RERUMNOVARUM

ENCYCLICALOFPOPELEOXIII
ONCAPITALANDLABOR

ToOurVenerableBrethrenthePatriarchs,
Primates,Archbishops,Bishops,andotherordinaries
ofplaceshavingPeaceandCommunionwiththeApostolicSee.
RightsandDutiesofCapitalandLabor
Thatthespiritofrevolutionarychange,whichhaslongbeendisturbingthe
nationsoftheworld,shouldhavepassedbeyondthesphereofpoliticsand
madeitsinfluencefeltinthecognatesphereofpracticaleconomicsisnot
surprising.Theelementsoftheconflictnowragingareunmistakable,in
thevastexpansionofindustrialpursuitsandthemarvellousdiscoveriesof
scienceinthechangedrelationsbetweenmastersandworkmeninthe
enormousfortunesofsomefewindividuals,andtheutterpovertyofthe
massestheincreasedselfrelianceandclosermutualcombinationofthe
workingclassesasalso,finally,intheprevailingmoraldegeneracy.
Themomentousgravityofthestateofthingsnowobtainingfillsevery
mindwithpainfulapprehensionwisemenarediscussingitpracticalmen
areproposingschemespopularmeetings,legislatures,andrulersof
nationsareallbusiedwithitactuallythereisnoquestionwhichhas
takendeeperholdonthepublicmind.
2.Therefore,venerablebrethren,asonformeroccasionswhenitseemed
opportunetorefutefalseteaching,Wehaveaddressedyouinthe
interestsoftheChurchandofthecommonweal,andhaveissuedletters
bearingonpoliticalpower,humanliberty,theChristianconstitutionofthe
State,andlikematters,sohaveWethoughtitexpedientnowtospeakon
theconditionoftheworkingclasses.(1)ItisasubjectonwhichWehave
alreadytouchedmorethanonce,incidentally.Butinthepresentletter,
theresponsibilityoftheapostolicofficeurgesUstotreatthequestionof
setpurposeandindetail,inorderthatnomisapprehensionmayexistas
totheprincipleswhichtruthandjusticedictateforitssettlement.The
discussionisnoteasy,norisitvoidofdanger.Itisnoeasymatterto
definetherelativerightsandmutualdutiesoftherichandofthepoor,of
capitalandoflabor.Andthedangerliesinthis,thatcraftyagitatorsare
intentonmakinguseofthesedifferencesofopiniontopervertmen's
judgmentsandtostirupthepeopletorevolt.

3.Inanycaseweclearlysee,andonthisthereisgeneralagreement,
thatsomeopportuneremedymustbefoundquicklyforthemiseryand
wretchednesspressingsounjustlyonthemajorityoftheworkingclass:
fortheancientworkingmen'sguildswereabolishedinthelastcentury,
andnootherprotectiveorganizationtooktheirplace.Publicinstitutions
andthelawssetasidetheancientreligion.Hence,bydegreesithascome
topassthatworkingmenhavebeensurrendered,isolatedandhelpless,
tothehardheartednessofemployersandthegreedofunchecked
competition.Themischiefhasbeenincreasedbyrapacioususury,which,
althoughmorethanoncecondemnedbytheChurch,isnevertheless,
underadifferentguise,butwithlikeinjustice,stillpracticedbycovetous
andgraspingmen.Tothismustbeaddedthatthehiringoflaborandthe
conductoftradeareconcentratedinthehandsofcomparativelyfewso
thatasmallnumberofveryrichmenhavebeenabletolayuponthe
teemingmassesofthelaboringpoorayokelittlebetterthanthatof
slaveryitself.
4.Toremedythesewrongsthesocialists,workingonthepoorman's
envyoftherich,arestrivingtodoawaywithprivateproperty,and
contendthatindividualpossessionsshouldbecomethecommonproperty
ofall,tobeadministeredbytheStateorbymunicipalbodies.Theyhold
thatbythustransferringpropertyfromprivateindividualstothe
community,thepresentmischievousstateofthingswillbesettorights,
inasmuchaseachcitizenwillthengethisfairshareofwhateverthereis
toenjoy.Buttheircontentionsaresoclearlypowerlesstoendthe
controversythatweretheycarriedintoeffecttheworkingmanhimself
wouldbeamongthefirsttosuffer.Theyare,moreover,emphatically
unjust,fortheywouldrobthelawfulpossessor,distortthefunctionsof
theState,andcreateutterconfusioninthecommunity.
5.Itissurelyundeniablethat,whenamanengagesinremunerative
labor,theimpellingreasonandmotiveofhisworkistoobtainproperty,
andthereaftertoholditashisveryown.Ifonemanhiresouttoanother
hisstrengthorskill,hedoessoforthepurposeofreceivinginreturn
whatisnecessaryforthesatisfactionofhisneedshethereforeexpressly
intendstoacquirearightfullandreal,notonlytotheremuneration,but
alsotothedisposalofsuchremuneration,justashepleases.Thus,ifhe
livessparingly,savesmoney,and,forgreatersecurity,investshissavings
inland,theland,insuchcase,isonlyhiswagesunderanotherformand,
consequently,aworkingman'slittleestatethuspurchasedshouldbeas
completelyathisfulldisposalasarethewageshereceivesforhislabor.
Butitispreciselyinsuchpowerofdisposalthatownershipobtains,
whetherthepropertyconsistoflandorchattels.Socialists,therefore,by
endeavoringtotransferthepossessionsofindividualstothecommunity
atlarge,strikeattheinterestsofeverywageearner,sincetheywould

deprivehimofthelibertyofdisposingofhiswages,andtherebyofall
hopeandpossibilityofincreasinghisresourcesandofbetteringhis
conditioninlife.
6.Whatisoffargreatermoment,however,isthefactthattheremedy
theyproposeismanifestlyagainstjustice.For,everymanhasbynature
therighttopossesspropertyashisown.Thisisoneofthechiefpointsof
distinctionbetweenmanandtheanimalcreation,forthebrutehasno
powerofselfdirection,butisgovernedbytwomaininstincts,whichkeep
hispowersonthealert,impelhimtodeveloptheminafittingmanner,
andstimulateanddeterminehimtoactionwithoutanypowerofchoice.
Oneoftheseinstinctsisselfpreservation,theotherthepropagationof
thespecies.Bothcanattaintheirpurposebymeansofthingswhichlie
withinrangebeyondtheirvergethebrutecreationcannotgo,forthey
aremovedtoactionbytheirsensesonly,andinthespecialdirection
whichthesesuggest.Butwithmanitiswhollydifferent.Hepossesses,on
theonehand,thefullperfectionoftheanimalbeing,andhenceenjoysat
leastasmuchastherestoftheanimalkind,thefruitionofthings
material.Butanimalnature,howeverperfect,isfarfromrepresentingthe
humanbeinginitscompleteness,andisintruthbuthumanity'shumble
handmaid,madetoserveandtoobey.Itisthemind,orreason,whichis
thepredominantelementinuswhoarehumancreaturesitisthiswhich
rendersahumanbeinghuman,anddistinguisheshimessentiallyfromthe
brute.Andonthisveryaccountthatmanaloneamongtheanimal
creationisendowedwithreasonitmustbewithinhisrighttopossess
thingsnotmerelyfortemporaryandmomentaryuse,asotherliving
thingsdo,buttohaveandtoholdtheminstableandpermanent
possessionhemusthavenotonlythingsthatperishintheuse,butthose
alsowhich,thoughtheyhavebeenreducedintouse,continueforfurther
useinaftertime.
7.Thisbecomesstillmoreclearlyevidentifman'snaturebeconsidereda
littlemoredeeply.Forman,fathomingbyhisfacultyofreasonmatters
withoutnumber,linkingthefuturewiththepresent,andbeingmasterof
hisownacts,guideshiswaysundertheeternallawandthepowerof
God,whoseprovidencegovernsallthings.Wherefore,itisinhispowerto
exercisehischoicenotonlyastomattersthatregardhispresentwelfare,
butalsoaboutthosewhichhedeemsmaybeforhisadvantageintime
yettocome.Hence,mannotonlyshouldpossessthefruitsoftheearth,
butalsotheverysoil,inasmuchasfromtheproduceoftheearthhehas
tolaybyprovisionforthefuture.Man'sneedsdonotdieout,butforever
recuralthoughsatisfiedtoday,theydemandfreshsuppliesfortomorrow.
Natureaccordinglymusthavegiventomanasourcethatisstableand
remainingalwayswithhim,fromwhichhemightlooktodrawcontinual
supplies.Andthisstableconditionofthingshefindssolelyintheearth

anditsfruits.ThereisnoneedtobringintheState.Manprecedesthe
State,andpossesses,priortotheformationofanyState,therightof
providingforthesubstanceofhisbody.
8.ThefactthatGodhasgiventheearthfortheuseandenjoymentofthe
wholehumanracecaninnowaybeabartotheowningofprivate
property.ForGodhasgrantedtheearthtomankindingeneral,notinthe
sensethatallwithoutdistinctioncandealwithitastheylike,butrather
thatnopartofitwasassignedtoanyoneinparticular,andthatthelimits
ofprivatepossessionhavebeenlefttobefixedbyman'sownindustry,
andbythelawsofindividualraces.Moreover,theearth,eventhough
apportionedamongprivateowners,ceasesnottherebytoministertothe
needsofall,inasmuchasthereisnotonewhodoesnotsustainlifefrom
whatthelandproduces.Thosewhodonotpossessthesoilcontribute
theirlaborhence,itmaytrulybesaidthatallhumansubsistenceis
derivedeitherfromlaboronone'sownland,orfromsometoil,some
calling,whichispaidforeitherintheproduceofthelanditself,orinthat
whichisexchangedforwhatthelandbringsforth.
9.Here,again,wehavefurtherproofthatprivateownershipisin
accordancewiththelawofnature.Truly,thatwhichisrequiredforthe
preservationoflife,andforlife'swellbeing,isproducedingreat
abundancefromthesoil,butnotuntilmanhasbroughtitintocultivation
andexpendeduponithissolicitudeandskill.Now,whenmanthusturns
theactivityofhismindandthestrengthofhisbodytowardprocuringthe
fruitsofnature,bysuchacthemakeshisownthatportionofnature's
fieldwhichhecultivatesthatportiononwhichheleaves,asitwere,the
impressofhispersonalityanditcannotbutbejustthatheshould
possessthatportionashisveryown,andhavearighttoholditwithout
anyonebeingjustifiedinviolatingthatright.
10.Sostrongandconvincingaretheseargumentsthatitseemsamazing
thatsomeshouldnowbesettingupanewcertainobsoleteopinionsin
oppositiontowhatisherelaiddown.Theyassertthatitisrightfor
privatepersonstohavetheuseofthesoilanditsvariousfruits,butthat
itisunjustforanyonetopossessoutrighteitherthelandonwhichhe
hasbuiltortheestatewhichhehasbroughtundercultivation.Butthose
whodenytheserightsdonotperceivethattheyaredefraudingmanof
whathisownlaborhasproduced.Forthesoilwhichistilledand
cultivatedwithtoilandskillutterlychangesitsconditionitwaswild
before,nowitisfruitfulwasbarren,butnowbringsforthinabundance.
Thatwhichhasthusalteredandimprovedthelandbecomessotrulypart
ofitselfastobeingreatmeasureindistinguishableandinseparablefrom
it.Isitjustthatthefruitofaman'sownsweatandlaborshouldbe
possessedandenjoyedbyanyoneelse?Aseffectsfollowtheircause,so

isitjustandrightthattheresultsoflaborshouldbelongtothosewho
havebestowedtheirlabor.
11.Withreason,then,thecommonopinionofmankind,littleaffectedby
thefewdissentientswhohavecontendedfortheoppositeview,has
foundinthecarefulstudyofnature,andinthelawsofnature,the
foundationsofthedivisionofproperty,andthepracticeofallageshas
consecratedtheprincipleofprivateownership,asbeingpreeminentlyin
conformitywithhumannature,andasconducinginthemost
unmistakablemannertothepeaceandtranquillityofhumanexistence.
Thesameprincipleisconfirmedandenforcedbythecivillawslaws
which,solongastheyarejust,derivefromthelawofnaturetheir
bindingforce.Theauthorityofthedivinelawaddsitssanction,forbidding
usinseveresttermseventocovetthatwhichisanother's:"Thoushalt
notcovetthyneighbour'swifenorhishouse,norhisfield,norhisman
servant,norhismaidservant,norhisox,norhisass,noranythingthatis
his."(2)
12.Therightsherespokenof,belongingtoeachindividualman,areseen
inmuchstrongerlightwhenconsideredinrelationtoman'ssocialand
domesticobligations.Inchoosingastateoflife,itisindisputablethatall
areatfulllibertytofollowthecounselofJesusChristastoobserving
virginity,ortobindthemselvesbythemarriagetie.Nohumanlawcan
abolishthenaturalandoriginalrightofmarriage,norinanywaylimitthe
chiefandprincipalpurposeofmarriageordainedbyGod'sauthorityfrom
thebeginning:"Increaseandmultiply."(3)Hencewehavethefamily,the
"society"ofaman'shouseasocietyverysmall,onemustadmit,but
nonethelessatruesociety,andoneolderthananyState.Consequently,
ithasrightsanddutiespeculiartoitselfwhicharequiteindependentof
theState.
13.Thatrighttoproperty,therefore,whichhasbeenprovedtobelong
naturallytoindividualpersons,mustinlikewisebelongtoamaninhis
capacityofheadofafamilynay,thatrightisallthestrongerin
proportionasthehumanpersonreceivesawiderextensioninthefamily
group.Itisamostsacredlawofnaturethatafathershouldprovidefood
andallnecessariesforthosewhomhehasbegottenand,similarly,itis
naturalthatheshouldwishthathischildren,whocarryon,sotospeak,
andcontinuehispersonality,shouldbebyhimprovidedwithallthatis
needfultoenablethemtokeepthemselvesdecentlyfromwantand
miseryamidtheuncertaintiesofthismortallife.Now,innootherwaycan
afathereffectthisexceptbytheownershipofproductiveproperty,which
hecantransmittohischildrenbyinheritance.Afamily,nolessthana
State,is,asWehavesaid,atruesociety,governedbyanauthority
peculiartoitself,thatistosay,bytheauthorityofthefather.Provided,

therefore,thelimitswhichareprescribedbytheverypurposesforwhich
itexistsbenottransgressed,thefamilyhasatleastequalrightswiththe
Stateinthechoiceandpursuitofthethingsneedfultoitspreservation
anditsjustliberty.Wesay,"atleastequalrights"for,inasmuchasthe
domestichouseholdisantecedent,aswellinideaasinfact,tothe
gatheringofmenintoacommunity,thefamilymustnecessarilyhave
rightsanddutieswhicharepriortothoseofthecommunity,andfounded
moreimmediatelyinnature.Ifthecitizens,ifthefamiliesonenteringinto
associationandfellowship,weretoexperiencehindranceina
commonwealthinsteadofhelp,andweretofindtheirrightsattacked
insteadofbeingupheld,societywouldrightlybeanobjectofdetestation
ratherthanofdesire.
14.Thecontention,then,thatthecivilgovernmentshouldatitsoption
intrudeintoandexerciseintimatecontroloverthefamilyandthe
householdisagreatandperniciouserror.True,ifafamilyfindsitselfin
exceedingdistress,utterlydeprivedofthecounseloffriends,andwithout
anyprospectofextricatingitself,itisrightthatextremenecessitybemet
bypublicaid,sinceeachfamilyisapartofthecommonwealth.Inlike
manner,ifwithintheprecinctsofthehouseholdthereoccurgrave
disturbanceofmutualrights,publicauthorityshouldintervenetoforce
eachpartytoyieldtotheotheritsproperdueforthisisnottodeprive
citizensoftheirrights,butjustlyandproperlytosafeguardand
strengthenthem.Buttherulersofthecommonwealthmustgonofurther
here,naturebidsthemstop.Paternalauthoritycanbeneitherabolished
norabsorbedbytheStateforithasthesamesourceashumanlifeitself.
"Thechildbelongstothefather,"andis,asitwere,thecontinuationof
thefather'spersonalityandspeakingstrictly,thechildtakesitsplacein
civilsociety,notofitsownright,butinitsqualityasmemberofthefamily
inwhichitisborn.Andfortheveryreasonthat"thechildbelongstothe
father"itis,asSt.ThomasAquinassays,"beforeitattainstheuseoffree
will,underthepowerandthechargeofitsparents."(4)Thesocialists,
therefore,insettingasidetheparentandsettingupaStatesupervision,
actagainstnaturaljustice,anddestroythestructureofthehome.
15.Andinadditiontoinjustice,itisonlytooevidentwhatanupsetand
disturbancetherewouldbeinallclasses,andtohowintolerableand
hatefulaslaverycitizenswouldbesubjected.Thedoorwouldbethrown
opentoenvy,tomutualinvective,andtodiscordthesourcesofwealth
themselveswouldrundry,fornoonewouldhaveanyinterestinexerting
histalentsorhisindustryandthatidealequalityaboutwhichthey
entertainpleasantdreamswouldbeinrealitythelevellingdownofalltoa
likeconditionofmiseryanddegradation.Hence,itisclearthatthemain
tenetofsocialism,communityofgoods,mustbeutterlyrejected,sinceitonly
injuresthosewhomitwouldseemmeanttobenefit,isdirectlycontrarytothe

naturalrightsofmankind,andwouldintroduceconfusionanddisorderintothe
commonweal.Thefirstandmostfundamentalprinciple,therefore,ifonewould
undertaketoalleviatetheconditionofthemasses,mustbetheinviolabilityof

privateproperty.Thisbeingestablished,weproceedtoshowwherethe
remedysoughtformustbefound.
16.Weapproachthesubjectwithconfidence,andintheexerciseofthe
rightswhichmanifestlyappertaintoUs,fornopracticalsolutionofthis
questionwillbefoundapartfromtheinterventionofreligionandofthe
Church.ItisWewhoarethechiefguardianofreligionandthechief
dispenserofwhatpertainstotheChurchandbykeepingsilencewe
wouldseemtoneglectthedutyincumbentonus.Doubtless,thismost
seriousquestiondemandstheattentionandtheeffortsofothersbesides
ourselvestowit,oftherulersofStates,ofemployersoflabor,ofthe
wealthy,aye,oftheworkingclassesthemselves,forwhomWeare
pleading.ButWeaffirmwithouthesitationthatallthestrivingofmenwill
bevainiftheyleaveouttheChurch.ItistheChurchthatinsists,onthe
authorityoftheGospel,uponthoseteachingswherebytheconflictcanbe
broughttoanend,orrendered,atleast,farlessbittertheChurchuses
hereffortsnotonlytoenlightenthemind,buttodirectbyherprecepts
thelifeandconductofeachandalltheChurchimprovesandbettersthe
conditionoftheworkingmanbymeansofnumerousorganizationsdoes
herbesttoenlisttheservicesofallclassesindiscussingandendeavoring
tofurtherinthemostpracticalway,theinterestsoftheworkingclasses
andconsidersthatforthispurposerecourseshouldbehad,indue
measureanddegree,totheinterventionofthelawandofState
authority.
17.Itmustbefirstofallrecognizedthattheconditionofthingsinherent
inhumanaffairsmustbebornewith,foritisimpossibletoreducecivil
societytoonedeadlevel.Socialistsmayinthatintentdotheirutmost,
butallstrivingagainstnatureisinvain.Therenaturallyexistamong
mankindmanifolddifferencesofthemostimportantkindpeopledifferin
capacity,skill,health,strengthandunequalfortuneisanecessaryresult
ofunequalcondition.Suchunequalityisfarfrombeingdisadvantageous
eithertoindividualsortothecommunity.Socialandpubliclifecanonly
bemaintainedbymeansofvariouskindsofcapacityforbusinessandthe
playingofmanypartsandeachman,asarule,choosesthepartwhich
suitshisownpeculiardomesticcondition.Asregardsbodilylabor,even
hadmanneverfallenfromthestateofinnocence,hewouldnothave
remainedwhollyidlebutthatwhichwouldthenhavebeenhisfree
choiceandhisdelightbecameafterwardscompulsory,andthepainful
expiationforhisdisobedience."Cursedbetheearthinthyworkinthy
laborthoushalteatofitallthedaysofthylife."(5)

18.Inlikemanner,theotherpainsandhardshipsoflifewillhavenoend
orcessationonearthfortheconsequencesofsinarebitterandhardto
bear,andtheymustaccompanymansolongaslifelasts.Tosufferandto
endure,therefore,isthelotofhumanityletthemstriveastheymay,no
strengthandnoartificewilleversucceedinbanishingfromhumanlifethe
illsandtroubleswhichbesetit.Ifanytherearewhopretenddifferently
whoholdouttoahardpressedpeopletheboonoffreedomfrompain
andtrouble,anundisturbedrepose,andconstantenjoymentthey
deludethepeopleandimposeuponthem,andtheirlyingpromiseswill
onlyonedaybringforthevilsworsethanthepresent.Nothingismore
usefulthantolookupontheworldasitreallyis,andatthesametimeto
seekelsewhere,asWehavesaid,forthesolacetoitstroubles.
19.Thegreatmistakemadeinregardtothematternowunder
considerationistotakeupwiththenotionthatclassisnaturallyhostileto
class,andthatthewealthyandtheworkingmenareintendedbynature
toliveinmutualconflict.Soirrationalandsofalseisthisviewthatthe
directcontraryisthetruth.Justasthesymmetryofthehumanframeis
theresultofthesuitablearrangementofthedifferentpartsofthebody,
soinaStateisitordainedbynaturethatthesetwoclassesshoulddwell
inharmonyandagreement,soastomaintainthebalanceofthebody
politic.Eachneedstheother:capitalcannotdowithoutlabor,norlabor
withoutcapital.Mutualagreementresultsinthebeautyofgoodorder,
whileperpetualconflictnecessarilyproducesconfusionandsavage
barbarity.Now,inpreventingsuchstrifeasthis,andinuprootingit,the
efficacyofChristianinstitutionsismarvellousandmanifold.Firstofall,
thereisnointermediarymorepowerfulthanreligion(whereoftheChurch
istheinterpreterandguardian)indrawingtherichandtheworkingclass
together,byremindingeachofitsdutiestotheother,andespeciallyof
theobligationsofjustice.
20.Oftheseduties,thefollowingbindtheproletarianandtheworker:
fullyandfaithfullytoperformtheworkwhichhasbeenfreelyand
equitablyagreeduponnevertoinjuretheproperty,nortooutragethe
person,ofanemployernevertoresorttoviolenceindefendingtheirown
cause,nortoengageinriotordisorderandtohavenothingtodowith
menofevilprinciples,whoworkuponthepeoplewithartfulpromisesof
greatresults,andexcitefoolishhopeswhichusuallyendinuseless
regretsandgrievousloss.Thefollowingdutiesbindthewealthyowner
andtheemployer:nottolookupontheirworkpeopleastheirbondsmen,
buttorespectineverymanhisdignityasapersonennobledbyChristian
character.Theyareremindedthat,accordingtonaturalreasonand
Christianphilosophy,workingforgainiscreditable,notshameful,toa
man,sinceitenableshimtoearnanhonorablelivelihoodbuttomisuse
menasthoughtheywerethingsinthepursuitofgain,ortovaluethem

solelyfortheirphysicalpowersthatistrulyshamefulandinhuman.
Againjusticedemandsthat,indealingwiththeworkingman,religionand
thegoodofhissoulmustbekeptinmind.Hence,theemployerisbound
toseethattheworkerhastimeforhisreligiousdutiesthathebenot
exposedtocorruptinginfluencesanddangerousoccasionsandthathe
benotledawaytoneglecthishomeandfamily,ortosquanderhis
earnings.Furthermore,theemployermustnevertaxhisworkpeople
beyondtheirstrength,oremploytheminworkunsuitedtotheirsexand
age.Hisgreatandprincipaldutyistogiveeveryonewhatisjust.
Doubtless,beforedecidingwhetherwagesaxefair,manythingshaveto
beconsideredbutwealthyownersandallmastersoflaborshouldbe
mindfulofthisthattoexercisepressureupontheindigentandthe
destituteforthesakeofgain,andtogatherone'sprofitoutoftheneed
ofanother,iscondemnedbyalllaws,humananddivine.Todefraudany
oneofwagesthatarehisdueisagreatcrimewhichcriestotheavenging
angerofHeaven."Behold,thehireofthelaborers...whichbyfraudhas
beenkeptbackbyyou,criethandthecryofthemhathenteredintothe
earsoftheLordofSabaoth."(6)Lastly,therichmustreligiouslyrefrain
fromcuttingdowntheworkmen'searnings,whetherbyforce,byfraud,or
byusuriousdealingandwithallthegreaterreasonbecausethelaboring
manis,asarule,weakandunprotected,andbecausehisslendermeans
shouldinproportiontotheirscantinessbeaccountedsacred.Werethese
preceptscarefullyobeyedandfollowedout,wouldtheynotbesufficientof
themselvestokeepunderallstrifeandallitscauses?
21.ButtheChurch,withJesusChristasherMasterandGuide,aimshigherstill.
Shelaysdownpreceptsyetmoreperfect,andtriestobindclasstoclassin
friendlinessandgoodfeeling.Thethingsofearthcannotbeunderstoodor
valuedarightwithouttakingintoconsiderationthelifetocome,thelifethatwill
knownodeath.Excludetheideaoffuturity,andforthwiththeverynotionof
whatisgoodandrightwouldperishnay,thewholeschemeoftheuniverse
wouldbecomeadarkandunfathomablemystery.Thegreattruthwhichwe
learnfromnatureherselfisalsothegrandChristiandogmaonwhichreligion
restsasonitsfoundationthat,whenwehavegivenupthispresentlife,then
shallwereallybegintolive.Godhasnotcreatedusfortheperishableand
transitorythingsofearth,butforthingsheavenlyandeverlastingHehasgiven
usthisworldasaplaceofexile,andnotasourabidingplace.Asforrichesand
theotherthingswhichmencallgoodanddesirable,whetherwehavethemin
abundance,orarelackinginthemsofaraseternalhappinessisconcernedit
makesnodifferencetheonlyimportantthingistousethemaright.Jesus
Christ,whenHeredeemeduswithplentifulredemption,tooknotawaythe
painsandsorrowswhichinsuchlargeproportionarewoventogetherinthe
webofourmortallife.Hetransformedthemintomotivesofvirtueand
occasionsofmeritandnomancanhopeforeternalrewardunlesshefollowin

thebloodstainedfootprintsofhisSaviour."IfwesufferwithHim,weshallalso
reignwithHim."(7)Christ'slaborsandsufferings,acceptedofHisownfreewill,
havemarvellouslysweetenedallsufferingandalllabor.AndnotonlybyHis
example,butbyHisgraceandbythehopeheldforthofeverlasting
recompense,hasHemadepainandgriefmoreeasytoendure"forthatwhich
isatpresentmomentaryandlightofourtribulation,workethforusabove
measureexceedinglyaneternalweightofglory."(8)
22.Therefore,thosewhomfortunefavorsarewarnedthatrichesdonotbring
freedomfromsorrowandareofnoavailforeternalhappiness,butratherare
obstacles(9)thattherichshouldtrembleatthethreateningsofJesusChrist
threateningssounwontedinthemouthofourLord(10)andthatamoststrict

accountmustbegiventotheSupremeJudgeforallwepossess.Thechiefand
mostexcellentrulefortherightuseofmoneyisonetheheathenphilosophers
hintedat,butwhichtheChurchhastracedoutclearly,andhasnotonlymade
knowntomen'sminds,buthasimpressedupontheirlives.Itrestsontheprinciple
thatitisonethingtohavearighttothepossessionofmoneyandanothertohave
arighttousemoneyasonewills.Privateownership,aswehaveseen,isthe
naturalrightofman,andtoexercisethatright,especiallyasmembersofsociety,
isnotonlylawful,butabsolutelynecessary."Itislawful,"saysSt.Thomas
Aquinas,"foramantoholdprivatepropertyanditisalsonecessaryforthe
carryingonofhumanexistence.""Butifthequestionbeasked:Howmustone's
possessionsbeused?theChurchreplieswithouthesitationinthewordsofthe
sameholyDoctor:"Manshouldnotconsiderhismaterialpossessionsashisown,
butascommontoall,soastosharethemwithouthesitationwhenothersarein
need.WhencetheApostlewith,Commandtherichofthisworld...toofferwith
nostint,toapportionlargely."(12)True,nooneiscommandedtodistributeto
othersthatwhichisrequiredforhisownneedsandthoseofhishouseholdnor
eventogiveawaywhatisreasonablyrequiredtokeepupbecominglyhis
conditioninlife,"fornooneoughttoliveotherthanbecomingly."(13)But,when
whatnecessitydemandshasbeensupplied,andone'sstandingfairlytaken
thoughtfor,itbecomesadutytogivetotheindigentoutofwhatremainsover.
"Ofthatwhichremaineth,givealms."(14)Itisaduty,notofjustice(savein
extremecases),butofChristiancharityadutynotenforcedbyhumanlaw.But
thelawsandjudgmentsofmenmustyieldplacetothelawsandjudgmentsof
ChristthetrueGod,whoinmanywaysurgesonHisfollowersthepracticeof
almsgivingItismoreblessedtogivethantoreceive"(15)andwhowillcounta
kindnessdoneorrefusedtothepoorasdoneorrefusedtoHimself"Aslongas
youdidittooneofMyleastbrethrenyoudidittoMe."(16)Tosumup,then,
whathasbeensaid:Whoeverhasreceivedfromthedivinebountyalargeshareof
temporalblessings,whethertheybeexternalandmaterial,orgiftsofthemind,
hasreceivedthemforthepurposeofusingthemfortheperfectingofhisown
nature,and,atthesametime,thathemayemploythem,asthestewardofGod's

providence,forthebenefitofothers."Hethathathatalent,"saidSt.Gregorythe
Great,"lethimseethathehideitnothethathathabundance,lethimquicken
himselftomercyandgenerosityhethathathartandskill,lethimdohisbestto
sharetheuseandtheutilityhereofwithhisneighbor."(17)
23.Asforthosewhopossessnotthegiftsoffortune,theyaretaughtby
theChurchthatinGod'ssightpovertyisnodisgrace,andthatthereis
nothingtobeashamedofinearningtheirbreadbylabor.Thisisenforced
bywhatweseeinChristHimself,who,"whereasHewasrich,forour
sakesbecamepoor"(18)andwho,beingtheSonofGod,andGod
Himself,chosetoseemandtobeconsideredthesonofacarpenternay,
didnotdisdaintospendagreatpartofHislifeasacarpenterHimself."Is
notthisthecarpenter,thesonofMary?"(19)
24.FromcontemplationofthisdivineModel,itismoreeasyto
understandthatthetrueworthandnobilityofmanlieinhismoral
qualities,thatis,invirtuethatvirtueis,moreover,thecommon
inheritanceofmen,equallywithinthereachofhighandlow,richand
poorandthatvirtue,andvirtuealone,whereverfound,willbefollowed
bytherewardsofeverlastinghappiness.Nay,GodHimselfseemsto
inclinerathertothosewhosuffermisfortuneforJesusChristcallsthe
poor"blessed"(20)Helovinglyinvitesthoseinlaborandgrieftocometo
Himforsolace(21)andHedisplaysthetenderestcharitytowardthe
lowlyandtheoppressed.Thesereflectionscannotfailtokeepdownthe
prideofthewelltodo,andtogivehearttotheunfortunatetomovethe
formertobegenerousandthelattertobemoderateintheirdesires.
Thus,theseparationwhichpridewouldsetuptendstodisappear,norwill
itbedifficulttomakerichandpoorjoinhandsinfriendlyconcord.
25.But,ifChristianpreceptsprevail,therespectiveclasseswillnotonly
beunitedinthebondsoffriendship,butalsointhoseofbrotherlylove.
Fortheywillunderstandandfeelthatallmenarechildrenofthesame
commonFather,whoisGodthatallhavealikethesamelastend,which
isGodHimself,whoalonecanmakeeithermenorangelsabsolutelyand
perfectlyhappythateachandallareredeemedandmadesonsofGod,
byJesusChrist,"thefirstbornamongmanybrethren"thattheblessings
ofnatureandthegiftsofgracebelongtothewholehumanracein
common,andthatfromnoneexcepttheunworthyiswithheldthe
inheritanceofthekingdomofHeaven."Ifsons,heirsalsoheirsindeedof
God,andcoheirswithChrist."(22)Suchistheschemeofdutiesandof
rightswhichisshownforthtotheworldbytheGospel.Woulditnotseemthat,
weresocietypenetratedwithideaslikethese,strifemustquicklycease?
26.ButtheChurch,notcontentwithpointingouttheremedy,alsoappliesit.
FortheChurchdoesherutmosttoteachandtotrainmen,andtoeducate

themandbytheintermediaryofherbishopsandclergydiffuseshersalutary
teachingsfarandwide.Shestrivestoinfluencethemindandtheheartsothat
allmaywillinglyyieldthemselvestobeformedandguidedbythe
commandmentsofGod.Itispreciselyinthisfundamentalandmomentous
matter,onwhicheverythingdependsthattheChurchpossessesapower
peculiarlyherown.Theinstrumentswhichsheemploysaregiventoherby
JesusChristHimselffortheverypurposeofreachingtheheartsofmen,and
drivetheirefficiencyfromGod.Theyalonecanreachtheinnermostheartand
conscience,andbringmentoactfromamotiveofduty,tocontroltheir
passionsandappetites,toloveGodandtheirfellowmenwithalovethatis
outstandingandofthehighestdegreeandtobreakdowncourageouslyevery
barrierwhichblocksthewaytovirtue.
27.Onthissubjectweneedbutrecallforonemomenttheexamplesrecorded
inhistory.Ofthesefactstherecannotbeanyshadowofdoubt:forinstance,
thatcivilsocietywasrenovatedineverypartbyChristianinstitutionsthatinthe
strengthofthatrenewalthehumanracewaslifteduptobetterthingsnay,that
itwasbroughtbackfromdeathtolife,andtosoexcellentalifethatnothing
moreperfecthadbeenknownbefore,orwillcometobeknownintheagesthat
haveyettobe.OfthisbeneficenttransformationJesusChristwasatoncethe
firstcauseandthefinalendasfromHimallcame,sotoHimwasalltobe
broughtback.For,whenthehumanrace,bythelightoftheGospelmessage,
cametoknowthegrandmysteryoftheIncarnationoftheWordandthe
redemptionofman,atoncethelifeofJesusChrist,GodandMan,pervaded
everyraceandnation,andinterpenetratedthemwithHisfaith,Hisprecepts,
andHislaws.Andifhumansocietyistobehealednow,innootherwaycanit
behealedsavebyareturntoChristianlifeandChristianinstitutions.Whena

societyisperishing,thewholesomeadvicetogivetothosewhowouldrestoreit
istocallittotheprinciplesfromwhichitsprangforthepurposeandperfection
ofanassociationistoaimatandtoattainthatforwhichitisformed,andits
effortsshouldbeputinmotionandinspiredbytheendandobjectwhich
originallygaveitbeing.Hence,tofallawayfromitsprimalconstitutionimplies
diseasetogobacktoit,recovery.Andthismaybeassertedwithutmosttruth
bothofthewholebodyofthecommonwealthandofthatclassofitscitizensby
farthegreatmajoritywhogettheirlivingbytheirlabor.
28.NeithermustitbesupposedthatthesolicitudeoftheChurchisso
preoccupiedwiththespiritualconcernsofherchildrenastoneglecttheir
temporalandearthlyinterests.Herdesireisthatthepoor,forexample,
shouldriseabovepovertyandwretchedness,andbettertheirconditionin
lifeandforthisshemakesastrongendeavor.Bythefactthatshecalls
mentovirtueandformsthemtoitspracticeshepromotesthisinno
slightdegree.Christianmorality,whenadequatelyandcompletely
practiced,leadsofitselftotemporalprosperity,foritmeritstheblessing

ofthatGodwhoisthesourceofallblessingsitpowerfullyrestrainsthe
greedofpossessionandthethirstforpleasuretwinplagues,whichtoo
oftenmakeamanwhoisvoidofselfrestraintmiserableinthemidstof
abundance(23)itmakesmensupplyforthelackofmeansthrough
economy,teachingthemtobecontentwithfrugalliving,andfurther,
keepingthemoutofthereachofthoseviceswhichdevournotsmall
incomesmerely,butlargefortunes,anddissipatemanyagoodly
inheritance.
29.TheChurch,moreover,intervenesdirectlyinbehalfofthepoor,by
settingonfootandmaintainingmanyassociationswhichsheknowstobe
efficientforthereliefofpoverty.Herein,again,shehasalwayssucceeded
sowellastohaveevenextortedthepraiseofherenemies.Suchwasthe
ardorofbrotherlyloveamongtheearliestChristiansthatnumbersof
thosewhowereinbettercircumstancesdespoiledthemselvesoftheir
possessionsinordertorelievetheirbrethrenwhence"neitherwasthere
anyoneneedyamongthem."(24)Totheorderofdeacons,institutedin
thatveryintent,wascommittedbytheApostlesthechargeofthedaily
dolesandtheApostlePaul,thoughburdenedwiththesolicitudeofallthe
churches,hesitatednottoundertakelaboriousjourneysinordertocarry
thealmsofthefaithfultothepoorerChristians.Tertulliancallsthese
contributions,givenvoluntarilybyChristiansintheirassemblies,deposits
ofpiety,because,tocitehisownwords,theywereemployed"infeeding
theneedy,inburyingthem,insupportofyouthsandmaidensdestituteof
meansanddeprivedoftheirparents,inthecareoftheaged,andthe
reliefoftheshipwrecked."(25)
30.Thus,bydegrees,cameintoexistencethepatrimonywhichthe
Churchhasguardedwithreligiouscareastheinheritanceofthepoor.
Nay,inordertosparethemtheshameofbegging,theChurchhas
providedaidfortheneedy.ThecommonMotherofrichandpoorhas
arousedeverywheretheheroismofcharity,andhasestablished
congregationsofreligiousandmanyotherusefulinstitutionsforhelpand
mercy,sothathardlyanykindofsufferingcouldexistwhichwasnot
affordedrelief.Atthepresentdaymanytherearewho,liketheheathen
ofold,seektoblameandcondemntheChurchforsucheminentcharity.
Theywouldsubstituteinitssteadasystemofrelieforganizedbythe
State.Butnohumanexpedientswillevermakeupforthedevotedness
andselfsacrificeofChristiancharity.Charity,asavirtue,pertainstothe
Churchforvirtueitisnot,unlessitbedrawnfromtheMostSacredHeart
ofJesusChristandwhosoeverturnshisbackontheChurchcannotbe
neartoChrist.
31.Itcannot,however,bedoubtedthattoattainthepurposeweare
treatingof,notonlytheChurch,butallhumanagencies,mustconcur.All

whoareconcernedinthemattershouldbeofonemindandaccordingto
theirabilityacttogether.Itiswiththis,aswithprovidencethatgoverns
theworldtheresultsofcausesdonotusuallytakeplacesavewhereall
thecausescooperate.Itissufficient,therefore,toinquirewhatparttheState
shouldplayintheworkofremedyandrelief.
32.BytheStatewehereunderstand,nottheparticularformofgovernment
prevailinginthisorthatnation,buttheStateasrightlyapprehendedthatisto
say,anygovernmentconformableinitsinstitutionstorightreasonandnatural
law,andtothosedictatesofthedivinewisdomwhichwehaveexpoundedin
theencyclicalOntheChristianConstitutionoftheState.(26)Theforemostduty,
therefore,oftherulersoftheStateshouldbetomakesurethatthelawsand
institutions,thegeneralcharacterandadministrationofthecommonwealth,

shallbesuchasofthemselvestorealizepublicwellbeingandprivate
prosperity.Thisistheproperscopeofwisestatesmanshipandisthework
oftherulers.NowaStatechieflyprospersandthrivesthroughmoralrule,
wellregulatedfamilylife,respectforreligionandjustice,themoderation
andfairimposingofpublictaxes,theprogressoftheartsandoftrade,
theabundantyieldofthelandthrougheverything,infact,whichmakes
thecitizensbetterandhappier.Hereby,then,itliesinthepowerofa
rulertobenefiteveryclassintheState,andamongsttheresttopromote
totheutmosttheinterestsofthepoorandthisinvirtueofhisoffice,and
withoutbeingopentosuspicionofundueinterferencesinceitisthe
provinceofthecommonwealthtoservethecommongood.Andthemore
thatisdoneforthebenefitoftheworkingclassesbythegenerallawsof
thecountry,thelessneedwilltherebetoseekforspecialmeansto
relievethem.
33.Thereisanotheranddeeperconsiderationwhichmustnotbelost
sightof.AsregardstheState,theinterestsofall,whetherhighorlow,
areequal.Themembersoftheworkingclassesarecitizensbynatureand
bythesamerightastherichtheyarerealparts,livingthelifewhich
makesup,throughthefamily,thebodyofthecommonwealthandit
needhardlybesaidthattheyareineverycityverylargelyinthemajority.
Itwouldbeirrationaltoneglectoneportionofthecitizensandfavor
another,andthereforethepublicadministrationmustdulyandsolicitously
provideforthewelfareandthecomfortoftheworkingclassesotherwise,
thatlawofjusticewillbeviolatedwhichordainsthateachmanshallhave
hisdue.TocitethewisewordsofSt.ThomasAquinas:"Asthepartand
thewholeareinacertainsenseidentical,sothatwhichbelongstothe
wholeinasensebelongstothepart."(27)Amongthemanyandgrave
dutiesofrulerswhowoulddotheirbestforthepeople,thefirstandchief
istoactwithstrictjusticewiththatjusticewhichiscalleddistributive
towardeachandeveryclassalike.

34.Butalthoughallcitizens,withoutexception,canandoughtto
contributetothatcommongoodinwhichindividualsshareso
advantageouslytothemselves,yetitshouldnotbesupposedthatallcan
contributeinthelikewayandtothesameextent.Nomatterwhat
changesmayoccurinformsofgovernment,therewilleverbedifferences
andinequalitiesofconditionintheState.Societycannotexistorbe
conceivedofwithoutthem.Sometheremustbewhodevotethemselves
totheworkofthecommonwealth,whomakethelawsoradminister
justice,orwhoseadviceandauthoritygovernthenationintimesof
peace,anddefenditinwar.Suchmenclearlyoccupytheforemostplace
intheState,andshouldbeheldinhighestestimation,fortheirwork
concernsmostnearlyandeffectivelythegeneralinterestsofthe
community.Thosewholaboratatradeorcallingdonotpromotethe
generalwelfareinsuchmeasureasthis,buttheybenefitthenation,if
lessdirectly,inamostimportantmanner.Wehaveinsisted,itistrue,
that,sincetheendofsocietyistomakemenbetter,thechiefgoodthat
societycanpossessisvirtue.Nevertheless,itisthebusinessofawell
constitutedbodypolitictoseetotheprovisionofthosematerialand
externalhelps"theuseofwhichisnecessarytovirtuousaction."(28)
Now,fortheprovisionofsuchcommodities,thelaboroftheworkingclass
theexerciseoftheirskill,andtheemploymentoftheirstrength,inthe
cultivationoftheland,andintheworkshopsoftradeisespecially
responsibleandquiteindispensable.Indeed,theircooperationisinthis
respectsoimportantthatitmaybetrulysaidthatitisonlybythelaborof
workingmenthatStatesgrowrich.Justice,therefore,demandsthatthe
interestsoftheworkingclassesshouldbecarefullywatchedoverbythe
administration,sothattheywhocontributesolargelytotheadvantageof
thecommunitymaythemselvesshareinthebenefitswhichtheycreate
thatbeinghoused,clothed,andbodilyfit,theymayfindtheirlifeless
hardandmoreendurable.Itfollowsthatwhatevershallappeartoprove
conducivetothewellbeingofthosewhoworkshouldobtainfavorable
consideration.Thereisnofearthatsolicitudeofthiskindwillbeharmful
toanyinterestonthecontrary,itwillbetotheadvantageofall,forit
cannotbutbegoodforthecommonwealthtoshieldfrommiserythoseon
whomitsolargelydependsforthethingsthatitneeds.
35.WehavesaidthattheStatemustnotabsorbtheindividualorthe
familybothshouldbeallowedfreeanduntrammelledactionsofarasis
consistentwiththecommongoodandtheinterestofothers.Rulers
should,nevertheless,anxiouslysafeguardthecommunityandallits
membersthecommunity,becausetheconservationthereofisso
emphaticallythebusinessofthesupremepower,thatthesafetyofthe
commonwealthisnotonlythefirstlaw,butitisagovernment'swhole
reasonofexistenceandthemembers,becausebothphilosophyandthe

Gospelconcurinlayingdownthattheobjectofthegovernmentofthe
Stateshouldbe,nottheadvantageoftheruler,butthebenefitofthose
overwhomheisplaced.AsthepowertorulecomesfromGod,andis,as
itwere,aparticipationinHis,thehighestofallsovereignties,itshouldbe
exercisedasthepowerofGodisexercisedwithafatherlysolicitude
whichnotonlyguidesthewhole,butreachesalsoindividuals.
36.Wheneverthegeneralinterestoranyparticularclasssuffers,oris
threatenedwithharm,whichcaninnootherwaybemetorprevented,
thepublicauthoritymuststepintodealwithit.Now,itistotheinterest
ofthecommunity,aswellasoftheindividual,thatpeaceandgoodorder
shouldbemaintainedthatallthingsshouldbecarriedoninaccordance
withGod'slawsandthoseofnaturethatthedisciplineoffamilylife
shouldbeobservedandthatreligionshouldbeobeyedthatahigh
standardofmoralityshouldprevail,bothinpublicandprivatelifethat
justiceshouldbeheldsacredandthatnooneshouldinjureanotherwith
impunitythatthemembersofthecommonwealthshouldgrowupto
man'sestatestrongandrobust,andcapable,ifneedbe,ofguardingand
defendingtheircountry.Ifbyastrikeofworkersorconcertedinterruption
ofworkthereshouldbeimminentdangerofdisturbancetothepublic
peaceorifcircumstancesweresuchasthatamongtheworkingclassthe
tiesoffamilylifewererelaxedifreligionwerefoundtosufferthroughthe
workersnothavingtimeandopportunityaffordedthemtopracticeits
dutiesifinworkshopsandfactoriesthereweredangertomoralsthrough
themixingofthesexesorfromotherharmfuloccasionsofevilorif
employerslaidburdensupontheirworkmenwhichwereunjust,or
degradedthemwithconditionsrepugnanttotheirdignityashuman
beingsfinally,ifhealthwereendangeredbyexcessivelabor,orbywork
unsuitedtosexorageinsuchcases,therecanbenoquestionbutthat,
withincertainlimits,itwouldberighttoinvoketheaidandauthorityof
thelaw.Thelimitsmustbedeterminedbythenatureoftheoccasion
whichcallsforthelaw'sinterferencetheprinciplebeingthatthelaw
mustnotundertakemore,norproceedfurther,thanisrequiredforthe
remedyoftheevilortheremovalofthemischief.
37.Rightsmustbereligiouslyrespectedwherevertheyexist,anditisthe
dutyofthepublicauthoritytopreventandtopunishinjury,andtoprotect
everyoneinthepossessionofhisown.Still,whenthereisquestionof
defendingtherightsofindividuals,thepoorandbadlyoffhaveaclaimto
especialconsideration.Thericherclasshavemanywaysofshielding
themselves,andstandlessinneedofhelpfromtheStatewhereasthe
massofthepoorhavenoresourcesoftheirowntofallbackupon,and
mustchieflydependupontheassistanceoftheState.Anditisforthis
reasonthatwageearners,sincetheymostlybelonginthemassofthe
needy,shouldbespeciallycaredforandprotectedbythegovernment.

38.Here,however,itisexpedienttobringunderspecialnoticecertain
mattersofmoment.Firstofall,thereisthedutyofsafeguardingprivate
propertybylegalenactmentandprotection.Mostofallitisessential,
wherethepassionofgreedissostrong,tokeepthepopulacewithinthe
lineofdutyfor,ifallmayjustlystrivetobettertheircondition,neither
justicenorthecommongoodallowsanyindividualtoseizeuponthat
whichbelongstoanother,or,underthefutileandshallowpretextof
equality,tolayviolenthandsonotherpeople'spossessions.Mosttrueitis
thatbyfarthelargerpartoftheworkersprefertobetterthemselvesby
honestlaborratherthanbydoinganywrongtoothers.Buttherearenot
afewwhoareimbuedwithevilprinciplesandeagerforrevolutionary
change,whosemainpurposeistostirupdisorderandincitetheirfellows
toactsofviolence.Theauthorityofthelawshouldintervenetoput
restraintuponsuchfirebrands,tosavetheworkingclassesfrombeingled
astraybytheirmaneuvers,andtoprotectlawfulownersfromspoliation.
39.Whenworkpeoplehaverecoursetoastrikeandbecomevoluntarily
idle,itisfrequentlybecausethehoursoflaboraretoolong,orthework
toohard,orbecausetheyconsidertheirwagesinsufficient.Thegrave
inconvenienceofthisnotuncommonoccurrenceshouldbeobviatedby
publicremedialmeasuresforsuchparalysingoflabornotonlyaffectsthe
mastersandtheirworkpeoplealike,butisextremelyinjurioustotrade
andtothegeneralinterestsofthepublicmoreover,onsuchoccasions,
violenceanddisorderaregenerallynotfardistant,andthusitfrequently
happensthatthepublicpeaceisimperiled.Thelawsshouldforestalland
preventsuchtroublesfromarisingtheyshouldlendtheirinfluenceand
authoritytotheremovalingoodtimeofthecauseswhichleadtoconflicts
betweenemployersandemployed.
40.Theworkingman,too,hasinterestsinwhichheshouldbeprotected
bytheStateandfirstofall,therearetheinterestsofhissoul.Lifeon
earth,howevergoodanddesirableinitself,isnotthefinalpurposefor
whichmaniscreateditisonlythewayandthemeanstothatattainment
oftruthandthatloveofgoodnessinwhichthefulllifeofthesoul
consists.ItisthesoulwhichismadeaftertheimageandlikenessofGod
itisinthesoulthatthesovereigntyresidesinvirtuewhereofmanis
commandedtorulethecreaturesbelowhimandtousealltheearthand
theoceanforhisprofitandadvantage."Filltheearthandsubdueitand
ruleoverthefishesofthesea,andthefowlsoftheair,andallliving
creaturesthatmoveupontheearth."(29)Inthisrespectallmenare
equalthereisherenodifferencebetweenrichandpoor,masterand
servant,rulerandruled,"forthesameisLordoverall."(30)Nomanmay
withimpunityoutragethathumandignitywhichGodHimselftreatswith
greatreverence,norstandinthewayofthathigherlifewhichisthe
preparationoftheeternallifeofheaven.Nay,morenomanhasinthis

matterpoweroverhimself.Toconsenttoanytreatmentwhichis
calculatedtodefeattheendandpurposeofhisbeingisbeyondhisright
hecannotgiveuphissoultoservitude,foritisnotman'sownrights
whicharehereinquestion,buttherightsofGod,themostsacredand
inviolableofrights.
41.Fromthisfollowstheobligationofthecessationfromworkandlabor
onSundaysandcertainholydays.Therestfromlaborisnottobe
understoodasmeregivingwaytoidlenessmuchlessmustitbean
occasionforspendingmoneyandforviciousindulgence,asmanywould
haveittobebutitshouldberestfromlabor,hallowedbyreligion.Rest
(combinedwithreligiousobservances)disposesmantoforgetforawhile
thebusinessofhiseverydaylife,toturnhisthoughtstothingsheavenly,
andtotheworshipwhichhesostrictlyowestotheeternalGodhead.Itis
this,aboveall,whichisthereasonaridmotiveofSundayrestarest
sanctionedbyGod'sgreatlawoftheAncientCovenant"Rememberthou
keepholytheSabbathday,"(31)andtaughttotheworldbyHisown
mysterious"rest"afterthecreationofman:"Herestedontheseventh
dayfromallHisworkwhichHehaddone."(32)
42.Ifweturnnottothingsexternalandmaterial,thefirstthingofallto
secureistosaveunfortunateworkingpeoplefromthecrueltyofmenof
greed,whousehumanbeingsasmereinstrumentsformoneymaking.It
isneitherjustnorhumansotogrindmendownwithexcessivelaborasto
stupefytheirmindsandwearouttheirbodies.Man'spowers,likehis
generalnature,arelimited,andbeyondtheselimitshecannotgo.His
strengthisdevelopedandincreasedbyuseandexercise,butonlyon
conditionofdueintermissionandproperrest.Dailylabor,therefore,
shouldbesoregulatedasnottobeprotractedoverlongerhoursthan
strengthadmits.Howmanyandhowlongtheintervalsofrestshouldbe
mustdependonthenatureofthework,oncircumstancesoftimeand
place,andonthehealthandstrengthoftheworkman.Thosewhowork
inminesandquarries,andextractcoal,stoneandmetalsfromthebowels
oftheearth,shouldhaveshorterhoursinproportionastheirlaboris
moresevereandtryingtohealth.Then,again,theseasonoftheyear
shouldbetakenintoaccountfornotunfrequentlyakindoflaboriseasy
atonetimewhichatanotherisintolerableorexceedinglydifficult.Finally,
workwhichisquitesuitableforastrongmancannotrightlyberequired
fromawomanorachild.And,inregardtochildren,greatcareshouldbe
takennottoplacetheminworkshopsandfactoriesuntiltheirbodiesand
mindsaresufficientlydeveloped.For,justasveryroughweatherdestroys
thebudsofspring,sodoestooearlyanexperienceoflife'shardtoilblight
theyoungpromiseofachild'sfaculties,andrenderanytrueeducation
impossible.Women,again,arenotsuitedforcertainoccupationsa
womanisbynaturefittedforhomework,anditisthatwhichisbest

adaptedatoncetopreservehermodestyandtopromotethegood
bringingupofchildrenandthewellbeingofthefamily.Asageneral
principleitmaybelaiddownthataworkmanoughttohaveleisureand
restproportionatetothewearandtearofhisstrength,forwasteof
strengthmustberepairedbycessationfromhardwork.
Inallagreementsbetweenmastersandworkpeoplethereisalwaysthe
conditionexpressedorunderstoodthatthereshouldbeallowedproper
restforsoulandbody.Toagreeinanyothersensewouldbeagainst
whatisrightandjustforitcanneverbejustorrighttorequireonthe
oneside,ortopromiseontheother,thegivingupofthosedutieswhich
amanowestohisGodandtohimself.
43.Wenowapproachasubjectofgreatimportance,andoneinrespect
ofwhich,ifextremesaretobeavoided,rightnotionsareabsolutely
necessary.Wages,aswearetold,areregulatedbyfreeconsent,and
thereforetheemployer,whenhepayswhatwasagreedupon,hasdone
hispartandseeminglyisnotcalledupontodoanythingbeyond.Theonly
way,itissaid,inwhichinjusticemightoccurwouldbeifthemaster
refusedtopaythewholeofthewages,oriftheworkmanshouldnot
completetheworkundertakeninsuchcasesthepublicauthorityshould
intervene,toseethateachobtainshisdue,butnotunderanyother
circumstances.
44.Tothiskindofargumentafairmindedmanwillnoteasilyorentirely
assentitisnotcomplete,forthereareimportantconsiderationswhichit
leavesoutofaccountaltogether.Tolaboristoexertoneselfforthesake
ofprocuringwhatisnecessaryforthevariouspurposesoflife,andchief
ofallforselfpreservation."Inthesweatofthyfacethoushalteatbread."
(33)Hence,aman'slabornecessarilybearstwonotesorcharacters.First
ofall,itispersonal,inasmuchastheforcewhichactsisboundupwith
thepersonalityandistheexclusivepropertyofhimwhoacts,and,
further,wasgiventohimforhisadvantage.Secondly,man'slaboris
necessaryforwithouttheresultoflaboramancannotlive,andself
preservationisalawofnature,whichitiswrongtodisobey.Now,were
wetoconsiderlabormerelyinsofarasitispersonal,doubtlessitwould
bewithintheworkman'srighttoacceptanyrateofwageswhatsoever
forinthesamewayasheisfreetoworkornot,soishefreetoaccepta
smallwageorevennoneatall.Butourconclusionmustbeverydifferent
if,togetherwiththepersonalelementinaman'swork,weconsiderthe
factthatworkisalsonecessaryforhimtolive:thesetwoaspectsofhis
workareseparableinthought,butnotinreality.Thepreservationoflife
istheboundendutyofoneandall,andtobewantingthereinisacrime.
Itnecessarilyfollowsthateachonehasanaturalrighttoprocurewhatis

requiredinordertolive,andthepoorcanprocurethatinnootherway
thanbywhattheycanearnthroughtheirwork.
45.Lettheworkingmanandtheemployermakefreeagreements,andin
particularletthemagreefreelyastothewagesnevertheless,there
underliesadictateofnaturaljusticemoreimperiousandancientthanany
bargainbetweenmanandman,namely,thatwagesoughtnottobe
insufficienttosupportafrugalandwellbehavedwageearner.Ifthrough
necessityorfearofaworseeviltheworkmanacceptharderconditions
becauseanemployerorcontractorwillaffordhimnobetter,heismade
thevictimofforceandinjustice.Intheseandsimilarquestions,however
suchas,forexample,thehoursoflaborindifferenttrades,thesanitary
precautionstobeobservedinfactoriesandworkshops,etc.inorderto
supersedeundueinterferenceonthepartoftheState,especiallyas
circumstances,times,andlocalitiesdiffersowidely,itisadvisablethat
recoursebehadtosocietiesorboardssuchasWeshallmention
presently,ortosomeothermodeofsafeguardingtheinterestsofthe
wageearnerstheStatebeingappealedto,shouldcircumstancesrequire,
foritssanctionandprotection.
46.Ifaworkman'swagesbesufficienttoenablehimcomfortablyto
supporthimself,hiswife,andhischildren,hewillfinditeasy,ifhebea
sensibleman,topracticethrift,andhewillnotfail,bycuttingdown
expenses,toputbysomelittlesavingsandthussecureamodestsource
ofincome.Natureitselfwouldurgehimtothis.Wehaveseenthatthis
greatlaborquestioncannotbesolvedsavebyassumingasaprinciple
thatprivateownershipmustbeheldsacredandinviolable.Thelaw,
therefore,shouldfavorownership,anditspolicyshouldbetoinduceas
manyaspossibleofthepeopletobecomeowners.
47.Manyexcellentresultswillfollowfromthisand,firstofall,property
willcertainlybecomemoreequitablydivided.For,theresultofcivil
changeandrevolutionhasbeentodividecitiesintotwoclassesseparated
byawidechasm.Ontheonesidethereisthepartywhichholdspower
becauseitholdswealthwhichhasinitsgraspthewholeoflaborand
tradewhichmanipulatesforitsownbenefitanditsownpurposesallthe
sourcesofsupply,andwhichisnotwithoutinfluenceeveninthe
administrationofthecommonwealth.Ontheothersidethereistheneedy
andpowerlessmultitude,sickandsoreinspiritandeverreadyfor
disturbance.Ifworkingpeoplecanbeencouragedtolookforwardto
obtainingashareintheland,theconsequencewillbethatthegulf
betweenvastwealthandsheerpovertywillbebridgedover,andthe
respectiveclasseswillbebroughtnearertooneanother.Afurther
consequencewillresultinthegreatabundanceofthefruitsoftheearth.
Menalwaysworkharderandmorereadilywhentheyworkonthatwhich

belongstothemnay,theylearntolovetheverysoilthatyieldsin
responsetothelaboroftheirhands,notonlyfoodtoeat,butan
abundanceofgoodthingsforthemselvesandthosethataredearto
them.Thatsuchaspiritofwillinglaborwouldaddtotheproduceofthe
earthandtothewealthofthecommunityisselfevident.Andathird
advantagewouldspringfromthis:menwouldclingtothecountryin
whichtheywereborn,fornoonewouldexchangehiscountryfora
foreignlandifhisownaffordedhimthemeansoflivingadecentand
happylife.Thesethreeimportantbenefits,however,canbereckonedon
onlyprovidedthataman'smeansbenotdrainedandexhaustedby
excessivetaxation.Therighttopossessprivatepropertyisderivedfrom
nature,notfrommanandtheStatehastherighttocontrolitsuseinthe
interestsofthepublicgoodalone,butbynomeanstoabsorbit
altogether.TheStatewouldthereforebeunjustandcruelifunderthe
nameoftaxationitweretodeprivetheprivateownerofmorethanisfair.
48.Inthelastplace,employersandworkmenmayofthemselveseffect
much,inthematterWearetreating,bymeansofsuchassociationsand
organizationsasaffordopportuneaidtothosewhoareindistress,and
whichdrawthetwoclassesmorecloselytogether.Amongthesemaybe
enumeratedsocietiesformutualhelpvariousbenevolentfoundations
establishedbyprivatepersonstoprovidefortheworkman,andforhis
widoworhisorphans,incaseofsuddencalamity,insickness,andinthe
eventofdeathandinstitutionsforthewelfareofboysandgirls,young
people,andthosemoreadvancedinyears.
49.Themostimportantofallareworkingmen'sunions,forthesevirtually
includealltherest.Historyattestswhatexcellentresultswerebrought
aboutbytheartificers'guildsofoldentimes.Theywerethemeansof
affordingnotonlymanyadvantagestotheworkmen,butinnosmall
degreeofpromotingtheadvancementofart,asnumerousmonuments
remaintobearwitness.Suchunionsshouldbesuitedtotherequirements
ofthisourageanageofwidereducation,ofdifferenthabits,andoffar
morenumerousrequirementsindailylife.Itisgratifyingtoknowthat
thereareactuallyinexistencenotafewassociationsofthisnature,
consistingeitherofworkmenalone,orofworkmenandemployers
together,butitweregreatlytobedesiredthattheyshouldbecomemore
numerousandmoreefficient.Wehavespokenofthemmorethanonce,
yetitwillbewelltoexplainherehownotablytheyareneeded,toshow
thattheyexistoftheirownright,andwhatshouldbetheirorganization
andtheirmodeofaction.
50.Theconsciousnessofhisownweaknessurgesmantocallinaidfrom
without.WereadinthepagesofholyWrit:"Itisbetterthattwoshould
betogetherthanonefortheyhavetheadvantageoftheirsociety.Ifone

fallheshallbesupportedbytheother.Woetohimthatisalone,forwhen
hefallethhehathnonetolifthimup."(34)Andfurther:"Abrotherthatis
helpedbyhisbrotherislikeastrongcity."(35)Itisthisnaturalimpulse
whichbindsmentogetherincivilsocietyanditislikewisethiswhich
leadsthemtojointogetherinassociationswhichare,itistrue,lesserand
notindependentsocieties,but,nevertheless,realsocieties.
51.Theselessersocietiesandthelargersocietydifferinmanyrespects,
becausetheirimmediatepurposeandaimaredifferent.Civilsocietyexists
forthecommongood,andhenceisconcernedwiththeinterestsofallin
general,albeitwithindividualinterestsalsointheirdueplaceanddegree.
Itisthereforecalledapublicsociety,becausebyitsagency,asSt.
ThomasofAquinassays,"Menestablishrelationsincommonwithone
anotherinthesettingupofacommonwealth."(36)Butsocietieswhich
areformedinthebosomofthecommonwealtharestyledprivate,and
rightlyso,sincetheirimmediatepurposeistheprivateadvantageofthe
associates."Now,aprivatesociety,"saysSt.Thomasagain,"isonewhich
isformedforthepurposeofcarryingoutprivateobjectsaswhentwoor
threeenterintopartnershipwiththeviewoftradingincommon."(37)
Privatesocieties,then,althoughtheyexistwithinthebodypolitic,andare
severallypartofthecommonwealth,cannotneverthelessbeabsolutely,
andassuch,prohibitedbypublicauthority.For,toenterintoa"society"
ofthiskindisthenaturalrightofmanandtheStatehasforitsofficeto
protectnaturalrights,nottodestroythemand,ifitforbiditscitizensto
formassociations,itcontradictstheveryprincipleofitsownexistence,for
boththeyanditexistinvirtueofthelikeprinciple,namely,thenatural
tendencyofmantodwellinsociety.
52.Thereareoccasions,doubtless,whenitisfittingthatthelawshould
intervenetopreventcertainassociations,aswhenmenjointogetherfor
purposeswhichareevidentlybad,unlawful,ordangeroustotheState.In
suchcases,publicauthoritymayjustlyforbidtheformationofsuch
associations,andmaydissolvethemiftheyalreadyexist.Butevery
precautionshouldbetakennottoviolatetherightsofindividualsandnot
toimposeunreasonableregulationsunderpretenseofpublicbenefit.For
lawsonlybindwhentheyareinaccordancewithrightreason,and,
hence,withtheeternallawofGod.(38)
53.Andhereweareremindedoftheconfraternities,societies,and
religiousorderswhichhavearisenbytheChurch'sauthorityandthepiety
ofChristianmen.Theannalsofeverynationdowntoourowndaysbear
witnesstowhattheyhaveaccomplishedforthehumanrace.Itis
indisputablethatongroundsofreasonalonesuchassociations,being
perfectlyblamelessintheirobjects,possessthesanctionofthelawof
nature.Intheirreligiousaspecttheyclaimrightlytoberesponsibletothe

Churchalone.TherulersoftheStateaccordinglyhavenorightsover
them,norcantheyclaimanyshareintheircontrolonthecontrary,itis
thedutyoftheStatetorespectandcherishthem,and,ifneedbe,to
defendthemfromattack.Itisnotoriousthataverydifferentcoursehas
beenfollowed,moreespeciallyinourowntimes.Inmanyplacesthe
Stateauthoritieshavelaidviolenthandsonthesecommunities,and
committedmanifoldinjusticeagainstthemithasplacedthemunder
controlofthecivillaw,takenawaytheirrightsascorporatebodies,and
despoiledthemoftheirproperty,insuchpropertytheChurchhadher
rights,eachmemberofthebodyhadhisorherrights,andtherewere
alsotherightsofthosewhohadfoundedorendowedthesecommunities
foradefinitepurpose,and,furthermore,ofthoseforwhosebenefitand
assistancetheyhadtheirbeing.ThereforeWecannotrefrainfrom
complainingofsuchspoliationasunjustandfraughtwithevilresultsand
withallthemorereasondoWecomplainbecause,attheverytimewhen
thelawproclaimsthatassociationisfreetoall,WeseethatCatholic
societies,howeverpeacefulanduseful,arehamperedineveryway,
whereastheutmostlibertyisconcededtoindividualswhosepurposesare
atoncehurtfultoreligionanddangeroustothecommonwealth.
54.Associationsofeverykind,andespeciallythoseofworkingmen,are
nowfarmorecommonthanheretofore.Asregardsmanyofthesethereis
noneedatpresenttoinquirewhencetheyspring,whataretheirobjects,
orwhatthemeanstheyimply.Now,thereisagooddealofevidencein
favoroftheopinionthatmanyofthesesocietiesareinthehandsof
secretleaders,andaremanagedonprinciplesillaccordingwith
Christianityandthepublicwellbeingandthattheydotheirutmostto
getwithintheirgraspthewholefieldoflabor,andforceworkingmen
eithertojointhemortostarve.UnderthesecircumstancesChristian
workingmenmustdooneoftwothings:eitherjoinassociationsinwhich
theirreligionwillbeexposedtoperil,orformassociationsamong
themselvesandunitetheirforcessoastoshakeoffcourageouslythe
yokeofsounrighteousandintolerableanoppression.Noonewhodoes
notwishtoexposeman'schiefgoodtoextremeriskwillforamoment
hesitatetosaythatthesecondalternativeshouldbyallmeansbe
adopted.
55.ThoseCatholicsareworthyofallpraiseandtheyarenotafewwho,
understandingwhatthetimesrequire,havestriven,byvarious
undertakingsandendeavors,tobettertheconditionoftheworkingclass
byrightfulmeans.Theyhavetakenupthecauseoftheworkingman,and
havesparednoeffortstobettertheconditionbothoffamiliesand
individualstoinfuseaspiritofequityintothemutualrelationsof
employersandemployedtokeepbeforetheeyesofbothclassesthe
preceptsofdutyandthelawsoftheGospelthatGospelwhich,by

inculcatingselfrestraint,keepsmenwithintheboundsofmoderation,and
tendstoestablishharmonyamongthedivergentinterestsandthevarious
classeswhichcomposethebodypolitic.Itiswithsuchendsinviewthat
weseemenofeminence,meetingtogetherfordiscussion,forthe
promotionofconcertedaction,andforpracticalwork.Others,again,
strivetouniteworkingmenofvariousgradesintoassociations,helpthem
withtheiradviceandmeans,andenablethemtoobtainfittingand
profitableemployment.Thebishops,ontheirpart,bestowtheirready
goodwillandsupportandwiththeirapprovalandguidancemany
membersoftheclergy,bothsecularandregular,laborassiduouslyin
behalfofthespiritualinterestofthemembersofsuchassociations.And
therearenotwantingCatholicsblessedwithaffluence,whohave,asit
were,castintheirlotwiththewageearners,andwhohavespentlarge
sumsinfoundingandwidelyspreadingbenefitandinsurancesocieties,by
meansofwhichtheworkingmanmaywithoutdifficultyacquirethrough
hislabornotonlymanypresentadvantages,butalsothecertaintyof
honorablesupportindaystocome.Howgreatlysuchmanifoldand
earnestactivityhasbenefitedthecommunityatlargeistoowellknownto
requireUstodwelluponit.Wefindthereingroundsformostcheering
hopeinthefuture,providedalwaysthattheassociationsWehave
describedcontinuetogrowandspread,andarewellandwisely
administered.TheStateshouldwatchoverthesesocietiesofcitizens
bandedtogetherinaccordancewiththeirrights,butitshouldnotthrust
itselfintotheirpeculiarconcernsandtheirorganization,forthingsmove
andlivebythespiritinspiringthem,andmaybekilledbytheroughgrasp
ofahandfromwithout.
56.Inorderthatanassociationmaybecarriedonwithunityofpurpose
andharmonyofaction,itsadministrationandgovernmentshouldbefirm
andwise.Allsuchsocieties,beingfreetoexist,havethefurtherrightto
adoptsuchrulesandorganizationasmaybestconducetotheattainment
oftheirrespectiveobjects.Wedonotjudgeitpossibletoenterinto
minuteparticularstouchingthesubjectoforganizationthismustdepend
onnationalcharacter,onpracticeandexperience,onthenatureandaim
oftheworktobedone,onthescopeofthevarioustradesand
employments,andonothercircumstancesoffactandoftimeallof
whichshouldbecarefullyconsidered.
57.Tosumup,then,Wemaylayitdownasageneralandlastinglaw
thatworkingmen'sassociationsshouldbesoorganizedandgovernedas
tofurnishthebestandmostsuitablemeansforattainingwhatisaimed
at,thatistosay,forhelpingeachindividualmembertobetterhis
conditiontotheutmostinbody,soul,andproperty.Itisclearthatthey
mustpayspecialandchiefattentiontothedutiesofreligionandmorality,
andthatsocialbettermentshouldhavethischieflyinviewotherwisethey

wouldlosewhollytheirspecialcharacter,andendbybecominglittle
betterthanthosesocietieswhichtakenoaccountwhateverofreligion.
Whatadvantagecanitbetoaworkingmantoobtainbymeansofa
societymaterialwellbeing,ifheendangershissoulforlackofspiritual
food?"Whatdothitprofitaman,ifhegainthewholeworldandsuffer
thelossofhissoul?"(39)This,asourLordteaches,isthemarkor
characterthatdistinguishestheChristianfromtheheathen."Afterall
thesethingsdotheheathenseek...SeekyefirsttheKingdomofGod
andHisjustice:andallthesethingsshallbeaddeduntoyou."(40)Letour
associations,then,lookfirstandbeforeallthingstoGodletreligious
instructionhavethereintheforemostplace,eachonebeingcarefully
taughtwhatishisdutytoGod,whathehastobelieve,whattohopefor,
andhowheistoworkouthissalvationandletallbewarnedand
strengthenedwithspecialcareagainstwrongprinciplesandfalse
teaching.LettheworkingmanbeurgedandledtotheworshipofGod,to
theearnestpracticeofreligion,and,amongotherthings,tothekeeping
holyofSundaysandholydays.Lethimlearntoreverenceandloveholy
Church,thecommonMotherofusallandhencetoobeythepreceptsof
theChurch,andtofrequentthesacraments,sincetheyarethemeans
ordainedbyGodforobtainingforgivenessofsinandfoxleadingaholy
life.
58.Thefoundationsoftheorganizationbeingthuslaidinreligion,We
nextproceedtomakecleartherelationsofthemembersonetoanother,
inorderthattheymaylivetogetherinconcordandgoforward
prosperouslyandwithgoodresults.Theofficesandchargesofthesociety
shouldbeapportionedforthegoodofthesocietyitself,andinsuchmode
thatdifferenceindegreeorstandingshouldnotinterferewithunanimity
andgoodwill.Itismostimportantthatofficebearersbeappointedwith
dueprudenceanddiscretion,andeachone'schargecarefullymapped
out,inorderthatnomembersmaysufferharm.Thecommonfundsmust
beadministeredwithstricthonesty,insuchawaythatamembermay
receiveassistanceinproportiontohisnecessities.Therightsanddutiesof
theemployers,ascomparedwiththerightsanddutiesoftheemployed,
oughttobethesubjectofcarefulconsideration.Shouldithappenthat
eitheramasteroraworkmanbelieveshimselfinjured,nothingwouldbe
moredesirablethanthatacommitteeshouldbeappointed,composedof
reliableandcapablemembersoftheassociation,whosedutywouldbe,
conformablywiththerulesoftheassociation,tosettlethedispute.
Amongtheseveralpurposesofasociety,oneshouldbetotrytoarrange
foracontinuoussupplyofworkatalltimesandseasonsaswellasto
createafundoutofwhichthemembersmaybeeffectuallyhelpedintheir
needs,notonlyinthecasesofaccident,butalsoinsickness,oldage,and
distress.

59.Suchrulesandregulations,ifwillinglyobeyedbyall,willsufficiently
ensurethewellbeingofthelesswelltodowhilstsuchmutual
associationsamongCatholicsarecertaintobeproductiveinnosmall
degreeofprosperitytotheState.Isitnotrashtoconjecturethefuture
fromthepast.Agegiveswaytoage,buttheeventsofonecenturyare
wonderfullylikethoseofanother,fortheyaredirectedbytheprovidence
ofGod,whooverrulesthecourseofhistoryinaccordancewithHis
purposesincreatingtheraceofman.Wearetoldthatitwascastasa
reproachontheChristiansintheearlyagesoftheChurchthatthe
greaternumberamongthemhadtolivebybeggingorbylabor.Yet,
destitutethoughtheywereofwealthandinfluence,theyendedby
winningovertotheirsidethefavoroftherichandthegoodwillofthe
powerful.Theyshowedthemselvesindustrious,hardworking,assiduous,
andpeaceful,ruledbyjustice,and,aboveall,boundtogetherinbrotherly
love.Inpresenceofsuchmodeoflifeandsuchexample,prejudicegave
way,thetongueofmalevolencewassilenced,andthelyinglegendsof
ancientsuperstitionlittlebylittleyieldedtoChristiantruth.
60.Atthetimebeing,theconditionoftheworkingclassesisthepressing
questionofthehour,andnothingcanbeofhigherinteresttoallclasses
oftheStatethanthatitshouldberightlyandreasonablysettled.Butit
willbeeasyforChristianworkingmentosolveitarightiftheywillform
associations,choosewiseguides,andfollowonthepathwhichwithso
muchadvantagetothemselvesandthecommonwealwastroddenby
theirfathersbeforethem.Prejudice,itistrue,ismighty,andsoisthe
greedofmoneybutifthesenseofwhatisjustandrightfulbenot
deliberatelystifled,theirfellowcitizensaresuretobewonovertoa
kindlyfeelingtowardsmenwhomtheyseetobeinearnestasregards
theirworkandwhoprefersounmistakablyrightdealingtomerelucre,
andthesacrednessofdutytoeveryotherconsideration.
61.AndfurthergreatadvantagewouldresultfromthestateofthingsWe
aredescribingtherewouldexistsomuchmoregroundforhope,and
likelihood,even,ofrecallingtoasenseoftheirdutythoseworkingmen
whohaveeithergivenuptheirfaithaltogether,orwhoselivesareat
variancewithitsprecepts.Suchmenfeelinmostcasesthattheyhave
beenfooledbyemptypromisesanddeceivedbyfalsepretexts.They
cannotbutperceivethattheirgraspingemployerstoooftentreatthem
withgreatinhumanityandhardlycareforthemoutsidetheprofittheir
laborbringsandiftheybelongtoanyunion,itisprobablyoneinwhich
thereexists,insteadofcharityandlove,thatintestinestrifewhichever
accompaniespovertywhenunresignedandunsustainedbyreligion.
Brokeninspiritandworndowninbody,howmanyofthemwouldgladly
freethemselvesfromsuchgallingbondage!Buthumanrespect,orthe
dreadofstarvation,makesthemtrembletotakethestep.Tosuchas

theseCatholicassociationsareofincalculableservice,byhelpingthem
outoftheirdifficulties,invitingthemtocompanionshipandreceivingthe
returningwandererstoahavenwheretheymaysecurelyfindrepose.
62.Wehavenowlaidbeforeyou,venerablebrethren,bothwhoarethe
personsandwhatarethemeanswherebythismostarduousquestion
mustbesolved.Everyoneshouldputhishandtotheworkwhichfallsto
hisshare,andthatatonceandstraightway,lesttheevilwhichisalready
sogreatbecomethroughdelayabsolutelybeyondremedy.Thosewho
rulethecommonwealthsshouldavailthemselvesofthelawsand
institutionsofthecountrymastersandwealthyownersmustbemindful
oftheirdutytheworkingclass,whoseinterestsareatstake,should
makeeverylawfulandpropereffortandsincereligionalone,asWesaid
atthebeginning,canavailtodestroytheevilatitsroot,allmenshould
restpersuadedthatmainthingneedfulistoreestablishChristianmorals,
apartfromwhichalltheplansanddevicesofthewisestwillproveoflittle
avail.
63.InregardtotheChurch,hercooperationwillneverbefoundlacking,
bethetimeortheoccasionwhatitmayandshewillintervenewithall
thegreatereffectinproportionasherlibertyofactionisthemore
unfettered.Letthisbecarefullytakentoheartbythosewhoseofficeitis
tosafeguardthepublicwelfare.Everyministerofholyreligionmustbring
tothestrugglethefullenergyofhismindandallhispowerofendurance.
Movedbyyourauthority,venerablebrethren,andquickenedbyyour
example,theyshouldneverceasetourgeuponmenofeveryclass,upon
thehighplacedaswellasthelowly,theGospeldoctrinesofChristianlife
byeverymeansintheirpowertheymuststrivetosecurethegoodofthe
peopleandaboveallmustearnestlycherishinthemselves,andtryto
arouseinothers,charity,themistressandthequeenofvirtues.For,the
happyresultswealllongformustbechieflybroughtaboutbythe
plenteousoutpouringofcharityofthattrueChristiancharitywhichisthe
fulfillingofthewholeGospellaw,whichisalwaysreadytosacrificeitself
forothers'sake,andisman'ssurestantidoteagainstworldlyprideand
immoderateloveofselfthatcharitywhoseofficeisdescribedandwhose
GodlikefeaturesareoutlinedbytheApostleSt.Paulinthesewords:
"Charityispatient,iskind,...seekethnotherown,...sufferethall
things,...endurethallthings."(41)
64.Oneachofyou,venerablebrethren,andonyourclergyandpeople,
asanearnestofGod'smercyandamarkofOuraffection,welovinglyin
theLordbestowtheapostolicbenediction.
GivenatSt.Peter'sinRome,thefifteenthdayofMay,1891,the
fourteenthyearofOurpontificate.

LEOXIII
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2).Deut.5:21.
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4).Summatheologiae,IIaIIae,q.x,art.12,Answer.
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7).2Tim.2:12.
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12).Ibid.
13).Ibid.,q.xxxii,a.6,Answer.
14).Luke11:41.
15).Acts20:35.
16).Matt.25:40.
17).Hom.inEvang.,9,n.7(PL76,1109B).
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19).Mark6:3.
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21).Matt.11:28.
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23).1Tim.6:10.
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27).Summatheologiae,IIaIlae,q.lxi,are.l,ad2m.
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31).Exod.20:8.
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33).Gen.3:19.
34).Eccle.4:910.
35).Prov.18:19.
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37).Ibid.
38)."Humanlawislawonlybyvirtueofitsaccordancewithrightreason
andthusitismanifestthatitflowsfromtheeternallaw.Andinsofaras
itdeviatesfromrightreasonitiscalledanunjustlawinsuchcaseitisno
lawatall,butratheraspeciesofviolence."ThomasAquinas,Summa
theologiae,IaIlae,q.xciii,art.3,ad2m.
39).Matt.16:26.
40).Matt.6:3233.
41).ICor.13:47.

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