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3.3. Material
3.4. Processes
Wire Drawing
Header Machine
Thread Rolling Machine
Die Design
Polishing Drum
Finishing
1. Plain Finishing
2. Corrosion Protective Coating
Zinc Plated
Cadmium Plated
Phosphate
Conclusion
History of threads can be traced back to 400 BC, the most significant
developments in the modern day bolt and screw processes were made
during the last 150 years. Even though the threaded bolt dates back to
the 15th century, the unthreaded bolt goes back to Roman times when it
was used for barring doors, as pivots for opening and closing doors. The
Romans developed the first screw, which was made out of bronze, or even
silver. The threads were filed by hand or consisted of a wire wound around
a rod and soldered on.
The History of the Nut and Bolt Industry in America by W.R. Wilbur in
1905 acknowledges that the first machine for making bolts and screws
was made by Besson in France in 1568, who later introduced a screwcutting gauge or plate to be used on lathes. In 1641, the English firm,
Hindley of York, improved this device and it became widely used.
Initially, screw threads for fasteners were made by hand but soon, due to
a significant increase in demand, it was necessary to speed up the
production process. In Britain in 1760, J and W Wyatt introduced a factory
process for the mass production of screw threads. However, this milestone
led to another challenge: each company manufactured its own threads,
nuts and bolts so there was a huge range of different sized screw threads
on the market, causing problems for machinery manufacturers.
It wasnt until 1841 that Joseph Whitworth managed to find a solution.
After years of research collecting sample screws from many British
workshops, he suggested standardising the size of the screw threads in
Britain so that, for example, someone could make a bolt in England and
someone in Glasgow could make the nut and they would both fit together.
His proposal was that the angle of the thread flanks was standardised at
55 degrees, and the number of threads per inch, should be defined for
various diameters.
1.2. Introduction:
Bolts are one of the most common elements used in construction and
machine design. They hold everything together from screws in electric
toothbrushes and door hinges to massive bolts that secure concrete pillars
in buildings.
Bolting Terms:
The bolt consists of a shank and a head. The end of the shank is threaded
to accept the nut. There usually a washer underneath the nut and possibly
also the bolt head. In some application, the thread is allowed to extend
into the grip length. The grip length is the part of the shank containing the
Screw Vs Bolts:
2.2.
Mechanical Classification:
The numbers stamped on the head of the bolt are referred to the grade of
the bolt used in certain application with the strength of a bolt. Highstrength steel bolts usually have a hexagonal head with an ISO strength
rating (called property class) stamped on the head. And the absence of
marking/number indicates a lower grade bolt with low strength. The
property classes most often used are 5.8, 8.8, and 10.9. The number
before the point is the ultimate tensile strength in MPa divided by 100.
The number after the point is the multiplier ratio of yield strength to
ultimate tensile strength. For example, a property class 5.8 bolt has a
nominal (minimum) ultimate tensile strength of 500 MPa, and a tensile
yield strength of 0.8 times ultimate tensile strength or 0.8(500) = 400
MPa.
Ultimate tensile strength is the stress at which the bolt fails. Tensile yield
strength is the stress at which the bolt will receive a permanent set (an
elongation from which it will not recover when the force is removed) of
0.2% offset strain. When elongating a fastener prior to reaching the yield
point, the fastener is said to be operating in the elastic region; whereas
elongation beyond the yield point is referred to as operating in the plastic
region, since the fastener has suffered permanent plastic deformation.
Mild steel bolts have property class 4.6. High-strength steel bolts have
property class 8.8 or above.
The same type of screw or bolt can be made in many different grades of
material. For critical high-tensile-strength applications, low-grade bolts
clamping.
2. T Slot Bolt: A heavy-duty T-slot nut with a M12 bolt is rated to support
10000 N.
4. Askew Head Bolt: The beveled head of the askew head bolt engages
the internal wedge shape of H&B concrete inserts (LW-340 or HW-340) and
produces an automatic tightening action when a load is placed on it.
7. Hanger Bolt: A hanger bolt has wood screw threads on one end and
machine threads on the other. A hanger bolt is used when it is necessary
to fasten a metal part to a wood surface.
8. Lag Bolt: Lag bolts are usually used with an expanding insert called a
lag in masonry or concrete walls, the lag manufactured with a hard metal
jacket that bites into the sides of the drilled hole, and the inner metal in
the lag being a softer alloy of lead, or zinc alloyed with soft iron. The
coarse thread of a lag bolt and lag mesh and deform slightly making a
secure near water tight anti-corroding mechanically strong fastening.
9. Hex Bolt: Hex cap screw to always fit where a hex bolt is installed but
a hex bolt could be slightly too large to be used where a hex cap screw is
designed in.
10. Plow Bolt: A plow bolt is bolt similar to a carriage bolt, except the
head is flat or concave, and the underside of the head is a cone designed
to fit in a countersunk recess.
12. Stove Bolt: A stove bolt is a type of machine screw that has a round
or flat head and is threaded to the head. They are usually made of low
grade steel, have a slot or Phillips drive, and are used to join sheet metal
parts using a hex or square nut.
2.4. Theory:
Preload:
The main purpose of a bolt and nut is to clamp parts together with the
correct force to prevent loosening in operation. The term preload refers
to the loading in a bolt immediately after it has been tightened. The
amount of preload (residual load) is critical as the joint can fail if the load
in the bolt is too high, too low, or not uniform in every bolt.
Tightening Methods:
1. Uncontrolled Tightening:
Uses equipment and procedures that cannot be measured. Preload is appllied to a bolt and nut
assembly using a hammer and spanner or other types of impact tools.
2. Controlled Tightening:
Employs calibrated and measurable equipment, follows prescribed procedures and is carried out
by trained personnel. There are two main techniques: Torque tightening and Bolt Tensioning.
I.
II.
3.3. Material:
Materials are limited to ductile materials because the threads are cold
formed. However, this increases the thread's yield strength, surface
finish, hardness, and wear resistance. Also, materials with good
deformation characteristics are necessary for rolling; these materials
include softer (more ductile) metals and exclude brittle materials, such
as cast iron.
3.4. Process:
Wire Drawing:
Initial process begins with wire drawing. This is a metalworking process
used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling the wire through a
single, or series of, drawing dies. There are many applications for wire
drawing, including electrical wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural
components, springs, paper clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical
instruments. Drawing is usually performed at room temperature, thus
classified as a cold working process, but it may be performed at elevated
temperatures for large wires to reduce forces.
Header Machine :
Its a cold metal working process. A common type used for making bolts or
screws is the one-die, two-blow header. Below is example as:
There is a limit to how much you can deform the material with a single
blow, so two hits are often necessary to create the correct geometry of
the head.
The first blow makes a shape like a tulip. Then a shifting mechanism
moves the first punch over and places the second one in position. The
second punch comes in to produce the finished shape of the head. After
the second blow, a knockout pin pushes the piece out of the die.
All three methods create higher quality screws than the machine-cut
variety. This is because the thread is not literally cut into the blank during
the thread-rolling process, rather it is impressed into the blank. Thus, no
metal material is lost, and weakness in the metal is avoided. The threads
are also more precisely positioned. The more productive of the threadrolling techniques is by far the planetary rotary die, which creates screws
at a speed of 60 to 2,000 parts per minute. Feed mechanism shown below
:-
The best rolling conditions and maximum die life can be only
be
obtained when correct die speeds and number of blank revolution
are used for rolling the thread. This is particularly true when close
accuracy for roundness and size is required, especially on harder
materials. Too many revolution of blank may have tendency to work
harden some type of material, and thereby reduce the life of the die,
Production rate vary with the nature of the work,
hardness and kind of material, and the equipment use. The rate of
production is usually less for harder material and where the work is slow
and difficult to handle.
Polishing Drum: Once the goods are ready they are been clean by
de-greasing. Then the goods are put into polishing drums (hex
barrels) along with dry saw-dust, and the drum rotates for some
time with the goods inside for getting the shiny finish. Which create
a shining finish on Bolts/screws, etc. This process is not very
expensive and create a shiny finish.
1. Plain Finish:
An 'as produced' finish on carbon steel products having an oil residue
which provides some shelf life but no real corrosion protection when in
use.
Today, less than 20% of carbon steel fasteners would be purchased plain
finish.
Stainless steel, brass and other non-ferrous materials protect themselves
through a reaction of the surface to oxygen, creating a protective
chromium oxide film.
Cadmium Plated:
Formerly a popular electroplated or mechanically applied finish,
looking like but giving slightly better protection than zinc and
providing increased lubricity ; also chromate converted. Very seldom
Phosphate:
A thin, dull grey phosphate coating obtained by insertion in a
solution containing phosphoric acid. Gives a lower level of protection
than zinc in mild environments, but gives an excellent base for
painting or organic lubrication. Often used in automotive industry.
The thicker the deposit, the longer the protection; however, there
are practical and economic limitations to the thickness applied.