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Reproduced,withpermission,from:Reijntjes,C.,B.Haverkort,andA.WatersBayer.1992.Farmingforthe
future:Anintroductiontolowexternalinputandsustainableagriculture.London:Macmillan.

3.2Indigenousfarmingsystems,practicesandknowledge:some
examples
Alreadyinearlycolonialtimes,perceptiveobserverscommendedtheintricateandcarefulcultivationmethodsof'native'
inhabitants(seeBox3.2).ClassicstudiesofAsianandAfricanagricultureweremadeinthe1940sand1950s,e.g.de
Schlippe(1956),Conklin(1957),Allan(1965).Agrowingnumberofpublicationsarenowappearingaboutindigenous
knowledgesystemsandthefarmingsystemsbaseduponthem(e.g.Brokenshaetal.1980,Biggs&Clay1981,
Rhoades1984,Richards1985,Marten1986,Wilken1987,Warrenetal.1989,Dupre1990),whichrevealtheir
complexityandsophisticationindealingwithenvironmentalhazards.
Thefollowingexamplesofindigenouspracticesillustratehowwellfarmersinthetropicslearnedtomanipulateandderive
advantagefromlocalresourcesandnaturalprocesses,applyingtheprinciplesofagroecologywithoutknowingthatthis
termexists.TheprinciplesofagroecologyasdiscernedbyscientistswillbepresentedinPartIIofthisbook,butfirstlet
ustakealookatsomeofthepracticalapplicationsevolvedbyfarmersthroughaprocessofinformalresearchand
development.

Examplesofindigenouslandusesystems
Forestgardens.Inmanypartsofthehumidtropics,indigenoussystemsofforestgardening(silvihorticulture)havebeen
developed.Forexample,villageagroforestshaveexistedinJavasinceatleastthe10thcenturyandcomprisetoday15
50%ofthetotalcultivatedvillageland.Theyrepresentpermanenttypesoflandusewhichprovideawiderangeof
productswithahighfoodvalue(e.g.fruits,vegetables,meat,eggs)andotherproducts,suchasfirewood,timberand
medicines.Intheirsmallplots,oftenlessthan0.1ha,Javanesepeasantsmixalargenumberofdifferentplantspecies.
Withinonevillage,upto250differentspeciesofdiversebiologicaltypesmaybegrown:annualherbs,perennial
herbaceousplants,climbingvines,creepingplants,shrubsandtreesrangingfrom10to35minheight.
Livestockformanimportantcomponentofthisagroforestrysystemparticularlypoultry,butalsosheepfreelygrazingor
fencedinshedsandfedwithforagegatheredfromthevegetation.Theanimalshaveanimportantroleinnutrient
recycling.Alsofishpondsarecommonandthefisharefedwithanimalandhumanwastes.
Naturalprocessesofcyclingwaterandorganicmatteraremaintaineddeadleavesandtwigsarelefttodecompose,
keepingacontinuallitterlayerandhumusthroughwhichnutrientsarerecycled.Compost,fishpondmudandgreen
manuresarecommonlyusedoncropland.Theseformsofrecyclingaresufficienttomaintainsoilfertilitywithouttheuse
ofchemicalfertilisers.Villagersregulateormodifythefunctioninganddynamicsofeachplantandanimalwithinthe
system(Michonetal.1983).
Shiftingcultivation.Allovertheworld,shiftingcultivation,alsocalledswiddenagriculture,hasbeenandstillis
practisedtomanagesoilfertility.Shiftingcultivationinvolvesanalternationbetweencropsandlongtermforestfallow.In
atypicalsequence,forestiscutandburnttoclearthelandandprovideashas'fertiliser'or'lime'forthesoil.Cropyields
aretypicallyhighforthefirstfewyearsbutthenfallonaccountofdecliningsoilfertilityorinvasionofweedsorpests.
Thefieldsarethenabandonedandthefarmerclearsanotherpieceofforest.Theabandonedfieldislefttofallowfor
severalyearsordecadesandthushasachancetorebuildfertilitybeforethefarmerreturnstoittostarttheprocess
again.
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Shiftingcultivationisoftencharacterisedbyaseasontoseasonprogressionofdifferentcropswhichdifferinsoilnutrient
requirementsandsusceptibilitytoweedsandpests.Forexample,theHanunoointhePhilippinesplantriceandmaizethe
firstyearafterclearing,thenrootcropssuchassweetpotatoes,yamsandcassava,andfinallybananas,abaca(Musa
textilis),bambooandfruits(Conklin1957).
Shiftingcultivationpracticesthroughouttheworldvaryimmensely,buttherearebasicallytwotypesofsystems:
Partialsystems,whichevolveoutofpredominantlyeconomicinterestsoftheproducers,e.g.insomekindof
cashcrop,resettlementandsquatteragriculture.
Integralsystems,whichstemfromamoretraditional,yearround,communitywideandlargelyselfcontained
wayoflife.
Providedthatthepopulationpressuredoesnotexceedthecarryingcapacityoftheareaatthatleveloftechnology,
integralsystemsofshiftingcultivationpresentagoodequilibriumbetweenhumansandtheirenvironment.
Transhumantpastoralism.Wherelivestockarekeptinregionswithlargeseasonaldifferencesinprecipitationand
temperature,arationallowexternalinputmanagementformistomovethelivestockwiththeseason.Americanranchers
usewinterandsummerpasturesshepherdsinEuropeanmountainareasusealpineandvalleypasturesAfrican
pastoralistsusewetseasonanddryseasonpastures.Traditionally,pastoralpeoples,suchastheFulaniinWestAfrica,
keeptheirlivestockinmorearidareasduringthewetseason,whereforagequalityisrelativelyhigh(Breman&deWit
1983).Inthedryseason,whenwaterbecomesscarceinthenorth,theymovetheiranimalsfurthersouthtomorehumid
areas,wherethelivestockcangrazethecropresiduesinharvestedfieldsandthestillgreengrassinlowlyingareas
alongstreamsandrivers.Theseherdsareimportantsourcesofmanureforarablefarming.However,thissystemof
resourceusewasdisturbedbythedrawingofnationalboundaries,thesettingupofwildlifereservesandcommercial
ranches(usuallyinthebestgrazingareas),andtheexpansionofcashcroppingaswellassubsistencecroppingto
supportrapidlygrowingpopulations.Especially,thecultivationoflowlyingareaswithcrops,suchasrice,isdepriving
transhumantpastoralistsofvitaldryseasongrazingareasfortheirherds.
Integratedagricultureaquaculture.ParticularlyinAsia,theproductiveuseoflandandwaterresourceshasbeen
integratedintraditionalfarmingsystems.Farmershavetransformedwetlandsintopondsseparatedbycultivableridges.
AnoutstandingexampleisthedikepondsystemwhichhasexistedforcenturiesinSouthChina.Toproduceormaintain
theponds,soilisdugoutandusedtobuildorrepairthedikesaroundit.Beforebeingfilledwithriverwaterand
rainwater,thepondispreparedforfishrearingbyclearing,sanitisingandfertilisingwithlocalinputsofquicklime,tea
seedcakeandorganicmanure.Thefishstockedinthepondincludevarioustypesofcarp,whichareharvestedforhome
consumptionandsale.Mulberryisplantedonthedikes,fertilisedwithpondmudandirrigatedbyhandwithnutrientrich
pondwater.Mulberryleavesarefedtosilkwormsthebranchesareusedasstakestosupportclimbingvegetablesand
asfuelwood.Insheds,silkwormsarerearedforyarnproduction.Theirexcrements,mixedwiththeremainsofmulberry
leaves,areusedasfishfeed.Sugarcaneplantsonthedikesprovidesugar,youngleavesareusedtofeedtofishand
pigs,andoldleavestoshadecrops,forroofingthatchandforfueltherootsarealsousedasfuel.Grassandvegetables
arealsogrownonthedikestoprovidefoodforthefishandthefamily.Pigsareraisedmainlytoprovidemanurebutalso
formeat.Theyarefedsugarcanetops,byproductsfromsugarrefining,aquaticplantsandothervegetablewastes.Their
faecesandurine,aswellashumanexcrementandhouseholdwastes,formtheprincipleorganicinputsintothefishpond
(Ruddle&Zhong1988).

Soilfertilitymanagementpractices
Indigenousfarmershavedevelopedvarioustechniquestoimproveormaintainsoilfertility.Forexample,farmersin
SouthernSudanandZairenoticedthatthesitesoftermitemoundsareparticularlygoodforgrowingsorghumand
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cowpea(deSchlippe1956).FarmersinZaachilla,Mexico,useantrefusetofertilisehighvaluecropssuchastomatoes,
chiliandonions(Wilken1987).
InSenegal,theindigenousagrosilvopastoralsystemtakesadvantageofthemultiplebenefitsprovidedbyFaidherbia
(formerlyAcacia)albida.Thetreeshedsitsleavesattheonsetofthewetseason,permittingenoughlighttopenetrate
forthegrowthofsorghumandmillet,yetstillprovidingenoughshadetoreducetheeffectsofintenseheat.Inthedry
season,thetree'slongtaprootsdrawnutrientsfrombeyondthereachofotherplantsthenutrientsarestoredinthefruits
andleaves.Thetreealsofixesnitrogenfromtheair,thusenrichingthesoilandimprovingcropyields(seeTable3.1).In
thewetseason,thefallenleavesprovidemulchthatenrichesthetopsoil,aswellashighlynutritiousforage.Thesoilis
alsoenrichedbythedungoflivestockwhichfeedontheF.albidaleavesandtheresiduesofthecerealcrops.These
benefitsareextremelyimportantinplaceswherefewalternativesexistforimprovingsoilfertility,cropyieldsandanimal
nutrition(OTA1988).

Pestmanagementpractices
Traditionalpracticesofbiologicalpestcontrolhaverecentlybeenthesubjectofincreasingscientificinterest,andsome
interestingexampleshavebeendocumented.Forexample,acenturyoldpracticeamongcitrusgrowersinChinaisto
placenestsofthepredaciousant(OecophyllasmaragdiniF.)inorangetreestoreduceinsectdamage.Thecitrus
growerseveninstallinterconnectingbamboorodsasbridgesfortheantstomovefromtreetotree(Doutt1964).Ducks,
fish,frogsandsnakesaretraditionallyusedtocontrolinsectsinpaddyricecultivation.Traditionalcropselection,planting
timesandcultivationpracticesoftenreflecteffortstominimiseinsectdamage(Altieri1987,Thurston1990).
Ininnumerabletraditionalsystems,livingandhidingplacesfornaturalenemiesofcroppestsaremaintainedby
conservingpartofthenaturalenvironment.InSriLanka,largetreesandwoodeduplandweretraditionallyleftstanding
aroundthepaddytractandthreshingfloorstoprovidenestingandrestingplacesforbirds,whichthefarmersregardas
themainagentsofinsectcontrol.Whenpestsappeared,certainritualswereperformed.Forexample,whencaterpillars
invadedthepaddy,anofferingoffoodandlightwasplacedatsunsetonanunstableplantaindiskfittedtoastake.The
lightattractedbirds.Whenthebirdsattemptedtoperch,thefoodfell.Whenthebirdswentafterthefallenfood,they
sawthecaterpillarsandatethem(Upawansa1989).

Weedmanagementpractices
FarmersintheUsambaraMountainsinTanzaniadevelopedamultistoreyfarmingsysteminwhichtheypractised
fallowing,intercroppingandselectiveweeding.Youngcropsdonotprovidegroundcover.Thefarmersunderstoodthat,
ifweedsarelefttogrow,theycoverthesoil,preventitfromheatingupordryingoutexcessively,induceapositive
competitionwhichstimulatescropgrowth,andreduceerosionduringrainfall.Laterintheseason,whenthefarmers
regardedweedcompetitionasnegativeforcropgrowth,theydidsuperficialhoeing.Theylefttheweedsonthesoil
surfaceasprotectivemulch,torecyclenutrientsandtoallownitrogenassimilationthroughthebacteriadecomposingthe
plants.Thecropscouldthendevelopfully.Asecondgenerationofweedswasallowedtocoverthefieldcompletelyand
produceseed,soastoensuretheirreproductioninfutureseasons.Whenthedryseasonstarted,thefieldwascovered
withhighweeds.Thesoilremainedmoist,softandrichinhumusandwasthusingoodconditionforthenextgrowing
season.However,theintroductionoftheprincipleofweedfreefieldsledtothecollapseofthissystemofweedtolerant
cropping,sothatfertiliserbecamenecessarytoreplacethegreenmanuringeffectofselectiveweeding(Egger1987).

Geneticresourcemanagement
Traditionalagricultureischaracterisedbyitsgreatdiversityofgeneticresources.ManyLEIAfarmersarehighlyskilledin
managingthisdiversitysoastoensuresustainablefarmingsystems.Forexample,farmersinEastJava,Indonesia,
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deliberatelymakeuseofdifferentsoybeanvarietiestoensureasupplyoffreshseed.
About70%ofsoybeanproductioninEastJavacomesfromdryseasoncroppingonwetlandafterrice,whilethe
remaining30%isproducedondrylandduringthewetseason(Soegito&Siemonsma1985).Mostfarmersuselocal
soybeanvarietieswhichtheygenerallycall'local29',referringtovarietyNo.29,whichwasintroducedfromTaiwanto
Indonesiain1924.ThisvarietywasmaintainedatIndonesianresearchinstitutesbutwasnotmultipliedanddistributed
afteritsinitialintroductionatfarmlevel.Thefarmers'localvarietieshavesmall,greenyellowseedsandmatureinabout
90100days,likeNo.29.However,thevariationfoundamongfarmers'varietiesintermsoftimetoreachmaturityand
yieldlevelsindicatesthat60yearsofintensivecultivationhasledtothedevelopmentofmanydistinctlocalvarieties.
Thefarmershavedifficultiesinstoringsoybeanseedsoastomaintainitsviabilityformorethanabout6weeks.To
obtaingoodgerminationandestablishmentofsoybeanafterwetseasonrice,theyneedaccesstofreshseed.Toachieve
thistheydevelopedasystemcalledJABAL(JalinanArusBenihAntarLapang),whichliterallymeans'seedflow
betweenfields'(Figure3.1).Certainvillageshavespecialisedinsoybeangrowingondrylandduringthewetseason.
Yieldsarelowerthanthoseofdryseasonsoybean,butfarmerscangeta50%higherpricefortheirwetseasoncrop.
Notonlythelocalcropvarietiesbutalsothenumerouslocalbreedsoflivestocktestifytotheskillsoftraditional
livestockkeeperstomanagegeneticresources.Localbreedsarepartiallyaresultofnaturalselection,buttheyarealsoa
resultofdeliberateselectionforspecifictraits,aboveall,forthetypeofanimalthatcansurviveandproduceunderLEIA
conditions.Thesupposedly'irrational'marketingbehaviourofmanylivestockkeepersreflectstheirselectionstrategies.
Animalsthatarediseased,areweakorhavepoormotheringqualitiesaresoldthosewithprovendiseaseanddrought
resistanceareretained.Theanimalsarealsoselectedtofitintothefarmingsystem.Forexample,inpastoralsystems,
animalsnotamenabletoherdingareculled.Transhumantpastoralistsselectforanimalsthatcanwalklongdistances.An
olderanimalthatknowstheroutewellandkeepstheherdgoingsteadilyonitswaywillbekept.Generationsofnatural
anddeliberateselectionhaveresultedinlocalbreedswithahighdegreeofdiseaseresistanceortoleranceandcapable
ofsubsistingonseasonallyscarceandlowqualityfeedresources(Bayer1989).

Microclimatemanagementpractices
Localclimateplaysadominantroleinthelivesandfortunesoffarmerseverywhere.Farmersinthetropicshave
developedseveralwaysofinfluencingmicroclimatesoastoimprovetheconditionsunderwhichcropsandanimalscan
grow.Theeffectsoffrost(intropicalhighlands),hail,strongwind,extremelydryairanddailypeaktemperatureson
plantsandanimalscanbeverygreat,andbufferingthesemaymakethedifferencebetweenayieldandacompleteloss.
Farmersinfluencemicroclimatebyretainingandplantingtrees,whichreducetemperature,windvelocity,evaporationand
directexposuretosunlight,andintercepthailandrain.Theyapplymulchesofgroundcoveringplantsorstrawtoreduce
radiationandheatlevelsonnewlyplantedsurfaces,inhibitmoisturelossesandabsorbthekineticenergyoffallingrain
andhail(seeBox3.3).Whennightfrostisexpected,somefarmersburnstraworotherwastematerialstogenerateheat
andproducesmog,whichtrapsoutgoingradiation.Theraisedplantingbeds,moundsandridgesoftenfoundin
traditionalsystemsservetocontrolsoiltemperaturesandtoreducewaterloggingbyimprovingdrainage.Alsonatural
dewismanipulatedandexploited(Wilken1987,Stigter1987a).Aningenioussystemofmicroclimatemanipulationby
IndianhorticulturistsisdescribedinBox3.4.

Localclassificationsofsoilandlanduse
Mostindigenousfarmerscanquicklyidentifymajorsoiltypesandpropertiesaccordingtocharacteristicssuchascolour
andtexture.Farmers'assessmentofsoilpropertiesoftengoesbeyondtheinherentfertilitytoincludeanassessmentof
workabilityandresponsetoamendments.Alsoeconomicandgeologicalfactors,e.g.distancetothevillage,slope,
waterholdingcapacity,presenceofrocksandirrigationwater,maybetakenintoaccount.Examplesofsuch
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sophisticatedclassificationsystemsinMexicoandGuatemalaaregivenbyWilken(1987).
Eger(1989)describesasystemoflanduseclassificationinBurkinaFasobasedonlocalfarmers'knowledge.He
comparedtheeffectivenessoflanduseclassificationonthebasisofaerialsurveysandlaboratoryanalysisofsoilsamples
withaclassificationonthebasisoflocalknowledge,andconcludedthatfarmers'knowledgeisfarsuperiortothe
outsiders'assessmentofsoilqualitiesforcertaincrops.
Farmersoftenknowthesoilpropertiesinthewiderarea,andmaydeliberatelyusethesedifferencesinsoilpropertiesto
makeoptimaluseoftheavailableresourcesandtospreadrisks(seeBox3.5).
Manyotherexamplesofeffectiveindigenousfarmingpracticeshavebeendescribed,e.g.relatedtoriskminimisation
strategies(Eldin&Milleville1989),slopemanagement(Wilken1987,Mountjoy&Gliessman1988,Rhoades1988),
watermanagement(Pacey&Cullis1986,Reij1990,Ubels1990)andpastoralresourcemanagementandanimalhealth
care(MathiasMundy&McCorkle1989,Niamir1990).

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