LINKAGES AMONG HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSIT TYPES

John M. Guilbert
Professor Emeritus of Economic Geology
Department of Geosciences, The University of Arizona - USA

INTRODUCTION
It is my intent in this article to examine the remarkable improvements in our
understanding of the linkages among hydrothermal ore deposit types that are
developing as we enter the 21st century. Dramatic changes have occurred in our
perceptions of formative processes and genetic models for hydrothermal deposits
in the last 30 years that will profoundly change the techniques and methods
whereby exploration for those deposits will proceed in the next decades. As I will
suggest, we find ourselves much better equipped to evaluate processes and
genetic models related to hydrothermal ore deposits than we were even a couple
of decades ago, such that we need no longer focus unduly simply on temperature
and pressure. In short, we have what appears to be a much fuller understanding
of relationships among the many types of hydrothermal ore forming systems. Ore
deposit research is succeeding.

Figure 1 is a diagram showing general relationships among the ore deposits to be

considered in this article. The central column features 'the porphyry environment'
centered on intrusions of various granitoid types generally emplaced in convergent
continental margins, back arc settings, or well inboard into continental interiors.
Not many years ago, we were groping for fundamental definition of the 'porphyry
copper' model, with no real feeling for the fact that the porphyry environment itself
seems to be in effect the hearth of many different derivative ore deposit types, as
has accumulated into such diagrams as Richard Sillitoes Figure 2. The arrows in
Figure 1 make what we now consider fairly obvious connections between deposit
types, but again it was not long ago that we had little feeling for the diversity of
characteristics of porphyry base and precious metal deposits, and virtually no

notion of the connections between porphyry, epithermal, volcanogenic, and other

deposit types that are considered here. What appeals to me about Figure 1 is the
appearance along the bottom line of deposit types including copper-gold-iron-rare
earth systems, intrusion- related gold systems, and the formerly puzzling so-called
'five-element' deposits such as Cobalt, Ontario, with important amounts of cobalt,
nickel, silver, iron, and arsenic. During my teaching career at the University of
Arizona, which included authoring a textbook, we did our best to describe the
entire spectrum of ore deposits -we dutifully reported the characteristics of many
of these deposits without being able to place them in a context or continuum.
Recent landmark studies by many observers have enabled us to do that, and that
is an important part of the task of this article.

Part of the simplicity of Figure 1 stems from the fact that earlier classifications
have been improved by quantitative observations made since their publication,
observations that generally led to simplification and more satisfactory genetic
connections. Figure 3 shows Lindgren's brilliant classification of 1933 in which he
related many ore deposit types to their temperatures and pressures of formation.
This grouping was all pre-plate-tectonics and pre-fluid-inclusion-geothermometry
and geobarometry, and most of his assignments were inferential and based on the
best information available to him on mineral formation temperatures and
pressures. Lindgren considered hypothermal deposits to have formed at
temperatures roughly between 300 and 500 degrees Centigrade, temperatures
that we now consider to be solidly 'mesothermal'. As we will see, most of the
deposits that Lindgren classified as 'hypothermal' have in fact been reassigned to
other pigeonholes, such that the hypothermal classification can be considered to
have essentially disappeared. Few people use the terms 'telethermal' or
'xenothermal' any longer, and in fact the volcanogenic systems that were almost
incidental in Lindgren's classification have assumed huge importance since the
1970s. Figure 4 shows a revised Lindgren classification, with a number of new
entries, especially those under Solution-Remobilization. Emphases have changed,
genetic affiliations have changed, and deposit pigeonholing has changed, I think

much to the improvement of exploration parameters. Among other things, what has
certainly changed is the dynamics of our thinking of ore genesis and the
distribution of ore deposits. From the stabilist world of Lindgren and Emmons and
the early classifiers, we have moved into a global framework involving waters of
many different derivations (indicated in red in Figure 5) in many different tectonic
settings with many different melting environments and magma paths. It is also true
that the marvelously sophisticated research tools presently being brought to bear,
for example on fluid inclusions from ore-forming environments, are greatly
expanding our understanding of ore-forming processes and the interface between
magmas, hydrothermal fluids of several derivations, and their flowpaths.

So where did all the hypothermal deposits go? Figure 6 is a list of those deposits
that Lindgren included in his traditional hypothermal category. As shown, most of
those deposits have been reclassified into variations on a seafloor exhalation
model, with departures in tectonic settings, postformational tectonics, and
metamorphism. The classic Cornwall England tin deposits have been shown to be
better classified as spawned by S-type peraluminous High Heat Development
granites, and to differ from their I-type brethren in ways that we shall see.

THE PORPHYRY FAMILY

Let us focus in on the so-called 'porphyry environment'. Many of us who have
watched the 'porphyry story' develop have been impressed with the progression
from the static porphyry models of the early 1970s to the much more dynamic view
of porphyry systems that we recognize today. First came the stable isotope and
water-source revelations that led to dynamic models like the landmark description
of El Salvador, Chile, by Gustafson and Hunt (1975). An almost inevitable
outgrowth of the definition of plate tectonics in the late 1960s was the recognition
in the middle 1970s of varieties of granite compositions, sources, settings, and
emplacements. The I-type and S-type granite classification of Chappell and White
(1974) was quickly expanded to include the others shown in Figure 1. I maintain
that the I-type biotite-hornblende granitoids characteristically spawned the more

classic

Cu-Au-Mo

porphyry

deposits,

and

that

the

S-type

systems

characteristically produced tin-tungsten-bismuth vein deposits and/or the so-called

complex zoned pegmatites. The complex zoned pegmatites of the world are
strongly associated with peraluminous biotite-muscovite granites; they appear to
occupy a late-magmatic-hydrothermal position that is analogous to that of the
base-metal porphyries in biotite-hornblende systems. The A-type remelted restites
are associated with the singular climax-type molies', and more alkalic calcalkaline series are linked to the more gold-rich porphyries of northwestern North
America. So we have moved from the static models of the 1970s to delineation of
several subsets of porphyry systems based (Figure 7) on metal content,
temperature- pressure relationships, with the lithologic affiliations and tectonic
positions, all of these manifested in variable alteration assemblages, sizes, and
forms, from the familiar static 'lightbulb' models of Lowell and Guilbert (1970) to
the three-dimensional details and the elegant process-oriented genetic models of
2000. Figure 8 depicts the amazing geologic-geochemical detail that is
increasingly available to us, and Figures 9 and 10 summarize progress in our
ability to understand the dynamics of porphyry system genesis.

Lest it be thought that I might just be engaging in another level of speculation, let
me describe briefly one of the major breakthroughs in our understanding of
porphyry systematics that is carrying us to new levels of factual basis. Christopher
Heinrich and his students in Zrich, among others, have been developing new
techniques for single fluid inclusion quantitative chemical analysis. They have
been developing ultraviolet laser ablation and induction-coupled mass
spectrometric methods to open individual fluid inclusions (Figure 11) and to
vaporize their contents into a plasma that carries those contents directly into a
mass spectrometer. Heinrich and his team members are thus analyzing entire
individual fluid inclusions in terms of salinities and relative metal contents (Figure
12) that are interpreted to be micro-encapsulated samples of porphyry ore-forming
fluids. This work permits study of partitioning between the melt and its fluids, both
liquid brine and vapor, giving rise to the data in Figure 13, which shows palpable

differences between element distributions in S-type-granite-related systems

(higher Cu-Sb-W-U-B at Zinnwald, Figure 13-A) and I-type equivalents (higher CuAs-Au at Grasberg, Figure 13-E), with the metaluminous Mole Granite of Australia
(Figure 13-B) at intermediate abundances. Parallel studies have revealed that
temperatures well over 700 degrees C are encountered in the cores of many CuAu systems, and that various pathlines of fluids can involve single-phase fluids at
lower temperatures, highly saline brines at high ('hypothermal') temperatures that
can coexist with a vapor, and those postulated by Muntean and Einaudi (2000) at
Refugio that permit sudden evolution of vapor from brine 'flashing' (Figure 14).
Shinohara and Hedenquist (1997) and Hedenquist and Richards (1998) have
shown several paths through the P-T space of Figure 14, at temperatures up to
8000 C. Thus the real environments and fluid states and behaviors are yielding
to new techniques and are being elucidated, and we really are becoming able to
subdivide the various 'porphyries' effectively. More will be said below about other
connections through the bottom line of Figure 1.

CORDILLERAN VEINS
The Cordilleran Vein association was first set forth by Sawkins (1972), having
been depicted as part of the upper structural retinue of porphyry coppers by
Lowell and Guilbert (1970); the association is further described by Guilbert and
Park (1986). Figure 15 is a summary of W. H. Emmons' 1936 'Reconstructed
Vein', a description of the ideal composite vein mineralogy. I noted while
preparing a discussion of the reconstructed vein for Guilbert and Park that
although it was presented as descriptive of a typical vein system, I knew of no vein
in the world that contained the entire assemblage. It became apparent, with the
revelations of the various granitoid types, that Emmons had indeed telescoped
Cornwall and Butte-Casapalca-type vein systems to form one homogeneous but
unrealistic composite vein assemblage. Separating out Items 12-15 that are typical
of Cornwall leaves an assemblage (Items 1-11) that describes Butte, Magma, and
Casapalca almost perfectly. Sillitoe in his diagram (Figure 2) includes an interval
of these Massive Sulfide Cu-As-(Au-Ag) higher level veins above the potassic

alteration zone of the main porphyry system, which is now generally known as the
Cordilleran Vein environment. It is significant to the explorationist that there are
indeed different vein assemblages associated with different peraluminous,
metaluminous and calc-alkaline granitoid parent intrusions.

EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
A great deal has been written in the last decade or two concerning connections
between porphyry systems and epithermal deposits. The association has long
been suspected, but only in the last few years has the linkage been firmly cast
both geologically and geochemically. Figure 16 shows the relationship between
the sericite-adularia low-sulfidation-type deposits and acid-sulfate high-sulfidationtype systems so well described by USGS geologists Heald, Foley, and Hayba
(1987) and further detailed by Richard Sillitoe in several publications (and Figure
2 again) and by White and Hedenquist (1995) and others. Figure 17 from Heinrich
et al. (1999) shows a generalized process and spatial connection between
porphyry and epithermal systems and similarity to the Lepanto - Far Southeast
Acid-Sulfate Epithermal - Porphyry Copper-Gold array, as depicted by Hedenquist,
Arribas, and Reynolds (1998) is quite clear. Linkages between epithermal deposits
and porphyry systems are becoming increasingly more convincingly documented
around the Rim of Fire, particularly with regard to Cu-Au rich porphyry systems.
Suffice it to say here that this linkage, at first only conceptually attractive, has now
been cemented by observation, process-model considerations, and geochemistry.

INTRUSION-RELATED GOLD SYSTEMS

Another deposit type that is relatively new to most of us is that of the IntrusionRelated Gold systems. First delineated by Sillitoe in 1991, a number of granitic
gold deposits around the world have been discerned to be of a type that does not
easily otherwise fit modern conventional classification. The Intrusion-Related Gold
deposits have for scores of years been problematic, in that the high-gold
hydrothermal solution types and presumed standard granite hosts have seemed
disconnected and incompatible. Starting with Sillitoe and ending with John

Thompson (2000), and Lang, et al.(2000), the 'breaking out' of a considerable

number of otherwise problematic gold deposits around the world does appear to
constitute establishment of a new ore deposit type. As delineated by Lang et al.
(2000), these deposits are (1) associated with metaluminous subalkalic intrusions
of intermediate to felsic composition that lie across the boundary between I- and
S-type granites broadly defined, (2) are characterized by CO2-rich fluids, (3) have
an Au-Bi-W-As-Mo-Te-Sb metal profile, (4) display restricted alteration effects, (5)
lie well inboard of known convergent plate boundaries, and (6) are found generally
in tin-tungsten provinces. As shown in Figure 19*, many deposits that have not fit
well into previous classifications are now linked and clarified, and conversely
many terranes are now open for reevaluation in terms of these auriferous systems.
That intrusion-related golds formed in P-T regimes similar to those of the basemetal porphyries is asserted in Figure 20 by Lang et al., which shows a similar
depth-temperature environment for the two related types.

CU-AU-FE-REE SYSTEMS
The last category of hydrothermal deposits to be considered here may have
enormous impact on the progress of ore-deposit understanding and exploration.
Among others, Mark Barton and his students at the University of Arizona have
been investigating the Cu-Au-Fe-REE deposit type, with extraordinary results. One
of the key aspects that contributes to their formation appears to be the incursion
of meteoric fluids that have contacted evaporite sections and are thus Na-, Ca-,
and Cl-rich. The chloride dominance affects both dissolution and transport
characteristics of the hydrothermal fluids externally to and during transit through
the heat-source intrusive, again in what we have come to perceive as 'porphyry'
mesothermal pressure-temperature environments. David Johnson's dissertation
at the Humboldt Mafic Complex in Nevada affords comparison of the behavior of
briny hydrothermal fluids in both mafic and felsic contexts, as seen in Figure 21
from Johnson and Barton (2000). Figure 22 shows not only a rationalization for the
development of sodium-calcium metasomatism, but also it shows regimes of
dissolution, transportation, and deposition of metals in the brine-dominated

*Not available.
7

hydrothermal environment. Note in Figure 22 that copper and cobalt can be

expected to be abstracted from mafic rocks; if nickel, silver, and arsenic participate
in this chemistry as expected, then fluids responsible for the heretofore
troublesome Cobalt-Erzberg-Annaberg type of deposit may finally have been
explained, and the Nipissing Diabase can be reconsidered as a source rock at
Cobalt, Ontario. So the puzzling 'Five Element" deposits described as a class by
Bastin in 1922 may finally be close to explanation; further, it should be noted (in
Figure 22) that if briny meteoric hydrothermal fluids that have dissolved copper
and cobalt at depth should reach the surface, a source fluid for Zambian
Copperbelt-type deposits may be envisioned, and another vexing problem is
solved. Figure 23 shows the well-known sodium-calcium metasomatism described
by Marco Einaudi and his group; this figure from Dilles (2000) shows sodic-calcic
plagioclase alteration in a position that is consistent with brine invasion along
meteoric fluid flowpaths. This array prompted me to revisit my version (Guilbert
and Park, 1986) of Bookstroms (1977) depiction of alteration at El Romeral, the
Chilean magnetite-chalcopyrite deposit. Figure 24 suggests real similarities to the
Yerington picture and suggests that different (briny) fluids may be a better
explanation for the nature of El Romeral-type system than general appeals to the
effects of 'regional zoning' used to be. El Romeral appears now to be one of a
larger set of iron-rich hydrothermal ore deposits that was from the porphyry heath
but whose meteoric fluids passed through evaporite sections. Reexamination of
Figure 22 also explains the common association of apatite with magnetite ores
and rocks of this sort, and suggests linkages with deposits of Olympic Dam type.
CONCLUSIONS
So a careful, studious return to Figure 1 presents quite a different, more rounded,
more plausible view of the spectrum of hydrothermal ore deposits than we might
have mounted previously. It tends to deemphasize the depth-related, 'layered' P-T
construct of Lindgren, to focus on the mesothermal 'porphyry' environment as a
hearth of many deposits that appear to differ less from one-another than we
thought, and to indicate that mixtures of magmatic-plume hypogene fluids
exsolved from granitoids of a spectrum of compositions and tectonic settings with

a variety of meteoric fluids the compositions of which reflect passage through

differing rock volumes can be expected lead to a variety of deposit types. This
new-found clarity can and should affect the course and progress of exploration,
and we can trust that this understanding will contribute effectively to exploration
success early in this new century.

REFERENCES CITED
Barton, M.D., and D.A. Johnson, 1996. Evaporite-source model for igneousrelated Fe oxide-(REE-Cu-Au-U) mineralization. Geology 24:259-262.
Bastin, E.S., 1922. Primary native silver ores near Wickenburg, Arizona. USGS
Bull 735-E, pp. 131-155.
Bookstrom, A.A., 1977. The magnetite deposits of El Romeral, Chile. Econ. Geol.
72: 1101-1130.
Chappel, B.W., and A.J.R. White, 1974. Two contrasting granite types. Pac. Geol.
8: 173-174.
Dilles, J.H., M.T. Einaudi, J. M. Proffett, and M.D. Barton, 2000. Overview of the
Yerington porphyry copper district: magmatic to nonmagmatic sources of
hydrothermal fluids: their flow paths, and alteration effects on rocks and
Cu-Mo-Fe-Au ores. Pp.55-66 in Soc. Econ. Geol. Guidebook Series 32,
Part I. Contrasting styles of intrusion-associated hydrothermal systems, 162
pp.
Dilles, J.H., J. M. Proffett, and M.T. Einaudi, 2000. Field Trip Day 2, Magmatic and
hydrothermal features of the Yerington batholith with emphasis on the
porphyry Cu(Mo) deposit in the Ann-Mason area. Pp.67-89 in Soc. Econ.
Geol. Guidebook Series 32, Part I. Contrasting styles of intrusionassociated hydrothermal systems, 162 pp.
Emmons, W.H., 1936. Hypogene zoning in metalliferous lodes. 16th Internat.
Geol. Congr. Rpt., pt 1, 417-432.
Guilbert, J.M., and C.F. Park, Jr., 1986. The Geology of Ore Deposits. New York,
W.H. Freeman, 985 pp.
Giggenbach, W., 1997. The origin and evolution of fluids in magmatichydrothermal systems. In Barnes, H.L., ed., Geochemistry of Hydrothermal
Ore Deposits, 3rd. ed. New York, John Wiley, p. 737-796.
Gustafson, L.B. and J.P. Hunt, 1975. The porphyry copper deposit at El
Salvador, Chile. Econ. Geol. 70: 857-912.
Heald, P., N.K. Foley, and D.O. Hayba 1987. Comparative anatomy of volcanic hosted epithermal deposits: acid-sulfate and adularia-sericite types. Econ.
Geol. 82: 1-26
Hedenquist, J.W., A. Arribas Jr., and J.R. Reynolds, 1998. Evolution of an
intrusion-centered hydrothermal system: Far Southeast-Lepanto porphyry
and epithermal Cu-Au deposits, Philippines. Econ. Geol. 93: 373-404.
Hedenquist, J.W. and J.P. Richards, 1998. The influence of geochemical

techniques on the development of genetic models for porphyry copper

deposits. Reviews in Economic Geology 10, Techniques in Hydrothermal
Ore Deposits Geology, 235-256.
Heinrich, C.A., D. Gunther, A. Audetat, T. Ulrich, and R. Frischknecht, 1999. Metal
fractionation between magmatic brine and vapor, and the link between
porphyry-style and epithermal Cu-Au deposits. Geology 27:755-758.
Johnson, D.A., and M.D. Barton, 2000. Time-space development of an external
brine-dominated, igneous-driven hydrothermal system: Humboldt Mafic
Complex, western Nevada. Pp.127-144 in Soc. Econ. Geol. Guidebook
Series 32, Part I. Contrasting styles of intrusion-associated hydrothermal
systems, 162 pp.
Kesler, S.E., 1994. Our Finite Mineral Resources. New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 288p.
Lang, J.R., T. Baker, C.J.R. Hart, and J.K. Mortensen, 2000. An exploration model
for intrusion-related gold systems. Soc. Econ. Geol. Newsletter, January,
No. 40,1-15.
Lindgren, W., 1933. Mineral Deposits, 4th ed. New York,: McGraw-Hill, 930 pp.
Lowell, J.D. and J.M. Guilbert, 1970. Lateral and vertical alteration-mineralization
zoning in porphyry ore deposits. Econ. Geol. 65: 373-408.
Muntean, J.L., and M.T. Einaudi, 2000. Porphyry gold deposits of the Refugio
District, Maricunga Belt, northern Chile. Econ. Geol. 95:1445-1472.
Plimer, I.R., 1986. Sediment-hosted exhalative Pb-Zn deposits C products of
contrasting ensialic rifting. Trans. Geol. Soc. So. Af. 89:59-73.
Sawkins, F.J., 1972. Sulfide ore deposits in relation to plate tectonics. J. Geol. 80:
377-396.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1995. Exploration and discovery of base- and precious-metal
deposits in the circum-Pacific region during the last 25 years. Resource
Geology Special Issue No. 19, Soc. Of Resource Geology, Metal Mining
Agency of Japan, eds., 119 p.
Proffett, J.M., in prep. Geology of the Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry copper-gold
deposit, Argentina. Econ. Geol.
Shinohara, H., and J.W. Hedenquist, 1997. Constraints on magma degassing
beneath the Far Southeast porphyry Cu-Au deposit, Philippines. Journ.
Petrol. 38:1741-1752.
White, N.C., and J.W. Hedenquist, 1995. Epithermal gold deposits: styles,
characteristics, and exploration. Soc. Econ. Geol. Newsletter, October, No.
23, 1-13.
Ulrich, T., D. Gunther, and C.A. Heinrich, 1999. Gold concentrations in magmatic
brines and the metal budgets of porphyry copper deposits. Nature, vol. 402.

10

FIGURES

Epithermal
High Sulfidation - Low Sulfidation
Volcanogenic

Sed-Ex
Cordilleran Vein

Cu-Au-Fe-REE

PORPHYRY
I-Type = Cu-Au-Mo
S-Type = Sn-W-Bi; Pegmatites
A-Type = Climax Mo
Alkalic = Cu-Au
Intrusion-Related Au
Five-Element

Figure 1. A branching diagram of hydrothermal ore deposit

types and their relationships as proposed in this article.

Figure 2. The Porphyry Base-Metal construct,

after Sillitoe,1995, and Lang, et al., 2000.

11

Hydrothermal Ore Deposits formed

In rocks, by hot ascending waters of magmatic origin...
HYPOTHERMAL High P - High T
MESOTHERMAL High P - Mod T
EPITHERMAL
Mod P - Low T
TELETHERMAL
Low P - Low T
XENOTHERMAL Low-Mod P - High-Low T
In bodies of water
VOLCANOGENIC
Figure 3. Portions of Lindgrens classification appropriate to
this report (after Lindgren, 1933)

IN 2001
HYPOTHERMAL..GONE!
MESOTHERMAL..
Porphyry Copper, Moly, Gold, Tin, Climax Moly
Cordilleran Veins
Igneous Metamorphic
Cu-Au-Fe-REE / Five Metals
Intrusion-Related Gold
EPITHERMAL
High-Sulfidation - Low-Sulfidation
SOLUTION-REMOBILIZATION
Missippippi Valley Type
Western States / Athabasca Uranium
Cu-Au-Fe-REE / Five Metals
VOLCANOGENIC
Figure 4. A revised classification of some of the major
hydrothermal ore deposits for 2001.

12

Figure 5. A profile of the spectrum of environments of hydrothermal fluid generation

and ore deposit formation (adapted from Kesler, 1994).

Where did all the hypothermals go?...

Broken Hill, NSW

= BHD (Broken Hill Deposit,

exhalative),(Plimer, 1986)
Sullivan, B.C.
= MID (Mount Isa Deposit, sedex),
(Plimer, 1986)
Noranda, Quebec = Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide
Homestake-Kolar- = Auriferous Banded Iron Formation Morro Velho
Exhalative
Timmins Gold
Cornwall, England = HHD (High Heat Development)
Peraluminous Sn Granite
Figure 6. Modern genetic models applied to all of the deposits
classified as hypothermal by Lindgren (1933).

13

THE PORPHYRIES
From the static models of the early1970s
to delineation of several subsets classified by
Metal content
Temperature-Pressure regimes
Alteration assemblages
Lithologic affiliation
Tectonic position
Fluid histories and sources
Mantle plumes to meteoric-dominated
Brine versus freshwater
Figure 7. A profile of the expansion of porphyry ore
deposit varieties as perceived in 2001.

Figure 8. An example of information detail available in current porphyry copper-gold studies. (Bajo
de la Alumbrera, after Proffett and/or Keough, in prep.).

14

Figure 9. Giggenbachs (1997) Process Focused schematic of Active Lowsulfidation porphyry copper deposit system genesis.

Figure 10. A detailed model of copper-gold porphyry geology

and process, after Muntean and Einaudi, 2000.

15

Figure 11. A sketch of the UV LA ICP MS (ultraviolet laser ablation induction-coupled plasma
mass spectrometric) method of total fluid inclusion analysis, after Ulrich (1998). The extraction
stages cover 36 seconds from left to right.

Figure 12. An example of the analytic data obtained from a single fluid inclusion from Bajo de la
Alumbrera with the UV LA ICPMS procedure (after Ulrich, 1998).

16

Figure 13. Partitioning of elements between brine and vapor derived from peraluminous (A),
metaluminous (B) and calc-alkaline magmas (D,E) (after Heinrich, et al., 1999).

200

400

800

Figure 14. An example of phase-diagram solution-path depictions, largely through advanced

0
fluid inclusion techniques. Note temperatures to 800 C. (After Muntean and Einaudi, 2000,
regarding the Refugio deposit, Chile).

17

EMMONS (1936) RECONSTRUCTED VEIN...

Upper Four Items = Epithermal
(Barren Zone)
Items 6-11 = I-Type Porphyry Copper Systems,
Cordilleran Veins Cu-Mo-Zn-Pb-Ag
Items 12-15 = S-Type Tin Granite Cornwall
Systems Sn-W-Bi-As
( Barren Zone)
Figure 15. A revision of W.H.Emmons ideal vein schema,
which originally combined aspects of what we now perceive
to be at least trimodal -- epithermal, I-type Cordilleran Vein,
and S-type mesothermal vein. (After Emmons, 1936)

Figure 16. A familiar, well-established representation of near- surface epithermal expression of

porphyry activity at depth. Also see Figure 2. (From White and Hedenquist, 1995).

18

Figure 17. A process-focused schematic of the linkage between porphyry and epithermal
environments, not accidentally echoing Figure 18. (After Heinrich, et al., 1999).

Figure 18. Hedenquist, Arribas, and Reynolds (1998) delineation of connections between the
acid-sulfate epithermal Lepanto deposit and the subjacent and contemporaneous Far
Southeast copper-gold porphyry system. See Figure 17.

19

Figure 20. Comparison of the porphyry environment shown in Figure 2 with that of IntrusionRelated Gold systems, which occur at similar lithostatic-hydrostatic depths and temperatures.
(After Lang, et al., 2000).

Figure 21. Unconventional plagioclase- and scapolite-bearing alteration assemblages

generated by meteoric fluids that have encountered evaporite sections. After Barton and
Johnson, 1996.
20

Figure 22. Geologic and chemical characteristics of systems affected by briny meteoric fluids. The
profound significance of the gain-loss arrows is discussed in text. (From Johnson and Barton,
2000).

Figure 23. Alteration zones, flowlines, and isotherms showing the effects of brine incursion at
Yerington, Nevada, particularly the sodium-calcium metasomatism zone. (After Dilles et al., 2000).

21

Figure 24. Sodic plagioclase- and scapolite-metasomatism around

magnetite orebodies at El Romeral, Chile. (After Bookstrom, 1977,
and Guilbert and Park, 1986).

22