ENEL 381 E LECTRIC M ACHINES 1

3 PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES

CHARACTERISTICS:
For motor drives above about 1kW, the 3 phase induction motor is widely used.
The advantages are:

The disadvantages are:

Self starting travelling mmf wave

Cheap construction
Mechanically robust
Almost constant speed with load
Not necessary to have external rotor electrical
connections
The speed is not easily controlled
Starting current may be 5 to 8 times full load
current
Power factor is low and lagging when machine is
lightly loaded

CONSTRUCTION:
The stator has three identical, symmetrically space phase windings distributed
in slots, such that when a three phase ac supply is applied, an effective
sinusoidal distribution of mmf is produced in the air gap per phase, and that the
resultant mmf is a travelling wave of the form

The rotor can be of two types.

WOUND ROTOR:
Three windings are placed on the rotor in the exact symmetry of the stator (may
be a different number of turns per winding). This type of rotor is used in large
machines (generally), and there is access to the rotor windings if necessary.

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR:

With small machines, aluminium is used. Bars, end rings, and cooling fins are
formed as a solid block by pouring the molten metal into a cast containing a
preformed rotor iron core.
With large machines, an alloy is used. Individual bars are driven into the slots
and brazed to the end rings.

MODE OF OPERATION OF A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

Consider the linear representation of the travelling mmf wave.

If the travelling mmf wave moves at a speed (-u) relative to the rotor conductors,
an emf is induced in the conductors, given by.

)
(

Note: this is where the induction machine gets its name. Emfs are induced in the
rotor from the stator without electrical connection. Compare this to the
operation of a transformer. find a similar equivalent circuit is used.

The induced emf sets up a current in the conductor in the direction shown. (u is
direction of rotor conductors relative to mmf wave).
The conductor thus experiences a force

Since the conductors are near the outer surface of the rotor, the rotor
experiences a torque and hence begins to revolve.

NO LOAD SPEED OF INDUCTION MOTOR:

A torque on the rotor is only produced when there is a relative speed difference
between the conductors and the traveling mmf wave generated from the stator.
For an ideal, lossless motor, the maximum rotor speed that can be obtained is
that at which the traveling wave propagates. This is the synchronous speed.
Denote synchronous speed

(This is electrical speed)

If a machine has P poles (e.g. 4 pole, 6 pole, etc.) then the actual speed of the
rotor is given by.

Note: in a wound rotor induction machine, both the stator and the rotor have
the same number of poles.
At synchronous speed:

i.e there is no torque available to accelerate the rotor beyond synchronous

speed.

PRACTICAL MOTOR:
There are losses due to windage and bearing friction. These can be modelled as
a torque loss L (Similar to these losses for a dc machine). Hence to overcome
these losses the machine must produce a net internal torque. The rotor slows
down from synchronous speed such that
and the required torque is
provided. The rotor is said to slip behind synchronous speed.
Note: This is the reason for an induction motor being known as an
asynchronous motor. i.e. not synchronous.
CONCEPT OF SLIP:
Define:

The frequency of the mmf wave and the stator voltages is

The frequency of the induced emfs in the rotor are due to the relative speed of
the rotor to the mmf wave
(
Thus the frequency ratio

INDUCTION MOTOR UNDER LOAD:

When a mechanical load is applied to the shaft of the rotor, e.g. a fan, roller, etc.
this is an additional torque.

Thus the necessary internal torque need from the motor is

To obtain this the rotor must slow down even further than the practical no-load
case, i.e. the slip increases.

Note: for most machines at full load,

mains supply, fr = 1.5 Hz

Thus for a three phase, 50 Hz

THE INDUCTION MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

Let the stator winding have Ns turns per phase in series. Let the rotor have Nr
turns per phase in series. Then the emf induced in the in the stator by the
rotating flux wave (by transformer action) is:

Similarly, the emf induced in the rotor is

Where
is the flux per pole of the field and links both stator and rotor
windings.
Thus

) (

where er is the induced voltage when the rotor is at standstill.

The rotor winding has resistance Rr and leakage reactance
with it. Thus the impedance per phase is,

associated

but

where Xr is the reactance at rotor standstill (

).

Note: this is a parameter (combined with the stator value) that can be measured
by the blocked rotor test.
Hence
|

The rotor current as a result of the induced emf is

Similarly, the stator winding also has resistance Rs and leakage reactance Xs,
and magnetising and core loss components.
Thus, for analytical purposes, an equivalent circuit can be drawn

By using impedance transformation, a stator representation can be made.

Where
(

)
(

Note: This is a per phase equivalent circuit. Its usefulness is in obtaining

performance calculations. Under normal operating conditions, the
presence of the air gap leads to much higher exciting (magnetising)
currents as compared to transformers. (30 50 % full-load current) and
relatively higher leakage reactances. It is not always permissible to
ignore Xm as its value is relatively low.
Example: For an induction motor on load, core losses (and sometimes the
magnetising component of current) can be ignored. Hence an equivalent circuit
is.

Where

Thus the total impedance

(
Note: Both

and

are obtained from the blocked rotor test.

INDUCTION MACHINE POWER FACTOR:

The power factor is obtained from the impedance angle.
[
[

Note: Assumes

)]

1.00

0.1

0.18

10.30

0.98

0.2

0.33

18.43

0.95

0.3

0.46

24.78

0.91

0.4

0.57

29.74

0.87

0.5

0.67

33.69

0.83

0.6

0.75

36.87

0.80

0.7

0.82

39.47

0.77

0.8

0.89

41.63

0.75

0.9

0.95

43.45

0.73

1.0

1.00

45

0.71

MOTOR WINDING FACTORS:

With respect to the equivalent circuit of the stator and rotor, the voltage
transformation ratio in the induction motor must include the effect of stator and
rotor distributions. Therefore the ratio of the rotor to stator voltage becomes:

For a wound rotor machine the distribution and pitch factors are the same as for
the synchronous machine.
(

)
( )

For a squirrel cage rotor consisting of

bars and P poles (air gap mmf
determined by stator poles). The number of phases on the rotor

i.e. each bar has an emf which is different from its neighbours.

( )

Hence

since one turn spans 1 pole pair.

Also

i.e.

and hence

For a wound rotor

i.e. same number of phases. For a squirrel cage
( )( ) i.e. number of bar pairs per pole pair.
rotor
The rotor VA per phase referred to the stator must be the same as the original
rotor VA, hence

Hence

Also

Since the rotor losses are univariant:

( )
Hence
(

Note: for the wound rotor, Rr is the per-phase resistance of the rotor winding,
for the cage rotor, Rr is approximately the resistance of one bar.
Similarly
(

VOLTAGE HARMONICS PRODUCED BY INDUCTION MOTORS:

The speed of the synchronous rotating field of the stator is the fundamental
frequency times the wavelength. i.e.
For a slip, , the rotor speed is
(
) and the frequency of the rotor currents
.
Time harmonics are produced by induction motors as a result of the harmonic
content of the mmf distribution and are speed dependent.
A harmonic order n in the rotor mmf has a wavelength , travels at a speed
( ) with respect to the rotor, travels at a speed (
) ( )
with respect to the stator.
This harmonic induces an emf in the stator at a frequency equal to the ratio of
speed wavelength. i.e.
(

The +ve sign being when the harmonic rotor mmf travels in the opposite
direction to the fundamental.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FROM TEST DATA:

The parameters of the equivalent circuit of the induction machine can be
obtained from the no-load and blocked-rotor tests. These tests correspond to the
no-load and short circuit tests on the transformer.
NO LOAD TEST:
Apply Vrated at frated to the stator.
Motor run on no load.
Vo, Io and Po are measured.
The equivalent circuit is:

At no load

and

i.e. open circuit and the equivalent circuit

becomes:

Here Rc takes into account the stator core losses and also windage and friction
losses. Because of the relatively low value of rotor frequency, the rotor core loss
is practically negligible at no load.

(
(
In practice

so that

)
.

Also

so that the no-load test gives a reasonable measure of

Also the resistance of the stator Rs can be measured separately and the friction,
windage and core losses estimated from

BLOCKED ROTOR TEST:

The rotor of the induction motor is blocked so that the slip is equal to unity. A
reduced voltage is applied to the machine stator terminals so that rated current
flows through the stator windings. Vs, Is, Ps are measured.
The equivalent circuit is:

Or

If Xm can be ignored then

and

Thus

When the classification of a motor is not known (and hence the proportions for
stator and rotor leakage reactances are unknown) it can be assumed that

The magnetising reactance Xm can now be evaluated from

The value of
running range

requires a closer approximation than that of

because, in the

And it has a correspondingly greater effect on the performance of the motor

within the range. From the equivalent circuits
(

)
(

Equating the real parts of both sides yields

(

Since
(

But
Equating these yields
(
If

Otherwise

then

TORQUE EQUATION: MACHINE ON LOAD

Assume: 1.

since

2. Electrical power losses are I2R no hysteresis or eddy current

losses.
The developed power per phase
(

But
(
(

)
(

But

Hence
[

Note: for three phase:

When

This is the starting torque

So long as
for any speed in the unstable operation area, the motor will
accelerate to an operating point along the curve of stable operation where
MAXIMUM TORQUE OF INDUCTION MOTOR:

For maximum torque

[(

)
(

)]

Thus

) )

i.e.
is independent of rotor resistance but the slip at which this occurs is
dependant or rotor resistance.

With the wound rotor it is possible to take advantage of this result:

Xr is a constant for a given winding

Rr can be varied by the addition of external resistance
Generally
(

)
(

This is a maximum when

, i.e.

Thus, by selecting the correct value of external resistance, maximum torque can
be applied at starting and maintained until operational speed is obtained. It is
possible to start loads which are greater than if a normal motor was used.
This is an advantage of the wound rotor over the squirrel cage rotor.

Note: for high efficiency operation, it is necessary to operate at low slip, since:

Hence

Note: For squirrel cage motors if

is too low there is virtually no starting
torque. Either design rotor for a nominal
ratio to give both
reasonable slip and reasonable starting torque or run machine up to
speed before loading.
Hence the wound rotor machine is more flexible (and expensive) than the
squirrel cage rotor machine as it can have better starting torque and less slip at
full load since the external rotor resistance can be removed.
THE THVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
By the application of Thvenins theorem to the following equivalent circuit
expressions for the torque/slip relationship can be derived.

The Thvenin equivalent voltage is

(

)
(

(
) , as is usually the case the stator resistance can be neglected
If
with minimal error,

The Thvenin impedance is

(

)
(

If

) then,
(

and since

This gives the Thvenin equivalent circuit shown below

Where corresponding Thvenin current is

The torque per phase is given by

And the maximum torque per phase is given by

The slip at which the maximum torque occurs is

POLYPHASE INDUCTION MACHINE PERFORMANCE:

For analysis the equivalent circuit is used.

The power (real) flow diagram for the motor is:

The total power transferred across the air gap from the stator is the difference
between
and the stator copper loss.
is thus the total rotor input power
which is dissipated in the resistance
, so that
( )
The internal mechanical power
( )
(
( )

)
(

(
). Thus, of the total
This is the power absorbed by the resistance
) is converted to mechanical
load delivered to the rotor, The fraction (
power, and the fraction is dissipated as rotor copper losses,

Hence the rotor efficiency is

i.e. an induction motor operating at high values of slip will be inefficient

The rotational losses including the core losses may be subtracted from
to
obtain the mechanical power output
at the shaft which is available to do
useful work.

The overall efficiency of the motor is

Typical curves:

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS:

There are a number of ways that the speed of an induction motor can be varied.
1. Can vary the slip inherently inefficient since
a. Vary rotor resistance

b. Vary supply voltage

2. Change of synchronous speed

a. By changing the connections of the stator windings, the number of

poles can be changed. in practice, in ratio of 2:1
2 speed machine discrete speed change.

b. Control of supply frequency

since

Use solid state inverters PWM - cycloconverter

For constant maximum torque, maintain
( )

Note: continuous control can be obtained.

Example:

constant.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MACHINE ALTERNATIVE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

The conventional equivalent circuit of the three phase induction motor is

That is the induction motor is regarded as a set of impedances. This is in

contrast to the synchronous motor (and also the dc motor) which contain back
emf elements.
e.g.

Synchronous motor

d.c. motor

With these latter 2 motor representations, using the same circuit for the
machines in generation mode (with the armature currents appropriately
reversed) allows an obvious understanding of emf
This is derived for the induction motor circuit where for generation mode no
emf exists and may be negative.

ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATION:
The rotating flux wave induces an emf, , in the stator winding and an emf,
( ), in the rotor winding. (where
are the effective
turns on the rotor and stator windings per phase)
The rotor impedance at slip frequency

The rotor current is

(

)
)

Multiply by the inverse of the turns ratio to refer it to the stator winding

(
(

)
) (

(
where
Also

( )

( )

,
(

Therefore
(
(

)
)

The equivalent circuit representing this equation is

The slip dependent reactance

properly reflects the slip dependence of rotor
reactance (i.e. that which actually occurs).
The current, , is at slip frequency but its mmf,
synchronous speed.

, in the air gap rotates at

In order to supply a balancing mmf,

, the current, , is of the same
frequency as
and
, mains frequency when mains is connected, and
generated frequency in the self excited induction generator.
With reference to the equivalent circuit:

i.e. the back emf

(

is proportional to the product of the magnetising current

(
). It is therefore a rotational emf.
By definition, the referred rotor current
impedance model.

and the rotor speed

is the same as in the traditional

However, power conversion is no longer due to a slip dependent resistance. It is

now the same as in other machines, obtained from a product of current, back
emf and power factor.
i.e.

and the torque is

(

The rotor power loss is

The slip dependant reactance

frequency in the rotor windings.

now simply represents the variation of

The phasor diagram for the motor is. (rotor circuit)

The power factor is

This gives
(
(

)
)

High starting current occurs because at zero rotor speed there is no back emf.
(This is similar to the dc motor). As speed rises, the back emf rises and the line
current falls.

INDUCTION GENERATOR OPERATION

The new circuit model embodies the concept of generator action. When the
rotor is driven above synchronous speed the emf
(

Power is generated in the rotor circuit.

Since the slip is now negative the rotor reactance

the machine to generate at a leading power factor (i.e.

is negative constraining
appears capacitve)

Thus an isolated induction generator can only supply a load with a leading
power factor, and must therefore have capacitors across its output terminals.
Also there is a driving emf which is the power source, replacing the negative
resistance of the traditional circuit model.

GENERATING AND BREAKING REGIONS

In the breaking region, all the energy in the coils is given up as heat to the rotor.
an electrical brake.

Generating: If say an electric car is travelling forward at a certain speed and the
supply frequency is suddenly lowered, in an attempt to change
speed (slow down), the motor is then running faster than
synchronous speed due to the inertia of the car and so enters the
generating region.

SELF EXCITED INDUCTION GENERATOR

- may be useful for bulk power generation from wind.
The rotor and stator windings can act as a source of excitation when the
machine is run at any speed . Excitation relies on the residual magnetism of
the rotor and stator cores which remains after previous operation of the
machine.
Simplified equivalent circuit i.e ignore

and load

) is the rotational generated voltage in the referred rotor

In this case (
circuit whenever the rotor revolves at a speed different from the rotating
magnetic field.
is a synchronous emf due to residual magnetism.
is the excitation capacitance.
At standstill there is no emf.
When the rotor begins to revolve the residual magnetic flux generates a small
synchronous emf . No current flows in the referred rotor circuit because there
is as yet no slip. The machine therefore operates initially as a synchronous
generator, the emf driving current through the
series circuit.
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
The rotor and stator have time varying fluxes induced in them under normal
operation, speed . The flux density magnetising force relationship follows a
hysteresis loop since the relative permeability
for the iron.

If the machine is open circuited before the speed drops to zero, a residual flux
remains in the rotor which then gives the necessary conditions for self
excitation at the next start up.

However, if the terminals have a resistive load attached and the machine is run
down to
, before open circuiting, the rotor and stator become
demagnetised. i.e. there is no and the machine will not self excite next time it is
operated.

Some form of d.c. excitation from an external source is then required for a
voltage to be generated. This d.c. can be rated less than the machines rated
voltage e.g a car battery.
To self excite, capacitors must be placed across the terminals of the motor to
provide the reactive current for the motor.

Practical CONSIDERATIONS OF USING INDUCTION GENERATORS

1. Generation occurs because there is a difference in speed between the
rotor and the stator mmf.
i.e
2. A generator in isolated mode will self excite if,
- there is residual magnetism in the rotor and stator cores
- a leading current is supplied to the stator windings.
The leading current from the capacitors produces an armature reaction
flux which assists the original residual flux. If the capacitor is of
sufficient value the voltage builds up until limited by the machine
saturation.

Note: For rated voltage to be generated

(
) i.e.
there is a minimum capacitance that must be connected. Voltage is
very sensitive to the capacitor value.
Also in practice the voltage is dependent on the rotor speed since

But
is the standstill value and hence
remains constant. Thus
increasing either
or
decreases
and pushes the operating point
further into the machine saturation region.
3. The speed of the rotor for generation depends on whether the machine is
connected to the mains or isolated.
- If connected to the mains then
and is ve

- If isolated then
prime mover.

can be less than

i.e.

depends on the

Frequency control can be maintained by prime mover action

i.e. increase prime mover power input as load increases.
Voltage control can be achieved by several means.
a) Saturable Reactor.

- Generates harmonics
- VArs must be supplied from
increased
- Triplen harmonics removed in three phase system
b) Switched Capacitors

 currents at
- Necessary to use integral cycle control to avoid high
switching times. i.e. switch at zero-crossings for limited number of cycles.
- This gives rise to quantized values of not infinite variation.
- Also generates sub-harmonic components.
c) Switched inductance in parallel with induction generator
Static VAr Compensator (SVC)

- The inductance is linear

not the same harmonic generation as with the
saturable reactor, but again is increased to provide reactive power to .
d) Use a STATCOM

- Similar to SVC however STATCOMs have better characteristics at low

voltages.

e) Put synchronous generator in parallel with induction generator

This gives rise to combined induction/synchronous generator power systems.

New type of power station (economic option)

New type of power system composed entirely of induction generators.

DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR

The doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) is a wound rotor induction machine
where the rotor and the stator are both connected to electrical sources. By
connecting the rotor to the grid via an ac-dc-ac converter the rotor currents are
able to be controlled to maximise the power output of the induction generator
over a wide operating speed range (typically
of synchronous speed).
These are becoming widely used in wind generators for this reason. Another
advantage is that only about 1/3 of the output power is in the rotor circuit
enabling smaller and cheaper power electronics compared to other systems.

The magnitude and physical position of the stator generated flux is

calculated by monitoring the position and magnitude of the stator applied
voltage.
The torque is controlled by regulating the rotor currents such that they are
normal to the stator flux with a magnitude that will generate the desired
torque.
The DIFG system must therefore control the magnitude, frequency, and
phase of the applied rotor current.
Most DFIG systems utilise closed-loop current control using a voltage
source inverter.
In order to properly position the rotor current knowledge of the physical
position of the rotor is required using a mechanical position sensor or
similar device.