Temperature

Measurement

Temperature has numerous engineering

applications e.g gas turbine for power generation,
heat treatment in alloys, plastic manufacture,
nuclear reactor, air conditioning and many more.
It is sensation of hot or cold in laymans language.
In thermodynamics, it is the work obtained from a
Carnot engine operating between hot source and
cold receiver.
In kinetic theory, the average kinetic energy holds
by atoms in molecules.
To explores the establishment of a practical
temperature scale and common method of
temperature measurement.
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Fahrenheit and Celcius

Based on the freezing point and boiling point
of water at standard atmospheric pressure
Absolute Fahrenheit = Rankine scale
Absolute Celcius = Kelvin scale

Conversion from oF to K and oC

oF = 9 K
: oF = 32.0 + 9 oC

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Measured in Kelvin scale. Has 11 fixed primary

points. Triple point of water, oxygen, hydrogen,
boiling point of water, oxygen, freezing point of
zinc, silver, gold.
31 secondary standards which includes freezing
point of mercury, equilibrium of ice and water,
melting point of metals (bismuth, lead, aluminum,
copper, platinum).
Interpolation between fixed points are needed.
Resistance thermometr is used below 630C and
thermocouples between 630 and 1064 C
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Non- electrical methods

Electrical methods
Radiation methods
12.4 In non electrical methods, the change of physical and
chemical properties and states are observed.
12.4.1 bimetallic thermometer
Differential thermal expansion of two metals
Used in many temperature control system
Primary element in most dial thermometer and control
devices
Low cost, negligible maintenance expense, stable
operation over extended periods of time
Can be used in the range of -30 to 550 C and accuracy

0.5 to 1.0% of full scale (Fig 12.1 and 12.2 )

EFFECT (Thermal expansion of both glass

and liquid)
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Mercury cannot be used below
its freezing point 37.8oC; and pentane
130oC applicable up to 3570C for
mercury.
Alcohol high coefficient of
expansion , for low-temperature
measurement only.
Accuracy of 0.05 oC
Low cost, simple, portable but limited
only for laboratory applications
Fragile and lack of adaptability to remote
application make it unsuitable for
industrial applications.
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Most economical, versatile and widely used

Principle of operation = bulb containing a liquid, gas or
vapor + capillary tube + pressure-measuring device
Low cost, no maintenance expenses, stable and
accuracy level is 1oC
It can be of mercury in steel thermometer, constant
volume thermometer or vapour pressure thermometer
type.

Increase in temperature cause

the liquid or gas to expand,
therefore increasing the
pressure on the gage; the
pressure is an indication of the
temperature(Fig 12.3)

Mercury in steel thermometer

Range: -25 to 550 oC

Constant Volume Thermometer

Range: -130 to 540 oC

Vapour Pressure Thermometer

Range: -50 to 250 oC

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Produce signal which can be easily detected,

amplified or used for control purpose. Two types:
1. Thermo-resistive type-variable resistance
transducer
2. Thermo electric type-generates emf in
transducers
12.5.1 Electrical-Resistance Thermometer, or
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Three different types
1. Metallic resistance thermometer or resistance
temperature detector (RTD)
2. Thermistors
3. Thermocouples

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1. RTD Formed from a solid metal

wire, which exhibits an increase in
electrical resistance with temperature
The resistance is proportional to
length and inversely proportional to
the cross sectional area :
Where
L
R = Resistance (ohms)
R
= Resistivity (ohms)
A
L = Length
A = Cross sectional area
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RTD consists of resistive element. The change

of resistance indicates temperature and linear
temperature coefficient of resistance
R2 R1

R1 T2 T1

(for linear range)

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For nonlinear range

R R0 (1 aT bT )
2

The resistance of wire must be free from

mechanical stress and moisture free.

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Most common RTD materials are:

Platinum with a temperature coefficient of
0.00385 - 0.003923 W/C and practical
temperature range of -452 to +1100F (269 to +593C).
The platinum RTD has the best accuracy
and stability among the common RTD
materials.
The resistance versus temperature curve is
fairly linear and the temperature range is
the widest of the common RTD materials.
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Platinum has a very high resistivity, which means that only a small quantity
of platinum is required to fabricate a sensor and making platinum cost
competitive with other RTD materials.
Platinum is the only RTD commonly available with a thin film element style.

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Thermistors ceramic-like semiconductor

devices. The resistance of a typical thermistor
decreases rapidly with temperature. Suitable
temperature below about 3000C
The resistance follows an exponential variation

1 1
R R0 exp
T T0

R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0

: experimentaly determined constant(between

3500 and 4600K)

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Advantages

Very sensitive and consistent

performance within 0.010C
Rapid resistance change with
temperature
High in resistance- small error due to
lead resistance compare to RTD
Required small current
Error to self-heating are very small

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Thermocouple circuits must involve at least two

junction, i) calculated (measuring) junction
ii) reference junction.
Reference temperature = known temperature
If the temperature of one junction is known, then
the temperature of the other junction may be easily
calculated using the thermoelectirc properties

of the materials

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Thermoelectric Effects (Thermocouples)

Three phenomenons that exist in thermocouples
1. Seedbeck effect when two dissimilar metals are
join together, an emf will exist between the two
points A and B, which is primarily a function of the
junction temperature.

2. Peltier effect if the two materials are connected

to an external circuit in such a way the current is
drawn the temperature at junctions are changed
slightly. It is negligible quantity.
3. Thomson effect if a temperature gradient
exists along either or both of the materials. This is
also negligible.

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1.

2.
3.

Three emfs that are present in thermoelectric

circuit

Seedbeck emf cause by the junction of

dissimilar metals
Peltier emf current flow in the circuit
Thomson emf a temperature gradient in
the materials.

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Law of intermediate temperatures The emf

generated in a thermocouple with junctions at
temperature T1 and T3 is equal to the sum of the
emfs generated by similar thermocouple, one
acting between temperatures T1 and T2 and the
other between T2 and T3 when T2 lies between T1
and T2

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Analysis of thermoelectric circuit:

Law of intermediate metals
The emf generated remains unaltered if the
two new junction B-C and C-A are at the same
temperature.

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Extension wires are needed when measuring

instrument is at considerable distance from the
reference junction( Figure 12.11 (a) an(b)) provides
maximum accuracy.

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Thermocouples materials:
1. Ability to withstand temperature at which they
are used
2. Immunity form contamination and oxidation
3. Linearity in characteristics
Two categories thermocouples:
1. Base metal thermocouples(combination of pure
metals or alloys of iron, copper and nickel)
2. Rare metal thermocouples (pure metals and
alloys of platinum, rhodium, tungsten or
molybdenum)

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Thermopile a multiple-junction thermocouple

circuit that is designed to amplify the output of
the circuit and increase the sensitivity.

A three junction situation the output would be

three time that of a single thermocouple
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Parallel connection for obtaining the

average temperature of a number of points.

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Factors to be consider in using

thermocouples:Junctions formed
Its applicable range
Faulty reference junction
Installation faults
Wrong type thermocouple

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Silicon diodes and transistors exhibit a stable

and reproducible response to temperature

Silicon transistor :
Range : -55 to 150 oC
Sensitivity : -2mV/oC

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Highly accurate based on the sensitivity of the

resonant frequency of a quartz crystal.
Very linear correspondence between the
resonance frequency and temperature
Operating range -40 to 230oC

Liquid-Crystal Thermography

A cholesteric liquid crystals that exhibit all colors

of the visible spectrum which is reproducible
within the event temperature range.
Vary from 1 to 50 oC

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Measure the temperature of a body

through a measurement of the thermal
radiation emitted by the body

Thermal radiation

An electromagnetic radiation emitted by a

body as a result of its temperature.

Wavelength - 0.1 to 100m

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Temperature above 650 C can employ radiation

thermometer. Three types:
1.
Total radiation pyrometer
2.
Selective or partial radiation pyrometer
3.
Infrared pyrometer
12.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer
Total radiation (visible, 0.3 to 0.72 m(light) and invisible,
0.72 to 1000 m (infrared)) is focused on temperature
sensitive transducer (Fig 12.12, Freys total radiation
pyrometer)
Stafan-Boltzman law follows:

EA/B =C(T4A T4B )(radiation pyrometer)

EA/B = energy received W/m2

C geometric factor, emissivity (0.5-1.0 for black body),
Stephan-Boltzman constant (56.7*10-12 kW/(m2.k4)

Calibration is needed as smoke, dust, gases cause unknown

error
Emissivity can change by oxidation with time
In metal industries it is used
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Based on Planks law

Emissive power dependent on wavelength
Higher temperature more emission at shorter wavelength.
1 5
= 2
where, C1= 3.74*10-12(W-cm2), C2 = 1.4385 (cm-C)
1

,= wave length (cm), W = energy level associated with wavelength

at temperature T (W/cm2), T = Temperature in (K)(Fig 12.13)

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The temperature of a body may also be measured by

determining the total emitted energy from the body

E T

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.669 x 10-8 W/m2.K4)

= emissivity (Blackbody =1)

T= absolute temperature ( 0R or K)

= E

(emissive power of an actual surface)

Eb (emissive power of a blackbody at the same temperature)

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The temperature indicated by the

temperature sensing element is not the true
temperature of the environment to be
measured
The errors are classified as fixed error.
These errors may be due to three modes of
heat transfer
Convection
Conduction
Radiation

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Radiation heat transfer between two surface

is proportional to the difference in absolute
temperature to the fourth power according to
the Stefan- Bolzmann law

q12 FG F (T14 T24 )

FG: Geometric factor

F: Radiation properties of the surface

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hA(Tg Tt ) A (Tt T )
4

4
s

h : convection heat transfer coefficient from gas to the thermometer

A : surface area of the thermometer
E
Tt
Tg
Ts

:
:
:
:

surface emissivity of the themometer

temperature of the thermometer
True temperature of the gas
Effective radiation temperature of the surrounding

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Can be reduced by placing a radiation shield

(reflective surface: very small ) around the
thermometer

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For temperature measurement under non-steadystate condition, it is better to understance the

transient response characteristics of the thermal
system.
The energy balance equation for the transient
process is given as

dT
hA(T T ) mc
d

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h
a
t
t
m
c

: convection heat transfer coefficient

:surface area
:thermal system temperature
:temperature of the environment
: mass of the thermal system materials
:specific heat
: time constant

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Equation for temperature of the thermometer

as a function of time

T T
e ( hA/ mc )
T0 T
: where time constant,

mc

hA
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It turns out that the eardrum is an extremely accurate

point to measure body temperature from because it is
recessed inside the head (just like your tongue). The
problem with the eardrum is that it is so fragile. You
don't want to be touching the eardrum with a
thermometer.
This makes the detection of the eardrum's temperature
a remote sensing problem. Granted, it is not very
remote -- just a centimeter or so. But it's remote
nonetheless! It turns out that the remote sensing of an
object's temperature can be done using its infrared
radiation. This technique is a very good way to detect
the temperature of a person's eardrum.
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All of the objects around you are radiating infrared

energy right now. Human beings don't have any
sensors that can detect subtle differences in infrared,
but our skin can detect objects radiating lots of
infrared energy. When you warm yourself by standing
close to a fire, the "warmth" is infrared energy that you
are absorbing. The idea behind the temperature sensor
in the ear thermometer is to create a device that is
sensitive to very subtle changes in infrared emission.
One common sensor is the thermopile, which can be
accurate to a tenth of a degree. The thermopile sees
the eardrum and measures its infrared emissions. The
emission is converted into a temperature and displayed
on an LCD.

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Calibration

Thermometers are designed and calibrated

in three different methods:
1. total immersion
2. partial immersion
3. complete immersion.
The total-immersion type
is the most accurate and
is recommended wherever
possible; the completeimmersion type is the
least common.
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How does quartz crystal and liquid crystal

detects changes in temperature?
What is thermocouple? What are the three
effects in thermocouple?

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