, Appendix 1, In-service Inspection.)
Passing a current through the work piece produces a circular field between
the contact points as shown in Figure 14.23. The orientation of this field can
be seen to be different to that produced by permanent magnets, which is
longitudinal. The magnitude of the current employed will depend on:
The plate thickness
Prod separation
The current requirement as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 is that for
every 1 mm prod separation 4 to 5 Amperes current is required. This means
that if the prod separation is 200 mm between 800 and 1000 Amps are
required. (This requirement is equivalent to 100 Amps per one-inch prod
separation).
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Figure 14.23
Magnetic Field Produced
by Current Flow Prods
When using this technique, care must be taken to ensure that the contact
areas are sufficiently clean to pass the current required without arching or
burning.
To ensure that arching is avoided the following applies: Do not turn on the magnetising current until there is full and adequate prod
contact
Turn the power off before the prods are removed from the test surface
The prods should have soft tips to assist with good prod contact
Use only low voltage
The prods may be separate, when two hands are required, or mounted on a
bar, which allows one-handed operation.
Direct or alternating current (DC or AC) may be used. DC produces
magnetic fields that penetrate deeper into the work piece. AC produces a
skin effect which confines the current and therefore the magnetic field, to
the surface skin of the metal.
6.3.1. Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles
per second. In the United States, 60 cycles current is the commercial
norm but 50 cycles current is standard in the UK. Since AC is readily
available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic
particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field
in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited to narrow
region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as
skin effect and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous
reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains
down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC
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Chapter 14
be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. See
Figure 14.24
Figure 14.24
Skin Effect in a Circular Component
When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic
field strength rises from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface.
However, the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the
conductor. This is the "skin effect." It should also be remembered that
with AC the field is constantly varying in strength and direction.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit
that is purpose designed and built for underwater use. See Figure 14.25.
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Figure 14.25
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
and Current Flow Prods
In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed
below
6.3.1.1. Advantages
Either AC or DC may be used
Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V)
Adjusting current output will control Field strength
There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods
6.3.1.2. Disadvantages
Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field
A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage
There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface
There is a danger of overheating the equipment
If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result
6.4. Induced Magnetism Using a Coil
A conductor carrying a current induces a circular magnetic field around it as
shown with prods. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials near the conductor will
be in this magnetic field and lines of magnetic flux will be concentrated in
them as they have less magnetic resistance than air.
However, a different shaped magnetic field will be produced if the conductor
is wound in the form of a coil around the material to be tested. See Figure
14.26
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.26
Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and
touching the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve
to show how the technique may be applied.
6.4.1. Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under
inspection is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of
the coil being evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 14.27
refers.
Figure 14.27
Evenly Spaced Coil
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The current requirement for this technique is determined from the
formulas: -
Where I = Required current (DC)

T = Wall thickness of the work piece
Y = Coil spacing
4 = Constant
7.5 = constant
If AC is to be used the formula is modified to: -
Where I = Required current (AC)

10 = Constant
Y = Coil spacing
7.7 = Constant
As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece the
thickness of the material is of no consequence therefore another
constant 10 replaces T.
6.4.2. Close Wrapped Coil
In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the
encircling coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the
ends of the coil to ensure an adequate flux density in this area. Figure
14.28 refers.
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.28
Close Wrapped Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: -
Where I peak = The peak current value (AC)

r = The radius of the coil (mm)
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3)
16 = Constant
The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 0.72
Tesla should be present is given by the formula: -
Where d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 0.72 T)

N = Number of turns in the coil
I = Peak current (Amps)
30 = Constant
It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the
conductor into a configuration called parallel loops, see Figure 14.29
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Figure 14.29
Parallel Loops
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The
loop has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is
moving in the same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to
cancel instead of reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the
parallel loops must be a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area
as shown in Figure 14.29. The direction of the field may be ascertained
by applying the right hand rule. The required current may be found by
applying the formula: I peak (ac) = 30 x d
It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed.
6.4.3. The Right Hand Rule
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a thumbs up gesture and
the fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional
current flow and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic
field produced. See Figure 14.30
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.30
The Right Hand Rule
The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique.
Current up to 1000 Amps can be used. See Figure 14.31

Figure 14.31
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
Showing Flexible Cables Connected That May
be used as Parallel Conductors or Encircling Coils
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This method of magnetising ferromagnetic materials offers development
potential for producing adequate magnetic fields for inspecting structures
that have complicated shapes, like nodes and pipe intersections.
It was shown some 30 years age by Lumb and Winship in their paper on
Magnetic Particle Crack Detection printed in Metal Construction, July and
August 1977, that this method of magnetising could give good uniformity
in the magnetic field between the parallel sides of the loop.
6.4.4. Advantages
Flexible cables can be positioned relatively easily
Large areas can be inspected with one placement of the coil or loop
The field strength and thus flux density can be adjusted
Demagnetising is easily achieved
6.4.5. Disadvantages
A relatively weak field is produced
Long cables are required
Large, heavy step-down transformers are required
Isolating transformers are required on deck
6.5. Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques
Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous
technique is used almost exclusively for underwater applications because of
the possibility of wash out or dilution of the indicating medium in the water.
6.5.1. Continuous Magnetisation
This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as
the indicating medium is applied. The area under inspection is then
examined while the magnetic field is maintained. This method is
generally regarded as being the more sensitive, but indications of defects
other than actual damage such as cracks can be given; for example,
leakage fields from the coil wrapped around the work piece and flux
leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious indications such as grain
boundaries, due to high flux density in these regions. The closer the
magnetic field is to saturation the more sensitive it is to flux leakage due
to small order inhomogeneities in the material. Figure 14.32 refers. The
recommended flux level for satisfactory crack detection is between 1/3
and full saturation.
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.32
Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications
as the Field Strength Increases
6.5.2. Residual Magnetisation
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating
medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection
is completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is
examined with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any
discontinuities. As these fields are much weaker than those produced by
the continuous method there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the
technique does eliminate spurious or false indications.
Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the
suspicion is that a false indication has been identified.
7. How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field
Surface breaking and near-surface indications are detectable by MPI because
of the way these discontinuities interact with the induced magnetic field.
The defect will cause a distortion of the magnetic field because either its
permeability is different to the surrounding metal or consequential poles are
formed at the parameters of surface breaking discontinuities. In either case the
flux density will increase.
With a distortion in the field the flux lines will be grouped together raising the
field strength while with consequential poles the tension in the lines of flux will
increase; there will be increased field density due to this, as with the poles of a
magnet. See Figure 14.33
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Figure 14.33
Discontinuities Interacting
With the Magnetic Field
The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will
determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen
at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90o to the lines
of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to
the field, if the orientation is at 45o the indication will be less strong because the
defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will
not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 14.34 refers.
Figure 14.34
Flaw Orientation
Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will
be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for
the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their
orientation within the magnetic field.
8. Detection of the Magnetic Field
In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does
actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices;
called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
Those that are used underwater will be examined and explained.
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Chapter 14
8.1. Burmah Castrol Strips
This is a strip of steel that has 3 fine longitudinal cuts in it. This is completely
encased in two strips of brass. When this is placed in a magnetic field at 90o
to the expected orientation and indicating medium is applied, the cuts will
appear as crack indications provided the field is strong enough. These are
available with different degrees of sensitivity. See figure 14.35 and 14.40
Figure 14.35
Burmah Castrol Strip
8.2. Berthold Penetrameter
The Berthold Penetrameter is shown in Figure 14.36. When the
Penetrameter is placed on the work piece being magnetised, some of the
induced flux is shunted to two slits cut at right angles in the soft iron
cylindrical stud that is the test element. The flux leakage at these air gaps in
the test element can be detected by applying indicating medium to the thin
plate that is held in place by a screw thread and covers the test element.
The indication is a thin line of indicator where the iron particles have
collected at the flux leakage. The direction of the field can be deduced from
which line of the cross is shown up. The field lies at right angles to this line.
Varying the distance between the test element and the plate that covers it
will control the sensitivity. Screwing or unscrewing the cap and setting the
calibration numbers against a datum mark on the swivel holder achieves
this.
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Figure 14.36
Berthold Penetrameter
8.3. Gauss Meter
This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly
from the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a
digital readout in Tesla. Figure 14.37 refers
Figure 14.37
Combined Gauss Meter
and White and Black Light Meter
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Chapter 14
9. Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage)
The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection is determined by the
sensitivity with which it is possible to detect the change in the magnetic field due
to the presence of a defect causing the flux leakage. There are three
possibilities
Moving a compass over the test area and watch for the needle to kick
Using a search coil and looking for a change in impedance
By visual observation using indicating mediums to show the distortion
The first two methods are impractical currently underwater for diver inspectors
although the search coil may have potential for ROV.
9.1. Visual Detection
Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of the magnetic field
as shown by the patterns in magnetic particles distributed over the test
surface. These magnetic particles are available in dry powder form, as a
liquid suspension, magnetic ink, or as powders ready to mix with water to
form a useable suspension. There are other types of indicating media but
the water-based ink is the type used underwater and the other types will not
be considered further.
The particles used are fine ferrous oxides that are much lighter than iron
filing and therefore will go into suspension in the water more easily and
remain suspended much longer. For underwater use a fluorescent powder is
mixed with the particles so that they will fluoresce under ultra-violet light,
which makes them easier to see. Non-fluorescent ink powders are also
available.
The method of use is to apply the magnetic field and while the test surface is
magnetised the ink is applied. Any flaws cause flux leakage with a resultant
build-up in flux density. The iron oxide in the ink will be strongly attracted to
this strong magnetic field and will collect. Using a suitable ultra-violet light
the indication can be viewed, interpreted and reported.
9.1.1. Ink Properties
Ink properties are required to meet standards for composition, content,
safety and toxicity. The current standard for MPI inks is BS EN ISO
9934-2:2002. This standard states that inks must, be non-toxic, be free of
contaminants, not cause discomfort to users, and be non-corrosive to the
work piece. Additionally the ink should have the following properties: The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce gravitational
effects to go easily into suspension but not be so fine as to
coagulate in the liquid
The grains should have an elongated shape to facilitate
polarisation
The grains must have high permeability so as to be easily
magnetised
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The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the
test
The ink itself must have a good contrast against the test
background to ensure good visibility and greater sensitivity
The concentration of ferrous particles, additives and fluorescent
powder is specified in the standard, as is the method for testing
the correct concentration in any ink.
9.1.2. Ink Colours Used Underwater
The most common ink used is fluorescent ink and this is available in
different colours, although green is the most popular. Black and Red inks
are also available. The fluorescent powder coating the ferrous particles is
a salt that fluoresces when it is illuminated by ultraviolet light.
9.2. Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO
standard with a batch number that should be recorded.
The correct quantity of powder as per manufacturers instructions should be
measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel.
Inks are available which include wetting agents however; it is more common
to add such an agent at this stage. The standard does not allow the addition
of more than 10% by weight of any additives to the ink
A wetting agent is a chemical that lowers the surface tension of water; most
washing up liquids contain one
Enough water is added to the mixing vessel to make up it into a slurry, which
is then put into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct quantity with
water
It is becoming increasingly common to have batches of ink supplied in slurry
form all ready to mix with water to the correct concentration
Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the
suspension is maintained and a 100 ml sample should be drawn off
The sample is required to complete a settling test to confirm the ink has
been made up to the correct concentration.
9.2.1. Settling Test
The test is completed to the following procedure: Draw off the 100 ml sample into a calibrated settling flask. Either a
Sutherland or thistle type flask is suitable. See Figure 14.38
Allow the sample suspension to settle for 60 minutes
Read off and record the quantity of solids that have collected in the
bottom of the flask.
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.38
Settlement Flask
The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for
different inks.
9.2.2. Fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles
0.1% to 0.3% (0.6 2.4 gm l-1) by volume in

the ink
Other solids
10% by weight
9.2.3. Non-fluorescent Inks

Ferromagnetic particles
1.25% to 3.5% (6 24 gm l-1) by volume in

the ink
Other solids
10% by weight
9.2.4. Carrier Fluid

Water or paraffin
Soluble Additives
no more than 10% by weight
10. Lighting and Viewing Conditions

As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001.
The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below.
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10.1. Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks)

There must be a minimum of 500 lux white light in the viewing area. This
light should be provided using a diffused light source if possible. (An 80-watt
fluorescent light tube gives 500 watt at 1 m distance).
10.2. Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks
The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20
lux so that the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to
be easily seen.
The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000 W cm-2. The wavelength of
the light should be 365 to 400 nm. (Refer to the electromagnetic spectrum in
Chapter 13 Ultrasonic Inspection).
10.2.1. Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and
cancer if not used under controlled conditions.
As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum ultraviolet light
covers a range of frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB
with UVA, being the less harmful wavelengths. Wavelengths between
365 and 400 nm produce UVA which is why they are used for MPI
testing.
Mercury vapour spot light bulbs, which produce light by discharging an
arc in mercury vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of
ultraviolet light along with visible white light.
This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Woods filter is placed in
front of it. The woods filter blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light
while allowing UVA at 365 nm to pass through.
Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid either
looking into it directly or shining it into anyone elses eyes.
10.3. Testing the Ultraviolet Light
There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used for MPI:
The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the ink
to make identification of flaws possible
The wavelength of the light must be in the correct part of the spectrum for
operator safety
The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less ultraviolet
light as they age. They must be checked regularly because of this
The requirements stated in the standard must be met
The procedure for testing an ultraviolet light is laid down below.
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Chapter 14
10.3.1. Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure
Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes
Lamps designed for underwater use must be immersed in cooling water
during this test otherwise the heat generated will damage the seals
Shine the lamp onto a photometer (black light meter); holding it at the
viewing distance from the meter. (The viewing distance is typically 30
40 cm)
Read the meter and record the result. (The reading must be
1000 W cm2 or the lamp must be changed).
The lamp should be checked before every inspection and at least
monthly when not in constant use.
Figures 14.37 14.39 and 14.40 refer.
Figure 14.39
Testing Output From
A Black Light
Figure 14.40
OIS Underwater Black Light
with Castrol Strip Attached by Cord
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11. Cleaning Standard
The inspection area must be cleaned to a minimum SA 2 (for a weld this
must be for at least 75 mm either side of the weld). Additionally sufficient
general cleaning (SA 1) must be completed to allow intimate contact for
magnetising apparatus.
12. Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI
Inducing a magnetic field into a work piece electrically was examined in
paragraph 5 where it was stated that either DC or AC might be used. The type
of current must be considered further as the induced magnetic field strength
and its characteristics are determined by this current.
First consider measuring electricity. Either current or voltage may be measured.
For the purpose of inducing a magnetic field the amperage is the more
important value. In underwater inspection the voltage is kept as low as possible
for safety reasons and typically only about 4 volts potential is applied to the coils
or prods. However, up to 1000 A may well be used.
Direct Current
Considering DC firstly the actual current flow is in one direction only, from
positive to negative conventionally. This can be shown on a graph thus Figure
14.41: -
Figure 14.41
Direct Current
Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into the
work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are just
below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field
produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
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Chapter 14
Alternating Current
AC reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 Hz. In the UK, 50 Hz current is the
commercial norm but 60 Hz current is common in many countries. Since AC is
readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for MPI.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials
the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does
not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is
recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface
defects. See Figure 14.42
Figure 14.42
Alternating Current
Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the
current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC the
Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on Figure
14.42. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the peak value
by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage reading
indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an RMS value.
Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by 1.414. (This
may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation value for the
work piece).
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection applications
may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the convenient
access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections. However, AC can
easily be converted to current that is very much like DC through the process of
rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted to a
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one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are
described below. See Figure 14.43
Figure 14.43
Rectified Alternating Current
(Figures 14.30, and 14.43 attributed to University of Iowa)
Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is
allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked
out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises
from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the
time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as
the un-rectified current (50 or 60 HZ typical). Since half of the current is blocked
out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The
pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the
particles and giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially
important when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly
improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power
electromagnetic yokes.
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than
blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the
pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the
rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to
the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is
improved.
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Chapter 14
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has
more favourable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type
of electrical current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because
when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles
direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three phase
AC would usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full
wave rectified), providing the advantages of each current form. However,
currently this form of power is not deployed sub-sea.
13. MPI Test Procedure
A general procedure that may be applied or adapted for offshore use would be:
Surface Checks
Obtain the necessary work permits (possibly hot work may be required)
Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the circuit
Test all circuit breakers or Residual Current Devices (RCD)
Check all electric cables for integrity
Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct
Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO 3059:2001 specifications
Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 (settling test)
Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning correctly
Calculate the required current
Function test all the MPI equipment
Ensure the gauss meter is functioning and ready for deployment
Ensure all ancillary equipment is available, (tapes, grinder, hammer, punch,
etc.)
Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed
Prepare the recording equipment (CCTV, camera, data sheets)
In Water Preparation
Establish the down lines and working lines on the correct site
Clean the inspection site to the specifications (SA 2 for 75 mm)
Pre-inspection
Establish the datum and place tape measure, mark up the weld
Complete a Close Visual Inspection (CVI) identify areas that may cause
spurious indication during the MPI
MPI
Rig the transformer safely as close as possible to the test site
Switch on the ultraviolet light
Confirm that ambient light is less than 20 lux
Rig and lay out the coils or parallel loops or prods or magnet on the test site
Demagnetise the work site
Confirm the ink is constantly agitated
Position the gauss meter ready to monitor the induced field strength
Switch on the current on the diver inspectors command, record current
Read out the indicated field strength on the gauss meter (0.72 T minimum)
Apply ink as required to the weld and complete the inspection
As the inspection progresses confirm adequate field strength at each clock
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position
If any indications are identified re-inspect to confirm the findings
With confirmed indications record
Location (distance from datum)
Length
Orientation and position on weld
Continuous or intermittent
Branching or not
Weak or strong indication
Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure
Retest after grinding
Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required
Post inspection
Demagnetise
De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface
Wash all equipment with fresh water
Flush out the ink system
Report the results to the client
Cancel work permits
14. Interpretation of Indications
There are three type of indication that may result from an MPI:
Relevant indications
These are produced by defects
Spurious or non-relevant Caused by sharp changes in geometry, such as the

toe of the weld
Brazed joints because of the difference in
permeability
Changes in permeability caused by heat treatment.
(The parent plate, the HAZ, the weld itself)
Magnetic writing caused by two different metals
rubbing together
False indications
Caused by other factors such as gravity
Figure 14.44 refers
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.44
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications
15. Reporting Indications
Any indications should be reported in a standard manner.
The distance from the datum mark
The length
The orientation and position relative to the weld
Whether the indication is strong or weak
Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent
Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches
Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate
etc.
Always use the correct terminology.
An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 14.45
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Client:
Location:
Dive number:
Description of workpiece
Node reference:
Date:
MPI report sheet:

Depth:
Sheet
of
Equipment:
Used: Make & Serial No:
Ink:
% by vol:
Permanent
Make:
magnet:
Coil:
Water based:
Parallel loop:
Fluorescent:
U/V lamp:
Black:
Ink dispenser:
Current used:
Amps
Other:
AC:
DC:
Turns:
Cleaning:
HP water:
HP grit:
LP grit:
Hyd wire brush
Hand:
Viewing conditions: Ambient light
Lux Surface finish:
2
W/CM
_
UV/A
General report:
Flux indicator: 3oc
6oc
9oc
12oc
Diver:
Test restrictions:
Client:
Inspection engineer
Figure 14.45
Sample Data Report Sheet
16. Recording Indications
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways.
16.1. Ultraviolet Photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either: An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera
An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash
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Chapter 14
16.2. Cast
This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater
application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such
as microset is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast.
16.3. Foil Packets (Magfoil)
These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that
are separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is
applied to the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles
and the mixing liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A
triangular wire flux indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents
by manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the
contents will take on a grey colour.
Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
Apply the magnetising force during this period
The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet
Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5
minutes)
The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth can
be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect length and
depth
16.4. CCTV
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
16.5. Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The
magnetic particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This
cannot be applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding
habitat.
17. Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors: The diver inspector
The equipment being used
The conditions on site
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Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test
Be confident in his own ability to detect defects with it
Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the
plant or structure he is inspecting.
These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence
imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the
inspection function.
The sensitivity of the magnetic particle test will depend on several factors, some
of which will be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity
of detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between
the defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape
and orientation of the defect.
Figure 14.46 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a
chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link.
Figure 14.46
Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection
The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the
test.
17.1. Surface Condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic
particles were being used.
17.2. Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp
to detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the
efficiency of detecting defects.
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Chapter 14
17.3. Ink Condition (3)

Important factors here include the best colour to attract the attention of the
inspector and the right size of particle. This is tightly controlled by the
appropriate standard, there could be some consideration given to larger size
particles that may give better contrast. The physical condition of the ink is
also important. It should be a finely divided suspension of particles that is
delivered to the work piece and so the diver inspector should check to see
that the agitator is working continuously. This should be a regular part of the
routine.
17.4. Field Strength (4)
This must be high enough to hold the ink to the surface of the defect.
The following factors are important when considering definition: 17.5. Ink Condition (5)
As can be seen from the chart the ink condition has an affect on both
contrast and definition. The definition can be improved if the defect outline is
picked out by fine magnetic particles.
17.6. Geometry of the Work Piece (6)
In the main, MPI has to be carried out by diver inspectors on welds that are
parts of complicated nodes in very difficult position in a hostile environment.
This might be the most significant weakness in the system and methods of
improving the procedures, back up for divers at the work position and
redesign of the equipment with this in mind will bring about a marked
improvement in defect detection.
17.7. Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7)
The effectiveness with which the inspector can set up the magnetic field
condition is the heart of the magnetic particle inspection. Factors like current
flow, field direction, electrical contact of the prods, coil fill factor, need to be
considered carefully.
18. Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI
18.1. Glossary
Coercive Force:
The force required to reduce the flux density

within a material to zero.
Consequential Poles:
Areas of flux leakage that are cause by

discontinuities forming breaks in the surface
of the metal.
Electromagnetism:
The magnetic force at right angles to the

direction of flow of an electric current.
Field Strength:
The units for magnetic field strength (H) are

Am-1. A magnetic field strength of 1 Am-1is
produced at the centre of a single circular
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conductor of diameter 1 meter carrying a
steady current of 1 A. See Figure 14.47.
Figure 14.47
Field Strength
Flux:
Lines of force in a magnetic field
Flux Density:
The number of flux lines per unit area. The

unit is the Tesla (T), symbol B, 0.72 T is the
minimum flux density required for MPI.
Flux Indictor:
An implement used to indicate the amount of

flux density produced by an external
magnetising force.
Flux Leakage:
A point where a line of flux leaves a material

or the pole of a magnet.
Hysteresis:
A diagram produced by plotting field

strength (H) against flux density (B).
Permeability ():
The ease with which a material can be

magnetised.
Poles:
The ends of a bar or horseshoe magnet

where flux leakage occurs.
Reluctance:
The resistance to the flow of flux in a material,

equivalent to resistance in electricity.
Residual Magnetism:
The amount of magnetism remaining in a

material after the external field is removed.
Retentivity:
The point on the hysteresis loop that indicates

the residual magnetism in a material that
remains after the magnetising force is
removed.
Saturation:
The point at which a material will not accept

any more lines of flux.
Vector Field:
The resultant field orientation that is caused

by two fields simultaneously interacting with
each at different angles within a component.
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Chapter 14
18.2. MPI Standards
There are a number of international standards that apply to MPI. Following is
a current list of these.
BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle
testing. General principles
(BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection is obsolescent
but remains current)
BS EN ISO 3059:2001 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing and
magnetic particle testing. Viewing conditions
BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied processes. Nomenclature of
processes and reference numbers
BS EN 22553:1995:1995 Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN 13622:2002 Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used for
gas welding equipment
(BS 499-1:1991 Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting is current but partially replaced)
testing. General principles
(BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection remains
current but is obsolescent, superseded)
testing. Detection media
testing. Equipment
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Bibliography
E & F N Spon
Iowa State University
Web site
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Chapter 14
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Photography
CHAPTER 15
Photography
1. Introduction to Photography
Photography is a prime method for recording images of defects that have been
identified by either close visual inspection or magnetic particle inspection.
Photographs provide: A permanent record of the subject
Comparatively high-resolution images for detailed interpretation
Close-up, magnified images when required
A cheap method for obtaining verification of inspection findings
Time lapse exposures should this be required
A proven visual recording technique
An easily deployable system
Stereo-photography that may be analysed by photogrammetry to provide
a variety of very accurate computer generated presentations
A readily available method for recording images
An adaptable technique that can be tailored to suit different requirements
Until recently the traditional method of photography using conventional cameras
loaded with conventional colour film was the preferred application of this
technique. However modern digital photography utilising the newest cameras
deployed underwater in specialised housings has taken over the field. It will be
this type of photography that is considered here
With this in mind and having considered the advantages of the system as a
recording method it is necessary to consider the disadvantages of still
photography
It is necessary to ensure that the subject is correctly in frame and in focus
The actual definition of the recorded image is dependant on the quality of the
digital camera. This type of camera records the image electronically not on a
film. The electronics are either Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors
(CMOS) devices or Charged-Coupled Devices, (CCD) that take in light and give
out electricity. These are rated by the number of pixels and the greater the
number per square unit of screen, (the greater the density) the better the
resolution. For underwater applications it is necessary to use the best quality
cameras that provide the best resolution. For the applications considered here
the camera should be at least 6 mega-pixels and preferable greater, up to 12
mega-pixels.
Lighting has to be correct to ensure an acceptable image is captured
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Chapter 15
Lighting is the most crucial element in this list, followed closely by the number of
pixels.
1.1. Light and Photography
Although digital cameras record the light image electronically a brief look at
the way traditional film records light will assist greatly in gaining a better
understanding of how the camera actually captures the image.
Traditional film is made of celluloid that has an emulsion coating containing
silver halide salts, which react when exposed to light. When the film is
processed the silver halides are converted chemically to dyes to produce
either colour negatives or colour positives, (slides). The slides can be
viewed once processed while the negatives must be further processed to
produce colour prints.
Digital cameras, of course, react to light electronically and the image is
recorded immediately the exposure is taken, however the image will be
sharp or muddy, crisp or blurred, good or bad depending on how the
shutter speed and aperture controls are selected by the circuitry. In this
regard the digital camera is the same as the traditional camera, the quantity
and quality of light falling onto the recording medium must be correctly
controlled. In other words the exposure must be correct.
The basis for monitoring and controlling the amount of light entering the
traditional camera was the film speed. The film manufacturers grading the
silver halides used on the film stock determined this, the finer the grains the
slower the film, or the larger the grains the faster the film. The way that the
film manufactures marked the film speed was by evolving a numbering
system that indicated the film speed by increasing numbers.
Traditionally there were two numbering systems; one in the US called the
ASA system (ASA is the American Standards Association), the other was in
Europe called the DIN system (DIN is Deutsch Industries Norm). Both were
an increasing number series where the higher the number the faster the film
reaction to light. Some 20 years ago the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) combined the two systems to one international
standard. The chart in Figure 15.1 shows a typical series
Figure 15.1
Film Speed
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Photography
As can be seen by consulting the chart the ISO system merely grouped the
other two systems together. Also the chart groups the films into slow,
medium and fast films. Furthermore, it is obvious that as the ISO number
increases the film speed, its speed of reaction to light, also increases.
There is another, more fundamental but less obvious relationship to film
speed and light that is also shown on the chart.
This relationship is more readily demonstrated by considering the ASA
system. Taking 100 ASA as an example; film of this rating will react twice as
quickly to a given quantity of light than 50 ASA but only half as quick as
200 ASA. This relationship between adjacent film speeds is the same for the
DIN system and therefore for the ISO system. Thus ISO 400/27 will react
twice as quickly to light as ISO 200/24 but only half as quickly as ISO
800/30. This relationship is known as being a one stop difference, which
will be fully explained when considering the lens system of a camera.
2. The Camera
In its simplest form the camera is no more than a lightproof box with a hole in it
and that contains the film. Indeed that is all the original cameras were. However
modern cameras have evolved and as the film stock became standardised so
cameras developed standard calibrated controls to meter the amount of light
entering to expose the film. Thus the ISO number for a film has a tangible and
fundamental impact on the conventional camera. Modern digital cameras only
differ from conventional cameras in the recording medium and therefore they
have either the same or comparable controls.
2.1. Lens Aperture
All cameras then, have a lens system containing three elements, including
the most fundamental, a diaphragm called the aperture that has a certain
diameter, which can be adjusted by the aperture control. The aperture
control is calibrated to integrate with the ISO numbering system although the
units are different.
Aperture controls are calibrated with f-numbers and the size of the aperture
is called the f-stop. In this system f stands for factor because that is what it
is. The f-stop is the number representing the ratio of the focal length of the
lens to the aperture diameter thus: -
The method for determining any particular f-stop is shown by the following
examples. Firstly take a typical focal length for a standard lens to be 50 mm
and an aperture diameter (for a given intensity of light) of 12.5 mm.
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Then: -
Now for comparison take a typical focal length for a telephoto lens to be 135
mm with an aperture diameter of 33.75 mm (for the same intensity of light).
Hence: -
It can be seen from these two examples that regardless of what the focal
length of the lens is setting the f-stop control to f4 will always allow the
same, metered amount of light to enter the camera, provided the aperture
diameter varies in a standard manner. Of course, the camera, or lens
manufactures design the lens diaphragm to open and close to the correct
diameter in response to the control setting, which provides a universal
standard, integrated with the ISO film speeds.
Altering the aperture control by one step will either double or halve the
quantity of light entering the camera. The chart in Figure 15.2 demonstrates
this.
Figure 15.2
Relationship Between f-stops
and Metered Light
The aperture control steps are called stops because each step down stops
a metered amount of light from entering the camera.
2.2. Shutter Speed
The second lens control to be considered is the shutter speed control. This is
more straightforward than the aperture control as it is quite obvious that if the
speed of opening of the lens is either halved or doubled the quantity of light
entering the camera will also be halved or double. The chart in Figure 15.3
shows a standard set of shutter speeds.
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Figure 15.3
Shutter Speeds
2.3. Relationship between Aperture and Shutter Speed
There is a fixed relationship between film speeds; apertures and shutter
speeds because they are all calibrated to the ISO film speed even though
different units are used. Changing the lens settings by one stop will either
halve or double the quantity of light getting into the camera and changing the
film speed by one does exactly the same. The chart in Figure 15.4 shows
the relationship between aperture and shutter speed.
Figure 15.4
Relationship Between
Aperture and Shutter Speed
In the chart the example shows that if f8 at 1/16th sec allows the correct
amount of light (1 unit) to enter the camera then f5.6 at 1/30th sec and f11 at
1/8th sec would also allow the same amount of light in. (Conventional light meters
commonly provide exposure values (EV) rather than actual f-stop and shutter speeds
allowing a choice to be made on the spot for any given light situation).
(Problem: Using this chart and Figures 15.2 and 15.3 confirm whether the
arbitrary light units indicated for f22 at 1.125th sec and f2.8 at sec are
correct.)
2.4. How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras
The difference between a digital and a conventional camera is the digital
camera does not contain film. The light entering the camera does not fall on
light sensitive silver halides but instead onto a light sensitive computer chip.
This chip may be either a CMOS or a CCD sensor. Either will have
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numerous closely packed pixels as mentioned in paragraph 1. The pixels
each react to the amount of light falling on it in the same way as the grains
of silver halide react in conventional film. The difference is that the reaction
produces a varying electrical charge that is transmitted to the built in
microprocessor that then transforms this signal into digital bits, which are
stored onto the memory card. Of course, this circuitry is a permanent part of
the camera and cannot be changed unlike traditional film that can be taken
out to put in a faster or slower film to compensate for changing light
conditions.
Camera manufactures understand that it may be necessary to alter the light
sensitivity for different circumstances and provide an option to change the
equivalent ISO number of the pixels. This option may be either an option
on the cameras computer menu or a physical control. Either way the
cameras sensitivity to light, how quickly it reacts, is actually adjusted
electronically but the ISO number system is maintained because it is so
universally understood.
2.5. Bracketing Getting the Exposure Right
In the majority of circumstances Digicams will be self-selecting for exposure,
automatically selecting a correct exposure value. It may be that occasionally
a difficult lighting situation presents itself and the camera selection does not
give an acceptable result. In this case the camera can be made to bracket
the exposure. This entails stopping up and down by one stop on the
aperture or shutter speed. Figure 15.5 refers.
Figure 15.5
Bracketing
3. Focusing the Camera
The final control on a lens system is the focus control. In digital cameras
focusing is automatic with a manual override facility. If the digicam is a single
lens reflex (SLR) type manual focus is straightforward as the image is viewed
through the lens and it can be seen in the viewfinder when sharp focus is
obtained. If, however, the subject is being viewed on the cameras mini-screen it
may be difficult to actually judge when sharp focus is obtained. In the
underwater environment setting the focus control to a pre-determined distance
and then using either a measured prod or string and magnet to actually
measure the camera standoff can overcome this.
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The pre-determined distance should be no more than 1/3rd the visibility
distance. Figure 15.6 refers.
Figure 15.6
Focus Using a Measured Rod
There are three other factors that must be considered when focusing the
camera: The focal length of the lens
The depth of field
Framing the image or subject in the centre of shot
All three of these factors can affect whether the final recorded image is of
acceptable quality.
3.1. The Lens Focal Length
The focal length of the lens determines the field of view. The actual focal
length of the lens is the distance from the film plane in the camera to the first
optical element of the lens. The larger this measurement the narrower is the
field of view and the greater the magnification. Long lenses are telephoto,
while short lenses, (optical element close to the film plane), are wide angle.
Underwater where it is necessary to get close to the subject because light
levels are always low and contrast is always poor due to the environment
wide-angle lenses are normally used.
See Figure 15.7.
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Figure 15.7
Lens Focal Length
3.2. Depth of Field
What is depth of field? On a photograph it is the amount of foreground in
front of a subject and the depth of background behind the subject that
appears to be in sharp focus as well as the subject itself. Figure 15.8 refers.
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Figure 15.8
Depth of Field
Suppose the lens is focused on the yellow dot as shown in Figure 15.9
below. This subject generates a yellow dot on the image plane. Once
focused, all subjects that have the same subject to lens distance as that of
the yellow dot will appear sharp. Now, consider a grey dot that is behind the
yellow dot (i.e., with larger subject-lens distance). Since it is out of focus, it
will not produce a sharp grey dot image. Instead, its image is formed
somewhere in front of the image plane. On the image plane, the image of
this grey dot is a circle as shown below. This circle is usually referred to as a
circle of confusion. As the subject to lens distance increases, the size of
this circle increases. The same holds true for a subject in front of the yellow
dot (e.g., the green dot in Figure 15.9). Since these circles of confusion are
actually out of focus images of subjects, if the size of circle of confusion can
be reduced the sharpness of the resulting image can be increased.
This is actually easy to accomplish Since light rays passing through the lens
tube form circles of confusion, the size of a circle of confusion is proportional
to the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube. This means
smaller circles of confusion will be formed if less light can pass through.
Restricting how much light can pass through the lens is the function of the
diaphragm in the lens tube that sets the aperture values. Therefore, a
smaller aperture means a smaller diaphragm opening, which, in turn, means
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allowing less light to strike the film/CCD plane. Thus smaller circles of
confusion are produced and, as a result, a sharper image is formed.
Figure 15.9
Depth of Field
In practical terms to produce the greatest depth of field: Use the shortest possible focal length lens as the shorter the focal length the
greater the depth of field because the light path of the lens is shorter
Make the camera to subject distance as long as possible as the further the
camera is away from the subject the greater is the depth of field
Use the smallest possible aperture as the smaller the aperture the less light
enters and the greater the depth of field
This means that setting the aperture at f22 gives a greater depth of field than
setting f2.8. The higher the f-stops number the smaller the aperture and the
greater the depth of field. Conversely the lower the f-number the bigger the
aperture and the depth of field is less.
3.3. Framing the Subject
At first glance this would appear to be the easiest part of using the camera,
having set all the controls just point in the right direction and shoot.
Unfortunately this is not the case unless extreme close-up photography is
considered where special close-up lenses or dioptres are used in
conjunction with specially designed close-up frames. In all other cases it is
the photographers own responsibility to ensure that the actual required
subject is in the centre of the photograph. Always remember that an
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excellent rule of thumb underwater is to never try to take a photograph of a
subject that is more than 1/3rd the visibility away from the camera.
Normally with digicams the subject is framed up in the mini-screen built into
the camera. When this is the case there is no problem with framing.
However, underwater the mini-screen may be difficult to see because of the
effects of refraction, reflection and parallax.
The effects of refraction and reflection are that the image on the mini-screen
is inside a housing in air. The image path from the air-filled housing to the
outside water must be both refracted and reflected which will, at times, make
it impossible to see especially when it is considered that the light path must
then go through another water to air interface to get to a diver inspectors
eyes.
The effects of parallax are less obvious but still may affect framing the
subject. The problem exists when a diver inspector is trying to see the miniscreen image at the same time as observing the subject himself. In this
situation his eyes are not in the same plane as the lens producing the image
on the mini-screen. This can be compared to the situation when using a hatmounted CCTV camera. The camera on the hat is on a different plane to the
diver inspectors eyes and neither is seeing the same image. Figure 15.10
applies.
Figure 15.10
Parallax
4. Light and Underwater Photography
As photography is all about recording light and as it is being considered for
underwater use it is necessary to examine how light is affected by water. As
light entering the water passes through an air/water interface the light wave will
be subjected to the laws of light and some will be reflected while the remainder
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is refracted as it passes through the interface. (The laws of light have been
examined in Chapter 13). As the light wave penetrates the water it is subjected
to absorption (attenuation), which is the dissipation of the light wave energy as it
passes through the water. The two most noticeable effects of this are that as
the depth increases it becomes darker, there is less light penetration and also
colours disappear as the water becomes deeper.
4.1. Colour Absorption
Looking at the loss of colour firstly it will be seen that in open sea conditions
the red light is absorbed first followed by orange with indigo and violet
penetrating much deeper. See Figure 15.11
Figure 15.11
Colour Absorption in Sea Water
4.2. Loss of Light Intensity
The loss of light intensity is due to: Reflection
Because of reflection at the surface of the ocean only those light rays
meeting the interface at, or very close to the normal angle will penetrate into
the sea. This, of course, means that only a limited amount of the visible light
ever penetrates into the sea at all. If the surface of the sea is rough this will
exacerbate the problem by providing many more reflecting surfaces as
numerous different angles of incidence. Figure 15.12 refers
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Figure 15.12
Loss of Light Intensity
With Increasing Water Depth
Attenuation
What light does penetrate the interface will be attenuated as it penetrates
deeper into the water. The rate of attenuation increases with increasing
water depth. See Figure 15.12
Scatter
As the light passes through the water is meets suspended particles in the
sea and is scattered, reflected, by these particles. See Figure 15.12.
These effects on the passage of light in water will also occur horizontally
which is where they will impact most strongly on the underwater inspector
trying to record images for an inspection report.
The effects outlined here can largely be overcome by introducing artificial
light into the scene normally in the form of flashlights for photography and
floodlights for video.
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5. Artificial Light for Underwater Photography

The most common form of lighting used for underwater photography is
electronic strobe flashlight. Commonly this is referred to as strobe light.
5.1. Electronic Strobe Lighting
This form of flash photography uses an electronic capacitor discharge
devise to produce an intense, short duration (in the order of 1/1000th sec)
intense white light. This type of flash recycles quickly and has a very long
life, being capable of taking tens of thousands of exposures.
All modern cameras likely to be used for underwater inspection photography
will utilise cameras with dedicated or compatible strobes that are
synchronised so that the camera exposure value is automatically matched to
the strobe output and duration. The basis for this is quite simple and it will be
of value to understand this.
The light output for a strobe will be given a numerical value by the
manufacturer that is calibrated to the ISO number of the film and integrated
with the camera lens controls. The numerical value is called the Guide
Number (GN) and is usually rated for film speed ISO 100/21 and may be
given for metric or imperial units and for underwater or air use. To use this
guide number for manually setting the camera controls the procedure is
straightforward.
Set the shutter speed to synchronise with the strobe (normally 1/60th sec)
Divide the GN by the distance from the flash to the subject to obtain the fstop
Set the f-stop and take the picture
Example: Take the GN to be 22 (metric) and the strobe to subject distance to be 2 m
Some strobes have half-power settings in which case divide the GN by 2

and than apply the formula.
Once the camera is set to automatic the electronic circuitry does all the
necessary calculations provided that it has through the lens (TTL) light
metering which the majority of them do.
5.1.1. Strobe Placement
The placement of the strobe relative to the subject is quite important if an
acceptable image is to be recorded. The preferred orientation is at as
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large an angle to the centreline of the lens of the camera as possible and
within 1/3rd the visibility distance to the subject. See Figure 15.13
Figure 15.13
Strobe Placement to
Avoid Backscatter
Orientating the strobe in this fashion will avoid backscatter, reflected light
from suspended particles, as far as possible.
6. Close-up Weld Mosaic Photography
Diver inspectors will often be required to take close up photographs to record
the results of a CVI or an MPI. For this type of photography there are a number
of factors to keep in mind.
The subject area will be quite small so framing will be more critical
The depth of field will be minimal so focus will also be more critical
There will be a minimum standoff distance determined by the camera
lens
Some form of prods may be required to maintain a correct standoff
A scale will be required in each frame
If a weld is photographed a complete mosaic of the entire weld will be
required
Weld mosaic photographs require a minimum of 40% overlap for each frame;
see Figure 15.14 and 15.15
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Figure 15.14
Weld Mosaic Photographs
Figure 15.15
Close-up Weld Photograph
Showing Member Identification Tabs
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An identification board containing specified information is normally required
A typical example is in Figure 15.16
Figure 15.16
Identification Board on
a Spool-piece (North Sea)
7. Specific Applications for Offshore Photography
There are two specialised applications for underwater photography that are
used periodically in offshore inspection. Taking photographs to record
indications of defects identified during MPI is one and Stereo-photography that
is subsequently analysed by computer programs, called photogrammetry is the
other.
7.1. MPI Photography
With modern digicams this should be a straightforward photographic
application. The weld should have a tape measure and identification labels
applied as shown in Figure 15.15 and the photograph should be taken as a
close up as indicated in paragraph 5. An example of a digital photograph
recording a weld sample with fluorescent ink illuminated by an ultraviolet
lamp set up in The Welding Institutes MPI practical workshop is shown as
Figure 15.17.
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Figure 15.17
MPI Indications Test
Photograph
7.2. Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry
This application of photography requires a stereo-pair of photographs that
have been taken by a specially set up stereo-photographic pair of cameras.
The photographic results are then analysed by special computer programs
that have been evolved from aerial photography and the results can be
presented as drawings, photographs or digital printouts.
These photographs have been used for a number of inspection tasks: Damage survey
Weld defect analysis
Corrosion pitting assessment
Marine growth assessment
Anode wastage assessment
Scour survey
In addition some engineering tasks have been undertaken: Production of engineering drawings compiled from stereophotographs for sub-sea components
Producing measurements of the ovality of tubular members
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Producing accurate measurements obtained from stereo-photographs
of physical damage (these measurements have been accurate
enough to allow a template of the damage to be made which was
then used to produce the repair component)
Accurate measurements of distances and relative positions of
structural members subsequently used to assist in the installation of
risers, clamps and pipeline end-flanges
Producing as-built drawings of nodes confirming the actual geometry
The actual camera rigs for the stereo-cameras that produce the photographs
are constructed to very high specifications and are carefully calibrated so
that each lens system is an exactly matched pair. A flat glass plate etched
with calibration marks, called a Reseau Plate is installed on the film plane to
act as a pressure plate to ensure that the film is held absolutely flat and that
there are no irregularities on the film surface. The film itself will be a medium
format rather than small format. These cameras must be handled very
carefully as heavy handling may throw them out of calibration. The
calibration marks on the Reseau plate are used in the analysis process. See
Figure 15.18.
Figure 15.18
An Example of a Photograph
Taken With a Camera That
Incorporates a Reseau Plate
A diagram of a typical stereo-camera rig set up for producing photographs
that will be subjected to photogrammetry is shown in Figure 15.19
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Figure 15.19
Stereo-Cameras Set Up
to Take Photogrammetric Pairs
Finally stereo-photography can be completed with small format cameras and
with digital cameras but the photographs produced will be used for viewing
in 3 dimensions rather than being used for photogrammetry.
8. Specific Requirements for Inspection Photographs
When photographs are taken to record inspection findings each frame must
include: A Scale
The subject in frame centre
Identification of the component
In addition the following points should be addressed: When taken by a diver inspector ensure there are no items hanging in the
frame, umbilicals hog-off lines or the like
Make sure there are no exhaust bubbles in shot
Avoid camera shake; be comfortable before taking the shot
Position lighting to avoid backscatter
Always be prepared to bracket the exposure
With digicams it may well be possible to take photographs using hat lights or
ROV vehicle lights but always remember that underwater photography is always
in a low contrast situation. This means that artificial light is even more crucial to
obtaining good, acceptable results than normal.
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9. ROV Mounted Cameras

ROVs can have cameras mounted either independently of any onboard video
cameras or coupled with the video camera. The latter situation is easier for
taking photographs as whatever is shown on the TV monitor will be what the still
camera records. In either case there are two difficulties that must be addressed.
Identification tabs and scales are difficult to include in the frame and therefore
the photo-log is even more important than usual.
The scale problem can be addressed by inserting a 30 cm long rod with 1 cm
graduations on it into one of the vehicle manipulators if it has them or by
securing it on the vehicle frame. In either case the rod should be positioned so
that each time a still photograph is taken the rod is included in the frame. The
photo-log can be used to record each frame subject matter as normal and also
member identification will have to be included. This should address both
difficulties of using still cameras on an ROV.
It has been quite common for some time now to have picture grabbers
included in the ROV video suite. These are useful for initial reports of damage
or discontinuities but lack quality because they are basically stills recorded from
the video camera. Modern video cameras are improving in quality all the time
and this issue will improve no doubt.
10. Recording Photographs and Care of Equipment
It is most important that a photo-log be maintained during any photographic
survey and Figure 15.20 illustrates a typical example.
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Figure 15.20
A Typical Photo-log
10.1. Care of Equipment
Prior to use the following points should be completed: Ensure that the batteries are fully charged, if rechargeable complete
charging log
Set the camera controls to any required settings
Prepare a photo-log sheet
Choose any close up or special lenses required for the specific task
Inspect, lubricate and secure any seals and sealing faces on the
camera, housing or strobe. Switch on camera and strobe for test
Take a test shot and switch off unless deployed immediately
Fit the camera to the ROV or pass it to the diver inspector and switch
it on as necessary
Remove any lens caps as required
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Switch off the camera and the strobe
Wash the system in potable water
Dry everything thoroughly
Take out the memory chip or connect the camera up to the computer
and download the data
Lightly grease the O rings as necessary
Store in a clean, dry place
Ensure the photo-log is completed
Replace or re-charge the batteries
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Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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CHAPTER 16
The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection
1. The Scope of Use for Video Underwater
Every time an ROV is put into the water video is used extensively for, navigating
to the work site, observation of any ROV task, video surveys and diver
observation when in support of divers. All offshore divers are deployed with a
hat camera and it is extremely common in all other aspects of underwater work.
In the case of diver-deployed systems these are used for, monitoring the divers
well being, monitoring the job, survey work and site identification. The methods
of deployment including the advantages and disadvantages of each are
summarised in the following tables 16.1 to 16.4. Figure 16.1
1.1. Diver Hand Held
Advantages
Disadvantages
Can be manipulated into tight areas
The diver only has one hand free
Best for recording CVI
Lighting for the camera may be an

issue
The diver can either give a

commentary or be asked questions
Movement around the work site

may be restricted by the extra
cable and the camera is difficult to
swim with
The diver can respond to surface

instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
Table 16.1
Diver Hand-held CCTV
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1.2. Diver Head (Hat) Mounted

Advantages
Disadvantages
Enhances diver safety as he can be

more closely monitored as he works
Increases the load on the divers

neck and shoulders
Can be used to assist in site or

component identification
When used for CVI the issue of

parallax must always be addressed
Can be used to monitor the diver as

he works and may generate helpful
suggestions to improve work
efficiency
When the diver is directed to show

a specific item to the surface he
may not be able to see it himself,
due to parallax again
The diver can respond to surface

instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
If the diver is working at a specific
task requiring specialised knowledge
engineers on the surface can more
easily monitor the task and offer
specific advise
The diver can be asked questions or
may give a commentary
Table 16.2
Diver Head Mounted CCTV
Figure 16.1
Parallax Between Divers Eyes
and the Video Camera
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1.3. Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV)

Advantages
Disadvantages
May be safely deployed in

circumstances where personnel
could be at risk
There will be occasions when

access into tight areas is
impossible
As long as the ROV is serviceable

the video can be kept on the job
indefinitely
The detail on the monitor screen

may be limited as it is dependant
on camera resolution. A diver
would have his eyes on the job
The video can be sent to any

accessible site at any time as there
are no decompression consideration
There is no human on the job and

this can impact on the work at
times
Vehicle lights give very good

illumination for the best quality
picture available
Cost may be an issue at times
Dependant on the type of ROV high

currents can be tolerated so that the
job can continue
Dependant on the type of ROV
several different types of camera and
stereo-video cameras can be
deployed to the work site
A wide variety of sensors can be
fitted to the vehicle again depending
of the class of ROV
Table 16.3
ROV Deployed CCTV
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1.4. Fixed Remotely Operated CCTV

Advantages
Disadvantages
Excellent for monitoring an item or

area continuously
Limited range of vision even if it

has 360o pan and 180o tilt
Can be safely deployed in any area

that may present a danger to
personal safety
Needs regular cleaning
Barring un-serviceability will be

constantly available
Deployed for one specific task only

Table 16.4
Fixed, Remote Operated CCTV

2. Types of Video Camera
There are different types of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras in use
underwater. Some are used specifically by ROV whereas others are used
universally. The older type of tube camera is virtually superseded by more
modern developments.
2.1. Tube Cameras
Rough handling or strong light sources can easily damage this type of
camera also it will not be able to function in strong magnetic fields. They can
even be damaged if left for periods of time either without a lens cap or being
constantly pointed at one spot. One advantage with this type of camera is
that depth of field is very good. Figure 16.2 shows a diagram of one of these
types of camera because it indicates the working principal of video cameras.
Figure 16.2
A Tube Camera
The camera consists of a photo-cathode at the front end that emits electrons
in return for and in proportion to the amount of light focused on it by the lens
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system. The more light focused on it, of course, the more electrons there are
emitted. The cathode at the back end is an electron gun that emits a stream
of electrons that are focused into a beam and made to scan the target by the
electro-magnets. When this focused electron beam scans the target the
electron density, which electronically represents the image that already
exists on the target either enhances the strength of the electron beam or
detracts from it. This effectively has changed the light image into a series of
electrical impulses known as the picture signal. The picture signal is
collected by the electron multiplier where it is amplified and transmitted
down the line.
Modern CCD cameras do not work exactly like this but they do have
electronic components internally changing light into electrons thus producing
a picture signal.
2.2. Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Cameras
This type of camera has been in use offshore at least since the late 1970s
and is still extensively used on ROVs where it is most frequently used for
navigation. The SIT camera is a low light camera that can be used in light
levels equivalent to bright starlight. This means that the vehicle lights can be
kept at a low level thus avoiding backscatter from suspended particles and
allowing the maximum penetration possible for the camera. The ROV
personnel thus have the best chance of seeing landmarks as they go about
the work site or navigate to it.
This type of camera does not have good resolution and is a monochrome
camera. It is not used for actual inspection work but is extensively used in
support of inspection tasks.
2.3. Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras
This type of camera is widely used and operates on the same principal as a
digital camera as outlined in Chapter 15 paragraph 2.4. These video
cameras are lightweight and physically small and are the normal type fitted
to divers helmets and band-masks. Because they are solid state they are
robust and can tolerate some rough handling. Normally colour cameras are
deployed, monochrome is available.
Unlike tube video cameras CCD cameras are not damaged by very strong,
bright lights and will operate in magnetic fields. The major restriction with
them compared to a tube camera is that depth of field is more limited. These
cameras are very widely used to record inspection results.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages With CCTV Recording
In underwater inspection and NDT different methods for recording inspection
results are widely used because it is so difficult to go back for a second look.
The time, effort and money involved in deploying resources underwater are so
high that it becomes imperative to get it right first time. With some forms of
inspection there is no facility built in to the method that allows results to be
recorded, which is one prime reason why CCTV is so widely used and video
recordings have been so extensive.
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Considering CCTV purely as a recording method, like still photography, there
are advantages and disadvantages that everyone involved with the selection,
deployment and application of the method should be aware of. Table 16.5
applies.
Advantages
Disadvantages
CCTV transmits real time images.
The system cannot freeze fast

movement because the picture signal
is transmitted at the equivalent of 1
frame every 1/50th sec. (Fast
movement may be caused by the
current moving the ROV or diver, it
does not have to be caused purely by
deliberate fast panning)
A video or digital or computer recording

can provide a permanent record
The cameras currently cannot provide

such good resolution as still cameras
this limits how much fine detail can
actually be recorded
Numerous electronic signals from

numerous sensors can be combined
with the picture signal:
If the information is recorded on a

video cassette recorder (VCR) there
will be further loss of picture quality
CP readings
Depth
Time and Date
All kinds of pipeline data
Typewritten information can be included
Instant playback ensures that the
recording is actually correct before
leaving the work site
There is normally only a 2D image and

without the depth dimension picture
information may be difficult to interpret
Personnel safety is enhanced when

divers are involved. CCTV can be
deployed in circumstances that preclude
access to personnel
When operated by a diver inspector

CCTV can cause diver fatigue
When deployed with a diver the human

senses of 3D vision and touch can
greatly assist in the interpretation of the
item being inspected
The sense of touch is not available

when deployed by ROV
An on the spot commentary is possible

from a diver inspector who can also
answer questions while actually on the
spot
Table 16.5
Advantages and Disadvantages of
CCTV as a Recording Method
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Chapter 16
4. Equipment
Mention has been made several times thus far of CCTV this refers to the video
system that gathers the pictures. The system consist of a number of items
viz a vie:
The camera
Converts focused image into the picture signal
The umbilical
The cable used to carry the picture signal to the

monitor and the control signals to the camera
Surface control unit

Monitor
Controls camera functions, focus, pan, tilt, lights
Receives and decodes the picture signal converting

it back to a visual image
There will most frequently be a number of ancillary items included with the
system such as:
Video typewriter
Used to type in headings, member or

component identification information
and labels as necessary
Video Cassette Recorder Most often two are installed. The black
box running all the time as a safety or
security measure and another for
inspection purposes only
Video Printer
This device will print an individual

frame from any recorded video
DVD Recorder
Rapidly replacing VCRs to record the

picture signal
5. Picture Quality
Modern cameras are much improved over the older tube types but the actual
picture definition and resolution is still less than what is obtainable from still
cameras. This means that very fine detail cannot be seen on the video screen.
The actual quality of the picture signal from a tube camera is determined by the
way it is transmitted. The picture signal is made up of packets of information
each packet representing one scan line; see Figure 16.1. The number of scan
lines per picture is determined by the transmission standard. The two most
popular are:
PAL/Secam The European systems transmitting 625 lines per field
NTSC
The US system transmitting 510 lines per field
This picture signal when recorded on videotape will be further degraded:

Video Home System (VHS)
Only uses 200 lines per frame
Super VHS (S-VHS)
Only uses 400 lines but does record

luminance (brightness) and chrominance
(colour) separately to improve quality. (to
operate correctly this require either two co-axial cables
or a special S-VHS cable)
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6. How Video is used
Common techniques used with CCTV are outlined below
6.1. Commentary
When a commentary is required it should be fluent, use correct terminology
and be factual. The manner of speaking should follow good voice procedure
practice:
Rhythm
A steady normal speech rhythm normally modulated
Speed
Slightly slower than normal but not stilted
Volume
Just a little higher than conversational volume
Pitch
Do not mumble, pitch the voice up a little
6.2. What to Say

An introduction may be required to let subsequent viewers know what the
video is about. Surface personnel often speak it when divers are involved
and with ROVs it will be whoever is making the recording rather than flying
the vehicle. The following points will help.
Who
State company name, (inspectors name if required)
Where
State the global location,(North Cormorant Jacket) the site

location, (leg A1)
What
State the task, (GVI of all platform members in accordance

with contract 2/6/06 task code listing 301)
When
State the date and time
6.3. Terms used to Direct Camera Movements

There are a few standard terms used to describe camera movement, taken
from the world of cinema.
Pan
The camera is rotated left or right. If diver deployed the

diver holds his position and moves only the camera. An
ROV may rotate on the spot or use an onboard mechanism
Tilt
The camera is pivoted up or down again without other

movement
Move
The diver or ROV physically moves left or right
Come
The diver or ROV physically moves into or out from the

subject
Rotate
The camera is twisted clockwise or anticlockwise about its

own axis
See Figure 16.3
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Chapter 16
Figure 16.3
Camera Movements
The camera movement commands apply to the camera not the carrier and
are relative to the picture displayed on the monitor.
Picture Framing
The best technique is to aim the camera mid-water or towards a neutral
background to begin so that any required headings and introductions might
be inserted. This also gives an anonymous start point for the recording.
This should be followed by a general shot taken as far away from the subject
as is comfortably possible within the limits of the underwater visibility. This
will give an overall impression of the area when the video is later reviewed.
Then move the camera in to complete the actual task whether a GVI, CVI or
MPI.
6.4. Video Logs
As with all other inspection tasks a written record is required. A typical log
sheet is shown at Figure 16.4
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Figure 16.4
Sample Video Log
6.5. Care of Equipment
A check list of the requirements for care of the equipment follows: Wash in potable water after use
Inspect for damage before and after each use
Store in a warm dry environment
Keep the lens cap in place at all times when the camera is not in use
Always handle with care
Do not leave power on out of the water as this generates heat that
may damage seals
Lamps must be switched off out of the water
Protect all topside equipment from the elements
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Chapter 16
Do not allow magnets anywhere near any of the equipment or
recording media
Mark all tapes and DVs with appropriate labels as soon as they are
started
Ensure that all recorded tapes and DVs are write-protected
Ensure that all seals are properly lubricated and assembled prior to
use
Always make as many copies of recordings as necessary
immediately
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Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Inspection Methods to Assess Underwater Structures
CHAPTER 17
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1. Visual Inspection
There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage
survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of
advantages over other methods. Table 17.1 refers
Advantages of Visual Inspection Over Other Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
With a diver inspector on the job good

vision is possible
There is no record of an eyeball

inspection
The object can be viewed in three

dimensions
The brain interprets what is seen and

this interpretation affects how any
object is seen
The object is viewed in colour
Only those indications that can be

seen on the surface of the
component being inspected can be
assessed
This method is always available
Poor underwater visibility may

adversely affect the results
With a diver inspector the sense of

touch may assist interpretation
Divers are constrained by

decompression considerations which
may curtail or inhibit the inspection
when diver inspectors are used
A commentary that contains the

inspectors impressions and
interpretation of the visual evidence
can be given
The problem of interpretation may

impact on the results of the
inspection. An experienced inspector
will acquire better information than
one who lacks experience
No specialised equipment is required.

Only the diver inspector need be
deployed to the worksite
Table 17.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
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Chapter 17
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
2. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
This method is used extensively to record the results of a visual inspection
when diver inspectors have been deployed. When ROVs are employed to
complete inspections this is the prime method of inspection. The advantages
and disadvantages of this method are summed up in Table 17.2.
Advantages
Disadvantages
CCTV shows real time pictures
Cannot freeze fast movement
Video recording is a permanent record
Poor resolution compared to

photography
Additional information can be included

in the picture, CP readings, depth etc.
Gives a two dimensional image
Instant playback
When diver deployed can cause

diver fatigue
Safety
When diver hat-mounted deployed

parallax must be considered
A commentary can be given

Table 17.2
3. Photography
This method of recording inspection information is widely used and is fully
explained in Chapter 15. With digital cameras photographs can be obtained in
real time and be viewed immediately. Stereo-photography is also possible as is
photogrammetry.
4. Cathodic Potential Readings
This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of
offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. It should be
remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the
entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other
inspection or action needs to be taken.
5. Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 13. Ultrasonic digital thickness
meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan
instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate
although this application of the method is much less widely used.
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6. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

This technique is fully explained in Chapter 14. It is widely used to inspect for
fine surface breaking and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic
materials.
7. Radiography
This method is explained in Chapter 19. The method is widely used in pipeline
survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised
applications.
8. Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
This method is explained in Chapter 19. It is not widely used but can be
deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not
used as a detection method.
9. Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
These methods are fully explained in Chapter 19. These methods are being
more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method
can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive
coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made
at the time of the inspection
10. Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 19. The method is a variation of the
EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be
used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore.
11. Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 19. The method is used to assess the
integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a
go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However,
when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other
methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity.
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Chapter 17
12. Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use

Method
Widely
Used
Frequency
Uses
Visual Inspection
Yes
Daily
GVI, CVI, Initial assessment

before other methods are used
CCTV
Yes
Daily
Video surveys and recording

visual inspections
Photography
Yes
Daily
Recording Visual and CCTV

inspections
CP Readings
Yes
Very
frequently
Assessment of CP system
coverage
Ultrasonic DTM
Yes
Often
Assessment of wall thickness in

conjunction with CP Readings
Ultrasonic A-scan
No
Occasionally Specialised tasks associated

with welds
MPI
Yes
Often
Radiography
No
Occasionally Specialised tasks associated

with welds
ACPD
No
Seldom
Sizing known defects, possibly

recorded on the damage register
EMD
Yes
Often
Weld inspection on SCE and

nominated nodes
ACFM
Yes
Often

nominated nodes
FMD
Yes
Very often
Annual surveys for structural

integrity

nominated nodes
13. Taking Measurements

All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service
defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage
and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others,
especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as
accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be
accurately assessed.
The major reasons for taking measurements are: To provide dimensions that are as accurate as possible
To locate the defect in relation to a known datum
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To provide a measured record that may be used later for relocating the
defect
To provide measurements so that any repair components can be
manufactured
A measurement may be taken directly or by comparison. The methods are
outlined below.
14. Linear Measurement
Straight measurements between two points may be taken with traditional means
or electronically.
14.1. Ruler
An engineers ruler may be used for measurements up to 1m. The accuracy
for this method will be 0.5mm.
14.2. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes up to 3m in length are used for measuring welds. The
accuracy will be 1.0mm in 1m.
14.3. Flexible Tape Measures
Flexible tape measures may be fibre or steel and are available up to 100m in
length although 30m tapes are the most common in use offshore. The
accuracy will be 2mm over 5m.
14.4. Electronic Methods
Both sonar and infrared methods for ranging and measuring are employed
for taking measurements up to 1000m (for area mapping). The accuracy will
depend on the actual method but infrared methods may achieve 1mm over
5m.
15. Circular Measurements
There are several means of taking circular measurements one of which is a
comparison method.
15.1. Callipers
This method is an indirect method of measuring and therefore a comparison.
The diameter of the item is accurately taken by either the inside or outside
callipers and the measurement is taken between the points of the calliper
legs. Measurements up to 1m diameter may be taken. The accuracy
depends on the ruler being used but will be 0.5mm usually.
15.2. Vernier Gauges
Vernier gauges are used to take both inside and outside diameters up to
300mm. The accuracy is 0.1mm.
15.3. Specialist Jigs
Ovality gauges are made up for specialist applications and can measure up
to 1m diameter. They are usually a comparison method and accuracy will be
2mm.
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Chapter 17
16. Angular Measurements
Angular measurements may be taken by a number of methods.
16.1. Protractor
These are available in sizes up to 1m. They may take vertical or horizontal
angular measurements and the accuracy will be 0.5o.
16.2. Pendulum Gauges
These are also called inclinometers and are a form of vertical protractor.
Figure 17.3 refers.
Figure 17.3
Pendulum Gauge
17. Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1. Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They
are a comparison method and the accuracy will be 0.5mm. Care must be
taken not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See
Figure 17.4
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Figure 17.4
Profile Gauge
17.2. Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that
consists of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read
off from the calibrated part.
17.3. Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take
angular and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 17.5
refers.
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Chapter 17
Figure 17.5
LAM Gauge
17.4. Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting
materials: The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two
part compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould
easily. A hot water box may be required
17.5. Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight
edge over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small
increments obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be 0.5mm.
17.6. Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over
the deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments
obtain the profile.
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The wire should be set up in two planes at 90o to each other to ensure that
any out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of 0.5mm
may be achieved with care. Figure 17.6 illustrates the method.
Figure 17.6
Taut Wire
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Chapter 17
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 18
CHAPTER 18
Inspection Maintenance and Repair, Quality
Assurance and Control, Recording, Reporting
1. Legislation Relating to Inspection of Offshore Structures
In 1992 the UK Government brought into force The Offshore Installations
(Safety Case) Regulations SI 2885 (1992). These regulations expand the
Health and Safety as Work Act (1974) to offshore structures in the UK sector
of the North Sea. These regulations are very wide ranging in scope and are
further clarified and are made more precise by amplifying guidance notes,
Approved Codes of Practice and further Statutory Instruments.
DCR SI 913 (1996)
Design and Construction Regulations
PSR SI 825 (1996)
Pipeline Safety Regulations
PFEER SI 743 (1995)
Prevention of Fire, Explosion and Emergency

Response Regulations
MAR SI 738 (1995)
Management and Administration Regulations
PUWER SI 2932 (1998)
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations

(Plant and Equipment)
There are numerous requirements laid down in this legislation but the main
intent for all of it is to reduce any risk to be As Low As Reasonably Practical
(ALARP).
DCR SI 913 (1996) and TOISCR SI 2885 (1992) specify and rely on
VERIFICATION NOT CERTIFICATION. The regulations also specify that there
must be an appointed DUTY HOLDER who has the authority to carry out a selfcertification scheme. The Duty Holder will normally be the operating company.
The Duty Holder is responsible for ensuring that the structure remains in a safe
condition to carry out its design purpose.
The regulations specify that verification must be obtained from an
INDEPENDENT VERIFYING BODY (IDVB). There are five IDVBs appointed by
the regulations: Lloyds Register of Shipping
Det Norske Veritas
Bureau Veritas
Germanischer Lloyd
American Bureau of Shipping
There is no statutory requirement to inspect structures, however the Duty
Holder must satisfy the IDVB that a particular structure or component does not
require any inspection to ensure safety and obtain verification of this. The IDVB
does have the authority to stop all operations on any structure if it considers that
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IMR, QA and QC, Recording and Reporting
it is damaged or that major alterations or deterioration are likely to impair the
structures ability to perform its design task. In practice the Duty Holder will
invariably evolve a full inspection program that will ensure the safety of plant
and personnel, which must be submitted to the IDVB for verification.
The Duty Holder must appoint the IDVB at the design stage of the structure
development so that continuity of verification may be maintained.
2. The Importance of QA and QC
Quality Assurance and Quality Control are two sides of the same coin. All the
Offshore Operators operate quality management systems which all rely on
quality assurance procedures to ensure that all management functions,
including but not limited to, efficient operations, safety, conformance to
legislation and protection of assets are completed effectively, without waste or
duplication up to required standards. Furthermore, all these functions must be
applied the same way every time to a measurable standard; the entire system
must also be actively managed and continuously improved. The quality control
is applied to ensure that all the processes associated with the management
system are in fact complied with and executed correctly. The QC ensures that
the processes meet the measured standard and that this fact is recorded.
The QA for offshore structures starts with the written procedures and continues
with the inspections, audits and other documentation that is certified and
recorded throughout the life of the structure. The QC follows this same path
producing the documentation that verifies that the various processes have all
been completed.
There are a number of different methods that any company can adopt to ensure
that Total Quality Management (TQM) is achieved but commonly BS EN ISO
9002:2002 is adopted.
The importance of QA and QC to any large organisation is that it is fundamental
to the ability of a company to function. Without procedures that demand a
certain standard that are controlled by verification to ensure correct compliance
a large company would descend to anarchy and bankruptcy very quickly in the
modern business world.
As indicated in Chapter 1 QA and QC begin with the conception of the structure
and continues throughout all the stages of the structures life right through to
decommissioning.
2.1. Databases and Trend Analysis
Modern QA systems make extensive use of databases and offshore
inspection reporting follows this trend. The major factor to emphasise with a
database system is the way information is stored. The great advantage of a
database is the accessibility to the information. Each item of information will
have a number of tags the information can then be called up from different
points. Take as an example that an anomaly has been reported on a
horizontal brace on a jacket. The anomaly can be called up or accessed by:
Type of anomaly, pitting, crack, impact damage etc
Using member identification
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Chapter 18
Using platform identification, in this case all damage on the platform
will be listed with its location
Using platform identification and defect type, in this case all defects of
that type on the platform will be listed with its location
Once the database is set up trend analysis is facilitated and all the data
required for any type of analysis is both more extensive and more easily
accessed.
2.2. The Importance of Documentation and Record Keeping
The fundamental importance of the QA system indicates how important
documentation and record keeping are and of course, documentation and
record keeping are fundamental elements of any quality system. The various
inspection reports, damage registers, fabrication drawings, material
documentation and other documents and records become part of the QA
forming the archives that prove structural integrity. Additionally the offshore
operators will maintain records for: Engineering assessments and analysis
Recording defects and damage
Maintaining the damage register
Monitoring defects or damage that is not repaired
Modifying the existing IMR program where necessary
Evolving future structural designs
Compliance with the statutory requirements and verification by the
IDVB
2.2.1. Types of Reporting Systems
There are basically two types of reporting systems:
Full Reporting
This system requires that every item or component inspected that has
any blemishes, deterioration or damage no matter how minor is reported
as being defective. This way of reporting generates large quantities of
data a large proportion of which is on no interest to structural engineers.
This system:
Generates large volumes of data that must be reviewed by responsible
engineers
Much of the data will be considered non-relevant after being reviewed
The review of the data requires a good deal of time
It is possible that serious defects could deteriorate further during the time
taken to review the inspection data
This system is seldom used offshore as the anomaly based reporting
system is preferred
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Anomaly Based Reporting
This system requires that only items that are outside specified
parameters be reported. Any other, blemishes, deterioration or minor
damage is accepted with the component being considered as fit for
purpose. This system still requires that every item included in the
inspection program is fully inspected but only items out-with the
specifications are reported as defective. This has several ramifications.
The Duty Holder must specify the parameters for all types of
damage or deterioration. The normal response to this requirement
is that a Criteria of Non-conformance (CNC) is evolved by the
Duty Holder
All inspection personnel must be fully qualified in the various
inspection methods and skilled enough to make value judgements
on the job site in real time to apply the parameters laid down in the
CNC
There is a high level of responsibility on all inspection staff to
properly identify any indication found during the inspection,
whether it is to be reported or not, that is whether it is an anomaly
or not. If any inspector misses any reportable defect it will remain
undetected until the next scheduled inspection that includes that
component.
Every reportable defect will require some actions to be initiated in
accordance with the instructions given in the CNC. These actions
may be to repair or conduct further inspections or monitor. In any
event there will be more reports and records generated to prove
that the reported anomalies have been dealt with properly.
3. Reasons Why Inspection Is Required
There are a number of reasons why any structure must be inspected regularly.
The safety of personnel is of paramount importance and a regular
Inspection, Maintenance and Repair (IMR) program will ensure that
component or structural failure is avoided thus guaranteeing the safety of
personnel
Any structure will deteriorate in service and a properly applied IMR cycle
will target and identify items that require repair, renewal or replacement
in a timely manner allowing these actions to be undertaken as part of a
planned, controlled program
The Operators of any offshore structure must comply with the
requirements of Government legislation and Statutory Instruments
Whether structures are insured against damage by outside agencies or
the risk is carried by the Operator an IMR program will be required so
that the risk of catastrophic failure is minimised
A properly implemented IMR program will provide raw data that can be
entered into data bases for computer analysis to complete trend analysis
for engineering applications
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Chapter 18
Inspection data can be utilised to evolve improved designs for later
generation structures
4. Continuity of Inspection
The life of a structure after the concept is agreed may be split into six stages: Design
Production of the raw materials
Fabrication
Launch and Commissioning
In service
Decommissioning
Structural inspection programs are instigated immediately after the conception
of the structure and then run throughout its life forming part of the quality
management approach to structural engineering.
Statutory regulations also require that the Operators ensure the structures are
fit for design purpose and that verification of this is obtained from appointed
independent verification bodies.
5. Design Stage
Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) is an integral part of the design
stage for any structure. All the designs, design calculations, and drawings have
to be prepared and completed to specified procedures that include checks and
internal verification to ensure compliance with the numerous standards that
apply to the various engineering disciplines and functions. At this stage The
Duty Holder will nominate the Independent Verification Body that will be
responsible during the life of the structure for verifying that all the statutory
requirements are met.
At the outset then the design drawings are subjected to a form of inspection,
validation and verification before they are sent to the yard for fabrication.
Also at the outset a marking system will be evolved or adopted so that every
component can be identified, tracked, audited and inspected throughout its life
cycle. With topside items this may be a Tag system where unique
identification numbers are assigned to components such as pumps or
generators. The jacket for a structure will similarly have an identification system
specific to the requirements for the component parts.
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5.1. Structural Marking Systems

There are several marking systems used in the North Sea but all are based
on a grid system where the structure is considered in plan view to have x
and y co-ordinates and the various depth levels are the z component.
Examples of three systems are included here but any personnel involved
with structural inspection must ensure that they understand the actual
system used on whatever structure they inspect.
5.1.1. Unique Identification System
In this system, which is an extension of the tag system, each platform
has a unique 3-digit identification number. This is used as a prefix to a 6digit number made up of 3 pairs. The first pair is a 2-digit code number
for the type of component.
Main legs are
11
Horizontal braces
12
Main nodes are
13
And so on for the various types of member making up the jacket. The
next 2 digits indicate the level starting with 0 at the top of the jacket
where the module is located and finally the last 2 digits are the
identification number of that type of component on that level. Figure 18.1
refers.
Figure 18.1
Unique Identification System
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Chapter 18
5.1.2. The Alpha Numeric System
This system uses letters to denote different levels starting with A at the
top of the jacket working up the alphabet as the levels descend. This first
letter is followed by an alphanumeric pair that identify the x and y coordinates on the level. For example see Figure 18.2 that identifies
component DC 3 and DB 3.
Figure 18.2
5.1.3. The Box Matrix System
The box matrix system firstly denotes a letter for each type of component
Member
Diagonal member F
Node
Riser
Conductor
Pile guides
Anodes
And so on for all types of components.

Then the levels are denoted by letters starting with A at the top of the
jacket working up the alphabet as the depth levels increase. Finally there
are 2 digits that represent the x and y co-ordinates. See example ME 45
in Figure 18.3
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Figure 18.3
The Box Matrix Marking System
5.2. Clock Orientation and Datum Points
In conjunction with the platform marking system datum points will be nominated.
Tubular members are always inspected clockwise and so the clock orientation
is nominated. The 12 oclock position is invariably the datum point and this may
be marked with up to three punch marks during the fabrication stage. Figure
18.4 shows the common orientation for reading the clock and indicates the way
the datum point may be marked.
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Figure 18.4
Clock Positions
5.3. Safety Critical Elements (SCE)
Another design function is to calculate, identify and specify the numerous
Safety Critical Elements (SCE) that exist on the jacket, the platform modules
and in all the systems and sub-systems. A SCE is any part or parts of an
offshore installation the failure of which would cause or substantially
contribute to a major incident or a component the purpose of which is to
prevent or limit the effect of a major incident. Examples of SCE are: Systems Primary structure
Fire and water systems
Fire and gas detection systems
Hydrocarbon containment systems
Subsystems
Mooring system
Deluge system
Control panels
Equipment
Mooring system main bearing

Fire pumps
Fire detection heads
Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
6. Production of the Raw Materials

During the design stage of the structures development decisions are made
regarding what materials are to be used in the fabrication of the structure.
These materials are chosen with careful attention as to their suitability for the
design task. Mild steel to the 50D specification with tight quality control over
manufacture is a common choice for North Sea steel structures. Other materials
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are selected for different design specifications and concrete for gravity
structures is equally carefully specified.
Taking steel as an example the steel foundry producing the steel will provide
certified documentation with casting specification and material composition.
Plates are serial numbered and totally traceable. Other specified materials will
have similar documentation.
All these documents are verified and filed as part of the QC function. The
materials supplied to the fabrication yards are stored in controlled locations so
that it remains fit for purpose and traceable. As it is issued certification goes
with it and is filed with the as built drawings and other documentation.
The raw materials may contain flaws or manufacturing defects in spite of the
best QA and QC arrangements which has two ramifications: The QA systems employed to minimise defects will be aimed at 100%
effectiveness, however 98% may be realistically achievable. This would be
normally acceptable provided that these defects were with design limits.
The presence of manufacturing defects in the raw material would not normally
cause in-service failures but there is a small risk that they might. Within the
realms of good engineering practice and design tolerances this is acceptable.
7. Fabrication Stage
The QA and QC continue throughout the fabrication stage of the structure
development. Welding procedures and parameters are all carefully applied and
certified. Concrete composition is monitored confirmed and certified. All the
inspection documentation and certification is verified and filed with the
remaining documents continuing to build up the QA database.
The types of flaws that may occur during fabrication are discussed in Chapter
12.
8. Launching and Installation
The launching and installation stages in the structure life are again subjected to
tight QC and the relevant supervision, inspection, control and reporting
processes continue to be implemented and recorded. It is reasonably obvious
that launching a 15,000 T jacket, swinging it from horizontal to vertical, then
sinking it upright in the correct position at the correct orientation must require
very through procedures and tight control. See Chapter 4 Figure 4.9.
It is at this stage that the most extensive underwater inspection will take place.
The inspection undertaken on the structure so far has been extensive and will
not be so comprehensive for the remainder of the life of the structure, although
it will continue un-interrupted.
8.1. Base Line Survey
The first major in water inspection will be totally comprehensive including the
entire jacket and all underwater components, attachments and
appurtenances including, of course, the Safety Critical Elements. The
seabed surrounding the structure will be inspected up to 30 to 50 m from the
base. A complete CP system survey will also be completed including CP
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Chapter 18
readings and an anode count to confirm the presence and the physical
integrity of each anode. This survey is usually referred to as the Base Line
Survey.
The Base Line Survey will confirm that: The structure is in the correct position
Whether any significant damage has occurred during launch and
installation
That any damage that is identified is accurately reported and
recorded
That any significant defects are highlighted for immediate rectification
The structure will only be declared fit for purpose when either there are no
reported significant defects or any reported significant defects have been
rectified and re-inspected and the results of the Base Line Survey are
accepted by the Duty Holder and verified by the appointed Approved
Verification Body.
The Base Line Survey will be used to evolve or modify an ongoing
inspection program that will extend throughout the remaining life of the
structure.
8.2. In Service
The in-service IMR program will ensure that adequate monitoring is
accomplished to satisfy the requirements of the Duty Holder, safe working
practices and to achieve verification by the IDVB.
The usual program for in-service inspections is based on a five-year cycle.
Some items are inspected each year while others are inspected less
frequently within the five-year cycle. Each year 20% of all SCE are inspected
as a matter of routine so that over the five years all will be inspected once.
There is always the option to change the schedule should the need to do
this be identified. The typical annual inspection would include: CP survey
Inspection of all riser, conductors and caissons
CVI of 20% of selected representative welds
MPI of 20% of selected representative welds
Complete GVI of the entire structure
Debris and marine growth survey
Scour survey
Items on the damage register may be monitored during the annual
inspection.
The annual inspection program reports are monitored and used to update
the damage register and to modify the IMR program as necessary.
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8.2.1. Damage Survey
During the service life of a structure damage may occur at any time due
to environmental forces, accidents, failure and numerous other causes. It
is a requirement that all damage be reported and that any incidents are
also reported. Unfortunately not all incidents actually are reported and
damage underwater cannot be seen unless there is an underwater
inspection program.
It has been determined that approximately 70% of damage found
offshore is primarily due to: Collision by shipping
Fatigue failure
Dropped objects
Furthermore the biggest majority of this type of damage was discovered
by routine inspections.
During any inspection the basis of the inspection is to report anything
that appears to be not in the as made condition. Superimposed on top
of this basic rule of thumb are any specific instructions contained in the
damage survey workbook.
9. How the Criteria of Non-conformance System is Applied
The Criteria for Non-conformance is a set of parameters issued by the Duty
Holders engineering department that defines the limit of acceptance of any
damage or defect that may be identified during any inspection. During any
inspection if any item is identified as not being in the as made condition the
CNC is referred to determine whether the anomaly is reportable or can be
considered as being within acceptable engineering parameters. As an
illustration an extract of a typical CNC Table is shown in Figure 18.5
Inspection
field
General
Visual
Inspection
Possible anomalies
Anomaly code
Criteria of non-conformance
(CNC)
Coating damage
CD
Any
Debris
DB
Metallic or hazardous
Physical damage
PD
Any
Weld
inspection
Corrosion on welds
CR
Greater than 2 mm deep
CP survey
Cathodic Potential
CP
Outside 850 to 1100 mV
Anode
survey
Anode wastage
AW
Severe > 75%
Riser
Leak
LK
Any
Figure 18.5
Extract of a Typical CNC Table
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Chapter 18
Anomaly
Actions to be taken
Additional checks
AW
Record anode identification and position
CR, CP, DB, LI
CP
Take additional CP measurements to

establish extent
AW, CR, DB
CR
Measure corroded area & cover in area,

max and average depth and diameter of
pits in the area
AW, CR, CP, DB
DB
Record type, position and dimensions,

include a sketch
AW, CD, CP, DB
LK
Record flange identification and location, PD, LI, DB, CR, SD

sketch and estimate rate of loss of product
WT
Record element and location, take

additional WT readings to assess the
extent of the area
CR, PD, CP
Figure 18.6
Extract of a Typical Technical Specification
Key to Abbreviations
Abbreviation
Meaning
AW
Anode Wastage
CP
Cathodic Potential Readings
CR
Corrosion
DB
Debris
LK
Leak
WT
Wall Thickness
LI
Lack of Integrity
SD
Seal Displacement
PD
Physical Damage
CD
Coating Damage
It is normal that either the CNC includes follow up actions that are authorised to
be implemented without further instructions in the event of finding any
anomalous items or to have a table of technical specifications that lays down
these follow up actions. The method for applying the CNC is straightforward.
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When any item is identified as being outside the CNC the actions dictated by
the technical specification are implemented. The item and all the data
concerning it is recorded and submitted in the inspection report. Any authorised
immediate follow up action is implemented and the fact that this has been done
together with the results of the actions taken is recorded and reported.
The flow chart in Figure 18.7 refers
Figure 18.7
Flow Chart for CNC Actions
In the flow chart the reference to the job card applies to the actions taken by the
Duty Holders engineering department. A job card system for initiating work
actions of any kind is a common approach to control of resources, personnel
and finances throughout industry.
10. Documentation in an Anomaly Based Reporting System
The documentation involved with an anomaly-based system is normally
standardised data report sheets and is commonly on a computer-based system.
With this method the responsible engineers become familiar with one method of
presentation of information which saves time when reviewing the inspection
data. Using standard data sheets also ensures that all the required information
is included and does not rely on memory. The data report sheets will be
reviewed and subsequently form the basis for: Further follow-up or additional structural inspection programs
Maintenance or repair projects
Any engineering analysis that is required by the Duty Holder
Reports submitted to the IDVB for verification
On completion of any review action the reports will be archived to become part
of the QA records for the structure.
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10.1. Work Scopes and Workbooks in an Anomaly Based System

A central feature of an anomaly based system will be a defined scope of
work for each inspection campaign detailing the extent of the inspection, the
components or items to be inspected and the required tasks. The scope of
work will be contained in the workbook issued at the start of the campaign.
The workbook is a part of the contractual documentation.
The workbook will contain: The scope of work
The list of inspection tasks
The procedures
The CNC
All the required drawings
Blank log sheets
Blank data sheets
Anomaly report forms
Daily report forms
An extract of the damage register applying to the items in the scope
of work
In some operating companies the inspection tasks take the form of Task
Code Listings, which contain three digit codes. Each code represents a
group of tasks all associated with one activity. Then within that group
different aspects or applications of the activity can be specified. The Table
18.8 applies.
Task Group
Task
Specifications
100
General swim round
GVI report any gross damage
101
Specific swim round
Anode inspection
200
Weld inspection
Cleaning for inspection
201
Weld CVI
CVI of specified welds
300
Marine growth survey
General marine growth survey
301
Specific marine
growth survey
Report build up of specified

species
Table 18.8
Example of Task Code Listing
The workbook will generally be in sections thus: Work Scope
Defines the extent of the inspection
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Technical Specifications
Defines design details such as brace

diameters, wall thicknesses structural marking
system
Field and Platform Data
Structural drawings, field layout drawings and

environmental details such as water depth,
tides, currents
CNC and Anomaly

Reporting Requirements
Data and Log Sheets
Acceptance criteria to be applied to any

anomalies identified during the inspection and
reporting requirements
Contains master copies of standard report
forms, to be copied as necessary in a paper
reporting system. In a computer reporting
system the formats will be in the associated
computer program
10.2. Damage Register

The damage register forms a crucial part of the documentation. Any damage
on the structure is recorded on the register along with the engineering action
taken to resolve the damage. Any new damage identified during inspection
activities will be added to the register.
10.3. Data Sheets
Data sheets are all computer-generated and most commonly the inspection
will be recorded directly onto a computer. It is becoming more prevalent that
the data gathered during the inspection is input into a database, which is
accessible by any authorised party. The advantage of having a database is
the accessibility of the information that lends itself very well to any
engineering analysis that may be required. An example of a typical data
sheet is shown in Figure 18.9
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Chapter 18
Figure 18.9
Typical Data Sheet
10.4. Data Sheet Design
When designing a data sheet the first question is what is its purpose? Is it
part of a QA system? If it is there must be a procedure that goes with it as
the data sheet performs the function of applying the requirements of the
procedure and ensuring that nothing is left out as well as providing the
validation that the procedural requirements have been met. The data sheet
would normally become part of the archives for the Quality System and as
such it becomes part of the QA. Similarly is the data sheet to be included
into a computer reporting system? If it is then is the system a database
system? If the answer to these questions is yes then the database will
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normally be able to generate the data sheet and the design will be done on
the computer through the computer program.
Any data sheet will have a number of fields and these will access data base
information in a computer reporting system.
If the data sheet is not part of a database but is to be a form in a system
stored on the computer the different fields will refer to different files in the
computer. The types of information likely to be required so that any data
sheet can be designed are: Does the Client or Sponsoring Engineer have to be nominated?
What type of inspection is it designed for?
What is the CNC?
What type of component is to be inspected?
What is the extent of the inspection?
The actual fields on the data sheet would normally allow the following to be
recorded: Customer or client or sponsoring engineer
Contracting company
Location (platform)
Type of component and reference number
Type of inspection
Resource used to gather the data (ROV, Diver)
Dive number
Date
Data sheet reference number
Any specialist equipment used for the data gathering
What cleaning standard has been achieved
Inspection controllers name
Comments not covered elsewhere
Anomalies
Drawing of the component
Signatures
Page number
11. Written Reports
If required, written reports will follow a standard layout as dictated by the
operating company. As a guide the usual report layout will contain the major
items enumerated below.
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Title
This is normally the specified project title with the date of

starting and the completion date
Signing off sheet This is a sheet containing the signature of the project
managers and key personnel involved with the project
Table of contents The page numbers for the items included in the report
Introduction
Gives the purpose of the report. It will contain: Location

The extent of the inspection or project
The client
The contractor company name
The dates of the inspection
Summary
This is a very condensed resume of the report which will

contain: The overall scope of the inspection
Listings of any anomalies out side the CNC
Results
This is the body of the report that lays out all the findings
and the total extent of the inspection. It will refer to the
appendices where the raw data sheets are contained
Conclusions or
Recommendations Both, either or neither of these may be included in the
report. Unless qualified engineers have prepared the report
these paragraphs should be omitted
Appendices
These are the data sheets, logs, drawings and any other
raw data gathered during the inspection
12. Verbal Reporting

Verbal reports are normally concerned with diver intervention and frequently
follow a question and answer scenario with the topside asking specific
questions for the diver inspector to respond to. The voice reproduction is via the
diver communication unit and may leave something to be desired regarding
clarity of reproduction. A radio procedure approach is adopted with the diver
being the control station. Some prowords are used but over is seldom used.
Care must be exercised to speak plainly and the divers speech is sometimes
difficult to understand because of poor amplification. When receiving verbal
reports from saturation divers the situation can be quite difficult indeed, as their
speech has to go through a de-scrambler because of the distortion to the
voice pitch caused by the helium environment. Always: Use correct terminology
Maintain a fluent flow of speech (decide what to say before you speak)
If a full verbal report is to be recorded onto a video ensure that the introduction
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Who is speaking?
Where is the inspection site?
What actions are being completed?
When is the verbal report being made?
13. Corrosion Protection and Coating Inspection Report Requirements
The normal inspection reporting requirements for CP surveys are
Visual assessment of anode condition, and deposits including their type
and extent
% Anode wastage (may be required to be measured)
Sacrificial anode stub integrity
Impressed current cable and cable duct integrity and electrode
connection
Marine growth build up on any anodes
Metallic debris in contact with the structure identify location, type and
quantity
CP readings at specified sites or spacing
Photographs of representative anodes
Coating Inspections will normally require that the following be assessed: Note the % present of topcoat, primer and bare metal
Note any blistering and burst them and try to collect a sample of any
deposit
Assess the surface condition of the steel under any blister
Note the % of any paint cracking
Note any paint sagging with the extent
Note any paint wrinkling with the extent
Note any flaking and note the extent
If inspecting Monel cladding be especially careful to inspect very closely for any
breaks or deformation however small in the Monel surface.
14. Procedure for the Close Visual Inspection of a Weld
Verbal reports are commonly recorded onto data sheets during the actual
inspection. A typical procedure for a weld CVI would include: Complete surface checks of all the equipment
Obtain the work permits
Locate the correct weld
GVI to assess any gross damage and the build up of marine growth
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Chapter 18
Clean to SA 2 (or any other specified standard) 75mm either side of
the weld
Establish the datum and a tape measure and mark up the clock positions
Measure and record the overall weld length (in accordance with the
established platform conventions or procedure)
Complete the CVI
Record the results in real time on the data sheet
Record the CVI on CCTV and video
Take still photographs as required
Recover all equipment
Wash all equipment in potable water
Report any anomaly out with the CNC in accordance with the
instructions contained therein (normally to the offshore client
representative)
Take any follow up remedial actions authorised in the CNC (normally in
consultation with the offshore client representative)
Cancel work permits when clear of the work site
Incorporate the data sheet into the final report along with any new
anomaly report sheets and any remedial actions taken
An example of a typical CVI sheet is contained in Figure 18.10
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Figure 18.10
Typical CVI Data Sheet
15. Summary of Other Recording Methods Used Underwater
Because of the nature of underwater inspection with intervention methods being
so costly and weather dependant a good deal of effort is expanded to ensure
that any data gained during inspection activities is recorded in the event of a
future need to reassess any item. The methods for recording can be very simple
or complex as illustrated in the following notes.
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Chapter 18
15.1. Scratchboards
This may be a rigid white plastic board or a plastic sheet of paper with a
pencil. Can be used underwater by a diver to make a sketch or take notes
when nothing else is available.
15.2. Sketches
These can be useful if there is no other way of recording what the diver
inspector has identified or incorporated into a report to show a point of detail.
15.3. Photography
Good quality images of any anomalous items or points of interest may be
obtained by photography and prints included in any type of report.
15.4. CCTV
This is a prime method for recording all manner of inspection information
and is extensively used throughout the underwater commercial industry. The
video records real time images that subsequently may be easily
incorporated into a report.
15.5. Radiography
A radiograph is a permanent record by itself and is easily incorporated into a
report.
15.6. Casts
These may be taken on occasion but they are difficult to take and difficult to
incorporate into a report. There are other ways of recording the images set
into casts and whenever possible these are used in preference to taking a
cast. When they are taken care must be exercised in storing them as they
can easily be damaged.
15.7. EMD, EMT and ACFM Incorporating Computer Recording
These methods are all available with computer recording facilities and the
ability to have the program print out the data. This is ideal for incorporation
into a formal report.
15.8. Sampling
This is normally a specialist form or recording for marine life for example. It
does have other uses such as collecting gas escaping from the seabed for
analysis. Storage of samples is a difficulty that must be anticipated before
the sampling is undertaken.
16. Certification of Personnel and Equipment
Any Quality Management System (QMS) will include the requirement that
personnel and equipment is certified to a known standard. In the case of
personnel in the UK sector of the North Sea the Certification Scheme for
Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP) scheme for underwater inspectors
has been adopted. The notes in the preface outline the CSWIP organisation.
The scheme certificates four types of inspectors as detailed in the preface. The
more important proficiencies for each level of certification are outlined below
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16.1. CSWIP Grade 3.1U Diver Inspector
This diver inspector will be proficient in: Visual inspection
The use of CCTV in the hat mounted or hand held deployment mode
Taking still photographs
Taking CP readings
Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using an Ultrasonic Digital
Thickness Meter
16.2. CSWIP Grade 3.2U Diver Inspector
This diver inspector will be proficient in: All the 3.1U Diver Inspector proficiencies
The application and interpretation of Magnetic Particle Inspection
The ability to use hand held grinding tools to profile welds and surface
breaking anomalies
16.3. CSWIP 3.3U ROV Inspector
This ROV pilot will be proficient in: The use of CCTV in ROV deployed mode
Taking CP readings
Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using the ROV probe
technique
Handling and managing data
Knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of underwater vehicles
16.4. CSWIP 3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller
The inspection controller will be proficient in: Visual inspection
The use of CCTV in the hat mounted or hand held or ROV
deployment mode
Taking still photographs
Taking CP readings
Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using an Ultrasonic Digital
Thickness Meter
The application and interpretation of Magnetic Particle Inspection
Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using the ROV probe
technique
Handling and managing data
Knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of underwater vehicles
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Chapter 18
Knowledge of advanced methods of NDT
Knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of diver inspectors
Knowledge of how to plan and schedule inspection projects
Knowledge of the application of QMS
The inspection controller must be capable of developing close working
relations with all the staff involved with any inspection project. Some staff will
be senior engineers with the Operator of the structure and tact and
diplomacy must be exercised on occasion.
17. Equipment Certification
Any equipment used during an inspection program must be certified so as to
conform to the QA requirements. This requirement is intended to ensure that all
equipment is, safe to operate, in good working order and is within the required
calibration specifications. The requirements for legal compliance and the typical
QA calibration requirements are: Electrical equipment shall be tested 6 monthly
All electrical equipment must be tested for safety each time it is used;
e.g. all Residual Current Devices (RCD) should be tested daily, any other
type of electrical equipment should be visually inspected and confirmed
safe to use before each use
All inspection equipment shall be calibration checked before and after
each use
A competent person shall calibrate all electrical equipment at intervals
proscribed by regulations or manufacturers recommendations and certify
this fact. This includes Voltmeters and Digital Volt Meters which shall be
calibrated annually and tagged to confirm the date the next calibration is
due
Each batch of MPI ink shall be tested for conformity to specifications and
subsequently at intervals as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 Nondestructive testing. Magnetic particle testing. Detection media
Ultraviolet lamps shall be tested for conformity to the requirements of BS
EN ISO 3059:2001 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing and
magnetic particle testing. Viewing conditions each time they are used
and periodically in accordance with the standard
18. Inspection Planning and Briefing
Good planning and briefings are the difference between success and, at worst,
failure with any project, not least inspection campaigns. Good planning and
briefing leads to efficient, focused and effective inspection activities that are
themselves crucial in insuring that the tasks are completed as quickly as
possible, without having to go back, that the correct items are inspected, to the
correct standard, that the personnel involved are all focused on the job,
motivated and sufficiently well briefed and skilled to be able to recognise any
defects and apply the correct actions to them. These activities as fundamental
in any anomaly based reporting system as it is recognised that any items being
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inspected in real time will not be subjected to any secondary inspection.
Should anything be missed during the current inspection it will remain
undiscovered until there is another scheduled inspection of that component.
18.1. Real Time Data Gathering
Real time data gathering means that the personnel on the job inspect and
assess the components under inspection. Any items judged to be outside
the CNC will be flagged up and recorded in real time on video, by
photography or by electronic means. This data may then be re-evaluated at
a later date for second opinions or follow up analysis. The crucial point is
that data is only submitted if it is judged to be anomalous at the moment in
time when it is inspected.
As a comparison some forms of inspection lend themselves to retrospective
inspection. For example eddy current inspection and ACFM inspection both
of which store real time data on computer programs. The original inspector
will make on the spot judgements but all the data can subsequently be
reviewed. The computer will contain all of the gathered information not a
selection determined by the original inspector.
Planning Requirements
The overall campaign will be planned months in advance whereas the daily
tasks must be planned on a weekly and daily basis. The inspection
coordinator will need to consider at least:
The actual task requirements
The procedural requirements regarding personnel qualifications,
specialised equipment or particular cleaning tasks
Work permits and whether hot work permits or restricted access
permits are required
The weather
Access restraints
DSV operating parameter restrictions
Vessel movements
Any task priorities
Any time constraints
Any helicopter operations
Supply boat schedules
There may well be many other items that have to be taken into account. The
next stage is to evolve the plan with a look ahead for the next few days and
a detailed plan for the next 24 hours. The plan will normally be presented at
the daily meeting on big inspection campaigns and may have to be modified
as a result of input from other management team members. The plan will
then contain:
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Chapter 18
The location, platform face, identification and depth of the items to be
inspected in the next shift
The personnel qualifications required
The estimated time per task
Known restrictions, platform crane operations or helicopter operations
etc
Any items that must be completed at night, e.g. MPI
Any ongoing tasks
How much work is outstanding at what depths on which platform
faces
Any follow up work generated by reported anomalies according to the
CNC
Contingency plans in case changes have to be made due to weather
etc
This is not an exhaustive list but goes some way to illustrate the factors that
have to be considered.
18.2. Briefing
Once the plan is agreed their line management can brief the various team
members up. A reasonable way of presenting briefs is to follow the outline
of:
Location
Where is the component?
Local situation Are there any obstructions to the site? Is it on the

damage register? When was it last inspected? What
resources are available to complete the task?
The task
Ensure that everyone knows what the task or tasks

are
Execution
What specific jobs everyone has to do to

successfully complete the task. Any vessel moves or
other factors that will impact on the tasks
Chain of command
Confirm the lines of communication for any

reports or questions
18.3. Management of the Inspection

The inspection coordinator is not working in isolation but as part of the
management team for the campaign or project. To put this into context a
typical organisation is shown in Figure 18.11
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Figure 18.11
Chain of Command and Lines
of Responsibility
18.4. Managing Individual Tasks
Even though an inspection is anomaly based the fact that all components
have actually been inspected must be recorded as well as the fact that every
task has been fully completed. As any inspection task is likely to have
several elements, cleaning, marking, CVI, MPI etc, as well as any
component may be subjected to more than one inspection method (task)
then keeping track of the precise state of an inspection campaign can
become very difficult. A method that may help is to keep a tally board or
spread sheet. Table 18.12 refers.
Component CVI
MPI
NJ56
MF55
FF31
MF49
NC14
CP
Phot
ACFM
DTM
FMD
Table 18.12
Sample Spread Sheet
The sample spread sheet shows that component NJ56 must be visually
inspected, be non-destructively tested by MPI and have photographs taken.
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Chapter 18
As the various inspections are completed the dates are entered into the
boxes. Additional boxes may be required for tasks with additional sub-tasks,
CVI will normally require cleaning to SA 2 and so on.
19. Personnel Responsibilities
On an annual platform inspection the inspection controller will need a full
understanding of the responsibilities of all the members of the management
team offshore and onshore. A resume of the salient responsibilities for these
team members is laid out below.
19.1. The IDVB
The IDVB is government approved to act in the capacity of verification that
the Duty Holder has discharged his responsibilities under the appropriate
legislation. The five IDVB are listed in paragraph 1. Regarding the IMR
program the Duty Holder remains responsible that the program is sufficiently
detailed to ensure that the structure remains fit for role. The IDVB verifies
this fact only.
19.2. The Operator, Client, Operating Company, Duty Holder
The Duty Holder is responsible in law to ensure that the structure remains in
a safe condition so as not to endanger personnel and is fit for design
purpose. The client is the party contracting for the IMR services.
19.3. The Clients Project Manager
The project manager for the client will be a nominated engineer from the
operating companys engineering department. He will receive daily reports,
be responsible for the day to day administration of the contract for the Duty
Holder and will issue any instructions regarding the requirements for the
contract and any follow up requirements for the Duty Holder The CAR
reports to him directly.
19.4. The Clients Representative {Client Approved Representative
(CAR)}
The CAR will oversee the works being carried out offshore and will be the
Project Managers on site representative. He will ensure that the terms of the
contract are honoured and will pass all information regarding the daily
working of the contract to and from the Project Manager who is on shore.
He will ensure that the contract is conducted to the standard of safety
required by the Duty Holder. He will liaise with the operators other offshore
managers such as the OIM and any other CAR on site. Any additional work
will be authorised by the Project Manager but the CAR will give the on site
instructions.
The CAR is responsible for the acceptance of all the inspection data
including, CDs, Videos, Photographs etc.
Contractually he may be authorised to stop work if contractual requirements
are not complied with and he may stop work or diving if he considers that
safety is compromised. He cannot order a dive to start. He may only inform
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the Dive Supervisor that all the safety and administration requirements are in
place.
19.5. The Legal Representative
The clients legal department will interpret the legal contractual requirements
and advise the Project Manager accordingly.
19.6. The Contractor
This is the party providing the actual services specified in the contract. This
will be the offshore contracting company providing the vessel, services and
staff to fully comply with the contract requirements. The contractor has a
legal obligation to health and safety to provide a safe workplace and
procedures.
19.7. The Inspection Controller
May be employed by the contractor, a third party or the client. He is
responsible for the efficient management of the inspection program,
ensuring that all procedures are properly applied and fully implemented. He
plans the dive tasks with the Dive Supervisor and the Superintendent or
Offshore Manager or Party Chief. He briefs divers, supervisors, and pilots on
the overall tasks for the next 24 hours. He ensures that all data is correctly
stored and reports anomalies to the Offshore Manager and CAR. He will
liaise between, the Offshore Manager, the CAR, the Captain, and the OIM
and on shore Project Managers as required.
19.8. The Superintendent, Offshore Manager, Party Chief
This person is the contractors offshore project manager. He will be in overall
command of the entire offshore contractors spread with regard to
contractual requirements, administration and logistics. He is the team leader
and has to ensure the efficient running of the entire project on a daily basis.
He will liaise with the CAR, the contractors on shore project manager and
the clients Project Manager. The Inspection Controller is directly responsible
to him.
19.9. The Dive Supervisor
The Dive Supervisor is responsible for the safety of any person under
pressure while under his direct supervision. He is the only person who can
initiate a dive. He can terminate the dive at any time that he feels the
wellbeing or safety of the divers is in jeopardy. He is not responsible for
saturation divers while they are in the saturation chambers on deck not in
the diving bell.
19.10. The Captain
The ships master is responsible for the safety of all persons on board the
vessel whether crew, passengers, supernumeries or even stowaways. He
can stop the diving on safety grounds but he cannot start a dive.
19.11. The OIM
He is the manager of the offshore installation and controls the daily activities
of anyone on the platform and for 500m around the platform. He controls all
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Chapter 18
the work activities for the entire platform and the 500m zone and can order
work of any kind to stop.
19.12. The Divers
The divers are required to be fully qualified for the type of diving they are
employed for and must have appropriate inspection qualifications on an
inspection project. They are directly responsible to the Dive Supervisor.
19.13. ROV Supervisor
He is responsible that the ROV remains operational for the agreed
contractual periods daily. He must ensure that all specified equipment is fully
serviceable and correctly calibrated. The ROV Pilots are directly responsible
to him. He is directly responsible to the Offshore Manager. He may be
qualified to CSWIP 3.3U.
19.14. ROV Pilots
The pilots are responsible to the ROV Supervisor. They will be responsible
for servicing, maintaining and flying the ROV safely. On an inspection
contract sufficient numbers of pilots must be CSWIP 3.3U qualified.
20. Decommissioning
When the fields become depleted the various platforms and seabed
completions will be removed. The QA and QC will continue throughout this
process to ensure that everything actually is removed and to verify that the
ocean floor is left clear of any debris.
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Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
CHAPTER 19
1. Introduction
There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular
inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so
frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapters 13 and 14 but they are
important additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test
structural integrity. An outline of the methods principles of operation,
advantages and disadvantages and uses is contained below.
2. Radiography
Radiography is a well-proven method of NDT that has been employed in
industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively
used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the
human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform
inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The worlds Navies
employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 19.1 indicates
the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Permanent records are produced as

radiographs
Safety requirements are very high
The radiograph can be viewed by

many
Storage and transport of the

radioactive sources are expensive
due to the safety requirements
It is a well proven method
In the UK Government approval is

required
Measurements can usually be taken

directly off the radiograph
The radiographers must be HSE

controlled and carry dosimeters
Cleaning standard is only SA 1
Costs are high because of the safety

requirements and the production
methods to produce radioactive
isotopes
Interpretation of the radiograph often
requires trained radiographic
interpreters
Table 19.1
Advantages and Disadvantages

of Radiography as an NDT Technique
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3. Production of Radiation
Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of
radiation, X-rays and Gamma () rays. X-rays are produced electronically and
therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky
and heavy, rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a
source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel
and storage must be extremely carefully controlled.
3.1. X-ray Production
X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of
electrons emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the
electrons on the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 19.2
Figure 19.2
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment.
Commercially this equipment is not used underwater.
3.2. Production of Rays
Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an
unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy
state to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie
(Ci).
Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of
radiation and commercially artificial isotopes are produced by bombarding
certain elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons. This changes the atomic
structure of the element because the neutrons are captured in its nucleus.
The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192, which has a
radiation output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the
isotope ages. Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is
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normally limited to 50mm. Cobalt 60 is an alternative source that is used
offshore if a stronger source is required.
In use the source is housed in a radiation shielded housing that may be
constructed with depleted uranium. The housing is designed with an
aperture that can be opened remotely to expose the source for a controlled
exposure.
There is at least one diver deployable source that is remotely controlled. The
diver will place the film cassettes and the source in its housing unexposed.
The housing is connected to a compressed air supply on the surface and is
locked with a key in the safe, housed position. The last task for the diver
when all is set up is to unlock the safety and withdraw the key and leave the
site. The safety zone is maintained as 8m.
The housing aperture is opened from the surface remote control to expose
the source. On completion of the timed exposure the aperture is closed and
an ROV would confirm via a visual indicator that the source is housed. The
diver then returns to lock the unit and adjust it for the next exposure. The
aim would be to cover the pipe radius in three hits. Figures 19.3 to 19.5 refer
Figure 19.3
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
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Chapter 19
Figure 19.4
Source Placed at 12 Oclock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 oclock)
Figure 19.5
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
With Key Removed Ready to be Exposed
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The method of placing the film cassettes is illustrated in Figure is 19.6
Figure 19.6
Placing Film Cassettes For Double Wall
Single Image Technique
4. Safety
It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most
important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no
compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers
must be Home Office approved and the staff are all badged and monitored.
5. How the Method Works
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 19.7 illustrates the method.
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Chapter 19
Figure 19.7
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 19.8. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 19.6.
Figure 19.8
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
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5.1. Radiograph Quality

The quality of the radiograph is important because it will determine how
small a defect can be found. Radiography is best at recording volumetric
defects not planar as illustrated in Figure 19.7. The quality of the radiograph
is commonly indicated by the use of an Image Quality Indicator (IQI). This is
a plastic packet that contains wires of different diameters that record or not
on the radiograph. The size of the smallest wire that records is the size of
the smallest defect that will show on the radiograph. See Figure 19.9
Figure 19.9
Image Quality Indicator
6. Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments
have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the
environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in
conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic
Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production
Sorting pure metals and alloys
Taking coating thickness measurements
Assessing stress in conducting materials
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Chapter 19
Assessing the thickness of marine growth
The most sensitive area for stress cracks propagating is the toes of welds and
this type of defect will be surface breaking. Eddy currents can find this type of
defect through paint coating and therefore has real potential in the offshore
scene.
6.1. How the Method Works
As shown in Chapter 14 MPI when an electric current is passed through a
conductor a circular magnetic field at 90o to the current flow is generated
around the conductor. If the conductor is twisted into a coil the magnetic field
vectors into a longitudinal flux orientation. With the eddy current technique
this is called the PRIMARY FIELD. If this coil is brought to close proximity to
a conducting material the primary field will pass through the material and
produce a circular electric current orientated at right angles to the direction
of the primary magnetic field. This induced electric current is called an eddy
current and this is the principal that transformers work on. Figure 19.10
refers.
Figure 19.10
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field.
These two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a
display that would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no
discontinuities. If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will
cause the lines of current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the
induced lines of magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 14 this
increases the flux density, this in turn increases the magnetic field strength
in the secondary magnetic field. This causes an imbalance between the two
fields that will be indicated on the instrument display, which is commonly a
CRT. Figure 19.11 refers.
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Figure 19.11
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate edge effect will cause spurious
indications
Differenced in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 19.12 refers
Figure 19.12
Spurious Indications
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Chapter 19
Other factors that effect eddy currents are: Test probe frequency
the higher the frequency the less the penetration
Material permeability
the higher the permeability the less the penetration
Material conductivity
the higher the conductivity the less the penetration
Table 19.13 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method.

EMD/ACFM Advantages over MPI
MPI Advantages over EMD/ACFM
Can size a defect for length and

depth
Well proven industrial technique
Works through non-conducting

materials
Easier to use on complex geometry
Data recorded directly onto

computer
Good for finding transverse or

complex branching cracks
Permanent record of inspection data Good for finding shallow cracks

Quicker than MPI
Gives a visual unambiguous

indication
Lower cleaning standard required
Better for use with remedial grinding
Works on non-magnetic materials
The equipment is less complex
Interpretation is completed topside
The equipment is less costly
Off-line interpretation is available

There are no lighting problems
ROV deployment may be possible
Table 19.13
Advantages of EMD/ACFM Over MPI
Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during
any EMD or ACFM inspection.
The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and the
diver inspector
The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician and
the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both
Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2
The diver inspector must appreciate the important points concerning probe
manipulation and know the name of the parts of the probe
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The weld must be correctly marked
The diver inspector must be aware of the limitations of the technique
regarding weld profile, seams and component geometry
7. Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
ACPD is a method for sizing the depth of a surface-breaking defect. The
method is not used to detect defects only to size a known flaw. The method can
be used on any conducting material as it relies solely on the resistance path to
an alternating current.
Alternating current exhibits a skin effect as has been mentioned previously.
The skin effect is more prevalent the higher the frequency of the alternating
current. A pair of probes, called field probes is placed in contact with the
surface of the material being tested and a current is applied across them.
The current will flow from one probe to the other through the skin of the
material. A second probe, which is the equivalent of the two prods of a
voltmeter, measures the potential drop between them when they are placed
in the current field established by the field probes. This establishes a
baseline reading. The sensing probe is then placed to straddle the crack and
a different reading is obtained because the resistance path is longer. Care
must be exercised to ensure that the current carrying conductor for the field
probes is kept as far away from the measuring probe and its umbilical as
possible to avoid any interference with the readings. See Figure 19.14
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Chapter 19
Figure 19.14
Methodology for ACPD
To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple
formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for
underwater deployment is shown in Figure 19.15.
Figure 19.15
ACPD Underwater Probe
8. Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
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ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified, however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph6.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing
with a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by
inducing an electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced
electric field then induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these
magnetic fields are measured electronically to determine crack length and
depth. The fact that electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine
the measurement of the magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 19.16
refers.
Figure 19.16
Principle of Operation of ACFM
8.2. Application of the Technique
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Chapter 19
The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the
magnetic field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is
required to the worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient.
There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the
field induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field
sensors. These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should
be exercised not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter
the induced field strength.
The diver inspector under directions from the surface technician manipulates
the probe. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in paragraph
6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface by the
surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can be
reviewed at any time during or after the inspection.
The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be
sized for length and depth.
9. Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
Flooded members can be detected in two ways
Gamma Radiography
Ultrasonically
The most widely used in the North Sea is radiography.
FMD is used to identify tubular members that have flooded. It is used as a batch
testing method on a go/no go system. If a member is tested and found to be
dry it is a go and considered to be serviceable and fit for purpose. If it is
flooded it is a no go and is identified for further follow up analysis and testing
to determine where it has failed, why it has failed and what ramifications this
has on the structure.
9.1. Radiographic FMD
This technique places and exposes a source on one side of the tubular
while a dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation
penetrating the tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The
diameter and wall thickness of the member must be known so that the
expected doses may be calculated. The most common source used for this
method is caesium 137 and safety zones must be established around the
ROV when it is on deck with the source fitted. The last person to leave the
ROV before launching is the radiographer and the first person to approach it
on recovery is the radiographer.
No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the
software will compensate for the marine growth.
Figure 19.17 illustrates the technique and Figure 19.18 shows a typical
configuration on an ROV.
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Figure 19.17
Radiographic FMD
Figure 19.18
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
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Chapter 19
9.2. Ultrasonic FMD

The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan
display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be
held exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic
signal is propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the
member is dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the
member is flooded there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from,
either the far wall or the surface of the internal water. It is a go/no go
method the same as the radiographic technique. Figure 19.19 refers.
Figure 19.19
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the
necessary cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the
reading.
10. General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 oclock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
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Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 19
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Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
CHAPTER 20
1. General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 20.1
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
ROV
Hand Cleaning
(Scrapers etc)
Inexpensive, easy to
deploy
Slow, diver fatigue, poor

finish
NO
Pneumatics
More efficient
Depth limits, control, exhaust
YES
Hydraulics
More efficient
Expensive, limited choice,

bulky hose
YES
HP Water Jet
Fast, effective, least

damaging
Hazardous, leaves reflective

surface
YES
HP Water Grit
Entrainment
Fast, matt finish
Hazardous, may damage the

surface
NO
Grit Blasting
Removes all growth,

matt finish
Hazardous, maintenance,
backup team required
YES
LP Air Grit
Fast, matt finish
May be depth limited, large

compressor required
YES
Cavitation Jet
Effective on hard
growth, safe, no grit
Will not remove soft growth
Inhibitors (Including
Henderson Rings)
No diver intervention
required
Only in splash zone,

environmental impact
NO
NO
Table 20.1
2. HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 20.2
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Chapter 20
Figure 20.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition and are
correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system because of
circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing if not
handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater use.
2.1. Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
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The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large
quantities of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a
very small hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
2.2. Management of any Injury
The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence
or absence of infection, and even through the injury seems trivial on the
surface and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to
arrange for medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical
examination is not immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid
measures are confined to dressing the wound and observing the patient
closely for the development of further complaints over four or five days. The
development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest the injury is serious
together with persistence or occurrence of pain. On evacuation, the diver
should carry the following card, which outlines the possible nature of the
injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm-2) with a jet velocity of 900 mph
(1440 Kmhr-1). Please take this into account when making your
diagnosis. Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at
low temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative
pathogens such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood
cultures may therefore be helpful
3. Standard of Surface Finish
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Suppliment 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1 Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2 Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2
Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull

matt metal finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level
applied offshore as it leave a surface, sometimes referred to as
stippled, that does not unduly reflect light. It is an excellent surface
for CVI, MPI CCTV, Photography and all other NDT.)
SA 3 Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most
inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if
CCTV and Photography are employed.
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Chapter 20
4. Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in unnecessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 20.3.
Figure 20.3
Cleaned Area
5. General Applications of Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structures
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ
profile grinding may be dictated by:
The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during
MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks
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The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed
during inspection activities
The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by
the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holders engineering department via
the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
6. Specific Application of Profile Grinding
The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features
are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR program.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any
indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements
and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 20.4 applies.
Figure 20.4
Remedial Grinding
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Chapter 20
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1
Technical Drawings How They Apply to
Inspection
1. Types of Drawing
An engineering drawing is a type of drawing that is technical in nature, used to
fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items, and is usually
created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature,
interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Engineering drawings are often referred to as "blueprints" or "bluelines".
However, the terms are rapidly becoming an anachronism, due to the fact that
most copies of engineering drawings that were formerly made using a chemicalprinting process that yielded graphics on blue-colored paper or, alternatively, of
blue-lines on white paper, have been superseded by more modern reproduction
processes.
The process of producing engineering drawings, and the skill of producing
them, is often referred to as technical drawing, although technical drawings are
also required for disciplines that would not ordinarily be thought of as parts of
engineering.
Common features of engineering drawings
A variety of line styles are used to graphically represent physical objects. Types
of lines include the following:
visible - are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a
particular angle.
hidden - are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are
not directly visible.
center - are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to
represent the axes of circular features.
cutting plane - are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and
double short-dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
section - are thin lines in a parallel pattern used to indicate surfaces in section
views resulting from "cutting." Section lines are commonly referred to as "crosshatching."
Here is an example of an engineering drawing. The different line types are
colored for clarity.
Black = object line and hatching
Red = hidden line
Blue = center line
Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane
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Technical Drawings How They Apply to Inspection
2. Engineering Drawing
In most cases, a single view is not sufficient to show all necessary features, and
several views are used. Types of views include the following:
2.1. Multiple views and projections
Orthographic projection - show the object as it looks from the front, right,
left, top, bottom, or back, and are typically positioned relative to each other
according to the rules of either first-angle or third-angle projection. Not all
views are necessarily used, and determination of what surface constitutes
the "front," etc., varies from object to object. "Orthographic" comes from the
Greek for "straight writing (or drawing)."
Section - depict what the object would look like if it were cut perfectly along
cutting plane lines defined in a particular view, and rotated 90 to directly
view the resulting surface(s), which are indicated with section lines. They are
used to show features not externally visible, or not clearly visible.
Detail - show portions of other views, "magnified" for clarity.
Auxiliary Projection - similar to orthographic projections, however the
directions of viewing are other than those for orthographic projections.
Isometric - show the object from angles in which the scales along each axis
of the object are equal. It corresponds to rotation of the object by 45
about the vertical axis, followed by rotation of approximately 35.264 [=
arcsin(tan(30))] about the horizontal axis starting from an orthographic
projection view. "Isometric" comes from the Greek for "same measure."
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Appendix 1
2.2. Showing dimensions

The required sizes of features are conveyed through use of dimensions.
Distances may be indicated with either of two standardized forms of
dimension: linear and ordinate.
With linear dimensions, two parallel lines, called "extension lines," spaced at
the distance between two features, are shown at each of the features. A line
perpendicular to the extension lines, called a "dimension line," with arrows at
its endpoints, is shown between, and terminating at, the extension lines. The
distance is indicated numerically at the midpoint of the dimension line, either
adjacent to it, or in a gap provided for it.
With ordinate dimensions, one horizontal and one vertical extension line
establish an origin for the entire view. The origin is identified with zeroes
placed at the ends of these extension lines. Distances along the x- and yaxes to other features are specified using other extension lines, with the
distances indicated numerically at their ends.
Sizes of circular features are indicated using either diametral or radial
dimensions. Radial dimensions use an "R" followed by the value for the
radius; Diametral dimensions use a circle with forward-leaning diagonal line
through it, called the diameter symbol, followed by the value for the
diameter. A radially-aligned line with arrowhead pointing to the circular
feature, called a leader, is used in conjunction with both diametral and radial
dimensions. All types of dimensions are typically composed of two parts: the
nominal value, which is the "ideal" size of the feature, and the tolerance,
which specifies the amount that the value may vary above and below the
nominal.
Of the several different ways that engineering drawings are presented and
produced the types of drawing that apply to underwater inspection are, first
angle, which is the European standard, third angle, which is the American
standard, and isometric projection, which is a method for presenting
drawings in 3 dimensions.
The standard in use is represented by a truncated cone, as indicated below.
3. First Angle Projection
The ISO standard considers a projection on the opposite direction; the top view
is under the front view, the right view is at the left of the front view. This is called
First Angle Projection
Key To Indicate
First Angle Projection
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4. Third Angle Projection

The American standard (called Third Angle Projection) places the left view on
the left and the top view on the top.
Key To Indicate
Third Angle Projection
5. Additional Information Included on Drawings
Although writing on drawings is kept to the minimum; Notes--textual information-are also typically included in drawings, specifying details not otherwise
conveyed. Notes are almost always in completely uppercase characters, for
uniformity and maximal legibility after duplication of the drawing, which may
involve substantial reduction in size. Leaders may be used in conjunction with
notes in order to point to a particular feature or object that the note concerns.
Drawings are numbered in accordance with the system incorporated into the
QA system. The actual drawing number is included in the Title box.
Titles are concise and normally in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing.
They are normally all in upper case. Typically the Title box includes:
Project title
Drawing number
Drawing title
Description of the project
Scale
Date of drawing
Office of origin
Office drawing project number
Draftsman name
Approval signatures
6. Size of Engineering Drawings
Sizes of drawings typically comply with either of two different standards, metric
or U.S. Customary, according to the following tables:
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Appendix 1
Metric Drawing Sizes (mm)
U.S. Customary Drawing Sizes
A4
210 X 297
8.5" X 11"
A3
297 X 420
11" X 17"
A2
420 X 594
17" X 22"
A1
594 X 841
22" X 34"
A0
841 X 1189
34" X 44"
The metric drawing sizes correspond to international paper sizes. These

developed further refinements in the second half of the twentieth century, when
photocopying became cheap. Engineering drawings could be readily doubled
(or halved) in size and put on the next larger (or, respectively, smaller) size of
paper with no waste of space. And the metric technical pens were chosen in
sizes so that one could add detail or drafting changes with a pen of double (or
half) the width to the copy.
The U.S. Customary "A-size" corresponds to "letter" size, and "B-size"
corresponds to "ledger" size. There were also once British paper sizes, which
went by names rather than alphanumeric designations.
(ANSI Y14.2, Y14.3, and Y14.5 are standards that are commonly used in the U.S.)
7. How Drawings Are Used in Offshore Inspection

The common use is for briefing of all personnel involved in the inspection. The
engineering drawing may be used for this but it is generally more beneficial to
use either schematic or isometric presentations, as these are easier to relate to.
The other main use of drawings is to determine measurements and sizes of the
various components being inspected.
8. Isometric Drawing
As indicated in paragraph 2.1 isometric drawings show the object with equal
scale on all the axis of the drawing. The perspective for the drawing is slightly
above and to the side of the object. The vertical lines from the engineering
drawing remain vertical while the horizontal lines are drawn at 30o above the
horizontal. Working through the following exercise should be helpful in gaining
the skill required to produce an isometric drawing from an engineering
projection.
9. Exercise in Producing an Isometric Drawing From a Third Angle
Projection
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Appendix 1
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Appendix 1
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Bibliography
Wikipedia
The free encyclopedia
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Appendix 1
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Exercise in Writing an Engineering Description
APPENDIX 2
Exercise in Writing an Engineering Description of
a Component
1. What Is Required
The CSWIP 3.3U and 3.4U practical examinations both require that a written
description of a component be prepared and submitted for assessment. A
photograph of the component will be provided and the candidate must write a
description of the feature in engineering terms, in approximately 150 words.
This is an engineering description to ensure that the candidate can discuss
engineering items with other engineers. It is not an inspection of the component.
This exercise mimics this examination requirement. You are required to prepare
a written description of the item shown in the photograph in Figure A2.1 in
approximately 150 words. On completion of the exercise submit your
description to the course instructor and he will give you an assesment of it.
When you have digested the assessment attempt a second description of the
item in Figure A2.2 and submit this for the instructor to assess.
2. Points to Note
Take into account the following points while preparing your description.
What material do you assess the component is made from?
Only describe the specific features of the item that you can actually see
What function does the item fulfill? Is it a clamp or a guide?
How is it constructed? Is it welded or bolted?
Are there any attachements to the item such as bonding wires?
Can you see evidence of bolts, liners or any other features normally
associated with the component?
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Appendix 2
Figure A2.1
Component One
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Figure A2.2
Component Two
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Appendix 2
Figure A2.3
Component Three
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Appendix 3
APPENDIX 3
Types, Capabilities and Limitations of ROVs and
Submersibles
1. ROV Classification
ROV classifications as stated in Chapter 21 are specified in IMCA guidance
note 051. Some extra notes on the capabilities and limitations of the various
types of vehicle are laid out below. A typical system is illustrated in Figure A3.1.
Figure A3.1
Typical ROV System
2. Class 1 Pure Observation
Pure observation vehicles are physically limited in size and power and will
provide live video only. This type of vehicle has limited applications but has the
advantage of being very easy to mobilise and deploy. A class 1 vehicle is
shown in Figure A3.2.
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Types, Capabilities & Limitations of ROVs & Submersibles
Figure A3.2
Class 1 ROV
This type of vehicle may be used for diver support. When engaged in this task
the divers safety is enhanced as is the efficiency by: Locating the job site
Providing a real time overview of the divers work
Provide extra lighting
Monitoring the divers well being
3. Class II Observation With Payload Option
These are vehicles that can carry additional sensors such as CP probes and
sonar as well as additional cameras. They may have simple manipulators fitted
of the two function extend and grab type. These are slightly more powerful
vehicles that are capable of performing their original design function with at
least two additional functions added. They will have multiplexing facilities and
some spare umbilical capacity. See Figure A3.3
Figure A3.3
Class 2 ROVs
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Appendix 3
Common types of equipment mounted on this type of vehicle are: Colour Camera
SIT Camera
Sonar
CP Probe (stabbing or proximity)
Digital Still Camera
Pan and Tilt Camera (Colour or SIT)
Lights
Gyro-compass
Depth Sensor
Location Pinger
Location Strobe
This type of vehicle may also be used for diver support operations.
4. Class III Work class Vehicles
These vehicles are large enough and powerful enough to be fitted with
additional sensors, tools and manipulators. These vehicles will have significant
multiplexing capability and spare conductors in the umbilical. These vehicles
are used for some construction tasks, as well as inspection work, particularly
pipeline surveys. See Figures A3.4 to A3.10. As an example of the power
available to this type of vehicle a Super Scorpio is rated at 40 horsepower.

Figure A3.4
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Typical Class 3 ROV Pilots Consul
Figure A3.5
Class 3 ROV Trojan

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Appendix 3
Figure A3.6
Class 3 ROV Components
Figure A3.7
Subsea Offshore Pioneer
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Figure A3.8
Slingsby Engineering
Multi-role Vehicle (MRV)
Figure A3.9
Hydrovision Diablo
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Appendix 3
Figure A3.10
Perry Tritech Super Scorpio
This type of vehicle may have a considerable payload fitted including: Side-scan Sonar
gives object location to both sides of the ROV
Sub-bottom profiler measures a section through the seabed strata and

indicates composition. The ROV must maintain an altitude of 5 6cm
Parametric sub-bottom profiler
a panormic view of the seabed
uses an array of transducers to obtain
3D mapping sonar an array of transducers provide a 3 dimensional view

of the seabed
Scanning sonar
ROV
shows a sonar picture of the seabed in front of the
Ranging Sonar or Avoidance sonar

an echo-location sonar that
gives a bearing and distance to an object in range of the sonar beam
Bathymetric Unit (Altimeter)
measures depth and altitude, can be
linked to thursters to maintain depth automatically
Ultrasonic trench profiler
provides an image of the pipeline trench
Spot-scan trench profiler a high frequency scanning device that

provides either a longitudinal or lateral trench profile
Spot-scan profiler
profiles the pipeline by laser scanning
Pipe-tracker a magnetometer that plots the pipe by detecting magnetic

anomalies
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Laser sizing and ranging lasers can give accurate ranges to objects
and can also size even quite small objects such as dents in the pipeline
SIT cameras
low light monochrome video camera
Lights
Pan and Tilt Camera
Boom Cameras
Emerergency Acoustic Transponder
Emergency High Intensity Flashing Strobe Light
Gyro compass
Depth sensor
Digital Still Camera
Stero Cameras (if required)
photogrammetry in real time is
available to give accurate dimensions of any anomalies
Current Density probe
CP probe
Ultrasonic digital thickness meter
thickness when required.
measures pipeline wall
Temperature sensor
Salinity sensor
Odometer
Acoustic responder
Pipe tracker
Wheels
Sampling Equipment
A diagram of a typical pipeline survey ROV is shown in Figures 21.11 and 21.12
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Appendix 3
Figure 21.11
Diagram of a Typical
Pipeline Survey ROV
Figure 21.12
Diagram of a Typical
Pipeline Survey ROV Front View
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5. Class IV Towed or Bottom Crawling Vehicles
Towed vehicles have no propulsion power but will have limited manoeuvrability
via vanes. They are used for survey tasks. The towing speed is normally
between 0.5 and 4 kts. The tasks include seabed survey, pipeline survey and
locating shipwrecks. The equipment that can be installed includes: Emergency strobe unit
Compass
Depth sensor
Digital still camera
Pan and tilt camera
Lights
SIT camera
Sidescan sonar
Sub-bottom profiler
Trench profiler
Ranging sonar
Echo sounder and altimeter
Emergency transponder
Temperature sensor
Salinity sensor
Bottom crawler vehicles are negatively buoyant and move on the seabed with
tracks or wheels. They are trenching vehicles. Some can fly with limited
manoeuvrability. See Figures A3.13 and A3.14
Figure A3.13
Soil Machine Dynamics Bottom Crawling Cable Burial ROV
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Appendix 3
Figure A3.14
Slingsby Engineering ROV 128
Cable Burial/Retrieval System
6. Class V Prototype or Development Vehicle
This type of vehicle is either under development or does not fit into any of the
other four categories.
7. General Work Completed by ROVs
There are numerous tasks completed by ROVs and as the technology improves
so the number of tasks increases. The type of work completed by ROVs
currently includes: General survey with video
General survey with sonar
Close inspection wit video
Riser inspection
Pipeline surveys
Scour survey
Debris survey
CP survey
Recording details photographically
Stereo-photographic survey
Flooded Member Detection
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8. Pipeline Survey
Work class ROVs are used extensively for pipeline survey work. While pipelines
appear to be simple structures there are a number of features associated with
them that are warrant of note.
8.1. Pipeline Features
A selection of the more important pipeline features follows but see also
Chapter 2.
Risers
facility
pipe work that carries product up to or down from the production
Riser Clamp
clamp that holds the riser in place on the jacket
PLEM
Pipeline End Manifold, which is the termination of the
pipeline under an SBM
Valves
product
positioned strategically along the pipeline to control the flow of
Flanges the ends of pipes that are bolted together to form a sealed joint
between two pipe runs
Weight coat
reinforced concrete coating applied to the pipe to provide: -
Protection from physical damage

Passivate the pipe to provide corrosion protection
Add weight to the pipe to provide some stability
Trenches trenches to bury the pipeline for protection and stability
Rock dumps
200mm graded rocks dumped onto sections of pipe where
protection and stability are required but trenching cannot be accomplished
Cross-over
a point on the pipeline where one line crosses over
another. Each pipe is prevented from touching the other by purpose built
bridges or grout bags. Pipeline protection frames (igloos) may be built over
the crossing.
Kilometre post every kilometre is marked on the pipeline survey plan.
These plans are used to navigate the vessel to the correct geographical
position for the survey
Saddle blocks large concrete constructions in the shape of a horse saddle
that are used to anchor the pipeline to the seabed
Expansion loops
large purpose designed u bends in the pipeline built
in to provide for the expansion and contraction of the pipeline caused by
thermal or mechanical expansions and contractions
Tie-in
the seabed location where a pipeline is joined to a riser,
PLEM another pipe or a manifold etc
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Appendix 3
8.2. Pipeline Inspection Tasks

The actual inspection tasks will consist of the following: Assessment of the pipeline burial or rock-dump area for pipeline
integrity and stability
Assessment of any spans to ensure the pipeline is not overstressed
due to weight loading caused by the pipes own weight
Assessment of the weight coat integrity to ensure the integrity of the
pipe and that corrosion protection is maintained
Assessment of any physical damage discovered during the survey
CP voltage and amperage readings to confirm the CP system is fully
operational
Visual assessment of valves and flanges to ensure there is no
leakage
9. Manipulators
There are a number of manipulators used by ROV some are more functional
than others. Class 3 vehicles rely on manipulators when employed in
construction and sample gathering tasks. The types of arms available include: Perry five function arm
Kraft five function arm
Kraft nine function arm
Slingsby five function arm
Slingsby nine function arm
Slingsby TSC nine function computer arm
Schilling nine function arm
The number of functions refers to the number of axis of rotation possible. Some
arms are computer controlled and are capable of assessing distances within the
scope of the arm.
Trials have been undertaken using manipulators to scan welds with ACFM
probes. There has been qualified success with this but more development is
required before this application can be applied with total confidence.
9.1. Force Feedback
This refers to the manipulator providing resistance to finger pressure on the
control, which equates to feeling how hard anything is gripped. This
technology is used quite widely in the atomic energy industry but has not
been deployed very often on ROVs. The systems are available but currently
there is only a limited demand for them.
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10. Submersibles
Submersibles may be un-manned or manned. It is more common to deploy
manned submersibles. Both types are used for specialised tasks and neither is
a widely used as ROVs.
10.1. Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (AUV)
These have been deployed for seabed mapping and pipeline inspection.
They are normally deployed pre-programmed and fly the mission on this
program. Their use is limited. Advantages and disadvantages are
summarised in Table A3.15
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Appendix 3
Intervention
Method
AUV
Advantages
Disadvantages
No decompression
issues at all
Access will be restricted at

times
No human exposure to
risk
Usually only 2 dimensional

view available from video
Can have a large

number of sensors
installed to gather
masses of data
Will be inspecting from a

video image not the real
thing
Can collect real time

colour video easily
No other human senses

are on the job site
May reach extraordinary

depths
Battery life limits

endurance
The observer is viewing

the real thing not a
video
There are safety

considerations because
humans are in the water
There are no
decompression issues
at all
Access to sites may be

very restricted
Table 21.15
11. Manned Submersibles
Again these may be split into two groups, tethered and autonomous.
The autonomous type is used mainly for deep scientific diving. There have been
a number of one-man submersibles that have been used and there are
recreational submersibles used for tourism at some resorts. Currently this type
of vehicle is not deployed offshore.
The tethered submersible included one-atmosphere diving suits such as Jim
suits. None are currently in use offshore.
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Bibliography
Handbook for ROV Pilot/Technicians
Chris Bell, Mel Bayliss, Richard Warburton
OPL
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Communications Techniques
APPENDIX 4
1. General Comments
Good communications are crucial to any project and offshore inspection
campaigns are no exception.
2. Diver Communications
Since the traditional diver rope signals were initiated to have some
communications with a working diver technology has taken over. The
communications to a diver now generally consist of hard wire communications
systems with de-scramblers on line when divers breath helium. The usual
system is simplex with the diver having priority. A press to talk switch (pressel
switch) must be depressed to be able to speak to the diver.
It is possible to have a duplex or round robin system which is more like a
telephone with both parties able to talk at the same time.
Through water communications are available but are mainly used by police
divers and archaeologists.
It is common to use a very loose radio voice procedure when using these
systems and at times the speech reproduction is quite poor.
3. Normal Communications Systems
These vary in different parts of the world but in the North Sea the following are
all available:
Telephone (both internal and to shore)
Two way intercoms (internal and to other vessels)
Electronic mail
The telephone systems may be satellite or cell phone. The methods of
communication over the two way systems are all based loosely on radio voice
procedure but of course the telephone systems are used as for normal
conversation.
4. Voice Procedure
Radio communications use voice procedures to ensure that the system runs as
smoothly as possible. The following points should always be observed:
Distress calls always have precedence over any other call absolutely
Keep conversations brief and to the point, do not chat or be unnecessarily verbose, which will tie up the air ways
Do not break into other persons calls listen out before transmission.
Unless it is a matter of urgency or distress to break in
Do not use swear words on the air
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Appendix 4
Do not stammer or use er or um think of what you want to say before
you speak
Speak clearly and with a normal speech rhythm (RSVP)
Use the proword over when you finish your sentence and expect a reply
or use the proword out when you finish your sentence and do not
expect a reply
Use the proword roger to acknowledge reception of the other persons
transmission
4.1. The Phonetic Alphabet
This is an international set of standard words used in place of letters. Alpha
stands for letter A and Bravo for letter B etc. The full alphabet is:
A Alpha
November
B Bravo
Oscar
C Charlie
Papa
D Delta
Quebec
E Echo
Romeo
F Foxtrot
Sierra
G Golf
Tango
H Hotel
Uniform
India
Victor
Juliet
Whisky
K Kilo
X-ray
L Lima
Yankee
M Mike
Zulu
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Appendix 5
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
1. Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
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Appendix 5
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
shutter it adhered to the surface of the shutter and so when the shutter was
moved upwards the concrete was torn apart
Exposed Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement bars become visible on the surface of the concrete
accompanied by rust staining. There are two ways in which this occurs: either
by displacement of the steelwork during construction or by removal of the
outside covering of concrete during the in-service life of the structure (impact
damage)
Figure A5.15
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
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Extract of Offshore
Figure A5.16
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
2. Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
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Appendix 5
Figure A5.17
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A5.18
Cast in Socket
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Recessed metal plates
This is a metal plate, which has been cast into the structure. Usually it will be
recessed some way into the concrete in order to allow the slip form shutter to
pass unhindered. The recess will have rough uneven sides, there may also be
some corrosion of the plate and so possibly some staining and cracking of the
concrete around the plate.
These plates will be included in the structure during the construction phase
Figure A5.19
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures, which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
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Appendix 5
Figure A5.20
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an inservice problem
Figure A5.21
Abrasion
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Honeycombing
Honeycombing will appear as an area of coarse aggregate, which has little or
no grout around it. Voids will be apparent in the concrete. The course aggregate
will not be broken.
It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete during
construction, or maybe grout loss beneath a shutter. Also the concrete not
having sufficient fine material present can cause it.
Honeycombing occurs during the construction phase
3. Category C (Blemishes)
Construction joint
This will be a fairly straight line on the surface with irregular ridges and/or
depressions along its length. The edges may be indistinct and may be
accompanied by some tearing. The coarse aggregate will not be broken. The
colour or texture of the surface above and below the joint nay differ somewhat.
This blemish is formed at the end of one pour of concreter and beginning of
another pour where the formwork has not been tailored to fit the structure very
well.
It will occur during the construction phase and may be useful as a datum for the
location of defects etc.
Formwork misalignment
This will show as a step or a ridge on the surface of the concrete.
It is caused by the poor tailoring or fitting of shutters during the fabrication or the
structure.
It will occur during the construction phase
Figure A5.22
Formwork Misalignment
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Appendix 5
Blowholes
These will be small holes in the surface of the concrete usually less than 10mm
in diameter with sharp edges. There will not normally be any aggregate visible.
Blowholes are caused by air bubbles being trapped against the formwork face.
There will always be some blowholes in a concrete structure but they will not be
significant unless they are frequent, due to insufficient vibration of the liquid
concrete slurry
They will occur during the construction phase
Figure A5.23
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
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Figure A5.24
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
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Appendix 5
Figure A5.25
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
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Stones or pebbles being trapped behind the slip form shutters and being
dragged up the structure with them, so causing indentation in the surface of the
concrete, normally cause the drag marks. They can also be caused by dents or
deformations in the shutter itself.
Vertical drag marks are formed during the construction phase
Figure A5.26
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It can be an in-service blemish
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Appendix 5
Figure A5.27
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
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Figure A5.28
Curing Compound
Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
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Appendix 5
Figure A5.29
Grout Run
4. General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
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The foundation slab bearing on the seabed
Caisson
Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell.
Cell
Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for
the base cells of a structure.
Invert
The lowest point of an opening or tunnel
Soffit
The underside of a concrete beam
Jarlan Hole
Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action,
some of the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall
where the ventury principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces
acting on the wall.
Laitance
This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete
as it sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied.
Exudation
Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing
through a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid,
which accumulates around the crack. Note that on the surface it will always run
downwards, however in water it may drift sideways or even upwards, owing to
the fact that its density may be less than the water around it.
4.1. Reporting
When inspecting concrete always report:
All defects using correct terminology
Length of defect
Width of defect
Depth of defect
Location on the structure
Any staining
As far as possible report all defects in three dimensions
5. Weathering
Weathering is the term used for the deterioration of concrete due to
environmental forces; this is the concrete equivalent of corrosion in steel.
Weathering may be caused by:
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Appendix 5
Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the
seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow
Frost damage in the splash zone, water will penetrate the structure to a
degree and will freeze and expand during winter weather thus causing
the concrete to crack and spall
Chemical attack, such as salt attack will cause the concrete to become
softened; it occurs near the surface of the structure and will take a very
long time to show. Alkali Aggregate Reaction from the aggregate can
cause cracking but takes a number of years to manifest itself
Corrosion of the reinforcement can occur if the seawater is allowed to
flow too freely through the concrete reinforcement cage or pre-stressing
tendons. This could lead to catastrophic failure, especially with prestressed structures
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4.1. United Kingdom

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Specific Joint Design

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