CH1: SCIENCE OF ZOOLOGY &

EVOLUTION OF ANIMAL DIVERSITY

Zoology is the scientific study of animals.

A. ORIGINS OF DARWINIAN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

PRE-DARWINIAN EVOLUTIONATRY IDEAS
1.

Early Greek philosophers (Xenophanes, Empedocles and Aristotle) recorded the idea that lifes has a long
history of evolutionary change. They recognized fossils as evidence for former life, which they thought had
been destroyed by natural catastrophe.

LAMARCKISM
1.
2.

3.

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck made the first convincing argument that fossils were remains of extinct animals.
Lamarcks evolutionary mechanism, inheritance of acquired characteristics, was transformational
because as individual organisms transform their characteristics through the use and disuse of body parts,
heredity makes corresponding adjustments to produce evolution.
Darwins evolutionary theory differs from Lamarcks in being a vibrational theory, where evolution occurs
at the level of population, and it includes changes across generations in the organism that prevail in the
population.

CHARLES LYELL AND UNIFORMITARIANISM

1.

2.

Sir Charles Lyell established the principle of uniformitarianism, which encompasses two important
assumptions:
i.
Laws of physics and chemistry have not changed throughout earths history
ii.
Past geological events occurred by natural processes similar to those that we observe in action
today.
Lyell showed that natural forces, acting over long periods of time, could explain the formation of fossilbearing rocks.

DARWINS GREAT VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY

1.

In 1831, Charles Darwin (almost 23) sailed aboard the small survey ship HMS Beagle.

B. DARWINS THEORY OF EVOLUTION

1.

Professor Ernst Mayr of Harvard university argued that Darwinism should be viewed as five major theories:
i.
Perpetual change: the living world has a long history of ongoing change, with hereditary
continuity from the past to present life.
ii.
Common descent: all forms of life propagated from a common ancestor through a branching of
lineages.
iii.
Multiplication of species: evolution produces new species by splitting and transforming older
ones.
i. Species are reproductively distinct populations of organisms that usually but not always
differ from each other in organismal form.
iv.
Gradualism: Large differences in anatomical traits among species originate by accumulation of
many small incremental changes over very long periods of time.

v.

Natural selection: Natural process by which populations accumulate favorable characteristics

throughout long periods of evolutionary time. Explains why organisms are constructed to meet
the demand of their environments, a phenomenon called adaptation.

Observation 1: organisms
have great potential fertility,
which permits exponential
growth for populations.

Observation 2: natural
populations normally do not
increase but remain fairly
constant in size.

Observation 3: natural
resources are limited.

Inference 1: a struggle for

existence occurs among
organisms in a population.

Observation 4: variation
occurs among organisms
within populations.

Observation 5: Variation is
heritable.

Inference 2: varying organisms show

differential survival and reproduction,
favoring advantageous traits (=natural
selection)

Inference 3: natural selection,

acting over many generations,
gradually produces new
adaptations and new species.

2.

Differential survival and reproduction among varying organisms is called sorting and should not be
equated to natural selection.

C. EVIDENCE FOR DARWINS FIVE THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

PERPETUAL CHANGE
INTERPRETING THE FOSSIL RECORD

Fossil: remnant of past life uncovered from the earths crust.

Fossil record is biased because preservation is selective, vertebrate skeletal parts and invertebrates
with shells left the best record.
Stratigraphy: study of fossil-bearing rocks.

GEOLOGICAL TIME

The law of stratigraphy produced a relative dating, with the oldest layers of sedimentary rock at the
bottom and the most recent at the top of a sequence.

EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS

Trends are observed when studying patterns of species or taxon replacement through time. These are
directional changes in characteristic features of diversity in a group of organisms.

COMMON DESCENT
HOMOLOGY AND RECONSTRUCTION OF PHYLOGENY

Homology: the same organ in different organisms under every variety of form and function.
Structures called homologies represent characteristics inherited with some modification from a
corresponding feature in a common ancestor.

All forms of life descended from a common ancestor. Therefore, evolutionary history has structure of
a branching from ancestor to descendant, known as a phylogeny
Branches of an evolutionary tree combine species into a nested hierarchy of groups within groups.

ONTOGENY, PHYLOGENY, AND RECAPITULATION

Ontogeny: history of an organisms development throughout its entire life.

Comparative studies of ontogeny show how evolutionary alteration of developmental timing
generates new phenotypes causing evolutionary divergence among lineages.
Homeotic genes: genes which regulate the development of anatomical structures in various
organisms such as insects, mammals, and plants. The most famous ones are those containing a
sequence of 180 base pairs, called the homeobox.
Recapitulation or biogenetic law: ontogeny (individual development) recapitulates (repeats)
phylogeny (evolutionary descent).
Heterochrony: evolutionary change in the timing of development

MULTIPLICATION OF THE SPECIES

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Important criteria for recognizing species. All individuals of the same species:
i.
Descend from a common ancestral population and forma an unbranched lineage of ancestraldescendant populations.
ii.
Exhibit reproductive compatibility (ability to interbreed).
iii.
Maintain genotypic and phenotypic cohesion.
Speciation: species formation.
Reproductive barriers: biological factors that prevent different species from interbreeding.
Allopatric speciation: speciation that results from evolution of reproductive barriers between
geographically separated populations.
Adaptive radiation: production of many ecologically diverse species from a common ancestral species.

GRADUALISM
1.
2.

Phyletic gradualism: predicted pattern that expects to find a long series of intermediate forms bridging
phenotypes of ancestral and descendant population in the fossil record.
Punctuated equilibrium: model that explains discontinuous evolutionary changes observed through
geological time.

NATURAL SELECTION
1.

Selective processes of the environment, through a phenomenon called adaptation

D. REVISIONS OF DARWINIAN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

NEODARWINISM
1.
2.

August Weismann showed an organism could not modify its heredity. Darwinian evolutionary theory
revised by him is known as neo-Darwinism.
The genetic basis of neo-Darwinism is Mendelian chromosomal theory of inheritance.

EMERGENCE OF MODERN DARWINISM: A SYNTHETIC THEORY

1.
2.

Microevolution pertains to evolutionary changes in frequencies of variant forms of genes within

populations.
Macroevolution refers to evolution on a grand scale, encompassing origins of new organismal structures
and designs, evolutionary trends, adaptive radiation, phylogenetic relationships of species and mass
extinction.

E. MICROEVOLUTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A population is a reproductively cohesive group of organisms of the same species.

Polymorphism: different allelic forms of a gene in a population
Gene pool: total number of alleles exist in a population
Allelic frequency: relative frequency of a particular allelic form in a population
Genetic change: change in frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population.

GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM
1.

The mathematical theorem called Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium showed that in large two-parent
populations, genotypic ratios remain in balance unless disturbed.

PROCESS OF EVOLUTION: HOW GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM IS UPSET

GENETIC DRIFT

A small population can clearly not contain large amount of genetic variations.
Genetic drift: the chance fluctuation in allelic frequency from one generation to the next, including
loss of alleles from a population.

NONRANDOM MAITING

Positive mating: individuals mate preferentially with others of the same genotype. This increases
homozygous and decreases heterozygous genotypes.
Inbreeding: preferential mating among close relatives that increases homozygosity.

NATURAL SELECTION

When a particular genotype has a higher relative fitness than do alternative genotypes, its stated that
the genotype on average confers and advantage survival and reproduction in a population.
Sexual selection: selection of traits that are advantageous for obtaining mates but perhaps harmful
for survival.
Stabilizing selection favors average values of a trait and disfavors extreme ones.
Directional selection favors an extreme value of phenotype and causes a population average to shift
toward it.
Disruptive selection: two different extreme phenotypes are favored simultaneously but their average
is disfavored.

F. MACROEVOLUTION: MAJOR EVOLUTIONS EVENTS AND PROCESSES

SPECIATION AND EXTINTION THROUGH GEOLOGICAL TIMES
1.

Species extinction denotes the differential survival and multiplication of species through geological time
based on variation among lineages in species-level properties,

MASS EXTINTION
1.
2.

Mass extinctions: episodic events in which large number of taxa become extinct nearly simultaneously.
Catastrophic species selection: selective discrimination of particular biological traits by mass extinction
events.

CH2: ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

Ecology encompasses a hierarchy of biological systems in interaction with their environments.

Organism = individual animal
Animals in nature coexist with other of the same species as reproductive units called populations.
Populations of different species co-occur in more complex associations called ecological communities.
Species richness: number of species present in a community.
Populations of species interact in a community in many ways:
a. Predation: predators obtain energy and nutrients by eating and killing prey.
b. Parasitism: parasites derive similar benefits from their host organism, but they live on or in the
host and usually dont kill the host. Parasitoids live on or in a host but eventually kill the host
organism.
c. Competition
Ecological communities are biological components of even larger, more complex entities called
ecosystems. The largest ecosystem is the biosphere.

A. ENVIRONMENT AND THE NICHE

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Environment: all conditions that directly affect an animals chances for survival and reproduction.
Resources: factors that an animal uses directly (food and space)
Habitat: physical space where an animal lives.
Niche is defined as:
a. The specific area where an organism inhabits.
b. The role or function of an organism or species in an ecosystem.
c. The interrelationship of a species with all the biotic and abiotic factors affecting it.
Fundamental niche: an animals potential role
Realized niche: the subset of potentially suitable environments that an animal actually experiences.

B. POPULATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Deme: geographically and genetically cohesive population that is separable from others.
Metapopulation: a population subdivided into multiple genetically interacting demes.
Some demes are stable and others are more susceptible to extinction, the more stable ones, source demes,
differentially supply emigrants to less stable ones, sink demes.
Animal species have different characteristic patterns of survivorship from birth until death of the last
member of the cohort. There are different types of survivorship:

a. Curve I: all organisms die at old age through senescence

(Humans)
b. Curve II: rate of mortality as a proportion of survivors is
constant at all ages (Birds, provide care for the young)
c. Curve III:

5.
6.

Semelparity: condition in which the organism reproduces only once during its life history.
Iteroparity: occurrence of more than one reproductive cycle in an organisms life history.

POPULATION GROWTH AND INTRINSIC REGULATION

1.
2.
3.

Intrinsic growth rate (r): populations inherent ability to grow exponentially

Limiting resource: resource in shortest supply relative to the populations needs that is the first that the
population depletes.
Carrying capacity (K): largest population that the limiting resource can support in a habitat.
Most populations in nature tend to fluctuate above and below carrying capacity. There are many
reasons for this:
1) Carrying capacity changes over time
2) Animals experience a lag between the time that a resource becomes limited and the time
that the population responds by reducing the growth rate.
3) Extrinsic factors occasionally limit a populations growth below carrying capacity.

EXTRINSIC LIMITS TO GROWTH

1.

Population growth can be limited by two types of extrinsic factors:

a. Biotic factors (predation, parasitism): act in a density dependent manner. Predators and parasites
respond to changes in density of their prey and host populations to maintain populations at a fairly
constant size.
b. Abiotic factors (floods, fires, storms): dont truly regulate population growth because they act in
a density independent manner.

K-SELECTED POPULATIONS & R-SELECTED POPULATIONS

K-SELECTED POPULATIONS

Mortality
o Survivorship curve: Type I and II
Population size
o Limited by carrying capacity (K)
o Relatively stable (equilibrium)
Selection
o Greater competitive ability
o Slower development, delayed reproduction
o Larger body size, long lived
o Provide greater care for offspring

R-SELECTED POPULATIONS

Mortality
o Survivorship curve: Type III
Population size
o Limited by growth rate (r)
o Density independent
o Relatively unstable
Selection
o High r, produce many offspring
o Rapid development, early reproduction
o Small body size, short lived
o Provide less parental care

C. COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
INTERACTIONS AMONG POPULATIONS IN COMMUNITIES
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Populations of animals that form an ecological community interact in various ways that can be detrimental
(), beneficial (+), or neutral (0) to each species.
Commensalism: interaction that benefits one species and neither harms not benefits the other (0 +)
Mutualism: both organisms benefit from their ecological interaction. (+ +)
a. Obligatory mutualism: the relationship is necessary for the survival of one or both species.
b. Facultative mutualism: not required for a species survival.
Competition between species reduces fitness of both (- -)
Amensalism or asymmetric competition: the effect of one species in a competitive relationship is
negligible (0 -)

COMPETITION AND RESOURCE PARTITIONING

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Competition occurs when two or more species share a limiting resource.

Niche overlap is the portion of resources shared by the niches of two or more species.
Competitive exclusion: strongly competing species cannot coexist indefinitely.
Resource partitioning: ecological specialization in which species partition a resource and use different
portions of it.
Ecological character displacement: mechanism of resource partitioning in which species evolve niche
dimensions more restricted than those of their ancestors.
Microhabitat selection: formation of a community of species whose preferred microhabitats differ
sufficiently to prevent them from competing for what otherwise would be a shared limiting resource. When
species partition resources like this, they form a guild.

PREDATORS AND PARASITES

1.

2.
3.
4.

War between predators and prey reaches high art in the evolution of defenses by potential prey:
a. Cryptic defense: potential prey escape detection because their bodies match their background or
resemble some inedible feature of the environment.
b. Aposematic defense: animals that are toxic or distasteful to predators advertise their strategy
with bright colors and conspicuous behavior.
When distasteful prey adop warning colorations palatable prey can deceive potential
predators by mimicking distasteful prey, a phenomenon called Batesian mimicry.
In another form of mimicry, Mullerian mimicry, two or more species that are toxic or
otherwise harmful resemble each other.
Keystone species: populations with great influence on others so that its absence drastically changes the
entire community.
Ectoparasites (ticks and lice), infest many different kinds of animals.
Endoparasites (tapeworms), have lost their ability to choose habitats.

D. ECOSYSTEMS
1.
2.

3.

Productivity: incorporation of energy and materials are required to construct and to maintain life into
biological systems.
Ecologists subdivide productivity into component trophic levels based on how organisms obtain energy
and materials. This levels are linked together into food chains, which depicts movement of energy from
one level to the next.
Food web shows rhe branching pathways for transfer of energy and materials among species in an
ecosystem.

4.

5.

Primary producers: organisms that begin productivity by capturing energy from outside the ecosystem
and using it to make the organic molecules of living systems. Usually plants and algae capable of
photosynthesis.
Consumers include herbivores which eat plants directly, carnivores which eat other animals and
decomposers, which break dead organic matter into its mineral components, returning it to a soluble form
available to the plants at the base of the nutrient cycle.

NUTRIENT CYCLES
1.

Often called biogeochemical cycles because they involve exchanges between living organisms (bio-) and
the rocks, air and water of the earths crust (geo-). Continuous input of energy from the sun keeps nutrients
flowing and the ecosystem functioning.

CH3. ANIMAL ARCHITECTURE

A. THE HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF ANIMAL COMPLEXITY
Level of Organization

Characteristics

Protoplasmic

Simplest eukaryotic organisms

Perform all basic functions with confines of single cell
Living substances is differentiated into organelles
Unicellular protozoans

Cellular

Simplest metazoans, colonial or multicellular

Cells are specialized parts of whole organism
Cannot live alone
Communication among cells

Cell-tissue

Cells grouped together

Perform common function as a unit (tissue)

Tissue-organ

Tissues assembled into larger functional units called

organs
Chief functional cells of organ: Parenchyma
Supportive tissues: Stroma

Organ-system

Highest level of organization

Organs work together to perform a common function
11 organ systems in metazoans
o Skeletal, muscular, digestive, integumentary,
respiratory, circulatory, excretory, nervous,
endocrine, immune, reproductive

B. ANIMAL BODY PLANS

ANIMAL SYMMETRY
1.
2.
3.

Symmetry: balanced proportions, or correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite sides of a
median plane.
Asymmetrical: no balance, theres no plane through which the body can be divided into identical halves.
Spherical symmetry: any plane passing through the center divides the body into equivalent, or mirrored,
halves.

Radial

Biradial

Can be divided into similar

halves by more than 2 planes
passing
through
the
longitudinal axis.
Can
interact
with
environment in all directions
Radiata:
Cnidaria
and
Ctenophora

Bilateral

Variant form radial symmetry

Have part that is single or
paired rather than radial
Only 1 or 2 planes passing
through longitudinal axis
produces mirrored halves

Organism can be divided

along a sagittal plane into
two mirror portions: Right
and left halves
Much better fitted for
directional
(forward)
movement
Associated
with
cephalization
Always accompanied by
differentiation along an
anteroposterior axis (polarity)
Bilateral
animals
are
collectively called Bilateria

Anterior: head end

Posterior: tail end
Dorsal: back or upper side
Ventral: front or belly side
Medial: midline of body
Lateral: sides

DEVELOPMENT AND GENETICS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cleavage: sequence of inherited developmental begins after fertilization of an egg to form a zygote.
Sponges and cnidarians lacks a distinct cleavage pattern. Bilateral animals typically exhibit cleavage
pattern
Radial cleavage: cleavage planes are symmetrical to the polar axis and produce tiers or layers of cells on
top of each other in an early embryo
Spiral cleavage: cleaves oblique to axis and typically produces a quartet of cells that come to lie not on top
of each other but in furrows between the

CYSTOPLASMIC (AUTONOMOUS) SPECIFICATION

Cytoplasm of a fertilized egg is not homogeneous

Cells are influenced by internal factors cytoplasmic determinants (morphogens)
Cells seems to develop independently and follow the same developmental path even when separated
(mosaic development).

CONDITIONAL SPECIFICATION

Fate of a particular cell is not fixed until the cell receives positional information from its neighbors
Cells are influences by surrounding cells and will change developmental path if separated (induction)
Induction: capacity of some cells to evoke a developmental response, such as a change in cell shape
or cell fate, in other cells
Fertilized egg undergoes indeterminate cleavage, producing blastomeres that are each capable of
giving rise to a single embryo (regulative development)

SYNCYTIAL SPECIAFICATION

Type of a specification is a hybrid of the autonomous and conditional that occurs in insects
Early embryo is not multicellular; nuclear division proceeds without cytoplasmic division, so the zygote
is syncytial
Like conditional but the cells are influenced by internal factors (morphogen gradients) within the
syncytium
Syncytium occurs when a single membrane surrounds multiple nuclei.

PATTERN FORMATION

The first step in pattern formation during embryo development is specification of the three body axes
o Front-to-rear (anteroposterior)
o Left-to-right
o Back-to-front (dorsoventral)
Ex) In Drosophila: determination is due to a gradient of mRNA that is secreted into the egg by
nurse cells in the mother
Developmental genes of vertebrates and many other animals are similar to those of drosophila
Ex) In vertebrates: sonic hedgehog is active in the left side only at the anterior end of the embryo,
which determines anteroposterior axis
Genes critical for development in a wide range of organisms are sometimes called toolkit genes.
Segmentation: serial repetition of similar body regions along the anteroposterior axis. The segments
are identical early in development, but later activation of different combinations of genes causes each
segment to differentiate.

HOMEOTIC AND HOX GENES

Homeotic genes are segment-specific genes.

Mutations in these genes are called homeotic mutations, and they result in appendages or other
structures appearing in the wrong part of the body.
Homeotic genes include a sequence of 180 DNA base pairs, called the homeobox.
Hox genes: regulate embryonic development along anterior-posterior axis. Most Hox genes occur
clustered on one chromosome.

MORPHOGENESIS OF LIMBS AND ORGANS

Hox and other homeobox genes play a role in shaping individual organs and limbs
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) acts as a morphogen that forms a gradient from the apical ectodermal
ridge to the base of a limb bud.

DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMAL BODY PLANS

1.

2.

3.
4.

Radial cleavage: cleaveage produces tiers, or layers, of cells on top of one another in an early embryo.
a. Radial cleavage occurs with regulative development where each blastomere of the early embryo
if separated from others, can adjust its development into a complete and well-proportioned
embryo.
Spiral cleavage: cells tend to pack in furrows between cells and most have a form of mosaic development,
in which organ-forming determinants in the egg cytoplasm become extriclty localized and if an early
blastomere separates it will become a defective, partial embryo.
Cleavage proceeds until zygote is divided into many small cells (blastula), typically surrounding a flui-filled
cavity (blastocoel)
The blastula becomes a 2 layer stage called gastrula (has 2 germ cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm). The
endoderm surrounds and defines an inner body cavity called gastrocoel.

PSEUDOCOELOMATE

Mesoderm lines the outer edge of blastocoel, lying next to ectoderm

The blastocoel is renamed pseudocoelom
Nematodes (Nematoda)

ACOELOMATE

Lack a body cavity surrounding the gut

Internal regions are filled with a spongy mass of parenchyma, derived from mesoderm
Gut is only body cavity
Flatworms (Platyhelmithes)

COELOMATE

Blastocoel are filled with mesoderm, then a new cavity forms inside the mesoderm
New cavity is a coelom

SCHIZOCOELY

Originated from cells in blastopore. Mesodermal cells migrate to blastocoel. Schizocoelomates:

most protostomea like phyla Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda

ENTEROCOELY

Coelom comes from pouches of the archenteron or primitive gut that push outward into the
blastocoel. Enterocoelomates: deuterostomes like phyla Echinodermata, chordata

5.

A coelon has many benefits:

a. Much greater body flexibility
b. Provides space for visceral organs and surface area for exchange
c. Serves as a hydrostatic skeleton in some forms, like worms.

C. HOW MANY BODY PLANS ARE THERE?

1.

A vast majority of phyla contain bilaterally symmetrical animals that develop from the three germ cell
layers, they are collectively called triploblastic Bilateria. There are two recognized groups of animals within
the Bilateria: Protostomia (protostomes) and Deuterostomia (deuterostomes).

DEUTEROSOME BODY PLANS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Name means mouth second

Blastophore becomes anus
Includes radial regulative cleavage
Coelom formation by enterocoely
4 phyla: Xenoturbellida, Echinodermata, Hemichordata , Chordata

PROTOSTOME BODY PLANS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Name means mouth first

Blastophore becomes mouth
Includes spiral mosaic cleavage
Acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate (coelom by schizocoely)

PROTOSTOME SUBGROUPS

Ecdysozoa: include all animals that molt their cuticle, 8 phyla

Lophotrochozoa: some animals have a crest or tuft of tentacles called a lophophore, others have a
band of cilia on a larval stage called a trochophore, 17 phyla

D. COMPONENTS OF ANIMAL BODY

1.

Animal bodies consist of both cellular components and extracellular components.

a. Cellular components: four major types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous.
b. Extracellular or noncellular components:
Fluids: Intracellular: cytosol. Extracellular: blood plasma, lymph, intestinal fluid.
Extracellular structural elements: noncellular parts of loose connective tissue, bone,
cartilage, and cuticles

CELLULAR COMPONENTS: TISSUE

1.

Tissue: group of specialized cells for performing a common function.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Epithelia are classified by cell form and number of cell layers

o Simple epithelia: single layer
o Stratified epithelia: two or more layers, only vertebrates
Supported by an underlying basement membrane
o Extracellular matrix or ECM, which is a thin mat containing collagen
o Depend on diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from underlying tissue
Simple quamous epithelium: flattened cells that line the blood capillaries, lungs. And permit the
passive diffusion of gases and tissue fluids into and out of the cavities.
Simple CUboidal Epithelium: short box like cells that line small ducts and tubules, like kidneys and
salivatory glands and may have active secretory or absorptive functions.
Simple columnar epithelium: lines high absorptive surfaces like intestinal track.
Stratified squamous epithelium: adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion, oral cavity,
esophagus, and anal canal
Transitional epithelium: specialized to accommodate stretching, lines urinary tract and bladder

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Components
o Cells (relatively few): fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells, leucocytes
o Extracellular fibers (many): collagen
o Ground substance (matrix): a fluid, gel-like substance in which the fibers are embedded
2 types of connective tissue in vertebrates
o Loose connective tissue: fibers and both fixed and wandering cells
o Dense connective tissue: largely of densely packed fibers. Tendons and ligaments.
Cartilage: composed of a firm gel matrix containing cells (chondrocytes) living in small pockets called
lacunae, and collagen fibers or elastic fibers (depending on the type of cartilage).
Bone: strongest of the vertebrate calcified connective tissues containing calcium salts organized
around collagen fibers

MUSCULAR TISSUE

Originates from mesoderm

o Unit is the cell, or muscle fiber
o Specialized for contraction
3 types
o Skeletal: striated muscle
o Cardiac: striated muscle
o Smooth(or visceral): No striations

NERVOUS TISSUE

Two basic types of cells

o Neurons: basic functional unit of the nervous system
o Neuroglia: non-nervous cells serve various supportive functions
To surround neurons and hold them in place
To supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
To insulate one neuron from another
To destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons

D. COMPLEXITY AND BODY SIZE

1.

A large animal has less surface area compared to its volume than does a smaller animal
Inadequate for respiration and nutrition
Without internal complexity
To fold or invaginate the body surface to increase surface area
To flatten the body into a ribbon or disc so that no internal space is far from the surface
With internal transport system
To shuttle nutrients, gases, and waste products between the cells and the external
environment

CH4: TAXONOMY AND PHYLOGENY

OF ANIMALS
A. LINNAEUS AND TAXONOMY
BINOMIAL SPECIES NOMENCLATURE
1.

A scientific name of an animal consists of two words (binomial) as in Turdus migratorius

Latinized
First word is the genus and is capitalized
Second is the specific epithet written in lower case
Scientific name should be printed in italics or underlined if handwritten
o Turdus migratorius
2. Genus name
Always a noun
Either feminine or masculine
Names of genera must refer only to a single group of organisms
3. Species epithet
Usually an adjective that must agree in gender with the genus
Never used alone
A species epithet may be used in different genera
o Sitta carolinensis (white-breasted nuthatch)
o Poecile carolinensis (Carolina chickadee)

SPECIES
CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION OF SPECIES
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Biologists have repeatedly used certain criteria for identifying species

a. Common Descent: central to nearly all modern concepts of species
b. Smallest distinct groupings of organisms sharing patterns of ancestry and descent
c. Reproductive Community
o Excludes members of other species
o Occupies a particular ecological niche
o Responds as a unit to evolutionary forces like natural selection, genetic drift
Geographic range: distribution in space
Evolutionary duration: distribution through time
Species differ greatly from each other in both of these dimensions
Cosmopolitan species: having very large geographic ranges or worldwide distributions
Endemic species: having very restricted geographic distributions

CONCEPTS OF SPECIES
1.
2.

Typological species concept: concept that species are defined by fixed, essential features. Discarded after
Darwins evolutionary theory was stablished.
Biological species concept: A species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated
from others) that occupies a specific niche in nature
a. Ability to successfully interbreed is central to the concept
b. Maintain genetic cohessiveness

c.
d.

3.

4.
5.

Organismal variation should be relatively smooth and continuous within species.

Criticism:
o It refers to contemporary populations, not ancestral populations
o Interbreeding is not an operational definition in asexual organisms
o Systematics disagree on the amount of reproductive divergence needed for speciation
Evolutionary species concept: a single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations that maintains its
identity from other such lineages and that has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate.
a. Definition accommodates both sexual and asexual forms
b. Abrupt changes in diagnostic features mark boundary between different species in evolutionary
time
Cohesion species concept: the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic
cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms.
Phylogenetic species concept: an irreducible (basal) grouping of organisms diagnosably distinct from
other such groupings and within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent.
a. Emphasizes also common descent
b. Both asexual and sexual groups are covered
c. Main difference between the evolutionary and phylogenetic species concepts is that the latter
emphasizes recognizing as separate species the smallest groupings of organisms that have
undergone independent evolutionary change

DNA BARCODING OF SPECIES

1.
2.

DNA barcoding is a technique for diagnosing organisms to species using sequence information from a
standard gene present in all animals.
Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) is standard barcoding region for animals, intraspecific variation is
much smaller than among species.

3.
4.

Dose not solve the controversies regarding use of different species concepts
Often permits the origin of a specimen to be identified to a particular local population

C. TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS AND RECONSTRUCTION OF PHYLOGENY

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

The major goal of systematics is to infer an evolutionary tree or phylogeny that relates all extant and extinct
species.
Characters: any feature used to study variation within and among species. These are identified by
observing patterns of similarity of morphological, chromosomal, and molecular features. But similarity
does not always reflect common ancestry.
Homology: character similarity resulting from common ancestry
Homoplasy (nonhomologous): character similarity that misrepresents common descent
By independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages: convergent evolution

USING CHARACTER VARIATION TO RECONSTRUCT PHYLOGENY

1.

First step is to determine which variant form of each character occurred in the most recent common
ancestor of the entire group.
2. Ancestral character state: character state present in the common ancestor.
3. Evolutionarily derived character states: all other variant forms of the character arose later within the
group.
4. Polarity of a character: ancestral/descendant relationships among its different states
5. Outgroup comparison: method used to examine polarity of a variable character.
a. Begins by selecting an additional group of organisms, an outgroup, that is phylogenetically close
but not within the group being studied.
b. Next, infer that any character state found within both study group and its outgroup most likely
characterized the most recent common ancestor of the study group.
6. Clade: organisms or species that share a derived character state. Includes the most recent common
ancestor of all group members and all descendants of that ancestor.
7. Synapomorphy: a derived character shared by members of a clade.
8. A clade corresponds to a unit of evolutionary common descent. The pattern formed by the sharing of
derived states of all characters within our study group reveals a nested hierarchy of clades within clades.
9. Cladogram: branching diagram in which a nested hierarchy of clades is presented.
10. To obtain a phylogenetic tree from a cladogram, one must add information concerning ancestors,
durations of evolutionary lineages, or amounts of evolutionary change that occurred on lineages.

SOURCES OF PHYLOGENETIC INFORMATION

1.
2.
3.

Comparative Morphology: examines varying shapes and sizes of organismal structures. Living specimens
and fossils are used.
Comparative Biochemistry: analyzes sequences of amino acids in proteins and nucleotides sequences.
Can be applied to fossils.
Comparative Cytology: examines variation in number, shape and size of chromosomes. Used almost
exclusively on living organisms.

D. THEORIES OF TAXONOMY

1.

2.

The relationship between a taxonomic group and a phylogenetic tree or cladogram is important for both
theories, the relationship takes one of three forms:
a. Monophyly: includes the most recent common ancestor of all members of a group and all
descendants of that ancestor.
b. Paraphyly: includes the most recent common ancestor of all members in the group and some but
not all the descendant of that ancestor.
c. Polyphyly: does not include the most recent common ancestor of all members of the group. This
situation requires the group to have had at least two separate evolutionary origins.
Monophyletic and paraphyletic groups have convexity. A group is convex if you can trace a path in between
any two members of the group on a cladogram without leaving the group.

EVOLUTIONARY TAXONOMY
1.

2.

3.
4.

Incorporates two main principles:

a. Common descent
b. Amount of adaptive evolutionary change
A particular branch on an evolutionary tree is considered a higher taxon if it represents a distinct adaptive
zone.
a. Distinct way of life
b. Fundamental change in organismal structure and behavior
A taxon forming a distinct adaptive zone is a grade.
Evolutionary taxa may be either monophyletic or paraphyletic.

PHYLOGENETIC SYSTEMATICS/CLADISTICS
1.
2.

Emphasizes common descent and cladograms

Cladists avoid paraphyletic groups by defining a long list of sister groups to each more inclusive taxon

E. MAJOR DIVISONS OF LIFE

1.

Carl Woese and coworkers proposed three monophyletic domains above the kingdom level: Eucarya (all
eukaryotes), Bacteria (all true bacteria) and Archaea (prokaryotes differing from bacteria in structure and
in ribosomal RNA sequences).

F. MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

CH5: UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES

A. EMERGENCE OF EUKARYOTES AND A NEW LIFE PATTERN
1.

2.

3.

First evidence of life

Dates from 3.5 billion years ago
First cells were prokaryotic bacteria-like organism
Cyanobacterial invention of oxygen-releasing photosynthesis changed the earth
Origin of complex eukaryote cells
Modification of engulfed prokaryote into an organelle: Primary endosymbiosis
o Mitochondria: Engulfed Aerobic bacteria
o Chloroplasts: Engulfed photosynthetic bacteria
Eukaryotic cell may also obtain plastids from another eukaryote: Secondary endosymbiosis
Two processes can be combined to explain eukaryotic origin:
a. Autogeny: extensive inpocketing of the external plasma membrane formed a complex internal
network of membranes.
b. Endosymbiosis: first proposed by Lynn Margulis (University of Massachusetts), this model
proposes that small, energy-transducing prokaryotes were either ingested as prey , internal
symbionts, inside larger prokaryotes, where they survived and thrived. Eventually, host and
symbiont became inextricably linked in a symbiotic relationship.

B. FORM AND FUNCTION

1.
2.

Although they are unicellular organisms, protozoan cell organelles are highly specialized
Special features of organelles can be defining characters for protozoan clades

NUCLEUS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Membrane bound organelle

Contains DNA in the form of chromosomes
One large macronucleus and one or more smaller micronucleus
Nucleoli are often present and visible during mitosis; defining characteristic of Euglenoids

MITOCHONDRIA
1.
2.
3.
4.

Organelle used in energy acquisition where oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor.
The internal membrane of a mitochondrion, cristae vary in form and its form identifies some protozoan
clades.
Cells without mitochondria may have hydrogenosomes, which produce molecular hydrogen when
oxygen is absent and are assumed to have evolved from mitochondria.
Kinetoplasts also assumed to be derivates of mitochondria work with a kinetosome.

PLASTIDS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Containing photosynthetic pigments

Added to eukaryotes when a cyanobacterium was engulfed but not digested
Chloroplasts contain different types of chlorophylls (a, b, or c)
Red algal plastids (rhodoplasts) contain phycobilins
Sharing particular pigments may indicate shared ancestry, but plastids could also be gained by secondary
endosymbiosis.

EXTRUSOMES
1.
2.

Term applied to membrane-bound organelles used to extrude material from cell.

a. The ciliate trichocyst
Wide variety of structures suggests that extrusomes are not all homologous.

LOCOMOTOR ORGANELLES
1.
2.

Protozoa chiefly move by cilia, flagella, and by pseudopodial movement.

Used for creating water currents for their feeding and respiration.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

Morphologically the same; both called undulipodia

Cilia propel water parallel to the cell surface
Flagella propel water parallel to the flagellum axis
Contain 9 pairs of microtubules arranged around a central pair enclosed in a plasma membrane.
Arrangement called an axoneme.
Each contains a 9 + 2" pattern of paired microtubules, the axoneme
A membrane continuous with the cell membrane covers the axoneme
The center pair of tubules ends at a small plate.
The kinetosome(basal body), a short tube of 9 triplet microtubules joins at the base of the
axoneme
o The kinetosome is same in structure as the centriole
Sliding microtubule hypothesis explains the movement of cilia and flagella
o Chemical bond energy in ATP propels the action
o Release of ATP energy causes filaments to walk along an adjacent filament
o Shear resistance causes the axoneme to bend
o
o
o
o

PSEUDOPODIA

Pseudopodia: temporary protrusions of cytoplasm that function in locomotion or ingestion.

Pseudopodia exists in several forms:
o Lobopodia: rather large, blunt extensions of the cell body containing central, granular
endoplasm and a peripheral, nongranular layer called ectoplasm.
o Filipodia: thin extensions, usually branching and containing ectoplasm.
o Reticulopodia: repeateadly rejoin to form netlike meshes.
o Axopodia: long, thin pseudopodia supported by axial rods of microtubules.
How pseudopodia works:
o A lobopodium forms by extending ectoplasm as a hyaline cap; endoplasm flows into it
o Flowing endoplasm contains actin subunits with proteins that prevent actin from
polymerizing
o Endoplasm flows into the hyaline cap, the microfilaments crosslink by actin-binding protein
forming a semisolid gel
o The endoplasm becomes ectoplasm
o At the posterior end, actin-binding protein releases microfilaments which return to the sol
state of endoplasm
o At some point, the pseudopodium becomes anchored to the substrate, and the cell is
drawn forward

NUTRITION AND DIGESTION

1.

2.

3.
4.

Unicellular eukaryotes can be categorized into two groups:

a. Autotrophs: synthesize their own organic constituents from inorganic substrates
b. Heterotrophs: have organic molecules synthesized by other organisms. These can be
subdivided into two groups:
Phagotrophs (holozoic feeders): ingest visible particles of food.
Osmotrophs (saprozoic feeders): ingest food in a soluble form.
Phagotrophs implies phagocytosis
a. Infolding of plasma membrane around the food particle
b. Invagination pinches off
c. Food particle contained in intracellular vesicle, phagosome
d. Lysosomes fuse with phagosome and release enzymes
e. Digested products absorbed across vacuole membrane
f. Undigestible material released to outside by exocytosis
In most ciliates, many flagellates and many apicomplexans, the site of phagocytosis is a definite mouth
structure, the cytostome.
Many ciliates have a cytoproct, a characteristic structure for expulsion of waste matter.

EXCRETIONS AND OSMOREGULATION

1.
2.

Contractile vacuoles fill and empty to maintain water balance or osmoregulation

A proton pump may actively transport H+ ions and cotransport bicarbonate into vacuole
a. Water enters by osmosis
b. Vacuole membrane would fuse with the cell membrane
c. Releasing water and ions to the outside
d. Ions replaced by action of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase

REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: FISSION

Fission: cell multiplication process that produces genetically identical individuals in unicellular
eukaryotes.
Binary fission: most common type among eukaryotes. It yields two essentially identical individuals.
Budding: process in which the progeny cells is considerably smaller than the parent and then grows to
adult size.
Multiple fission (schizogony): several nuclear divisions precede division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
so that numerous individuals are produced simultaneously.
o Sporogony: when multiple fission leads to spore or sporozoic formation.

SEXUAL PROCESSES

Sexual processes may precede certain phases of asexual reproduction, but embryonic development
does not occur.
The essential features of sexual processes are:
o Reduction division of the chromosome number to half (diploid to haploid)
o Development of sex cells (gametes) or at least gamete nuclei
o Fusion of the gamete nuclei
Gametic meiosis: meiosis that occurs during or just before gamete formation. Seen in the Ciliophora
and some flagellated and ameboid groups.
Zygotic meiosis: meiotic division after fertilization (zygote formation) and all individuals are produced
asexually. Seen in other flagellated groups and in Apicomplexa.

In some amebas (foraminiferans), haploid and diploid generations alternate in intermediary meiosis.
Synagamy: fertilization of an individual gamete by another. Unicellular taxas sexual reproduction
doesnt involve synagamy.
Autogamy: gametic nuclei arise by meiosis and fuse to form a zygote within the same organism that
produced them
Conjugation: an exchange of gametic nuclei occurs between paired organisms

ENCYSTMENT AND EXCYSTMENT

1.

2.
3.

Encystment: found in most fresh water species, rare or absent in marine forms.
a. Under a change in environment
b. Pumps water out of cell. Cilia or flagella are resorbed and surrounds itself with cyst secreted by
Golgi
Excystment: escape from cysts when environmental conditions are favorable.
Encystment is essential for survival outside the body and during the transmission from host to host.

C. UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTIC TAXA

CLADE EUGLENOZOA
1.

With cortical microtubules; flagella often with paraxial rod; mitochondria with discoid cristae; nuclei
persist during mitosis. It has 2 subgroups:
a. Subgroup Euglenida
i. Chloroplasts surrounded by a double membrane; secondary endosymbiosis
ii. Stigma, eyespot; sensitive to light; phototaxis
b. Subgroup Kinetoplasta
i. All parasitic in plants and animals
ii. Possess a unique organelle, kinetoplast; part of mitochondrion containing a large disc of
DNA.

CLADE ALVEOLATA
1.
2.

Based on molecular and morphological evidence, three taxa (Ciliophora, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa) are
grouped together in Aveolata.
Alveolates possess alveoli or related structires, which are membrane-bound sacs that lie beneath the
plasma membrane and serve structural functions or produce pellicles or thecal plates.

CILIPHORA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Most structurally complex and diversely specialized of all unicells.

Cilia or ciliary organelles in at least one stage of life cycle; two types of nuclei
Binary fission across rows of cilia, budding and multiple fission also occur.
Sexuality involving conjugation, autogamy, and cytogamy.
Heterotrophic nutrition; most species are free living.

DINOFLAGELLATA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Many are photoautotrophic

Commonly have two flagella
Body naked or covered by cellulose plates or valves
Have brown or yellow chromatophores, some colorless
Many have a mouth region through which they can ingest prey
Many are bioluminescent; Noctiluca
Some produce red tide

APICOMPLEXA
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Almost all are endoparasites, and they find hosts in many animal phyla.
Life cycle includes sexual and asexual reproduction and there is sometimes an invertebrate intermediate
host. Asexual reproduction occurs by multiple fission.
The presence of an apical complex (combination of organelles) distinguishes this phylum.
Locomotor organelles are not as obvious. Pseudopodia occurs in some intracellular stages and some
gametes are flagellated. Only occurs in certain life-cycle stages like sporozoite and merozoite. Some
apicomplexans structures aid in penetrating the hosts cells (rhoptries and micronemes).
Apicomplexan parasites belong to two groups:
a. Coccidians: infect both vertabrates and invertabrates Two examples of medical importance are:
i. Plasmodium: sporozoan parasite that causes malatia. The vector of the parasite are
female Anopheles.
ii. Toxoplasma: common parasite in the intestinal tissue of cats. Causes toxoplasmosis.
b. Gregarines: live mainly in the digestive tract and body cavity of certain invertebrates.

CH6: SPONGES
PHYLUM PORIFERA
A. THE ADVENT OF MULTICELLULARITY
1.

2.
3.

Evolution of the Metazoa

a. Evolution of eukaryotic cell followed by diversification
b. Multicellularity evolved independently in different unicellular lineages
Multicellular animals are referred to collectively as metazoans.
True tissue epithelia do not occur in sponges, for this reason sponges were once considered parazoa, a
term meaning beside animals and were distinguished from eumetazoa or true animals. But one
group of sponges, Homoscleromorpha was discovered to have a layer of cells attached to each other and
to a basal lamina by adherens junctions.

Porifera means pore-bearing

Bodies perforated by many pores
Sessile sponges are filter feeders
Skelton is composed of spicules of calcium carbonate or silica and collagen
They have no organs or tissues; cells are somewhat independent
Sponges can regenerate
Have no nervous or sense organs and have simplest of contractile elements
Sponges are an ancient group, with an abundant fossil record extending back to the early Cambrian
period and even, according to some claims, the Precambrian
12. Poriferans are assigned to three classes, but a fourth has recently been created from a subset of
Demospongiae:
a. Calcarea: having calcareous spicules.
b. Demospongiae: having a skeleton of siliceous spicules or sponging spicules.
c. Hexactinelida: having six-rayed siliceous spicules.
d. Homoscleromorphs: thin encrusting sponges that have simple spicules or lack spicules.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

B. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Approximately 5,000 species of sponges

o Most are marine. A few live in brackish water, 150 in fresh water
Growth patterns often depend on characteristics of the environment; same species may differ markedly
in appearance under different environmental conditions
Many animals live as commensals or parasites in or on sponges, like crabs, nudibranch, fish
Sponges grow on a variety of other living organisms such as barnacles, coral, and molluscs
They have few predators
Sponges may have an elaborate skeletal structure and often have a noxious odor

C. FORM AND FUNCTION

1.
2.
3.

Sponges are sessile. Their only body openings are pores, usually many tiny ones called ostia for incoming
water and one to a few large ones called oscula. Pores are connected by a system of canals.
Choanocytes: lining water canals and kepp water flowing and trap food particles.
Canal system is supported by a skeleton, that depending on the species may be composed of calcareous
or siliceous spicules.

TYPES OF CANAL SYSTEMS

ASCANOIDS FLAGELLATED ESPONGOCOELS
This is the simplest organization for a sponge.
Water enters through microscopic dermal pores into a large cavituy called spongocoel, which is lined
with choanocytes.
Choanocyte flagella pull water through the pores and expel it through a single large osculum.
All asconoids are in the Calcarea.

SYCONOIDS FLAGELLATED CANALS

Tubular body and a single osculum, in which choanocytes line certain folds called radial canals.
Water, entering the body thourgh the dermal pores, moves first to incurrent canals and then into
radial canals via small lateral openings called prosopyles.
From the radial canals, filtered water moves through apopyles into the spongocoel, finally exiting by
the osculum.
Syconoids are in the Cacarea.

LEUCONOIDS

Most complex organization which permits an increase in size.

Clusters of flagellated chambers are filled from incurrent canals and discharge water into excurrent
canals that eventually lead to the osculum. There is no spongocoel.
Most sponges are leuconoids.

TYPES OF CELLS
1.

Mesohyl: connective tissue of the sponges. Present in various ameboid cells.

PINACOCYTES

An arrangement of pinacocytes cells of the external pinacoderm layer is the closest sponges come
to real tissue.
They cover the surfaces of exterior and interior
Some are T-shaped
Somewhat contractile and help to regulate the surface area
Some are modified as myocytes arranged in circular bands around the oscula or pores

POROCYTES

Tubular cells that pierce the body wall of asconoid sponges, through which water flows.

CHOANOCYTES

Line flagellated spongocoels, canals, and chambers

Oval cells with one end embedded in mesohyl
Exposed end has one flagellum surrounded by a collar
Collar forms a fine filtering device to trap foods
Foods trapped in mucous are phagocytized by cell body
Foods are passed to archaeocytes for intracellular digestion

ARCHAEOCYTES

Ameboid cells that move through the mesohyl

Phagocytize particles at external epithelium

Digest food particles received from choanocytes

Differentiate into any of other types: sclerocytes (secrete spicules), spongocytes (secrete sponging
fibers of the skeleton) and collencytes (secrete fibrillary collagen).

TYPES OF SKELETON
1.
2.
3.

The skeleton gives support to a sponge, preventing the collapse of canals and chambers.
Calcareous or siliceous spicules, which has many variations in shape, diagnostic features
Fibrous protein (collagen) in ECM, collagen IV in Homoscleromorpha
a. Calcarea: Spicules with one, three, or four rays
b. Hexactinellida: Spicules with six rays arranged in three planes.
c. Demospongiae: Spicules with variation in shape

REPRODUCTION AND DEVEOLPMENT

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

All sponges can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most sponges are monoecious (having both male
and female sex cells in one individual)
Sperm arise from transformation of choanocytes. Oocytes also develop from choanocytes in Calcarea
and some Demospongiae; in othe demosponges they develop from archaeocytes.
The sperm is released into the water, the taken into the canal system of another where choanocytes
transform it into carrier cells that carry the sperm through the mesohyl to the oocytes.
Oviparous sponges expel both sperm and oocytes into the water. Ova are fertilized by motile sperm in
the mesohyl, where the zygote develops into flagellated larvae (solid-body paranchymula), which break
loose and are carried away by water currents.
a. The flagellated cells on the surface of the larvae migrate to the interior after the larva settles and
becomes choanocytes in the flagellated chambers.
Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and by forming external buds that detach or stay
attached to form colonies.
Freshwater sponges and some marine ones reproduce asexually by regularly forming internal buds called
gemmules. These dormant masses of encapsulated archaeocytes form during unfavorable conditions.
When favorable conditions return the archaeocytes escape and develop into new sponges.

D. SURVEY OF SPONGES

CLASS CALCAREA (CALCISPONGIAE)

1.
2.
3.

Spicules composed of calcium carbonate.

Most are small with tubular shape.
Can be asconoid, syconoid or leuconoid.

CLASS HEXACTINELLIDA (HYALOSPONGIAE)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Glass sponges with siliceous spicules

Nearly all are deep-sea forms
Most are radially symmetrical
Body is syncytial: many nuclei inside a single very large cell; trabecular reticulum
Simple syconoid and leuconoid

CLASS DEMOSPONGIAE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Contains 80% of living sponge species

Spicules are siliceous but not six rayed
All marine except for Spongillidae
Bath sponges have only spongin skeletons
Leuconoid

CLASS HOMOSCLEROMORPHA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Occur in a range of color

Pinacoderm layer with true basement membrane or ECM
All marine
Spicules are absent, or simple and small spicules
Leuconoid