Pipeline and Riser System Design Course Manual

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN
ABOUT THE COURSE

This intensive foundation level course covers the design, construction, and operation of pipeline systems. The
focus is on pipeline routing, hydraulics, mechanical design, and construction for both onshore and offshore
pipelines. The result of this course is cost-effective, safe and environmentally sound design, construction,
inspection, operation, and maintenance of pipelines. Design problems and group projects are an integral part of
this course.
Pipeline systems definition and applications

Why Pipeline Design and construction must demonstrate ALARP for safe O&M assurance
A Nigerian Pipeline Safety video session The Eriama Incidence and lessons learnt.
What is a Pipeline?
What is a Flowline?
What is a Riser?
In what context can we refer to Pipeline as a Spurline/Delivery line, Bulkline, and Trunkline?
Video session on Onshore Pipeline systems
Video session on Offshore Pipeline/Risers
Discussion on the Nigerian Pipeline Acts
Codes and standards related to pipelines
What do we understand as Country Regulations, industry Codes, international standards and
specifications, and Company design practices
Discussion on Nigerian Pipeline Acts
Discussion on the ASME B.31.4 Code, with emphasis on chapter 2 and 9
Discussion on the ASME B.31.8 Code, with emphasis on chapter 4 and 8
Discussion on standards and recommended practices such as ISO 3183, DNV OS F101, DNV-RP-E30,
DNV-RP-F109, API RP 1102, API 1111, API 5L and API 6D
Pipeline materials and Components:
Pipeline material types
Pipeline valve systems
o Feature of API 6D Valve selection
o When to deploy a Valve stations
Pipeline Flange details
Pipeline induction bends
Barred Tees
Pigging system
o Various types of Pigs and uses
o Pig Launcher and Receivers details
o Valves used for Pigging
Basis for Pipeline Manifold Stations/Pipeline Nodes
Pipeline hydraulics:
-
Introduction to single-phase gas and liquids, multiphase fluids and heavy/waxy crudes.
Challenges of Flow Assurance in pipelines
First Rule calculations for Pipeline pressure drops
First Rule calculations for Pipeline Pressure Surge
First Rule calculation for Time Line on Line Packing of Pipelines due to sudden valve closure.
Pipeline Mechanical design1

Major design considerations for strength, stability, and installation for onshore Pipelines
Fundamentals of Pipeline Material Grade type Selection
Requirements for wall thickness calculations, with reference to ASME B31.8 code and the ISO 3183 code
o Fluid classification in oil industry and understanding the use of Location design class factors
o Understanding Temperature derating factors in Pipeline materials
o Difference between ND and NPS with respect to ASME B36.10m
Requirements for wall thickness calculations, with reference to ASME B31.8 code and the ISO 3183 code
contd.
o Selecting the Longitudinal weld joint efficiency factor
o Knowing Pipeline material SMYS and SMTS
o Differences between Pipeline Operating Pressure, incidental Pressure, Design Pressure and
Test Pressure.
o Introduction to Hot and Cold Bends
Calculating Pressure containment wall thickness for Pipes using the Barlow equation
Bend wall thickness calculation
Calculating Pressure containment wall thickness for pipes using the Limit state Criteria
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Concerns for HP/HT and HIPPS

Verification checks for HP/HT related upheaval buckling of onshore pipelines
Mitigations for HP/HT related upheaval buckling defects
Basis for Pipeline On Bottom Stability
o Considerations for Specific gravity of Mud and Water.
o Pipe surface area considerations for buoyancy checks
o Concrete density selection for coating application
Pipeline On-bottom Stability and Concrete coating calculation.
Pipeline soil weight and Road crossing calculations
Pipeline Mechanical design 2

Major design considerations for strength, stability, and installation for offshore pipelines and Risers
Fundamentals of Offshore Pipeline Material Grade type Selection
Requirements for Offshore Pipeline wall thickness calculations and collapse check, with reference to
chapter VIII of ASME B31.8 code, chapter IX of ASME B31.4 code, APP and the DNV OS F101
Introduction to the Effects of Free spans on offshore Pipeline and Riser Systems.
o Free Span Calculations for Vortex induced vibration check on offshore rigid pipeline and Risers
Mitigation approaches for Free Span related defects
Introduction to the use of Plus One in Offshore Pipeline calculations
Upheaval Buckling calculations
Pipeline On Bottom Stability calculations
Pipeline Expansion calculations
Pipeline and Riser Flexibility Analysis

Flexibility analysis of an Onshore Pipeline system and Offshore Riser/ Connecting Spool
Introduction to pipe flexibility and stresses
Classification of loads
When Pipeline flexibility calculations are required
Development of Stress isometrics
Understanding Static and Dynamic analysis
Modeling onshore Pipeline systems in FEA tool
Calculating virtual anchor locations for pipeline flexibility model anchor positioning.
Pipeline and Riser non-linear static analysis
When Anchor Block calculations may be required
Modeling offshore Riser and Connecting spool systems in FEA tool
Riser and Connecting spool non-linear static analysis
Results of reactions on clamp supports and code compliance check
Pipeline Route Selection optimization

Introduction to pipeline Route Selection
Steps in determining optimal routes
Route Acquisition in the Nigerian Context.
o PTS, ROW, Stakeholders workshops, QRA
Developing Pipeline Schematics
Route Mapping using Satellite Imagery
Route selection and scoring assessment Matrix,
Understanding Plan and Profile Maps
Pipeline Routing on ROW
Development of Pipeline Approach drawings
Understanding how Pipeline Route alignment Sheet drawings are developed.
Overview of Pipeline Construction, CP Systems, Pre-Commissioning,

and Repairs
Corrosion and cathodic protection of pipelines
Special design aspects, covering such issues as risers, slug catchers, pigging facilities, etc
Pipeline construction for cross country and offshore systems focusing on welding
Introduction to Typical construction drawings for offshore and onshore pipeline systems
Hydrotesting and Pre-commissioning Pipeline integrity aspects including in-line inspection
Leak detection and Repairs modification and Emergency planning considerations
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PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN course manual
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PIPELINE SYSTEMS DEFINITION AND APPLICATIONS

Pipeline (Generic Definition):
A system of pipes and other components used to transport hydrocarbon between (but
excluding) plants. A pipeline extends from pig trap to pig trap (including the pig traps), or, if no
pig trap is fitted, to the first isolation valve within the plant.
Pipeline (Specific Definition):
A pipeline transporting processed hydrocarbon from the processing plant.
Flowline (Specific Definition):

A Flowline is a pipeline that transports un-processed hydrocarbon from a well head to a
remote gathering point (manifold) or a processing plant
Bulkline (Specific Definition):
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A Bulkline is a pipeline which transports un-processed hydrocarbon from a remote gathering

point (manifold) to a processing plant.
Trunkline (Specific Definition):

is a pipeline which transports processed hydrocarbon gathered from several other pipelines
from a remote gathering point (manifold) to a Terminal.
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Delivery line or Spurline (Specific Definition):

is a pipeline which transports processed hydrocarbon to a Trunkline.
Risers (Specific Definition):

is a pipeline through hydrocarbon flows upward.
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The Nigerian Pipeline Regulatory system

The Oil Pipelines Act and the Oil Pipelines Regulations govern the licensing and permitting
processes for the construction, operation and maintenance of gas pipelines.
The Oil Pipelines Act, 1956 regulates the construction, operation and maintenance of gas
pipelines and associated infrastructure and the Petroleum Act. These laws are implemented
by the DPR, a department under the Ministry of Energy.
The governmental authorizations required are a permit to survey a route for a proposed gas
pipeline and an oil pipeline license, both issued under the Oil Pipelines Act. The oil pipeline
license confers on the holder the right to construct, maintain and operate a gas pipeline. It
also confers the right to construct, maintain and operate installations that are ancillary to the
construction, maintenance and operation of such pipeline, such as pumping stations, storage
tanks and loading terminals. A licence to construct and operate a refinery issued under the
Petroleum Act is required to construct and operate gas-processing facilities. An environmental
impact assessment approved by the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMoE) is required for
the construction and operation of any hydrocarbon transportation and storage facilities.
A permit to survey an Oil/Gas pipeline route is issued by the DPR. A license to construct and
operate an Oil/Gas Pipeline is also issued by the DPR.
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By virtue of the Land Use Act, 1978, the use of land for the construction of gas pipelines
constitutes an overriding public interest for which the government may compulsorily acquire
land.
Such acquisition is subject to the payment of compensation to the owner/occupier of the land.
The right to use land for the purposes of an Oil/Gas pipeline is inherent in the grant of an oil
pipeline licence as the license confers on the holder the right to enter upon, take possession
of, or use a strip of land of such width as may be specified in the license upon the route
specified in the licence.
The main pipeline transmission system in Nigeria is owned and operated by the Nigerian Gas
Company (NGC), a subsidiary of NNPC. This comprises of the Escravos-Lagos Pipeline
System (ELPS), also known as the Western Network, and the Alakiri-Obigbo- Ikot Abasi
Pipeline, also known as the Eastern Network. The NGC has granted distribution licences to
local distribution companies.
Code RequirementsPipeline Design
The design of pipelines is usually performed in three stages, namely;
Conceptual engineering,
Preliminary engineering or pre-engineering(FEED),
Detail engineering.
Conceptual Engineering
The primary objectives are normally:
- To establish technical feasibility and constraints on the system design and construction;
- To eliminate non viable options;
- To identify the required information for the forthcoming design and construction;
- To allow basic cost and scheduling exercises to be performed;
- To identify interfaces with other systems planned or currently in existence.
The value of the early engineering work is that it reveals potential difficulties and areas where
more effort may be required in the data collection and design areas.
Preliminary engineering or basic engineering (FEED)
The primary objectives are normally:
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- Perform pipeline design so that system concept is fixed. This will include: Verifying the
pipeline against design and code requirements for installation, To verify the sizing of the
pipeline; Determining the pipeline grade and wall thickness; commissioning and operation;
- Prepare authority applications;
- Perform a material take off sufficient to order the linepipe (should the pipe fabrication be a
long lead item, hence requiring early start-up)
The level of engineering is sometimes specified as being sufficient to detail the design for
inclusion into an Engineering, Procurement, Construction and Installation (EPCI) tender.
The EPCI contractor should then be able to perform the detailed design with the minimum
number of variations as detailed in their bid.
Detail engineering
The detailed engineering phase is, as the description suggests, the development of the design
to a point where the technical input for all procurement and construction tendering can be
defined in sufficient detail.
The primary objectives can be summarized as:
-Route optimization;
-Selection of wall thickness and coating;
-Confirm code requirements on strength, Vortex-Induced Vibrations (VIV), on-bottom stability,
global buckling and installation;
-Confirm the design and or perform additional design as defined in the preliminary
engineering;
-Development of the design and drawings in sufficient detail for the subsea scope. This may
include pipelines, tie-ins, crossings, span corrections, risers, shore approaches, subsea
structures;
-Prepare detailed alignment sheets based on most recent survey data;
-Preparation of specifications, typically covering materials, cost applications, construction
activities (i.e. pipelay, survey, welding, riser installations, spool piece installation, subsea tieins, subsea structure installation) and commissioning (i.e. flooding, pigging, Hydrotest,
cleaning, drying);
-Prepare material take off (MTO) and compile necessary requisition information for the
procurement of materials;
-Prepare design data and other information required for the certification authorities.
The design process required to optimize the pipeline size parameters is an iterative one and is
summarize in Figure below.
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Prior to conducting pipeline operations, the operator is required to submit and obtain approval
for an Application for Permit to lay pipeline from the authorities. The permit requires detailed
information about the pipeline operations program for evaluation with respect to operational
safety and pollution prevention measures.
Other information including project layout, design criteria for pipeline, specifications pipeline
safe operations, pipeline construction/installation technique and pipeline operations and
maintenance program required.
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International Codes and standards for Pipeline Design and Construction

Codes usually set forth requirements for design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and
inspection of Pipeline systems, whereas standards contain design and construction rules and
requirements for individual Pipeline components such as bends, barred tees, flanges, valves,
and other in-line items. Compliance to code is generally mandated by regulations imposed by
regulatory and enforcement agencies. At times, the insurance carrier for the facility leaves
hardly any choice for the owner but to comply with the requirements of a code or codes to
ensure safety of the workers and the general public. Compliance to standards is normally
required by the rules of the applicable code or the purchasers specification.
Each code has limits on its jurisdiction, which are precisely defined in the code.
Similarly, the scope of application for each standard is defined in the standard.
Therefore, users must become familiar with limits of application of a code or standard before
invoking their requirements in design and construction documents of a Pipeline system.
The codes and standards which relate to Pipeline systems and Pipeline components are
published by various organizations. These organizations have committees made up of
representatives from industry associations, manufacturers, professional groups, users,
government agencies, insurance companies, and other interest groups.
The committees are responsible for maintaining, updating, and revising the codes and
standards in view of technological developments, research, experience feedback, problems,
and changes in referenced codes, standards, specifications, and regulations.
The revisions to various codes and standards are published periodically.
Therefore, it is important that engineers, designers, and other professional and technical
personnel stay informed with the latest editions, addenda, or revisions of the codes and
standards affecting their work.
While designing a Pipeline system in accordance with a code or a standard, the designer must
comply with the most restrictive requirements which apply to any of the Pipeline elements.
In regard to applicability of a particular edition, issue, addendum, or revision of a code or
standard, one must be aware of the national, state, provincial, and local laws and regulations
governing its applicability in addition to the commitments made by the owner and the
limitations delineated in the code or standard.
Below are some of the Pipeline standards and codes applied in the design construction of
pipeline systems in Nigeria are listed below.
International Codes and Standards
American Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME
Document Number
Document Title
ASME B1.20.1
Pipe Threads, General Purpose
ASME B16.10
Face to Face and End to End Dimensions of Valves
ASME B16.10
Face to Face Dimensions for Flanged Globe Style Control Valves
ASME B16.11
Forged Fitting Butt-Welding and Threaded
ASME B16.20
Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges Ring-Joint, Spiral-Wound, and
Jacketed
ASME B16.21
Non-metallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
ASME B16.25
Butt Welding Ends
ASME B16.28
Wrought Steel Butt-Welding Short Radius Elbows and Returns
ASME B16.34
Valves - Flanged, Threaded and Welding end
ASME B16.47
Large Diameter Steel Flanges
ASME B16.5
Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASME B16.9
Factor -Made Wrought steel Butt-Welding Fittings
ASME B31.3
Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping
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ASME B31.4
ASME B31.8
Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and

other Liquids
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM

Document Number
Document Title
ASTM A 105
Forgings, Carbon Steel, For Piping Components
ASTM A 134
Spec for electric fusion arc welded steel pipe
ASTM A-234
Spec for pipe fittings of wrought carbon steel and alloy steel for
moderate & high temperature service
ASTM A-370
Std. Test Methods & Definitions for Mech. Test of Steel Products
ASTM A-694
Spec for Carbon & Alloy steel forgings for pipe flanges, fittings,
valves and parts for high pressure transmission service.
ASTM D1250
Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards
ASTM E 92
American Petroleum Institute

Document Number
API 1102
API 1104
API 598
API 6D
API 6FA
API RP 552
API RP 554
API RP521
ISO Standards
Document Number
ISO 3183
ISO 13623
Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials
Document Title
Steel Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways
Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
Valve Inspection and Test
Pipeline Valves, (steel gate, plug ball and check valves)
Specification for Fire Test for Valves
Transmission Systems
Process Instrumentation and Control
Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 3rd Edition,
1990.
Document Title
Petroleum and natural gas industries Steel pipe for pipeline
transportation systems
Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries Pipeline transportation
systems
ISO 15590-1
Induction Bends for Pipeline Transportations Systems
ISO 15590-1
ISO 15590-1
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OIL MINERAL
ACT AND OIL
PIPELINE ACT
AN OVERVIEW OF COUNTRY REGULATIONS, CODES, AND

STANDARDS APPLIED IN PIPELINE ENGINEERING DESIGN
FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION OF A FLOWLINE TIE-IN
TO A WELL HEAD
FIRE
SAFE
TEST
TO API
6FA
VALVE
DESIGN
SPEC TO
API 6D
BOLTING
TO ANSI
BI6.20
PIPE
MATERIAL
STD
ASTM A312
TP 316L
PIPE
DESIGNTO
ANSI
B36.10
GASKET
DESIGN
STDTO
ANSI
BI6.20
CODE
REQUIRED
ASME
B31.4
STEEL
WELDING
SPEC.
AWS D10.4
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FLANGE
DESIGN TO
ANSI BI6.5
Pipeline materials and components

The selection of materials for Pipeline applications is a process that requires consideration of
material characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material selected must be
suitable for the flow medium and the given operating conditions of temperature and pressure
safely during the intended design life of the product.
Mechanical strength must be appropriate for long-term service, and resist operational
variables such as thermal or mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature can
raise issues with material capabilities ranging from brittle fracture toughness at low
temperatures to adequacy of creep strength and oxidation resistance at the other end of the
temperature spectrum.
In addition, the operating environment surrounding the Pipeline or Pipeline component must
be considered. Degradation of material properties or loss of effective load-carrying cross
section can occur through corrosion, erosion, or a combination of the two. The nature of the
substances that are contained by the Pipeline is also an important factor.
The fabricability characteristics of the materials being considered must also be taken into
account. The ability to be bent or formed, suitability for welding or other methods of joining,
ease of heat treatment, and uniformity and stability of the resultant microstructure and
properties all of a given Pipeline material contribute toward or detract from its attractiveness
and economy. The selection process should lead to the most economical material that meets
the requirements of the service conditions and codes and standards that apply.
Applicable design and construction codes such as the ASME B31 Code identify acceptable
materials for Pipeline systems within their jurisdiction. These codes specify the design rules,
allowable design stresses, and other properties required to accomplish the design task.
However, the information supplied is generally only adequate and intended to assure safe
operation under the thermal and mechanical conditions expected under steady-state and
sometimes (as in nuclear construction) cyclic operation.
These codes do not directly and explicitly address the many other environmental and material
degradation issues that should be considered by design and materials engineers in arriving at
a piping system that is not only safe to operate but will offer long-term, reliable service and
function. Thus, simply designing to the Code when selecting materials can sometimes lead
to premature end-of-life of Pipeline system components.
Steel Pipelines
Types and Grades of Pipe:
Due to the combination of strength, toughness, weldability and price the vast majority of trunklines and flowlines are constructed from carbon-manganese steel pipe manufactured and
tested in accordance with API Spec 5L specifications for line pipe.
For pipelines, only pipe manufactured by the seamless, electric weld, (ERW/EIW) longitudinal
submerged arc weld (SAW) and spiral SAW routes are considered.
Grades available are: Grade B (240 MPa, 35,000 psi yield strength) and the grades X42 (290
MPa, 42,000 psi yield strength) through X46, X52, X60, X65 to X70.
Lower grade pipe, up to grade X52, generally obtains adequate strength from normalized
carbon manganese steels. For grades X52 and upwards increased strength requires either
additions of other strengthening elements (niobium/vanadium), special rolling techniques
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(controlled rolling) or quenching and tempering. Satisfactory Group experience has been
obtained up to grades X70, with the majority of trunk-lines in X52 and X60 grades.
Pipe Sizes:
The international nomenclature - Diameter Nominal - written as Dn (50, 80,100, etc.) has been
used for size of pipe, flange, valve etc. throughout this Handbook; the values indicate a
nominal size in mm; the inch sizes have also been retained and are shown in brackets.
Full size and thickness ranges can be found in the relevant API specification.
The total ranges quoted are not universally available and pipe manufacturers offer a range of
diameters, wall thickness (WT) and grade combinations dependent on the production route
and specific pipe mill capabilities. Common sizes are shown below:
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For the combination of extremes of dia./WT/grade the above manufacturing ranges will be
limited in source.
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Selection:
With reference to the pipe production routes, traditionally ERW and spiral pipe has a higher
risk of undetected defects being present and they are therefore not used in critical
applications. However improvements have been made by some manufacturers in the ERW
process and it is now more widely used. (The widely approved pipe is called HFI welded pipe,
from the improved welding process using "high frequency induction").
In general the use of cold-expanded pipe is recommended. Cold expansion promotes pipe
roundness; it may reveal weld defects and can redistribute residual stresses after welding in a
favourable manner.
Additional Requirements:
General:
Each pipe manufacturing route has specific features which must be covered with regard to
inspection and testing to ensure a satisfactory product fit for installation and service. To this
extent SIPM have developed supplementary specification requirements and conducted mill
evaluations to assess the overall quality control and inspection capabilities of each mill.
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Even when using standard API and SIPM specifications it should be recognized that for
certain pipelines additional considerations are essential with respect to:
- Corrosion and operating modes
- Toughness
- Weldability, etc.
When selecting materials the overall operating mode of the lines should be considered.
In general the application of a corrosion allowance as a safeguard against corrosion is not
considered to be effective for larger pipelines.
For sour service, NACE MR-01-75 gives limits of sour conditions and materials suitably
resistant to sulphide stress cracking. For pipelines, it is recommended that resistance to
hydrogen induced cracking is also specified.
If it is required to operate the lines wet, and if there is significant CO2 present (which is often
the case), then the overall aggressive nature of the contents can result in excessive corrosion.
In these cases consideration of inhibition, drying, or use of special stainless steels should be
given. For two-phase or multi-phase lines the corrosivity of entrained water, its partition and
the effect of dissolved CO2 /H2S will require detailed review and analysis. It is recommended
that the advice of an experienced corrosion engineer is sought when designing for such lines.
(iii) Toughness
For gas and two-phase gas/condensate lines the pipe material should have sufficient inherent
toughness to resist fracture propagation. Two possible modes of fracture exist, i.e. brittle
(cleavage) and ductile (shear). By specifying a Drop Weight Tear Test (DWTT) at a
temperature lower than the minimum operating temperature (see API Spec 5L SR6)
propagation of brittle fractures can be avoided.
Even with fully ductile material it is possible to have long propagating fractures in high
pressure gas lines. For this to occur, the basic material toughness is only one parameter, the
others being type and pressure of gas, diameter and wall thickness, backfill conditions, etc.
For conventional steels, it has been shown that by selecting material with a sufficiently high,
fully ductile Charpy' energy, arrest of propagation can be achieved. Several empirical
relationships have been derived from full-scale tests with methane to predict the propagation
behaviour.
For rich gas or two-phase lines operating at higher pressures these relationships are not valid
and may be non-conservative. In certain cases it may be impossible to arrest a fracture by
pipeline material selection alone and alternative mechanical crack arrestors may be required.
For offshore lines these have often taken the form of modified buckle arrestors which have
been used throughout the length of the line.
For vent or flare lines the minimum temperature during venting must first be established. Such
lines normally operate under low pressure conditions (typically < 2 or 3 bar); consequently
insufficient stored energy is available for propagating fractures. It is however, necessary that
the pipe body, seam weld, and girth welds possess a minimum Charpy' toughness to avoid
initiation of brittle fracture at the low temperatures under external contraction stresses.
Weldability:
A measure of weldability can be expressed by the carbon equivalent (CE.) formula:
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(All elements in formula as % weight.)

Materials with C.E.'s below 0.45 can be readily welded with limited heat treatment
requirements. For low heat-input welding, e.g. mechanized CO2 welding, some difficulties can
be experienced in achieving hardness requirements for sour service (RC22 or HV248). Where
it is compatible with strength requirements, then by selecting progressively lower C.E. steels,
excessive heat treatment requirements may be minimised.
Non-Metallic Materials:
For certain projects, conditions may allow selection of alternative pipeline systems such as:
- Glass fibre reinforced epoxy (GRE)
- Internally coated pipe
- Internal lining (PE/cement)
These all have limitations on type of fluid, pressure, temperature, etc. The relevant standards
should be consulted for design and installation aspects.
Quality Control
Attention should be paid to quality control aspects during the entire materials procurement
phase. In the various codes and standards, requirements are given for chemical analysis,
destructive and non-destructive testing, pressure testing, dimensional checks, etc.
Apart from witnessing such tests at appropriate moments due care should be given to a
proper system for recording and documentation. In addition to specifying the quality
measurements required the supplier should be required to operate a quality assurance system
(see Volume 1) to provide the internal control needed to achieve quality consistently.
Valves
General:
A great variety of valve types is commercially available. For reasons of economy,
interchangeability and minimum stock. the utilization of different types of valves shall be kept
to a minimum and, if possible, to standard types only.
To define the actual purpose of a valve, the following descriptions are preferred:
Block valves
Open or closed; e.g. to stop the flow, with minimum restrictions and pressure loss when open,
e.g ball valve and gate valve;
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Ball valves
Gate valves
Throttling valves
Throttling service; e.g. regulation of the fluid, continuous or in various steps between closed
and open limits of the valve;
e.g. Globe valves, Needle valves
Globe valve
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Needle valves
Check valves
Back flow prevention; e.g. reverse flow must be stopped if the upstream pressure drops below
static head or back pressure.
Relief valves
Overpressure control; e.g. to safeguard a system against excess pressure
e.g. Safety relief valves.
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Selection of Valves:
Valve selection is of major importance, both from necessity to obtain trouble-free operation of
the pipeline system and from the point of view of the overall economics involved: An incorrect
choice can cause serious trouble; sometimes involving major changeover from initial
selection.
The valves to API Spec 6D follow the pressure/temperature rating to ANSI B 16.5 and ANSI B
16.34 up to a maximum temperature of 120 C.
Submarine Valves:
Many problems have been experienced with the applications of valves subsea. As a result
submarine valves and actuators are the subject of an extensive evaluation programme.
Selection of Valve Construction Materials:
For the pressure containing parts, only forged or cast steel is allowed. The selection of
materials for internal components of valves is sensitive to the type of service. The advice of an
experienced corrosion engineer should be sought.
Flanges
All flanges up to and inclusive Dn 600 (24 in.) used in pipelines shall be according to ANSI
16.5 (latest issue).
For sizes above Dn 600 (24 in.) the flanges shall be in accordance with MSS-SP-44 (MSS Manufacturers Standardisation Society-USA, latest issue).
The pressure/temperature limitations of the flanges including the larger sizes according to
MSS-SP-44 shall be according to ANSI B 16.5. The flanges shall be provided either with a
raised face or with a ring joint face.
Raised face flanges shall have a contact surface, suitable for the type of gasket to be used,
i.e.:
- For CAF (compressed asbestos fibre) gaskets;
Serrated spiral finish', i.e. surface roughness of approximately RA 12.5 (m).
- For spiral wound gaskets;
Smooth finish', i.e. surface roughness between RA 3.2 and RA 6.3 to ANSI B 46.1.
- Ring joint flanges shall be provided with a groove type and surface finish as specified in
ANSI B 16.5.
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Fittings (Tees, Elbows, Reducers, etc)

Fittings, used in pipelines shall be fully in accordance with the requirements as laid down in
ANSI B 16.9 and MSS SP-75.
For product pipeline systems the use of buttwelded components from forged or cast steel is
recommended. Threaded or socket welded connections are in general not suitable.
Bends,
Pipeline bends are required for change in flow direction, and comprises mainly of cold bends
and hot bends, Mitered bends shall not be used for pipeline operation.
Cold bends are often referred to as field bends, and should comply with the minimum
requirements of the ANSI B31.4/B31.8 Codes and generally conform to the Figure below.
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A bend made from line pipe at ambient temperature, normally on the construction site, using a
Mechanical bending machine.
Picture of pipes undergoing mechanical bending at construction site
While Hot Bends are made under factory conditions by hot working pipes.
The elastic radius of curvature of the pipeline along its route should not be less than 500xD, D
being the pipeline diameter. Hot bends should be used when lower values are necessary.
Picture of Hot induction bends at the factory
All main line bends should have a sufficient radius to allow the passage of internal inspection
tools. Most internal inspection tools are able to pass a minimum of 3 D bends for pipeline
diameters of 12 and above, 5 D bends for pipeline diameters between 6 and 10. For
pipeline diameters below 6, the required bends depend on the pipe internal bore (7 D to 10
D). This is only indicative and can also be influenced by wall thickness and extent of out-ofroundness of the pipe.
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Barred tees,
Tee-piece provided with bars across the internal bore of the branch pipe to prevent entry of a
pig.
Barred tees shall be installed at all branch connections with a diameter equal to or greater
than 50 % of the pipeline diameter. This shall be reduced to 25 % where sphering is to be a
regular activity.
If sphering is required consideration shall be given to the use of sphere tees, as spheres may
be held up or be destroyed at a normal or barred tee. Sphere tees should have a drainage
provision to prevent collection of debris and liquids which could cause a corrosive
environment in the sphere tee annulus. Sphere tees should not be used subsea because of
the difficulty of providing this drainage facility.
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Pigging System
Pipelines built for the transportation of liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons normally require
thorough cleaning to achieve the following objectives:
(a) To reduce the risk of corrosion induced by the presence of debris.
(b) To protect downstream plant facilities from fouling.
(c) To maintain the transport efficiency and the quality of the product.
Below is the summary of the main pipeline cleaning methods and their application to pipelines
at different stages in their lifetime.
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The use of pigs and spheres in pipeline operation has become a well-accepted procedure.
However, the full extent of the advantages that their use may provide is not always
recognised. This may be due to various reasons such as inexperience in pig operation, and
unfamiliarity with the recent and fast growing development of new applications which form part
of routine operation in other pipelines or plants.
The various field applications, the different types of pigs available together with their
characteristics, and the conditions required for correct operation are described so as to
provide guidelines for each application.
Foam Pigs
Foam pigs are generally used for liquid removal, swabbing, drying, product separation and
many cleaning duties. Foams are often suited to pipeline systems with very tight radii or
mitred bends and where significant reductions in internal diameter exist.
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Gauge Pigs
Pigs having a steel body and fitted with two or more cups:
Type 1 - gauging pig: used during construction to check the pipeline for buckles or dents.
Type 2 - displacement/separation pig: primarily intended for use in multiband pipelines to

maintain a seal between batches of different liquids or between gas/liquid phases.
Disc and Cup Types

Pigs having steel body and fitted with four or more diaphragm discs to allow bi-directional use,
especially during filling and dewatering operations before, during and after hydrostatic testing,
when there is a chance that a cup-pig may get stuck.
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Spheres
Spherical moulded tools made of polyurethane or neoprene (of which the larger sizes are
inflatable); mainly used for product separation, and controlling liquid hold-up.
Application
Liquid removal from wet gas systems
Product separation
hydrostatic line testing
Wax control in crude oil pipelines.
Meter proving
Will negotiate tight bends
Intelligent PIGS
The use of instrumented pigs to inspect a pipeline from the inside is a rapidly maturing
technology. In-line inspection also called smart pigging or intelligent pigging refers to the use
of an electronically instrumented device traveling inside the pipeline that measures
characteristics of the pipe wall. Any change in pipe wall can theoretically be detected. These
devices can also detect pipe wall cracks, laminations, and other material defects. Coating
defects may someday also be detected in this fashion. The pipe conditions found that require
further evaluation are referred to as anomalies.
The industry began to use these tools in the 1980s, but ILI presently benefits from
advancements in electronics and computing technology that make it much more useful to the
pipeline industry. State-of-the-art ILI has advanced to the point that many pipeline companies
are basing extensive integrity management programs around such inspection. A wealth of
information is expected from such inspections when a high quality, n-line device is used and
supported by knowledgeable data analysis. It is widely believed that pipe anomalies that are
of a size not detected through failure under a normal pressure test can be detected through
ILI.
While increasingly valuable, the technology is arguably inexact, requiring experienced
personnel to obtain most meaningful results. The ILI tools cannot accommodate all pipeline
system designs-there are currently restrictions on minimum pipe diameter, pipe shape, and
radius of bends. All current ILI tools have difficulties in detecting certain types of problems
sometimes a combination of tools is needed for full defect detection. In-line inspection is also
relative costly. Pre cleaning of the pipeline, possible service interruptions, risks of
unnecessary repairs, and possible blockages caused by the instrument
are all possible additional costs to the operation. The ILI process often involves trade-offs
between more sensitive tools(and the accompanying more expensive analyses) requiring
fewer excavation verifications and less expensive tools that generate less accurate results
and hence require more excavation verifications. Because this technique discovers existing
defects only, it is a lagging indicator of active failure mechanisms. ILI must be performed at
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sufficient intervals to detect serious defect formations before they become critical. General
types of anomalies that can be detected to varying degrees by ILI include:
Geometric anomalies (dents, wrinkles, out-of-round pipe)
Metal loss (gouging and general, pitting, and channeling corrosion)
Laminations, cracks, or crack like features
Some examples of available ILI devices are caliper tools, magnetic flux leakage low- and highresolution tools. Ultrasonic wall thickness tools, ultrasonic crack detection tools, and elastic
wave crack detection tools. Each of these tools has specific applications. Most tools can
detect previous third-party damage or impacts from other outside forces.
o Magnetic Flux Leakage tools (including MagneScan, TranScan and Elastic Wave)
Magnetic flux leakage tools identify areas of metal loss with the size of the detectable area
dependent on the degree of resolution of the tool.
MagneScan tools offer true high resolution performance, delivering the detailed data and high
confidence levels essential for a productive integrity management program. They can be used
in every conceivable type of pipeline inspection: in dry or liquid product, overland or subsea, in
diameters from 6 to 56 inches (15 to 142 cm).
They record the position of the following pipeline features and anomalies:
Internal and external pitting and general corrosion on the pipe body
Metal loss in the vicinity of welds
Metal loss associated with dents and under casings
MagneScan tools are designed to locate and size areas of metal loss of 10 percent of wall
thickness or greater, and in practice, detect metal loss even smaller.
Picture of MagneScan by GE
When MagneScan was introduced in 1975, its advanced Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
technology set the standard for reliable metal-loss inspection. Now equipped with Triax
sensors and a number of other innovations, MagneScan is again setting new standards. Triax
can read MFL signals on three separate axes (versus one or two with traditional MFL tools),
enabling detection of general and axial defects from the same inspection data. This can
eliminate the need to launch separate tools for each class of defects - increasing your data
utility and decreasing your overall inspection costs.
MagneScan surveys use highly specialized analytical software to get the most out of the
inspection data. A database of candidate features is extracted automatically from this data,
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and internal and external anomalies are separated. Custom display software is used to
examine and analyze the data to separate metal loss and manufacturing flaws. Display
options include line trace (B-Scan) and false color (C-Scan) images. Metal objects, dents and
girth weld anomalies are also added to the database. Search algorithms are used to select the
most significant flaws for detailed assessment, based on a comprehensive library of known
flaws and computer-based modeling.
MagneScan inspection results.
The inspection results are prioritized to allow rapid assessment of a pipeline's condition and
the need for corrective action.
o Ultrasonic tools (including UltraScan WM, UltraScan CD, EMAT)
Ultrasonic wall thickness tools detect general wall thinning and laminations. So-called crack
tools are specifically designed to detect cracks, especially those whose orientation is difficult
to detect by other means.
Ultrasound is a non-destructive testing technology which has been applied for a variety of
inspection tasks for many years now. A major advantage provided by ultrasound is the ability
to provide quantitative measurements. This means that the actual wall thickness of a pipe
section can be determined with a high accuracy and reliability. The reporting accuracy
regarding depth measurement for the latest generation of tools is 0.4 mm. The highest
possible resolution 0.06 mm. usually threshold for depth measurement of metal loss or cracks
are set at 1 mm, lower thresholds are possible.
There are different ways, using different types of transducers, how the ultrasound principles
are technically applied, for instance piezo-electric transducers, transducers based on electromagnetic acoustic transmission or phased arrays. The most widely used tools based on
ultrasound and available from several vendors make use of piezo-electric transducers.
Ultrasound further constitutes the only reliable technology currently available for the detection
and sizing of cracks in pipelines.
Figure 5.1.0 shows the principle applied for wall thickness measurement. This principle is
used for the detection and sizing of metal loss features, such as corrosion or gouging and also
for the quantitative wall thickness measurement. An added benefit is the ability to detect and
identify mid-wall flaws such as laminations and inclusions and also certain categories of
material separations and voids, such as HIC (hydrogen induced cracking).
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Ultrasound Principle Wall Thickness Measurement
The important issue is that the sensors (transducers) are aligned at right angles to the wall to
be inspected. The transducers used are operated in an impulse-echo mode; with other words
they act as transmitters and receivers of the acoustic wave used for the measurement. The
type of transducer chosen (i.e. dynamic range, focal point etc.) and the characteristics of the
electronics used (i.e. pulse repetition frequency, sampling rate etc.) have major influence on
the detection threshold, accuracy and depth and length resolution. The width resolution is
determined by the arrangement of the sensors around the circumference, i.e. the mechanical
design of the sensor carrier
Figure 5.2.0 depicts the crack inspection principle. Here slanted probes are used. The sensor
carrier design must ensure that the incident ultrasound signals are refracted in a manner that
they will propagate under 45 inside the pipe.
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Ultrasound Principle Crack Inspection
GE UltraScan WM/UltraScan Duo
GE Ultra Scan Duo is the first tool capable of inspecting for cracking and metal loss at the
same time. This pioneering two-in-one benefit is a result of Phased Array Technology adapted
from GE Healthcares MRI technology. Whether running in WM or Duo mode, the tools
advancements include superior pitting identification and wall thickness measurement.
Caliper vehicles (including CalScan)
Caliper tools are used to locate pipe deformations such as dents or out-of-round areas.
Caliper pigs measure internal profile variations like dents, ovality and internal diameter
transitions with the primary objective being to detect mechanical damage and/or ensure that a
less flexible metal loss inspection pig can pass through the pipeline. Caliper pigs are normally
designed to be flexible and can pass 25% ID reductions.
Most of the Caliper pigs are equipped with mechanical sensors (fingers) that follow the inner
profile of the pipe wall. Typically, these pigs can detect dents and ID reductions of between1%
and 2% of the pipe diameter. A drawback of the mechanical caliper pig is that false
Readings can be obtained from debris or solid wax. Established contractors that offer services
with mechanical caliper pigs are Pipetronix, Enduro Pipeline Services and TD
Williamson(TDW).
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Some tools have the additional capability to measure the bend radii.
H Rosen Engineering (HRE) offers a service with a caliper pig that uses eddy current
proximity probes and which is called the Electronic Gauging Pig (EGP). The 8 probes are
mounted in a conical nose at the front or rear of the pig. This pig has the advantage that the
pig is very rugged and insensitive to debris or wax. When required the EGP can be mounted
with a larger cone by which the sensitivity can be increased from about 1.5% ID reduction to
about 0.5% ID reduction, at the expense of the pigs flexibility.
Pipeline location vehicles (including ScoutScan)
Data from an Inertial Mapping Unit (IMU) is combined with an MFL analysis to provide GIS
coordinates to locate identified corrosion in your pipeline. Mapping can also identify pipeline
displacement, which can compromise the integrity of your pipeline. The Mapping tool is ideal
when operating in remote areas, saving you time and money by reducing the amount of postprocessing and Mapping required, facilitating quick decision-making. Current technology is still
being upgraded to address newly identified concerns.
Figure 5.5.0 area survey imagery based on scout scan.
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Unimpeachable Pipelines and Direct Assessment

This module will explore the integrity management options for operators who cannot conduct
internal inspections.
Direct assessment procedures and methodologies for external corrosion, internal
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking
A significant amount of natural gas transmission pipelines can not accommodate in-line
inspection (ILI) tools, nor can they be taken out of service to be pressure tested to find time
dependent defects. Direct Assessment provides a means for assessing the integrity of such
lines. Direct Assessment is a process through which an operator is able to integrate their
knowledge of the physical characteristics and operating history of a pipeline, with the results
of diagnostic testing performed on the pipeline system, to determine the state of integrity of
the pipeline. The process is further validated by directly examining the pipeline to verify that
the conditions predicted by the integration of the knowledge and diagnostic testing results are
what are actually found upon examination. Direct Assessment methodologies for external
corrosion, internal corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking are summarized. Numerous
companies, organizations, government agencies, and individuals have contributed to the
ongoing development of the Direct Assessment methodology, resulting in the revision of
Industry standards, the publication of numerous research reports, studies of the validity of the
process, and recommendations for further research and standards development.
Direct assessment is a process of verifying the integrity of a pipeline using data from above
ground measurements (indirect examinations), selected excavations (direct examinations), the
pipeline's characteristics, and the pipeline's operating history. The report contains information
on 1) pipeline corrosion damage; 2) methods of measuring the effectiveness of the corrosion
protection system; 3) the elements and proper use of the direct assessment process, including
checks and balances built into the method; and 4) the ongoing development of the method,
including its calibration and verification against in-line inspection results.
Integration of indirect and direct examinations is the strength of the Direct Assessment
method. Statistical analyses are being done to ensure the process provides a similar level of
confidence in a pipeline's integrity as that obtained with a Hydrotest or in-line inspection.
Internal corrosion is difficult to detect because pipe interiors are not easily accessible. Tools
for performing detailed examination of interior pipe corrosion require excavation and are not
economical to perform on the entire pipeline. Therefore, it is necessary to identify likely
locations of internal corrosion in pipelines, in order that detailed examination can be used
more effectively. An Internal Corrosion Direct Assessment (ICDA) method has been
previously developed. The method consists of four iterative steps, and it is presently
applicable to dry gas pipelines. This project validated the ICDA method for dry gas lines, using
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in-line inspection data from four pipelines, although some uncertainties remain. An example
wet gas ICDA method shows promise, but needs to be further developed and validated.
Pig Launchers/Receiver Design
Pig traps are used for inserting pigs into a pipeline then launching, receiving, and finally
removing them without flow interruption. Pig traps are not generally proprietary products and
are usually made to a specification drawn up by the user. However, pig trap closures are
proprietary products and form a critically important part of a pigging system. Safety is a major
consideration in the selection of a closure. All closures must have a built-in safety lock which
prevents them being opened while the trap is pressurized.
Pig receiver and Pig launcher configuration used for pipeline loops.
A basic line diagram is shown in Figure below
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All pipelines shall be suitable to pass pigs, even if pig traps are not permanently installed.
Pigging should be used for the pre-commissioning, commissioning and decommissioning of
pipelines, cleaning and corrosion control (removal of wax, debris and stagnant liquids, batch
inhibition), the control of liquid hold-up in gas lines, inspection with intelligent pigs, and
pipeline repairs if required. Permanent pigging facilities should be justified based on an
analysis of pigging frequency and operational constraints. The maximum acceptable distance
between pigging stations should be decided on the basis of anticipated pig wearing amount of
collected solids.
Design procedures Launchers and Receivers

Launchers and receivers will be sized to run the largest instrument type pigs available.
Barrels will have a minimum nominal diameter of 6 inches greater than the mainline size.
Access for loading and unloading pigs will be through a quick-opening end closure.
The facility will permit pigs to be run with the initial compressor stations on or offline without
interrupting the operation.
Facilities will be provided to collect any liquids received in traps.
For aboveground components, the materials will be suitable for -50F. Heat tracing may be
considered as an alternative, subject to material evaluations.
Trap isolation valves may be buried or aboveground. Aboveground valves will be subject to
material requirements being met.
A shelter may be provided to cover the area between the launcher and receiver enclosing
the ends of the traps. In this event, overhead lifting facilities lighting and equipment access will
be provided. This facility will serve mainly as a shelter and will not necessarily require
permanent heating.
Facilities will be suitable for commissioning of the mainline.
High strength material may be specified for trap barrels in order to keep barrel wall thickness
to a minimum.
Barrel outlet connections 2-inch and larger, such as the gas outlet, kicker line, drains and
blow-offs, will be extruded.
Instrument connections will be of the Weld-O-Let type.
Supports will be designed to evenly distribute the load of the trap assembly and the end
closure.
A purge system will be provided for removing gas from launcher/receiver assemblies prior to
closure opening. Venting from launcher/receiver assemblies will be provided.
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The pressure rating of fittings will equal or exceed that of the matching pipe.
39 | P a g e
Complete Pig launcher and receiver system and data for 12 to 40 pipelines.
A minimum of one pig length of straight run pipe shall be installed between bends, outlets,
bends and outlets, check valves, and bends and check valves. Through-conduit gate and ball
valves can be treated as straight runs of pipe. The number of bends in piping shall be kept to
a minimum. A typical layout for a pigging system is illustrated in Figure below.
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End Closures
End closures will be designed to meet the requirements of ASME Section VIII. They may be
motorized with alternate provisions for one-man manual operation. As a safety feature, the
end closures will be specified to ensure that the closure cannot be opened if the barrels are
under pressure.
Pig Detectors
Where specified, pig detectors will be of the mechanical trigger or plunger type, unidirectional,
for local and remote indication. Pig detectors will be located to indicate successful receipt and
launching of pigs. Pig detectors mounted on the buried mainline will be supplied with an
extension to maintain the signal mechanism a minimum of 2 feet above finished grade. The
signal mechanism will be capable of interfacing with the station control logic to initiate stationoperating sequences necessary for the receipt of launching of pigs.
Typical layout for a pigging system

LEGEND AND NOTES:
1. Through-conduit ball valve*
2. Through-conduit gate valve*
3. Full opening check valve**
4. Barred outlet tee**
5. Directional pig passage indicator
* Full opening not acceptable
** Through-conduit required for spheres.
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Acceptable Types of Tees

Inlets and outlets for conventional cup-type pigs shall be the barred type when the
opening is greater than 50 percent of pigged line size.
Inlets and outlets for a system designed specifically for sphere or foam pigs shall be as
follows:
- Barred tees shall be used for inlets less than 50 percent of the pigged line size and
sphere tees for inlets equal to or larger than 50 percent of the pigged line size.
- All outlets shall use sphere tees (flow tees) or other approved Company type design,
such as a raised bar design in the oversized section of the pig receiver to prevent
outlet blockage.
When spheres or foam pigs are to be used in traps designed for conventional cup size,
a cartridge similar to a large mesh strainer basket shall be installed in the oversized
section of the pig trap barrel.
Barred Tees
Barred tees shall have the bars welded in the neck of the outlet or inlet to prevent damage to
the bars and/or pig cups. See Figure below for guide bar design for barred tees.
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Sphere Tees (Flow Tees)

Sphere tees shall be designed with constant internal diameter, oversized tee and slotted
outlet. The slotted outlets in the conduit shall be as short as possible, while providing at least
75 percent of the outlet line cross-section area. This is to furnish sufficient flow area, minimize
the pressure drop and minimize bypassing. See figure below
Valve Selection design

Except for cast iron and plastic valves, each valve must meet the minimum requirements, or
equivalent, of API 6D.
All valves through which pigs pass shall be specified for pig passage. These valves shall be
through conduit, block and bleed, API SPEC 6D designs.
All check valves, if required, shall be provided with an external lock open device to
accommodate bi-directional flow, unless otherwise approved by Company Designee. All check
valves shall be full opening, except for sphere pigging, where a through conduit design is
required.
A valve may not be used under operating conditions that exceed the applicable pressuretemperature ratings contained in those requirements.
Each cast iron and plastic valve must comply with the following:
The valve must have a maximum service pressure rating for temperatures that equal or
exceed the maximum service temperature.
Valve must be tested as part of the manufacturing, as follows:

With the valve in the fully open position, the shell must be tested with no leakage to a
pressure at least 1.5 times the maximum service rating.
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Shell test, the seat must be tested to a pressure not less than 1.5 times the maximum
service pressure rating. Except for swing check valves, test pressure during the seat test must
be applied successively on each side of the closed valve with the opposite side open. No
visible leakage is permitted.
After the last pressure test is completed, the valve must be operated through its full travel to
demonstrate freedom from interference.
Each valve must be able to meet the anticipated operating conditions.

No valve having shell components made of ductile iron may be used at pressures exceeding
80 percent of the pressure ratings for comparable steel valves at their listed temperature. Only
if:
Temperature-adjusted service pressure does not exceed 1,000 psi(7 MPa) gage
Welding is not used on any ductile iron component in the fabrication of the valve shells or
their assembly.
No valve having pressure containing parts made of ductile iron may be used in the gas pipe
components of compressor stations
Pipeline valves should be lubricated and functionally operated at least once annually and in
accordance with the valve manufacturers recommendations. Functional operation of subsea
valves should also be carried out annually. However, where valves are located in unfavorable
Conditions (e.g. valve pits subject to flooding or general dampness) it may be advisable to
increase the maintenance frequencies to account for these conditions.
All valve actuators whether they be manual, pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical should be
functionally tested at least once per year and in accordance with the actuator manufacturers
recommendations.
In developing maintenance routines, account should be taken, where applicable, of the
requirement to test the equipment by remote operation or by simulating line-break conditions.
Operations involving the closure of block valves should be a coordinated exercise with all the
relevant parties.
Pipeline block valves such as Gate, plug, butterfly or Ball valves should be used to limit the
release of line contents in the following situations:
Leaks or pipeline ruptures outside plant boundaries. These valves are called"sectionalising
block valves".
Incidents within plant boundaries. The pipeline inventory needs to be isolated from the plant,
in order to prevent escalation of the incident. These valves are called "emergency shutdown
valves", and form part of the pipeline.
It may not always be possible to achieve complete leak tight isolation, but flow should in any
case be severely limited so that the main objective is achieved, i.e. the fluid within the isolated
sections is contained. Valves which are necessary for the routine operation of the pipeline,
such as pig trap valves, are not considered as block valves.
The use of fittings between block valves, such as flanges and instrument taps, should be
minimized.
In some situations, e.g. at the downstream side of plants or major river crossings, a check
valve may be used instead of a block valve, since it is simple, reliable and self-actuating.
The valve will normally need to be piggable, either by using a piggable flapper or by allowing
the flapper to be temporarily secured in the open position. Check valves shall not be used to
provide isolation for maintenance of equipment.
For onshore locations, ESD valves should be located at each end of the pipeline, and on the
incoming and outgoing sections at any plant en route, such as compressor or pumping
stations.
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The valves should be located in a non-hazardous area, e.g. close to the plant fences.
For offshore pipelines, an ESD valve shall be located at the top of each riser connected to an
offshore platform. It should be placed below the platform lower deck level for protection
against topsides incidents.
For pipelines connected to manned offshore complexes, and in addition to the top of riser
ESD valve, a subsea ESD valve located on seabed close to the platform may be considered.
Subsea valves should be justified by a quantitative risk assessment.
The distance of the subsea ESD valve from the platform should be derived such that the
combined risk associated with the platform activities and the pipeline fluid inventory between
the valve and the platform is minimized.
ESD valves should not incorporate bypass arrangements. Pressure balancing, if required prior
to valve opening, should be done using the operational valves located immediately upstream
or downstream of the ESD valve.
Block valves actuation Three methods of operating block valves can be considered: locally,
remotely and automatically. The appropriate method shall be determined from a study of the
likely effects of a leak and acceptable released volumes, based on the total time in which a
leak can be detected, located and isolated. The closure time of the valves shall not create
unacceptably high surge pressures.
Automatic valves can be activated by detection of low pressure, increased flow, rate of loss of
pressure or a combination of these, or a signal from a leak detection system. Low pressure
detection shall not be used if the control system is designed to maintain the pipeline pressure.
Automatic valves shall be fail-safe.
For onshore pipelines transporting toxic gas, the installation of remotely operated
sectionalizing block valves is recommended to further reduce the extent of a leak.
The emergency shutdown valves should be automatically actuated when an emergency
shutdown condition occurs at the plant or facility.
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Valve Types and Typical Applications

o
Select Type of Valve Required
1. In reference to the various modes of system operation, determine the function(s) a valve
has to perform.
2. Based upon the valve functions, the valve type(s) can be selected. The valve needed may
be an isolation valve or a stop valve. What are the choices available?
3. Similarly, the valve required may be a check valve or the valve required to stop the flow in
reverse direction. There are many different types of check valve.
Which is the most suitable?
4. Does flow need to be throttled? Based upon the amount of throttling required, one may
select a globe valve, butterfly valve, or a needle valve. Size limitations also play a role in the
availability of these valves.
5. If flow has to be regulated and controlled based on variation in pressure, temperature, fluid
level, or the design limitations of a component or equipment the valve required would be a
control valve.
6. The first step is to determine the valve type: isolation, check, or a control valve. If the
component or the piping system is required to be protected against overpressure built up, then
one of the pressure-relief devices ought to be selected.
7. To begin the selection process, Table above provides a good starting point.
8. The next step is to narrow down the choices of valves to be used. As discussed earlier,
there are several different designs available in different categories of valves. For example,
large-size butterfly valves are preferred to large-size gate valves as stop valves in lowpressure and low-temperature cooling water systems, due to space, weight, actuator, and cost
considerations.
o Select Valve Size
1. Pipe size will indicate the valve size unless there are other requirements that may make it
necessary to install a smaller- or larger-than-pipe-size valve.
2. The valve availability is one of those factors. In addition, some valves are not manufactured
in certain small or large sizes. Refer to valve vendor catalogs and evaluate application
requirements and valve features in addition to space, cost and, operational concerns.
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Gate Valve configuration
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Butterfly Valve configuration
Welded body Ball Valve configuration used for pipeline loops.
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o Select Valve-End Connection

1. Types of pipeline joints to be used depend upon several considerations, such as ease of
removal and replacement of components in the piping system, frequency of repairs and
replacements, life span of valves, and trim items. For example, the power plants utilize welded
joints, whereas the petroleum refineries and chemical plants use flanged joints predominantly.
Use of threaded, soldering, and brazing joints is common in plumbing piping systems.
2. Check code requirements concerning pipeline joints. At times codes prohibitor restrict the
use of different types of joints based upon size, pressure, temperature, materials of
construction, flow medium, and other criteria. When leakage through joints is a concern, use
of a threaded joint may be prohibited or limited by the code or by prudent engineering.
3. When valve-body material is different from the pipe material, transition pieces may be
needed to attach the valve to piping.
4. To prevent galvanic corrosion between valve and pipe flanges, insulating flanges may be
needed.
o Be Aware of Piping Layout and Valve Orientation
If a valve is located near or close to an elbow, tee-branch connection, or another source of
turbulence, precautions must be taken to select the valve that so 2. If a gate valve is installed
with its stem in a horizontal plane, the bonnet cavity may not fully drain after hydrostatic
testing, be filled with condensed vapor when the system is shut down, or contain chemicals if
the system was cleaned using chemicals. Such situations may result in damage to the valve
due to pressure binding or chemical reaction. A drain or vent in the bonnet may be needed to
alleviate Potential problems.
Can withstand flow conditions or modify the layout. It is particularly true for swing check and
butterfly valves.
o
Take into Consideration Maintenance Requirements
1. Maintenance considerations are important for the selection of valves. The plant designer
must provide for access, assembly, and disassembly of valves.
2. Space limitations may impose restrictions on the use of a particular type of valve even
though it may be the most suitable valve for the application. Select an alternative valve.
3. When plants are designed for long life, the valves selected must not require frequent
maintenance, with the exception of items such as the replacement of packing or lubrication.
o Initial Cost
1. A low-initial-cost valve may necessitate frequent repairs or replacements of the valve or
valve parts. Be aware of future costs involved.
2. High initial costs may be prohibitive. Therefore, a compromise may be made to choose the
right valve for the application.
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PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Introduction to single-phase gas and liquids, multiphase fluids and heavy/waxy
crudes.
A multiphase flow contains at least two separate phases, such as a liquid and a solid, a gas
and a solid, a liquid and a gas, or two immiscible liquids. A single-phase flow, on the other
hand, contains either a single liquid or gas without solids in it, or without any other immiscible
liquid or gas. The flows of water, oil, natural gas, air, etc. are all examples of single-phase
flow. Water laden with sediment particles or air bubbles is a two-phase flow. If the flow of
water contains both air bubbles and sediment, it is a three-phase flow and so forth. A liquid
with dissolved gas or another dissolved liquid, or with homogeneous suspension of very fine
particles of solids, can be considered and treated as a single-phase flow, although in reality
two phases are involved.
A flow is said to be incompressible if the density of any particle in the flow, be it a fluid or a
solid particle, remains constant as the particle travels with the flow. A flow is said to be
homogeneous if the density is constant throughout the flow. A single-phase incompressible
flow is a homogeneous flow, whereas a multiphase incompressible flow is not homogeneous.
For instance, for a pipe flow of water carrying gravel, the density of the flow is not the same
everywhere at a given time, depending on whether water or gravel exists at the location at a
given time.
Normally, both liquid and gas are treated as incompressible flow. However, when the speed of
a gas approaches, equals to, or exceeds the velocity of sound, large density changes occur in
the flow within short distances and the flow can no longer be treated as incompressible. Also,
when any gas is flowing through a long pipeline, there can be substantial change of the
density of the gas over a long distance due to pressure change along the pipe even when the
speed involved is low. Therefore, not all gas pipelines can be treated as incompressible, even
when the velocity is low.
Two-phase flow of liquid and gas is a very complex physical process. Even when the best
existing correlations for pressure drop and liquid holdup are used, predictions may be in error
as much as 20%. Nevertheless, as gas exploration and production have moved into remote
offshore, arctic, and desert areas, the number of two-phase pipelines has increased.
To determine whether two-phase flow will exist in a pipeline, the expected flowing pressure
and temperature ranges in the line must be plotted on a phase diagram for the fluid.
50 | P a g e
The Figure above shows that composition B will flow as a single-phase fluid as it enters the
pipeline. However, as the pressure drops it becomes a two-phase mixture through part of the
pipeline. On the other hand, composition A will flow as a single-phase (dense fluid or gas)
through the entire length of the line. Composition C will flow as a liquid throughout the entire
length of the line.
In most production situations the fluid coming out of the well bore will be in two-phase flow.
Once an initial separation is made, the gas coming off the separator can be considered to be
single-phase gas flow even though it will have some entrained liquids. The liquid coming off
the separator is assumed to be in single-phase liquid flow even though it will contain some
gas after it has taken a pressure drop through a liquid control valve.
Other than well flowlines, the most common two-phase pipelines exist in remote locations,
especially offshore, where gas and oil that have been separated and metered are combined
for flow in a common line to a central separation facility.
Horizontal Flow
When a gas-liquid mixture enters a pipeline, the two phases tend to separate with the heavier
liquid gravitating to the bottom. The figure below shows typical flow patterns in horizontal twophase pipe flow.
51 | P a g e
The type of flow pattern depends primarily on the superficial velocities as well as the system
geometry and physical properties of the mixture. At very low gas-liquid ratios, the gas tends to
form small bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe. As the gas-liquid ratio increases, the
bubbles become larger and eventually combine to form plugs. Further increases in the gasliquid ratio cause the plugs to become longer, until finally the gas and liquid phases flow in
separate layers; this is stratified flow.
As the gas flow rate is increased, the gas-liquid interface in stratified flow becomes wavy.
These waves become higher with increasing gas-liquid ratios, until the crest of the waves
touches the top of the pipe to form slugs of liquid which are pushed along by the gas behind
them.
These slugs can be several hundred feet long in some cases. Further increases in the gasliquid ratio may impart a centrifugal motion to the liquid and result in annular flow.
52 | P a g e
At extremely high gas-liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowing gas stream.
The Figure above is a flow regime map that shows how the flow regime for horizontal pipes
depends primarily on the superficial gas and liquid flow rates. Experience has shown that
generally flow regime maps are not always accurate, but they can be used as qualitative
guides.
In most two-phase flow lines in the field, slug flow is predominant in level and uphill lines. In
downhill lines, stratified flow is predominant.
However, if the slope of the downhill line is not very steep and the gas velocity is high, slug
flow may be observed. The criterion for transition from stratified to slug flow in downhill lines is
not well defined.
Vertical Flow
The two-phase flow patterns in vertical flow are somewhat different from those occurring in
horizontal or slightly inclined flow. Vertical twophase flow geometries can be classified as
bubble, slug-annular, transition, and annular-mist, depending on the gas-liquid ratio. All four
flow regimes could conceivably exist in the same pipe. One example is a deep well producing
light oil from a reservoir that is near its bubble point. At the bottom of the hole, with little free
gas present, flow would be in the bubble regime. As the fluid moves up the well, the other
regimes would be encountered because gas continually comes out of solution as the pressure
continually decreases. Normally flow is in the slug regime and rarely in mist, except for
condensate reservoirs or steam-stimulated wells. The different flow regimes are shown in
Figures below, which gives approximate flow regimes as a function of superficial gas and
liquid flow rates. These flow regimes are described below:
1. Bubble Flow: The gas-liquid ratio is small. The gas is present as small bubbles, randomly
distributed, whose diameters also vary randomly.
The bubbles move at different velocities depending upon their respective diameters. The liquid
moves up the pipe at a fairly uniform velocity, and except for its density, the gas phase has
little effect on the pressure gradient.
2. Slug Flow: In this regime the gas phase is more pronounced. Although the liquid phase is
still continuous, the gas bubbles coalesce and form stable bubbles of approximately the same
size and shape, which are nearly the diameter of the pipe. They are separated by slugs of
liquid.
The bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid and can be predicted in relation to the
velocity of the liquid slug. There is a film of liquid around the gas bubble. The liquid velocity is
not constant; whereas the liquid slug always moves upward (in the direction of bulk flow), the
liquid in the film may move upward, but possibly at a lower velocity, or it may even move
downward. These varying liquid velocities not only result in varying wall friction losses, but
also result in liquid holdup, which influences flowing density. At higher flow velocities, liquid
can even be entrained in the gas bubbles. Both the gas and liquid phases have significant
effects on pressure gradient.
53 | P a g e
3. Transition Flow: The change from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase
occurs in this region. The liquid slug between the bubbles virtually disappears, and a
significant amount of liquid becomes entrained in the gas phase. In this case, although the
effects of the liquid are significant, the gas phase is predominant.
Transition flow is also known as "churn flow."
4. Annular-Mist Flow: The gas phase is continuous. The bulk of the liquid is entrained and
carried in the gas phase. A film of liquid wets the pipe wall, but its effects are secondary. The
gas phase is the controlling factor.
54 | P a g e
Pressure Loss in Pipelines

Pressure drop in two-phase flow is the sum of the pressure drop due to acceleration, friction
losses, and elevation changes.
In most pipelines, the pressure loss due to acceleration is small. Pressure drop due to friction
is typically several times larger in two-phase flow than the sum of the pressure drops of the
equivalent two single phases.
The additional frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow is attributed to irreversible energy
transfer between phases at the interface and to the reduced cross-sectional area available for
the flow to each phase.
Pressure drop due to elevation changes is also significant in two-phase flow. In an uphill line,
the pressure drop due to elevation change is merely the average density of the two-phase
mixture in the uphill line multiplied by the change in elevation. Since the average density
depends on the liquid holdup, the static head disadvantage in an uphill line also depends on
the average liquid holdup for the segment.
The pressure loss term in the general equation for a pipeline is given by:
Where:
p = pressure loss, Pa
f = friction factor,
L = length, m
d = internal diameter, m
v = average flow velocity, m/s
= fluid density, kg/m3
Friction Factor
There are two factors in use, generally indicated by:
f = Moody-Weissbach friction factor, which is the most universally used
fn = Fanning friction factor
The relationship is f = 4 fn
The type of flow is characterised by the dimensionless Reynolds number and the friction factor
is related to it, i.e.
The types of flow are:

1. Laminar flow if
55 | P a g e
2. Turbulent flow if Re > 3000: f can be calculated with the Colebrook-White equation, which
relates f, Re and roughness of the pipe wall by:
This equation can only be solved iteratively.

Some values of are:
Clean steel 0.02 mm
Plastic coated 0.01 mm
Rusted steel 0.1 mm up to 1 mm for badly corroded pipe
Asbestos cement 0.03 < < 0.1 mm
Concrete 0.2 < < 1 mm
Coflexip d/200 mm for flow in optimum direction
3. The remaining area between 2000 < Re <3000 is the critical zone. In this zone no reliable
relationship exists as the friction factor often depends on the flow history. As an approximation
a linear interpolation can be used between the curves for laminar and turbulent flow at Re =
2000 and Re = 3000 respectively.
The Moody diagram' can also be used to find the value of the friction factor.
For liquid turbulent flow a simplified friction factor developed by Shell Oil may be used:
f = 0.0072 + 0.636/Re0.355.
For gas flow which due to low viscosity virtually always has a very high Re number (> 107) the
Colebrook-White equation simplifies to:
Pressure Loss in Liquid Lines
56 | P a g e
Using volume flow as input instead of velocity, the general pressure loss equation transforms
to:
Where q = flow rate, m3/s.

Pressure Loss in Gas Lines
For level gas lines containing no liquid, the AGA equation can be used to calculate pressure
losses, as follows:
z = compressibility factor
p = pressure, MPa
L = length, m
T = flowing temperature, K
q = flow, m3/s (standard conditions: 15 C, 101.325kPa)
d = internal diameter, m
f = friction factor
Note: When is density of gas at standard conditions (101 .325 kPa and 15 C):
C = 5.7 x 10-10 MPa/K
If is relative density compared to air (at standard conditions)
C = 7.0 x 10-10 MPa kg/(K m3)
Pressure Surges
Pressure surges in a pipeline are created by a change in momentum of the moving stream,
e.g. by closing a valve, the origin of the pressure surge being at the point where the
momentum of flow is changed.
Because of the low density of gases compared to liquids, pressure surges are not of concern
in gas lines.
The theoretical maximum pressure surge that can be created in a pipeline would be caused
by an instantaneous total blockage of the flow and would occur at the point of flow retardation,
e.g. the valve.
The maximum surge pressure is the sum of two components:
(a) The instantaneous pressure increase at the moment of total flow blockage
(b) The subsequent gradual pressure rise due to the line packing' effect.
(a) The magnitude of the instantaneous surge can be calculated using Joukowsky's equation:
Ps = c v
Where:
Ps = surge pressure, Pa
= liquid density, kg/m3
c = speed of sound in liquid, m/s (typically about 1200 m/s in crude)
v = velocity change, m/s
c is calculated from:
57 | P a g e
Where:
K = liquid bulk modulus, Pa (see Figure 1.1-16)
E = Youngs modulus of steel, 210 x 109 Pa
d = pipe internal diameter, m
tw = pipewall thickness, m
= liquid density, kg/m3
(b) The pressure due to line packing at the point of closure will, if no protective measures are
taken, continue to rise until the positive surge travelling upstream has reached the constant
pressure end-point (e.g. a tank) and returned to the valve, i.e. during the time
Where L: is the length of the pipeline section in metres.

The pressure rise due to the line packing effect can be calculated from Small quantities of
entrained gas in a liquid will drastically reduce K and consequently c (from typically 1200 m/s
to 100 m/s) thereby reducing the magnitude of the maximum surge pressure ps.
If a potentially critical surge problem does exist, then a more thorough surge analysis should
be performed by modelling the pipeline using a transient pressure simulation program, e.g.
EPSURGE.
Methods of reducing surge pressures
The primary method of preventing the generation of unacceptably high surge pressures
should be the implementation and strict adherence to well formulated and clearly written
operating procedures. Additional measures which may be employed to reduce surge
pressures are as follows:
1. Slow' valve closure
By closing a valve over a sufficiently long period the surge generated may be significantly
reduced. This also allows more time to trip the pumps and hence reduce the maximum
pressure. This can be implemented either by slowing down the valve actuator or by installing a
two speed actuator which reduces the valve closure speed over the (critical) last 10-20% of
the valve's travel.
2. Installing a pressure relief system
If the creation of an unacceptable pressure surge cannot be avoided using option 1, a
pressure relief system can be installed as near to the point of surge origin as practically
possible. The system would vent a quantity of product from the pipeline once a pre-set
pressure limit is exceeded thereby limiting the final surge pressure. This can be implemented
using bursting discs or rapid response relief valves.
3. Initiating a pump trip
If the advent of a potentially dangerous pressure surge is detected early enough, the tripping
of the upstream pumps will generate a negative pressure wave which propagates from the
pumps to the origin of the surge and can counter the positive pressure surge.
The effectiveness of this form of surge protection depends on factors such as the pipeline
length, amount of line packing, etc.
58 | P a g e
PIPELINE MECHANICAL DESIGN1

Major design considerations for strength, stability, and installation for onshore
Pipelines
Requirements for wall thickness calculations, with reference to ASME B31.8 code and
the ISO 3183 code
The base codes are usually simplifications, meaning that in their analytical approach they
strive for conservatism. When setting the allowable stresses, they use (as does ASTM or
ASME) the minimum values to ensure that the real property is somewhat above that value.
The amount of analysis is dependent on what is perceived as the need for more
consideration.
There are two basic approaches to setting the stresses. One is to give a table of allowable
stresses for a given material form over a relevant and wide range of temperatures. This is
because the major properties change with temperature changes. As the temperature goes up,
the strength goes down, and at some temperatures the strength may not be the controlling
factor.
As temperature changes, the material begins to creep with no increase in load and thus
distorts. Sometimes that distortion even involves what is called creep rupture, where for
instance a pipe will just burst. Those codes that give you tables over a temperature range
indicate what the controlling factor, be it strength or temperature-dependent properties,
determines the allowable stress to be.
Some of the newer chemistries of piping materials actually have no perceptibly stronger
strength properties but excel in creep. When they are used in higher temperatures, they have
higher allowable stresses and can require less actual material to make the same hightemperature pipe. It must be pointed out that this is not a free lunchthe base material is
more costly and often it requires a more costly fabrication, but when the total cost is less the
material will be chosen.
The other major set of book sections operate over a very small temperature range, so they
basically work from specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) and control any variation by
factors against that SMYS. In the case of B31.4 and B31.11, they only have a temperature
range up to 250F (121C), whereas B31.8 and ISO 3183 will allow up to 450F (232C), so
they have a temperature correction factor.
Each of the codes establishes a limit on the amount of shear and bearing or compressive
stress that may be used. This is some percentage of one of the allowable stresses that was
already established. And in some manner each code tells you how to use materials that are
not on its preferred list. That manner varies from thou shall not to here is how you compute
the stress for this material.
In this section, the basis for design of wall thickness is reviewed and compared with industry
practice. The codes reviewed are ABS, API, ASME B31, BS8010, DNV and ISO.
Wall thickness selection is one of the most important and fundamental tasks in design of
offshore pipelines. While this task involves many technical aspects related to different design
scenarios, primary design loads relevant to the containment of the internal pressure are as
follows:
- The differential pressure loads
- Longitudinal functional loads
- External impact loads
The current design practice is to limit the hoop stress for design against the differential
pressure, and to limit the equivalent stress for design against combined loads. This practice
has proved to be very safe in general, except when external impact loads are critical to the
integrity of the pipeline. Nevertheless, this practice has been used by the pipeline industry for
59 | P a g e
decades with little change, despite significant improvements and developments in the pipeline
technology. Considering the precise design and effective quality and operational control
achieved by modern industry, and with the availability of new materials, it has been realized
that there is a need to rationalize the wall thickness sizing practice for a safe and costeffective design.
New design codes provide guidance on application of high strength and new materials, as well
as design of high pressure and high temperature pipelines.
Pipe material type, i.e. rigid, flexible, or composite, should be determined considering:
Conveyed fluid properties (sweet or sour) and temperature
Pipe material cost
Installation cost
Operational cost (chemical treatment)
There are several different pipes used in offshore oil & gas transportation as follows:
Low carbon steel pipe
Corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) pipe
Clad pipe
Composite pipe
Flexible pipe
Flexible hose
Coiled tubing
Low Carbon Steel Pipe
Low carbon (carbon content less than 0.29%) steel is mild and has a relatively low tensile
strength so it is used to make pipes. Medium or high carbon (carbon content greater than
0.3%) steel is strong and has a good wear resistance so they are used to make forging,
automotive parts, springs, wires, etc. Carbon equivalent (CE) refers to method of measuring
the maximum hardness and weldability of the steel based on chemical composition of the
steel. Higher C (carbon) and other alloy elements such as Mn (manganese), Cr (chrome), Mo
(molybdenum), V (vanadium), Ni (nickel), Cu (copper), etc. tend to increase the hardness
(harder and stronger) but decrease the weldability (less ductile and difficult to weld). The CE
shall not exceed 0.43% of total components, per API-5L, as expressed below.
(note: IIW = International Institute of Welding)

Pipes are graded per their tensile properties. Grade X-65 means that SMYS (specified
minimum yield strength) of the pipe is 65 ksi. The yield strength is defined as the tensile stress
when 0.5% elongation occurs on the pipe, per API-5L [1]. The DNV code [2] defines the yield
stress as the stress at which the total strain is 0.5%, corresponding to an elastic strain of
approximately 0.2% and a plastic (or residual) strain of 0.3%, as shown in Figure below.
60 | P a g e
Yield stress
In elastic region, when the load is removed, the pipe tends to go back to its origin. If the load
exceeds the elastic limit, the pipe does not go back to its origin when the load is removed.
Instead, the stress reduces the same rate (slope) as the elastic modulus and reaches a
certain strain at zero stress, called a residual strain.
Depending on pipe manufacturing process, there are several pipe types as:
Seamless pipe
DSAW (double submerged arc welding) pipe or UOE pipe
ERW (electric resistant welding) pipe
Seamless pipe is made by piercing the hot steel rod, without longitudinal welds. It is most
expensive but ideal for small diameter, deepwater, or dynamic applications.
DSAW or UOE pipe is made by folding a steel panel with a U press, O press and
expansion (to obtain its final OD dimension).
The longitudinal seam is welded by double (inside and outside) submerged arc welding.
DSAW pipe is produced in sizes from 18" through 80" OD and wall thicknesses from 0.25"
through 1.50".
ERW pipe is cheaper than seamless or DSAW pipe but it has not been widely adopted by
offshore industry, especially for sour or high pressure gas service, due to its variable electrical
contact and inadequate forging upset. However, development of high frequency induction
(HFI) welding enables to produce better quality ERW pipes.
CRA (Corrosion resistant alloy) Pipe
Depending on alloy contents, CRA pipe can be broken into follows:
Stainless steel: 316L, 625 (Inconel), 825, 904L, etc.
Chrome based alloy: 13 Cr, Duplex (22 Cr), Super Duplex (25 Cr), etc.
Nickel based alloy : 36 Ni (Invar) for cryogenic application such as LNG (liquefied
natural gas) transportation (-160 o C)
Titanium: Light weight (56% of steel), high strength (up to 200 ksi tensile), high
corrosion resistance, low elastic modulus, and low thermal expansion, but high cost
(~10 times of steel). Good for high fatigue areas such as riser touchdown region,
stress joint, etc.
61 | P a g e
Aluminum: Light weight (1/3 of steel), low elastic modulus (1/3 of steel), high corrosion
resistance, but low strength (only up to 90 ksi tensile). Applications can include casing,
air can, and risers.
Some key properties of each material are introduced in Table below.
Clad Pipe
Clad pipe is a combination of low carbon steel (outer pipe) and CRA (inner pipe). This pipe
reduces material cost by using a thin wall CRA pipe at inner pipe wall surface to resist internal
corrosion. And the carbon steel outer pipe wall provides structural integrity. Special caution
should be addressed during clad pipe welding to the low carbon steel pipe; since hydrogen
induced cracking (HIC) can occur by dissimilar material welding process.
Composite Pipe
A carbon-fiber or graphite material for small size pipe in low pressure application has been
developed for mostly topside piping and onshore pipeline. However, its application is going to
expand to subsea use due to its excellent corrosion resistant and low thermal expansion.
Flexible Pipe
Flexible pipe consists of steel layers and plastic layers. Each layer is un-bonded and moves
freely from each other. It is known for excellent dynamic behavior due to its flexibility.
However, the flexible pipe size is limited by burst and collapse resistance capacities. The
maximum design temperature is 130 oC due to plastic layers limit.
The maximum pipe size made by the industry is 19 by year 2006. Flexible pipes
manufacturing limit (maximum design pressure) is shown in Figure below.
62 | P a g e
Each steel and plastic layer has a different function as shown in Figure above. For a sour
service, a stainless steel carcass is required. For a water injection line, a smooth plastic bore
can be used. The smooth bore is not normally used for gas applications due to gas
permeation problem. The pressure build-up in the annulus of the pipe can occur due to
diffusion of gas through the plastic sheaths. When no carcass is present, the inner plastic
layer will collapse if the annulus pressure exceeds the bore pressure, such as shut-off case.
To avoid this problem, gas vent valves are installed at end fitting to relieve the annulus
pressure. Rough bore (with carcass) can cause noise and vibrations at high flow velocity.
The high density polyethylene (HDPE) is good for the content temperature of up to 65oC,
Rilsan/nylon for up to 90oC and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) for up to 130oC. PVDF is better
for higher temperatures but it is stiffer than nylon (3% vs. 7% in allowable strain). Another key
component of the flexible pipe is the end fitting (Figure 6.3.0) which is designed to hold all
layers of flexible pipe at each end.
63 | P a g e
Flexible Pipe Structure
Flexible Pipe End Fitting
Composite flexible Pipe

Flexible Hose
Flexible hose is a single body rubber bonded (vulcanized, oven baked) structure, unlike the
flexible pipe which consists of unbonded multiple plastic and steel layers. The flexible hose is
commonly used for topside jumpers, single point mooring (SPM) risers, and surface floating
risers to offload the product from the buoy to FPSO or shuttle tanker (see Figure below)
Flexible hose application

The built in one-piece end couplings with integral built in bend limiters and a composite fire
resistant layer provide a low minimum bend radius, a light compact construction with excellent
flexibility and fatigue resistance. However, there are some manufacturing limits on hose size
and length; the maximum hose size is 30 and the maximum length is 35ft.
64 | P a g e
Pictures of flexible hose application

Coiled Tubing
Coiled tubing (CT) is a continuously milled tubular product reeled on a spool during
manufacturing process. Tubing diameter normally ranges from 0.75 to 6.625 and a single
reel can hold small size tubing lengths in excess of 30,000 ft. the worlds longest continuously
milled CT string is 32,800 ft. of 1.75 diameter. CTs yield strengths range from 55 ksi to 120
ksi [8]. CT has been developed for well service and workover and expanded the applications
to drilling and completion. To perform remedial work on a live well, three components are
required:
CT string: a continuous conduit capable of being inserted into the wellbore
Injector head: a means of running CT string into wellbore while under pressure
Stripper or pack-off: a device providing dynamic seal around the CT string
Some benefits of CT applications are: safe and efficient live well intervention, rapid
mobilization and rig-up resulting in less production downtime, and reduced crew/personnel
requirements, etc.
CT technology can be used for:
Well Unloading
Cleanouts
Acidizing/Stimulation
Velocity Strings
Fishing
Tool Conveyance
Well Logging (real-time & memory)
Setting/Retrieving Plugs
CT Drilling
Fracturing
Deeper Wells
Pipeline/Flowline, etc
65 | P a g e
Coil tubing operations

Understanding the use of Location design class factors
Early editions of the ASME B31.8 Code used the term population density index to determine
design, construction, testing, and operation requirements. They also used the term Location
Class in prescribing design pressure, type of construction, and maximum allowable operating
pressure. To simplify use of this Code, the term population density index was eliminated.
Construction Types A, B, C, and D were eliminated and replaced with the same terminology
used for designlocation class
Location Classes for Design and Construction
(a) Location Class 1. A Location Class 1 is any 1-mile section that has 10 or fewer buildings
intended for human occupancy. A Location Class 1 is intended to reflect areas such as
wasteland, deserts, mountains, grazing land, farmland, and sparsely populated areas.
(1) Class 1, Division 1. This Division is a Location Class 1 where the design factor of the pipe
is greater than 0.72 but equal to or less than 0.80 and has been hydrostatically tested to 1.25
times the maximum operating pressure. (See Table A below for exceptions to design factor.)
Table A
(2) Class 1, Division 2: This Division is a Location Class 1 where the design factor of the pipe
is equal to or less than 0.72 and has been tested to 1.1 times the maximum operating
pressure. (See Table B for exceptions to design factor.)
(b) Location Class 2. A Location Class 2 is any 1-mile section that has more than 10 but fewer
than 46 buildings intended for human occupancy. A Location Class 2 is intended to reflect
areas where the degree of population is intermediate between Location Class 1 and Location
Class 3, such as fringe areas around cities and towns, industrial areas, ranch or country
estates, etc.
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(c) Location Class 3. A Location Class 3 is any 1-mile section that has 46 or more buildings
intended for human occupancy except when a Location Class 4 prevails.
A Location Class 3 is intended to reflect areas such as suburban housing developments,
shopping centers, residential areas, industrial areas, and other populated areas not meeting
Location Class 4 requirements. (d) Location Class 4. Location Class 4 includes areas where
multistory buildings are prevalent, where traffic is heavy or dense, and where there may be
numerous other utilities underground. Multistory means four or more floors above ground
including the first or ground floor. The depth of basements or number of basement floors is
immaterial.
It should be emphasized that Location Class (1, 2, 3, or 4) as described in the previous
paragraphs is defined as the general description of a geographic area having certain
characteristics as a basis for prescribing the types of design, construction, and methods of
testing to be used in those locations or in areas that are comparable. A numbered Location
Class, such as Location Class 1, refers only to the geography of that location or a similar area
and does not necessarily indicate that a design factor of 0.72 will suffice for all construction in
that particular location or area (e.g., in Location Class 2, all aerial crossings require a design
factor of 0.6;
Table B
Understanding Temperature derating factors in Pipeline materials

The different mechanical properties refer to room temperature unless otherwise stated.
The material properties shall be selected with due regard to material type and potential
temperature and/or ageing effects and shall include:
Yield stress
Tensile strength
Young's modulus
Temperature expansion coefficient.
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Difference between ND and NPS with respect to ASME B36.10m

Initially a system known as iron pipe size (IPS) was established to designate the pipe size.
The size represented the approximate inside diameter of the pipe in inches. An IPS 6 pipe is
one whose inside diameter is approximately 6 inches (in).
Users started to call the pipe as 2-in, 4-in, 6-in pipe and so on. To begin, each pipe size was
produced to have one thickness, which later was termed as standard (STD) or standard
weight (STD.WT.). The outside diameter of the pipe was standardized.
As the industrial requirements demanded the handling of higher-pressure fluids, pipes were
produced having thicker walls, which came to be known as extra strong (XS) or extra heavy
(XH). The higher pressure requirements increased further, requiring thicker wall pipes.
Accordingly, pipes were manufactured with double extra strong (XXS) or double extra heavy
(XXH) walls while the standardized outside diameters are unchanged.
With the development of stronger and corrosion-resistant piping materials, the need for thinner
wall pipe resulted in a new method of specifying pipe size and wall thickness. The designation
known as nominal pipe size (NPS) replaced IPS, and the term schedule (SCH) was invented
to specify the nominal wall thickness of pipe.
Nominal pipe size (NPS) is a dimensionless designator of pipe size. It indicates standard pipe
size when followed by the specific size designation number without an inch symbol. For
example, NPS 2 indicates a pipe whose outside diameter is 2.375 in. The NPS 12 and smaller
pipe has outside diameter greater than the size designator (say, 2, 4, 6 . . .). However, the
outside diameter of NPS 14 and larger pipe is the same as the size designator in inches. For
example, NPS 14 pipe has an outside diameter equal to 14 in. The inside diameter will
depend upon the pipe wall thickness specified by the schedule number. Refer to ASME
B36.10M or ASME B36.19M. Refer to App. E2 or E2M.
Diameter nominal (DN) is also a dimensionless designator of pipe size in the metric unit
system, developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
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It indicates standard pipe size when followed by the specific size designation number without
a millimeter symbol. For example, DN 50 is the equivalent designation of NPS 2. Refer to
Table C below for NPS and DN pipe size equivalents.
Table C
Pipe Wall Thickness

Schedule is expressed in numbers (5, 5S, 10, 10S, 20, 20S, 30, 40, 40S, 60, 80, 80S, 100,
120, 140, 160). A schedule number indicates the approximate value of the expression 1000
P/S, where P is the service pressure and S is the allowable stress, both expressed in pounds
per square inch (psi). The higher the schedule number, the thicker the pipe is. The outside
diameter of each pipe size is standardized.
Therefore, a particular nominal pipe size will have a different inside diameter depending upon
the schedule number specified.
Note that the original pipe wall thickness designations of STD, XS, and XXS have been
retained; however, they correspond to a certain schedule number depending upon the
nominal pipe size. The nominal wall thickness of NPS 10 and smaller schedule 40 pipe is
same as that of STD.WT Pipe. Also, NPS 8 and smaller schedule 80 pipe has the same wall
thickness as XS pipe.
The schedule numbers followed by the letter S are per ASME B36.19M, and they are primarily
intended for use with stainless steel pipe. The pipe wall thickness specified by a schedule
number followed by the letter S may or may not be the same as that specified by a schedule
number without the letter S. Refer to ASME B36.19M and ASME B36.10M.10, 11
ASMEB36.19M does not cover all pipe sizes. Therefore, the dimensional requirements of
ASME B36.10M apply to stainless steel pipe of the sizes and schedules not covered by ASME
B36.19M.
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.
The following formula can be used to calculate a pipes inside diameter (ID):
ID = OD minus (2 WALL THICKNESS)
Before selecting pipe, careful consideration must be given to its material, temperature and
pressure allowances, corrosion resistance, and more. Buying and installing pipe that does not
meet the minimum requirements can be dangerous and deadly. Using pipe that far exceeds
what is required to do the job can result in tremendous cost overruns.
Table D
Pipeline classification
It is usual industry practice to classify the pipe in accordance with the pressure temperature
rating system used for classifying flanges. However, it is not essential that piping be classified
as Class 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500. The piping rating must be governed by the
pressure-temperature rating of the weakest pressure containing item in the piping. The
weakest item in a piping system may be a fitting made of weaker material or rated lower due
to design and other considerations.
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Table E lists the standard pipe class ratings based on ASME B16.5 along with corresponding
pression nominal (PN) rating designators. Pression nominal is the French equivalent of
pressure nominal.
In addition, the piping may be classified by class ratings covered by other ASME standards,
such as ASME B16.1, B16.3, B16.24, and B16.42. A piping system may be rated for a unique
set of pressures and temperatures not covered by any standard.
Pression nominal (PN) is the rating designator followed by a designation number, which
indicates the approximate pressure rating in bars. The bar is the unit of pressure, and 1 bar is
equal to 14.5 psi or 100 kilopascals (kPa).
Table E
Design Conditions
The pipeline shall be designed taking into consideration the operating conditions and
requirements over its entire projected life cycle including final abandonment, i.e. the maximum
planned throughput and turn-down, the characteristics of the fluids to be transported, the
pressure and temperature requirements, the mode of operations, the geographic location, and
the environmental conditions.
The design requirements of Pipeline Codes are intended to be adequate for public safety
under all conditions encountered in the gas industry. Conditions that may cause additional
stress in any part of a line or its appurtenances shall be provided for, using good engineering
practice. Examples of such conditions include long self-supported spans, unstable ground,
mechanical or sonic vibration, weight of special attachments, earthquake induced stresses,
stresses caused by temperature differences, and the soil and temperature conditions found in
the Arctic.
Temperature differences shall be taken as the difference between the lowest and highest
expected metal temperature during pressure test and/or operating services having due regard
to past recorded temperature data and the possible effects of lower or higher air and ground
temperature.
The quality of the gas to be transported in the pipeline, or by the pipeline system, shall be
considered when designing facilities.
Fluids to be transported by the pipeline are categorized according to the hazard potential by
the pipeline as given by the table below:
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Gases and liquids not specifically identified in the table above shall be classified in the
category containing substances most similar in the hazard potential to those quoted. If the
fluid category is not clear the most hazardous category shall be assumed.
Measures shall be taken to control or minimize adverse effects of the as properties or gas
composition when any of the following may be a concern:
(1) Gas composition. Uncontrolled or unexpected variations in heating value may result in
problems at the end users burner tip or process. Non-combustible compounds (e.g., nitrogen,
nitrogen compounds, carbon dioxide, etc.) may reduce the heating value and increase the
specific gravity of the gas stream. Carbon dioxide contributes to internal corrosion in the
presence of free water. Increased specific gravity of the gas stream may foretell the
condensing of heavy hydrocarbons at cooler Temperatures which may negatively affect
operations.
A change in specific gravity may affect pipeline and compressor capacity calculations. For
effects of heavy hydrocarbons on the design of pipe for Ductile Fracture Arrest,
(2) Hydrogen sulfide content. Hydrogen sulfide is highly toxic and contributes to corrosion in
the presence of water.
(3) Oxygen content. Oxygen contributes to corrosion problems in the presence of free water
at certain temperatures. Certain mixtures of oxygen and gas above the lower explosive limit
can create an explosive condition.
(4) Water vapor content and free liquids. Free water and hydrocarbons at certain
combinations of pressures and temperatures may produce hydrates, which are crystalline
solids that may cause partial or complete Pipeline blockages that may lead to a disruption of
pipeline operations.
Based on the characteristics of the gas stream (i.e., heating value, specific gravity,
temperature, free liquid, odorization, impurities, and other objectionable substances)
appropriate precautions shall be considered to address any problems that might adversely
affect the pipeline system or the end user.
The most significant factor contributing to the failure of a gas pipeline is damage to the line
caused by the activities of people along the route of the line. Damage will generally occur
during construction of other facilities associated with providing the services associated with
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human dwellings and commercial or industrial enterprises. These services, such as water, gas
and electrical supply, sewage systems, drainage lines and ditches, buried power and
communication cables, streets and roads, etc., become more prevalent and extensive, and
the possibility of damage to the pipeline becomes greater with larger concentrations of
buildings intended for human occupancy.
Pipeline systems shall be classified into location classes, as stated in the table below:
Pipeline shall be based on potential failure, safety class may vary for different phases and
location.
Determining the Location Class provides a method of assessing the degree of exposure of the
line to damage.
A pipeline designed, constructed, and operated in accordance with the requirements of
Location Class 1 is basically safe for pressure containment in any location; however,
additional measures are necessary to protect the integrity of the line in the presence of
activities that might cause damage.
For normal use the safety classes below apply:
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One of the measures required by ASME B31.8 Code is to lower the stress level in relation to
increased public activity. This activity is quantified by determining Location Class and relating
the design of the pipeline to the appropriate design factor.
(d) Early editions of this ASME B31.8 Code used the term population density index to
determine design, construction, testing, and operation requirements. They also used the term
Location Class in prescribing design pressure, type of construction, and maximum allowable
operating pressure. To simplify use of this Code, the term population density index was
eliminated. Construction Types A, B, C, and D were eliminated and replaced with the same
terminology used for designlocation class.
Calculating Pressure containment wall thickness using the Barlow equation
The design pressure for steel gas piping systems or the nominal wall thickness for a given
design pressure shall be determined by the following formula:
Where:
D= nominal outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
E= longitudinal joint factor obtained below from Table 841.115A of the ASME B31.8 code
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F = design factor stated in table B of the manual , obtained from ASME B31.8 code In setting
the values of the design factor, F, due consideration has been given and allowance has been
made for the various underthickness tolerances provided for in the pipe specifications listed
and approved for usage in this Code.
P= design pressure, psig (kPa) usually an allowable margin of 1.1 or 1.05 of the operating
pressure.
S= specified minimum yield strength, psi (MPa), stipulated in the specifications under which
the pipe was purchased from the manufacturer.
T = temperature derating factor obtained from Table 841.116A of the ASME B31.8 code
t = nominal wall thickness, in. (mm)

Calculating Pressure containment wall thickness for Pipeline bends
One can ask about the difference between elbows and pipe bends. The answer is relatively
simple: Elbows are by definition covered by some standard. As such, they have limitations as
to size, bend radius, and resulting angle, usually 90 or 45. Any other similar product is a pipe
bend.
There are two basic criteria to determine an allowable pipe thickness.
These criteria can be utilized to determine if the resulting bend is compliant with the code.
They are based on the fact that that as the pipe is bent two things happen:
1. On the extrados the wall of the pipe thins by some amount dependent on the bend radius.
2. On the intrados the opposite occurs and is also dependent on the bend radius.
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For the intrados (inside bend radius),
For the extrados (outside bend radius),

Where I = 1.0 at the sidewall on the bend centreline radius
R1 = bend radius of pipe bend, in. (mm)
Pipeline Limit State Design Criteria
Limit states design codes have come into common usage over the last twenty years for many
types of structures, including buildings, offshore structures, bridges, and nuclear containment
structures. More recently, this development has been extended to pipelines. A limit states
design approach is used in: the new DnV Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems;
The DnV offshore pipeline code has been calibrated using reliability analysis methods, with
some consideration given to accidental impact, under internal pressure loading (Collberg et
al., 1997).
With respect to reliability analysis being used to justify higher than code-specified design
factors, an important precedent is the Britannia gas export line (185 km) in the UK North Sea.
Which operates at a design factor of 0.81 (i.e., 81% SMYS, based on minimum wall
thickness). This operating stress is based on a reliability-based, limit state design which was
accepted by the UK pipeline regulatory authority (Health and Safety Executive) on a project
specific basis (Mckinnon et al., 1996).
Although reliability and risk is currently part of any pipeline projects standard lexicon, along
with estimation tools and procedures, it is considered unlikely that a Limit State Design
approach methodology would be bypassed in favor of a direct reliability-based design, at least
at this time. It is likely that at least for the near future, the chief role for reliability-based
approaches will be to support the development of Limit State Design methodologies.
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Even though the definition of the pipeline Limit States is fairly objective in concept, design for
many operating loads would not want to push right to these limits since there is always some
associated uncertainty with the loads and load estimation procedures. Similarly, there is some
uncertainty associated with the values of the limit states themselves (e.g., tensile strain at
rupture). Thus, appropriate and acceptable factors of safety are required as in any code
development. The Load factors are one or greater; that is, the demand on the pipeline due to
the loading is increased to account for uncertainty in the loading and analysis. The Resistance
factors on the capacity are one or less; that is, the capacity of the pipeline to resist a loading is
decreased to account for uncertainty in failure predictions.
It is the selection of these applicable factors for strain as well as strain capacity that require
further consideration. The first question to ask is: What is the basis for selection? Theory
states that such factors can be selected to minimize to some acceptable level the combined
risk of failure for the operational pipeline for the design life; however, this merely centralizes
the problem to: What is acceptable risk? Thus, the problem involves not only a quantitative
evaluation of the probability for the Load to exceed the limit state value, but also development
of an acceptable target for this probability of exceedence. This is always a very difficult
concept to rationalize since the discussion of what is an acceptable reliability target
necessarily involves discussion of societal acceptance of risk from infrastructure projects. It is
likely best resolved, as has been proposed in the work conducted in support of Annex O, by
calibration against existing pipeline designs in each class location.
There are additional complications for direct use of a reliability-based approach to design,
including consideration of site-specific hazards, again related to acceptable reliability targets.
Even after an overall system reliability target is developed, how would that target be used in
any site-specific hazard investigation using a reliability-based approach?
Finally, and as a practical consideration, formal reliability approaches, although rapidly
becoming developed and accepted, are the domain of specialty consultants. For final design
and construction bid directions, field change design, and operational engineering, rule-based
project criteria are unavoidable to ensure project uniformity by a large and diverse user group.
Reliability-based design, at the current time, has neither broadly acceptable tools for pipeline
and construction engineers, nor a broad-based understanding of requirements. Thus, for the
foreseeable reliability-based approaches can be generally expected to be used to formulate
and calibrate allowable stress and/or strain-based limit state design criteria and codes, rather
than used as a direct project evaluation methodology for design. On the other hand, increased
use of reliability-based approaches, involving specialty consultants, should be expected to be
employed in operational considerations that involve judging acceptability of unique or evolving
route conditions not originally anticipated by design.
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Introduction to HT Pipelines
Pipeline design for high temperature may involve plastic strain in the hoop direction. The risk
of ratcheting failure has been considered for some designs. Ratcheting is a process whereby
cyclic and asymmetric loads are applied into the plastic range and the total plastic deformation
increases with each cycle until a failure limit is reached. Here, asymmetric means that the
maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle are not equal in magnitude but are of opposite
sign.
DNV 2000(1) requires that operating temperature and design pressure shall cause plastic
deformation only on the first cycle of operation.
Operation at high temperature relative to the original laying temperature may provide a
sufficient source of compressive force that a pipeline laid on the seabed can buckle like a bar
in compression. Such a global buckling mode may involve upward motion as in upheaval
buckling, downward motion at a free span or lateral motion.
The lateral buckling modes are easier to excite than vertical modes on a flat seabed.
Estimates of the axial and bending stresses induced within the buckles suggest that these can
be large enough to cause concern for local buckling within the larger global buckle.
Bucking resistance is a function of the material and pipe configuration, so that flowlines with
low diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios can be designed to avoid local buckling within such a
global buckle.
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For buried pipe or pipe with a weight covering, for example, dumped rock or concrete
mattresses, the direction of least constraint for buckling will be upward or downward in a
covered free span. Cyclic forces that induce buckling may allow a buried pipeline to move
upward through the covering layer. This has been dubbed upheaval creep.
Verification checks for HP/HT related upheaval buckling of onshore pipelines
When a pipeline is subjected to an axial load, the pipe will tend to move in the vertical plane or
along the trench side slope when the pipe is not covered.
This phenomenon is called upheaval buckling (offshore) or overbend instability (onshore). The
pipeline response might then be unacceptable in terms of vertical displacements (the pipe
protruding through the cover or moving out of the trench), excessive yielding of the pipe
material, or both. Upheaval buckling is hence a failure mode that has to be taken into account
for the design of trenched and buried pipelines operating at elevated temperatures.
A simplified calculation method is detailed below.
The additional symbols used are:
c = soil cover shear strength [kPa]
Do = pipe outside diameter over coatings [m]
f = uplift coefficient
H = soil cover from top of pipe to surface [m]
min = the smaller of the two values
Wins = installation submerged weight [kN/m]
Wsub = operating submerged weight [kN/m]
= soil submerged weight [kN/m3]
f = foundation imperfection height [m]
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The axial compressive driving force is:

Peff = EA (T2 T1) + Rm2 (1 - 2) p
The uplift resistance in cohesionless soil or rock fragments is:
Weff = Wsub + Do H (1 + f H/Do)
The uplift coefficient f should be taken as 0.5 for dense sand or rock cover and as 0.1 for
loose sand.
The uplift resistance in cohesive soil is:
Weff = Wsub + c Do min {3, H/Do}
The required downward force is given by:
Wreq = [1.13-(4.76/Peff)(EI Wins/f)1/2] Peff (f Wins/EI) 1/2
The foundation profile imperfection height f is a measure of the roughness of the seabed.
The recommended value for design purposes is 0.3 [m].
To prevent upheaval buckling the uplift resistance Weff should exceed the required downward
force Wreq.
Mitigations for HT related upheaval buckling defects
1. Changes in operating parameters
The first option is plainly to reduce the operating pressure p and the temperature increase .
The costs of preventing upheaval buckling are high and should be considered when defining
the optimum project parameters which include pipeline operating pressures and temperatures.
However, it may be occasionally possible to reduce them, for example by omitting external
insulation to reduce the temperature, or by taking action to reduce the design pressure.
Design shall not be based on overconservative choices of operating parameters.
2. Reduction in wall thickness
The temperature term in the longitudinal force equation is proportional to the wall thickness t.
This indicates that it is advantageous to reduce the wall thickness to the minimum possible.
This is true even though there is another effect on the flexural stiffness EI, which appears later
in the analysis and is proportional to t. The adverse effect on EI is outweighed by the
beneficial effect on the longitudinal force Ne.
Reduction in wall thickness is a major topic in design generally, because it almost always
reduces costs. The principal ideas that should be considered are:
1. Increase in steel grade, i.e. the use of higher-strength steels
2. Adopting allowable-strain design.
Codes formerly imposed a limit on equivalent stress, intended to prevent the pipeline from
yielding under longitudinal compressive stress induced by temperature increases. This
limitation governed the wall thickness for lines that operate at high temperatures, and led to
substantial increases in wall thickness. Research in recent years has shown that the
traditional requirement on equivalent stress may be replaced by a new and in practice much
less restrictive condition on strain (8.5). This option is now accepted by several design codes.
3. Increased residual tension
Another option is to increase the residual tension TR. The as-laid tension is the horizontal
component of the laybarge or reelship tension applied at the surface.
That tension can be increased, but there are practical limitations, among them:
80 | P a g e
1. Possible external coating damage;

2. Possible limitations of the mooring or DP (dynamic positioning) system of the vessel;
3. A long distance between the vessel and the touchdown point.
In practice increases in applied tension are usefully significant only for small-diameter lines.
For example, the relatively small line used in the numerical example in (2.2) would normally
be laid with an applied tension of the order of 500 kN, which is only one-fifth of the longitudinal
force induced by the operating conditions. In a large pipeline the longitudinal force induced by
the operating conditions might be 10 MN, in comparison with which a residual tension of 0.5
MN is only marginally useful.
4. Increased flexibility
The longitudinal compressive force can be reduced from its fully-constrained value by allowing
expansion movements to occur. This can be accomplished by expansion doglegs, or by
expansion loops (at the ends, or as midline expansion spools), by laying the pipeline in a
snaked or zig-zag configuration, or by laying the pipeline in a curve and allowing it to move
outward on the curve, or sometimes by allowing the pipe to buckle laterally. The effect will
only occur if the pipeline is able to move. The movements shall be calculated to make certain
that excessive bending or torsion does not occur in the pipeline, particularly if a nearby section
of the pipeline is anchored or constrained against lateral or longitudinal movements.
5. Alternative pipeline concepts
A radical response to an upheaval problem is to change the design completely. All radical
options have wider implications beyond upheaval, and those implications naturally have to be
considered.
One option is to make the pipeline a flexible. Flexibles are subject to upheaval buckling, but
their upheaval is principally determined by the pressure term in the driving force equation and
the temperature plays little part. The magnitude of this term is heavily dependent on the
details of construction of the flexible, and the propensity to buckle can be reduced by detailed
design. The driving force Ne and flexural rigidity EI can most reliably be determined by the
Manufacturer, and can then be put into the governing equations.
Upheaval can be countered by detailed design and by trenching the line under pressure.
The line is laid and then pressurised, so that it buckles laterally, and next trenched while under
pressure. Depressurisation leaves a residual tension in the line. Repressurisation to the
trenching pressure does not cause any tendency to buckle further.
Another option is to incorporate the line into a bundle. Most bundles are constructed within a
carrier pipe, and connected to it at the ends by stiff bulkheads. The internal lines carry
pressure, and usually operate at a higher temperature than the sea. The annular space is
generally pressurised, but to a much lower pressure than the internal lines, and is at or close
to the sea temperature. If the internal lines and the carrier were all free to expand
longitudinally, the internals would expand more than the carrier. Since the bulkheads prevent
relative movements at the ends, the internal lines are put into compression and the carrier into
tension. The bundle as a whole expands longitudinally, but its expansion is resisted by seabed
friction.
The resultant force across the bundle as a whole is compressive, but buckling does not
generally occur because of the high flexural rigidity provided by the carrier. In addition,
bundles in carriers are not generally trenched, so that they would buckle sideways rather than
upwards.
More commonly, one or more of the internal lines may be designed to deflect laterally within
the carrier. The extent of lateral deflection depends on the distance between spacers and
bulkheads. A strain criterion may be applied as lateral buckling is self-limiting.
81 | P a g e
6. Leaving the pipeline untrenched and allowing lateral buckling

Buried and trenched pipelines buckle upwards, because they can more easily move upwards
(against their own weight and the uplift resistance of the cover) than sideways or downwards
(against the much greater passive resistance of the soil beneath and to the side). An unburied
untrenched pipeline, on the other hand, buckles sideways more easily than upwards, because
if it moves sideways it only has to overcome the sliding lateral resistance of the soil, which is
almost always less than the resistance to upward movement Lateral buckling frequently
occurs in untrenched submarine pipelines and often goes unrecognised, because the
movements occur over relatively long distances and are not accompanied by localised
distress (8.9 and 8.10). Lateral buckling is often harmless, and even beneficial if it relieves
longitudinal forces that might otherwise lead to upheaval elsewhere. It is often possible to
demonstrate by calculation that though the pipeline is in a technical sense buckled it is not at
risk from collapse, local buckling of the pipe wall, lowcycle fatigue or rupture.
The interaction between the longitudinal compressive force and local impact from fishing gear
may trip a small-diameter pipeline into a buckled configuration, and unacceptably large
deformations may occur at the impact point. Lateral buckling is a difficult subject and specialist
advice should be obtained.
7. Selective rock dump or mattress stabilisation on identified critical overbends
Buckling occurs at high points in the pipeline profile. A straightforward option is therefore to
hold down the pipeline at the high points, by placing rock over it. The required total downward
force is determined by the equations above. The submerged weight provides part of it, and the
remainder is supplied by the uplift resistance of the cover rock. The relationship given relates
the uplift resistance to the depth of cover and the rock properties.
The crux of the problem is the ability to locate and measure the critical overbends confidently.
The method discussed in this Section uses much less rock than continuous rock dump, and
so the engineer can afford to choose the depth of cover generously.
Rock alone is not very efficient, because it is difficult to place it precisely and because the
uplift resistance corresponds to the submerged weight of the volume of rock between two
inclined planes which leave the pipe at the 3 and 9 o'clock positions and are inclined outwards
at about 30 to the vertical. The rock outside those planes does not directly contribute to the
uplift resistance, but is needed to support the rock between the planes.
The effectiveness of rock dumping can be much enhanced by laying a structural geotextile
across the pipeline before placing the rock. The rock on either side then holds down the
geotextile, so that as the pipeline starts to move upward the geotextile develops tension which
adds to the uplift resistance. Laboratory scale tests show that even a modest width of
geotextile at least doubles the uplift resistance. A simple calculation shows that the additional
uplift resistance r' secured by a total breadth b of geotextile is approximately
Where:
rI is the additional uplift resistance per unit length;
is the submerged unit weight of the rock;
is the coefficient of friction between the rock and the upper surface of the geotextile;
I is the coefficient of friction between the seabed and the lower surface of the geotextile;
b is the breadth of the geotextile (measured transverse to the pipeline);
82 | P a g e
H is the cover (measured from the top of the pipe, as described in (2.4));
D is the pipe outside diameter,
and the weight of the geotextile itself is neglected. This equation probably underestimates the
additional uplift resistance, because incipient movement of the geotextile increases the
horizontal compressive stress in the rock above the pipeline and therefore increases its
resistance to shear: this effect still has to be fully investigated.
This option has not been applied underwater to suppress upheaval, as far as is known, but
geotextiles have been used underwater. The geotextile has to retain a strength of 0.5 r' per
unit length over a long period in seawater, without significant extension in creep. There has
been much research on the long-term strength of geotextiles, mostly for civil engineering
applications with much longer design lives.
Some contractors have found that they can place mattresses over a pipeline as cheaply as
dumping rock over it. This can be interpreted as another application of a geotextile, this time
heavy rather than light. The full weight of a mattress is only applied to the pipeline after a
considerable upward movement. A simple model treats the mattress as infinitely flexible,
inextensible and uniform in weight. The uplift resistance when upward movement begins is:
Further design alternatives

8. Continuous rock dump
If the critical overbends cannot be identified confidently, a practicable but expensive option is
to rock-dump the whole length. This has been done on a few occasions. The engineer has to
decide on the uplift resistance from an assessment of the profile, based on whatever data can
be obtained. The cost is highly sensitive to the precise cover requirement.
Cost analyses have shown that if continuous rock dumping is selected it can be more
economical to lay the pipe, trench it and then to dump rock over the trenched pipeline, rather
than to rock-dump over the pipeline on the natural seabed. This is because the savings from
the reduced quantity of rock needed to secure a specified cover over a pipe in a trench more
than outweigh the additional cost of trenching.
9. Allowing the pipe to buckle and then stabilising unacceptable upheavals
It has been argued that the most economical option is to do nothing to prevent upheaval
buckling, to put the line into operation, and then to stabilise any sections that show upheaval.
The extent of deformation during upheaval can be calculated using finite-element programs, if
the plastic strains that develop in the pipe are acceptable, the pipeline has not suffered any
loss of integrity, and it can remain in service. If the upheaval leaves a raised loop of pipeline
above the seabed, the loop can be stabilised and protected by careful rock dumping.
No operator is known to have consciously adopted this strategy as a matter of policy, but
many operators have stabilised buckles after they have occurred. The environmental,
contractual, cost, political and risk implications of deliberately choosing not to take action until
a buckle has occurred clearly need to be examined very carefully.
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10. Zig-zag Pipelaying

Another option is deliberately to construct the line out of straight, in order to encourage it to
flex sideways. This is normally only an option for untrenched lines, because a trenched line
cannot move significantly without moving out of the trench.
An ambitious application of this concept was by Shell Oil in the Mobile Bay project, which is in
very shallow water. Each 12 m length of pipeline had a central 8 bend, and the lengths were
welded together on the laybarge and lowered over a specially-constructed stinger into a wide
trench. In operation the pipeline flexed sideways at the vertices of the zig-zag. This option is
practicable, but it has several disadvantages:
- The cost of bending each length of pipe;
- The added complexity of line-up, because the pipe cannot be rotated to minimise high-lows
due to ovalisation;
- The added difficulty of laying, because of the added width of stinger needed, and the
difficulty of applying tension.
These factors make this option unattractive except in shallow water where tension is not
required. Alternatively, the zig-zag bends can be introduced by hydraulic jacking on the
laybarge.
Another option is to zig-zag or snake the pipe during laying. This happens anyway, because a
laybarge does not hold a perfectly straight course, and there are excursions away from a
perfect line or curve. Just as vertical profile excursions of the order of 0.1 m have a significant
effect on upheaval, so must horizontal excursions of the same order have a significant effect
on lateral buckling. They are much too small to be detected by conventional survey methods,
but can be picked up by the geometry pig.
The data required for design are easily extracted from geometry pig surveys carried out for
other purposes.
11. Route selection
A pipeline laid along an uneven profile is much more subject to upheaval than a pipeline laid
along a smooth profile. Long gentle variations in height, however large they are, have much
less effect than short sudden variations in height. It may be possible to reduce the problem by
careful route selection, both on the macroscale and the microscale, and to avoid features such
as:
1. Pockmarks and plough marks;
2. Sand waves;
3. Mega ripples;
4. Boulder fields;
5. Coral reefs, pinnacles and hummocks.
12. Profile smoothing
A pipeline route can be smoothed by "pre-sweeping" dredging. This is sometimes done to
reduce spans, but is an expensive option.
An alternative is to smooth the pipeline profile during trenching. Most trenching operations
leave the profile of the base of the trench smoother than the original seabed profile, and
eliminate short-wavelength irregularities. Given good data about the seabed profile, it is
possible to control the trenching depth so as to trench more deeply on the hills and less
deeply in the valleys, within the limitations of the trenching equipment.
Another alternative is to carry out an as-laid or as-trenched survey, and then to return to
smooth the profile by additional trenching at high points, possibly as a combined operation
with span correction.
84 | P a g e
13. Preheating, lateral buckling and subsequent trenching

A further option is to heat the line so that it buckles laterally, and then to trench it in the
buckled position. If the heating is to a high enough temperature, the additional longitudinal
force during operation is not enough to cause upheaval from the trenched position.
14. Increasing the weight of the pipeline
A possible option is to secure resistance to upward movement by the weight of the pipeline
itself, and therefore simply to make the pipeline heavier. This is significant in marginal cases,
but is not an efficient way of stabilising a whole pipeline.
Basis for Pipeline On Bottom Stability
A pipeline resting on the sea bed is subjected to forces resulting from steady currents and
waves. To ensure that these forces do not cause the line to be displaced, a concrete weight
coating usually has to be applied.
The minimum coating thickness can be determined from the minimum required submerged
weight calculated as shown below.
85 | P a g e
For gas-filled pipe it can also be determined as a function of pipe diameter from the graphs
shown below.
Graph A1
86 | P a g e
Graph A2
87 | P a g e
Graph A3
88 | P a g e
Having determined the ratio concrete thickness/pipe diameter, the graphs above enable the
submerged weight per metre coated pipe to be estimated
Calculation of the Required Submerged Weight
The symbols used in the calculations described below,
Active and Reactive Forces Working on Pipe
Wave Induced and Steady Current Velocity

The water velocity, as used here, represents the horizontal velocity component perpendicular
to the pipeline caused by steady current, waves or both combined.
The wave induced velocity is defined by:
vwi = vwi Sin t (2)
For bottom stability purposes the significant wave height, e.g. of the once per hundred year
storm, is used to determine the maximum of the wave induced velocity at pipe level which the
pipeline has to survive. This maximum is given by:
89 | P a g e
This formula assumes a velocity profile with fully developed velocity at 1.5 m from the bottom.
The total velocity at pipe level is:
vtot = vwi + vst
To determine the wavelength as a function of the wave period or the formula below
Equilibrium Equation
If the pipe is in equilibrium:
The maximum of equation above gives the minimum required submerged weight for lateral
stability of the pipeline.
When the pipeline is laid on a slope with angle (), this maximum has to be increased to:
Recommendations on Velocities and Coefficients

Velocities
Gas-filled pipe:
The steady current velocity should be the maximum expected in 100 years. The wave induced
velocity amplitude should be derived from the significant wave height of the once per 100 year
storm (vwi).
Oil-filled pipe:
During laying period: For the air-filled line on the bottom the steady current velocity should be
the maximum expected in 1 year (vst); the wave induced velocity should be derived from the
maximum significant wave height in the heaviest storm expected to occur in one year (vwi).
For the period of operation: The steady current velocity and the wave induced velocity should
be derived as for gas-filled pipe, but in calculating the required concrete thickness the weight
of the line-fill should be taken into account.
90 | P a g e
Coefficients
Table below gives the coefficients recommended for use in the formulae of.
1) These values for CD and CL are in principle only valid for diameters below Dn 300(12in.) or
for velocities above 2 m/s. For larger diameters or lower velocities CD and CL vary with the
Keulegan-Carpenter number (KC = vtot T/Do) and may be considerably higher. In that case
the advice of specialists is required, although the above values can give a sensitivity check for
calculation purposes.
2) The recommended value for the friction is for general use. In specific cases it may be
required to determine the friction of the soil by friction tests, e.g. for liquefied clay soils (f) may
be considerably lower.
Required Concrete Thickness
The required thickness of the concrete coating can also be determined from
Graph A1, which is valid for the following conditions:
1. Pipeline is laid on a horizontal bottom
2. Pipeline is only filled with gas
3. Pipeline is continuously supported on the bottom
4. Friction factor against lateral sliding (f) is 1.0
5. The forces induced by the current are evaluated following Morison's equation using for the
different cases the coefficients from Table above and a wave period (T) of 10 s.
Pipeline Rail and Road Crossing
Wherever possible, installation of road crossings should be carried out by the uncased
method. On minor roads this can be achieved by open-cutting the road but on major trunk
roads or other heavily utilised roads the thrust bore technique is used. Normally the local
legislative authority will dictate which roads can be open-cut and which are to be thrust bored.
Extra wall thickness may be required in some cases to overcome additional external loading
problems and this should be identified at the design stage. Alternatively local legislative
authorities may stipulate the use of extra wall thickness pipe at certain road crossings.
Rail crossings generally have to be constructed by the bored technique and again the
uncased crossing method is preferred, however, it is very common for railway companies to
insist on the installation of cased crossings. Where such crossings are to be used, it is
essential to ensure that the pipeline is adequately supported on either side of the crossing
such that settlement of the carrier pipe and hence direct contact with the casing pipe is
avoided. An additional problem associated with cased crossings is the ineffectiveness of the
cathodic protection system to protect the carrier pipe inside the casing.
Recommendations on pipeline crossings of roads and railways are contained in API RP 1102.
91 | P a g e
Reference figure API RP 1102
92 | P a g e
93 | P a g e
94 | P a g e
Pipeline soil weight and Road crossing calculations
L = wheel load, N
w = pipe load, N/m
D = outside pipe diameter, m
t = pipe wall thickness, m
E = Young's modulus, Pa
p = Internal pressure, Pa
Cd = load coeff. (See Table G)
BD = width of trench at pipe top, m
H = depth of pipe top, m
Kb and Kz are coefficients defined by trench type (see Table F)
If = impact factor (see Table F)
s = soil weight, N.m-3
Table F
Table G
95 | P a g e
Unstable Soil Conditions

Soils with low load-bearing capacity may exist for considerable distances along a pipeline
route. To be able to install the pipeline, special provisions may be necessary to support
construction equipment and to maintain the ditch open for sufficient time to install the pipeline.
Such measures may include construction of log rip-rap' access roads and well pointing or
ground dewatering. Alternatively the construction of channels for floating the pipeline into
position or even canals for the use of floating equipment may be necessary particularly in
swamp areas.
A further problem with this type of soil, particularly if it is saturated with water, is the buoyancy
of the installed pipeline which can cause the pipe to float to the surface after installation. This
is particularly relevant for larger diameter and/or gas pipelines.
Weighting or anchoring of the pipe may be necessary in order to maintain the pipeline at the
buried depth although in some cases backfilling with specially imported material can be
carried out. Weighting of pipelines can be achieved either by a continuous concrete weight
coating or by bolt-on or set-on gravity weights. Set-on gravity weights of concrete are the most
economical of the gravity anchors; however, great care is necessary in both their design and
installation to protect the pipeline against possible damage.
Mechanical anchoring, using the steel auger type of anchor, is probably the most economic
method of anchoring pipelines over extended lengths. The steel anchors are driven into the
ground alongside the pipeline and attached to the pipe with some sort of strap. Mechanical
anchors achieve their holding power from the shear strength of the soil. Where used it is
necessary to test their hold-down capacity after installation to determine their adequacy. If
necessary anchors must be driven to a greater depth or alternatively additional anchors
installed to achieve the overall hold-down capacity required.
A disadvantage of mechanical anchors is that different soil types may require differently
designed anchors and installation in areas containing rock or boulders is difficult.
96 | P a g e
Of the methods available for weighting or anchoring pipe to maintain the required depth, the
continuous concrete weight coat is the most reliable, albeit the most expensive, to install.
Before selecting a method for anchoring it is essential to conduct a thorough investigation
along the pipeline route of the soil type, strength and any other tests pertinent to anchor
design.
Pipeline Upheaval Buckling calculations
Upheaval buckling occurs in buried pipelines that operate at high temperatures and pressures.
The pipelines can be deformed to an unacceptable extent, and/or the buckle may move it into
a position in which it is exposed to other kinds of damage.
Assessment of whether or not there is a risk of upheaval is normally carried out as follows:
Calculation of driving force
Determination of the total downward force required for the pipeline to stay in
position without upheaval
Calculation of the available downward force (sum of pipeline weight and uplift
resistance)
Comparison between the required downward force and the available downward
force
Calculation of equivalent stress in the pipeline
A longitudinally-compressed pipeline tends to lift upwards on overbends ("hills") in the profile,

and to move downwards on sagbends ("valleys"). As there is more resistance to downward
movement than to upward movement, this may lead to upheaval.
Upheaval analysis
Calculation of axial driving force
The axial force P is the sum of 4 components:
P1, the residual effective lay tension
P2, the change in axial force induced by Hydrotesting
P3, the pressure component induced by operating conditions
P4, the temperature component induced by the operating conditions
The total axial force is given by the following relationship:
Ptotal P1 P2 P3 P4
97 | P a g e
P1 and P2 components are ignored in the analysis.

The pressure component, P3, is calculated by the following formula (based on restrained
condition):
P3
Di2
4
1 2 pi pe
Where:
pi
design maximum internal pressure
pe
design maximum external pressure
Poissons ratio
Di
internal diameter
The temperature component, P4, is calculated by the following formula (based on restrained
condition):
P4 EA Tm Ti
Where:
Tm
maximum operating temperature
Ti
installation temperature (sea temperature)
linear thermal expansion coefficient
Youngs modulus
steel pipe area
2
steel
Di2
Dsteel
pipe outer diameter
Di
pipe inner diameter
Calculation of uplift resistance

For buried pipelines, the upward resistance force, F is calculated by the following equations:
For non-cohesive cover (eg. sand, gravel or crushed rock) the resistance force F is given by:
F Wsub qnc
Where
Wsub
pipeline operating submerged weight
qnc
the uplift resistance of the over-burden
98 | P a g e
Deff H 1 f H D
eff
cover submerged weight
cover (from top of pipe to surface)
uplift coefficient
0.5 for dense sand, rock cover
0.1 for loose sand
effective diameter (incl. coating etc)
Deff
For cohesive cover (eg. clay, silt and mud) the resistance force F is given by:
F Wsub qc
Where
qc
the uplift resistance of the over-burden
cDeff min 3, H
D
eff
cover shear strength.
CALCULATION OF REQUIRED UPLIFT RESISTANCE

For buried pipelines, the required downward force, W req is given by:
4.76
EIWinst
hWinst

Wreq 1.16
Ptotal
h
EI
Ptotal
Where
Winst
pipeline installation submerged weight
Ptotal
axial force in operation, as defined earlier
EI
pipeline flexural rigidity
imperfection height
A comparison between the required and actual uplift resistance is expressed as a safety
factor, SF:
SF F
Wreq
If SF is less than one, the pipeline is in danger of upheaval buckling. An SF of 1.5 is

recommended for the required downward force, W req.
Calculation of equivalent stress
The calculation of equivalent stress in the Flowline is performed to determine if the induced
compressive forces overstress the material of the Flowline. It should be noted that even if
upheaval buckling does not occur, the Flowline material might be stressed beyond the code
allowable stress limits.
99 | P a g e
Hoop stress
The circumferential stress is calculated using the formula:
H Pi Pe
Where:
Pi
=
Pe
=
D
=
t
=
D
2t
internal pressure
external pressure
outside diameter of pipe
nominal wall thickness
Longitudinal stress
Longitudinal compressive stress, L is given by
Ptotal 4 Di p 0.231Peff hDsteel

L
A
2I
Where:
p
=
Peff
=
100 | P a g e
pressure differential
effective axial force
PIPELINE MECHANICAL DESIGN 2

Major design considerations for strength, stability, and installation for offshore
Pipelines
Requirements for Offshore Pipeline wall thickness calculations and collapse check,
with reference to chapter VIII of ASME B31.8 code, chapter IX of ASME B31.4 code, APP
and the DNV OS F101
Design factors for offshore steel pipelines
NOTE 1: Because of operational/construction activities, pipelines are more exposed close to

platforms. Therefore, it is recommended to apply the riser design factor to a length of pipeline
on the seabed next to the platform equivalent to the water depth.
NOTE 2: Fabricated assemblies include pig traps, valve assemblies, headers, finger type
slugcatchers, subsea assemblies, etc., on the platform or at its immediate vicinity, e.g. within a
distance equivalent to the water depth.
Steel quality
Pipelines are commonly constructed with linepipe in steel grades X42 to X65 as defined in API
Spec 5L. Lower grades such as Grade B and higher grades may be appropriate in some
cases. Experience within international industry is presently limited up to and including X70 and
problems have been encountered in the industry for higher grades (hydrogen embrittlement
caused by cathodic protection, weldability, required tensile to yield ratio). Use of grades X80
and above should at present be avoided.
Appropriate Derating factors, in accordance with Table 841.116A of ANSI/ASME B31.8,
should be used for pipelines operating at high temperatures.
For the sections of pipelines in locations where they may be exposed to pool or jet fires,
reducing the strength properties of high yield material, the material grade should not exceed
X52. If higher grades are used, X52 yield strength should be assumed, unless measures are
taken to protect the pipe section against exposure to (pool/jet) fire.
Attention shall be given to the fracture toughness properties of pipe material for gas pipelines
to prevent the possibility of long running fractures. This is particularly critical when low
temperatures are possible, e.g. downstream of pressure reduction stations and at exposed
above ground locations.
Pipe wall thickness design
Pipe wall thickness (WT) should be checked for;
- Internal pressure (burst)
101 | P a g e
- External pressure (collapse/buckle propagation)

- bending buckling
- Combined load
Also the calculated pipe WT should be checked for thermal expansion, on-bottom stability for
submerged pipe, free spanning, and installation stress.
Internal Pressure (Burst) Check
Pipe should carry the internal fluid safely without bursting. Design factor (inverse of safety
factor) used for burst pressure check (hoop stress) varies due to the pipe application; oil or
gas and pipeline or riser. The 0.72 design factor means a 72% of pipe SMYS shall be used in
pipe strength design. Riser is required to use a lower design factor than the flowline/pipeline.
This is because the riser is attached to a fixed or floating structure and risers failure may
damage the structure and cost human lives unlike the pipeline failure. Moreover, gas riser
uses lower design factor than the oil riser, since gas is a compressed fluid so gas risers
failure is more dangerous than oil risers failure.
For Offshore application, the external hydrostatic pressure should be accounted for by using
P instead of P.
P
= (internal pressure)max external pressuremin = P i_max - Po_min
For the above example, the external pressure is zero at the platform, so there is no change in
WT calculation.
The above thin wall pipe formula assumes uniform hoop stress across the pipe wall and gives
a conservative result (high hoop stress). However, the hoop stress is not uniform and it is
maximum at inner surface and minimum at outer surface as shown in Figure below.
Therefore, a closed form solution of thick wall pipe (D/t<20) formula should be used if more
accurate hoop
stress is
required.
Where, a =
inner pipe wall radius = D i / 2
b = outer pipe wall radius = D o / 2
r = arbitrary pipe radius (at which the hoop stress to be estimated)
By replacing r = a, the maximum hoop stress at inner pipe wall can be expressed as;
102 | P a g e
As a reference, the hoop stress formulas in other codes are listed below:
Figure 6.9.0. pipe hoop stress comparison

External Pressure (Collapse/Buckle Propagation) Check
The deepwater pipeline shall be checked for external hydrostatic pressure for its collapse
resistance and buckle propagation resistance. Normally the buckle propagation resistance
requires heavier WT than the collapse resistance. However, if a buckle arrestor is installed at
a certain interval (typically a distance equivalent to the water depth), the buckle propagation is
prevented or stopped (arrested) and no further damage to the pipeline beyond the buckle
arrestor can occur. In this way, we can save some pipe material and installation cost by
designing the pipe for collapse resistance. The ASME code does not provide a formula to
check for collapse resistance, thus the API RP-1111 is normally used.
103 | P a g e
Where, f o = collapse factor, 0.7 for seamless or ERW pipe

P c = collapse pressure of the pipe, psi
P y = yield pressure collapse, psi
P e = elastic collapse pressure of the pipe, psi
E = pipe elastic modulus, psi
M = Poissons ratio (0.3 for steel)
Buckle propagation pressure (P p ) should be computed and checked with differential
pressure per API RP-1111 formula. If the buckle propagation pressure is higher than the
differential pressure, buckle will not propagate (travel). However, buckle will propagates if the
calculated buckle propagation pressure is less than the differential pressure.
There are several types of buckle arrestors available; slip-on ring type and integral type Some
contractors prefer thick wall pipe joint to buckle arrestor.
Buckle Arrestors
104 | P a g e
Bending Buckling Check

Pipe WT should be checked for bending buckling during installation and operation per API
RP-1111.
Combined Load Check

The combined stress of hoop stress (S h) and longitudinal (axial compression or tension)
stress (S L) should not exceed 90% of the pipe SMYS during operation, per ASME B31.8.
There is no maximum combined stress limit for hydrotesting in this code, but it is allowed by
industry to use 100% SMYS during hydrotest.
The combined stress can be calculated using Von Mises formula as below, neglecting
torsional (tangential) stress:
The longitudinal stress comes from tension and bending loads due to installation, route
curvature, free span, thermal expansion, etc. As shown in the Figure below, the maximum
allowable Von Mises Stress curve gives less conservative results than the Tresca stress
curve. If the calculated Von Mises stress falls inside of the curve, the pipe is considered safe
in terms of combined resultant stress.
It should be noted that, for the same tensional and compressive stress at a positive hoop
stress, the pipe may not be safe for the compression (see point B in Figure below).
105 | P a g e
Span Analysis
Over a rough seabed or on a seabed subject to scour, pipeline spanning can occur when
contact between the pipeline and seabed is lost over an appreciable distance.
In such circumstances it is normal code requirements that the line is investigated for:
Excessive yielding;
Fatigue;
Interference with human activities (fishing)
Due consideration to these requirements will result in the evaluation of an allowable free span
length. Should actual span lengths exceed the allowable length then correction is necessary
to reduce the span for some idealized situations. This can be a very expensive exercise and,
consequently, it is important that span evaluation is as accurate as possible. In many cases, a
multiple span analysis has to be conducted accounting for, real seabed and in-situ structural
behavior.
106 | P a g e
The flow of wave and current around a pipeline span, or any cylindrical shape, will result in the
generation of sheet vortices in the wake (for turbulent flow). These vortices are shed
alternately from the top and bottom of the pipe resulting in an oscillatory force being exerted
on the span.
Unsupported pipeline span effect
If the frequency of shedding approaches the natural frequency of the pipeline span then
severe resonance can occur. This resonance can induce fatigue failure of the pipe and cause
the concrete coating to crack and possibly be lost.
Vortex formation
Free span remediation
The evaluation of the potential of a span to undergo resonance is based on the comparison of
the shedding frequency and the natural frequency of the span. The calculation of shedding
frequency is achieved using traditional mechanics although some consideration must be given
to the effect of the closeness of the seabed. Simple models have, traditionally, been used to
calculate the natural frequency of the span, but recent theories have shown these to be
oversimplified and multiple span analyses needs to be conducted.
The determination of the acceptable maximum allowable free span is based on the following
criteria:
107 | P a g e
The analysis of reduced velocities indicates that VIVs will not occur and that,
consequently, fatigue damage from these vibrations can be ruled out; and
Calculated maximum combined stresses stay within the limits for elastic
stresses.
The maximum allowable span is selected which the lower of the values is given by the two
criteria above.
DESIGN LOADS
Loads for calculating maximum stresses are based on:
Maximum operating pressure for the pipeline;
Maximum pipeline operating temperature;
Maximum fluid density;
Design currents and maximum waves associated with the relevant return
period.
Loads for calculating whether VIVs can occur are based on:
Pipeline operating pressure, temperature and fluid density predicted for the
location of the span under operating conditions;
Design currents and significant waves associated with the relevant return
period.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Cross flow vortex induced vibration
According to DNV 1981, cross-flow oscillations may occur if KS<16, and values of reduced
velocity, VR. The value of VR is dependent on Reynolds number, Re, which is expressed as:
Re
UD
Where:
U
D
=
=
=
flow velocity.
pipe outer diameter, including coating
kinematic viscosity of seawater
In-line vortex induced vibration

For in-line motion the reduced velocity, VR, for the on-set of VIV is determined from the
relationship between VR and the stability parameter, KS, KS is expressed as:
KS
Me
W
D
2M e
W D 2
where:
=
effective mass of pipeline
=
logarithmic coefficient of structural damping 0.126 (From DnV77)
=
density of seawater
=
pipe outer diameter (including coatings etc.)
Maximum allowable span

Given VR, the natural frequency of a span fi:
fi
V
VR D
where:
V= flow velocity normal to the pipe
108 | P a g e
For simplified analysis, the natural frequency of the span may be calculated as:
fi
K
L2
EI
Me
Rearranging gives:
K
L
fi
EI
Me
Where:
E
I
Me
K
0.5
=
=
=
=
Youngs modulus of steel

moment of inertia
effective mass of pipe
end fixity constant
=
22.0 for fixed-fixed end
=
15.4 for fixed-pinned end
=
9.9
for pinned-pinned end
STATIC ANALYSIS
Hoop stress
The circumferential stress, due to pressure only (hoop stress) is calculated from the following
formula:
h Pi Pe
Where:
Pi
=
Pe
=
D
=
t
=
D
2t
internal pressure (MPa)

external pressure (MPa)
outside diameter of pipe (mm)
nominal wall thickness (mm)
Bending stress
For calculating bending stresses in spans where the axial tension is zero, the maximum
bending moment is approximated by:
End Condition
Maximum Bending Moment, MS
Pinned-Pinned
WL2
Pinned-Fixed
Fixed-Fixed
8
WL2
10
WL2
12
The combined static stress due to both functional and environmental loads acting on a free
spanning pipeline is calculated as follows.
Under the functional plus environmental conditions, the submerged weight is combined with
wave and current induced drag, lift and inertia forces
W FL 2 FD FM 2
Where:
W
=
FD
=
109 | P a g e
submerged weight
drag force due to wave and current conditions
FL
FM
=
=
lift force due to wave and current conditions

inertia force due to wave and current conditions
The coefficients for drag, lift and inertia should be obtained from.
For bending moment due to route curvature, the bending moment is approximated by:
MR
EI
R
Where
R
Route curvature
The total bending moment is given as:
M B M S2 M R2
Maximum bending stress, B is given by:
MBD
2I
Longitudinal stress
In determining the effective axial stress, the pipe condition of either fully or partially restrained,
is taken into consideration, to account for the loads induced in the pipe due to thermal and
pipe-soil frictional forces.
Longitudinal (axial) compressive stress, L is given by:
L E. .T 1 2
H
2
P. .D 2 N RES
4A
A
f .W .L X
A
(Fully restrained pipeline)

(Partially restrained pipeline)
Where:
f
=
soil-pipe coefficient of friction
LX
=
distance from inlet/outlet
NRES =
Residual tension
A
=
Cross-sectional area of pipe
The total longitudinal stress is then calculated as:
L,TOT L B
Equivalent stress
The equivalent stress is given by the Von Mises equation:
EQ H2 L2 H L 3 2
Where:
t
=
shear stress, assumed to be zero.
The equivalent stress shall not exceed the allowable stress, all
EQ all
With:
all SMYS
Where:
=
SMYS =
110 | P a g e
design factor
Specified Minimum Yield Stress
Expansion Analysis
The expansion analysis determines the maximum pipeline expansion at the two termination
points and the maximum associated axial load in the pipeline. Both results have significant
implications in the design as:
Axial load will determine if the line may buckle during operation, and hence additional
analysis/restraint will be required;
End expansions dictate the expansion that the tie-in spools (or other) would have to
accommodate.
The degree of the expansion by the pipeline is a function of the operational parameters and
the restraint on the pipeline. The line will expand up to the anchor point, and past this point
the line does not expand (hence fully restrained). The distance between the pipeline end and
this length is determined based on the operational parameters and the pipeline restraints.
Pipeline expansion effects

The less the restraint the greater the anchor length becomes and hence the greater tie-in
expansion becomes.
Pipeline expansion analysis

The Computer Program Plus One/Xpan module can be used to calculate the virtual anchor
point and Pipeline End Expansion.
The analyses were performed for both the hydrotest phase and the operational phase.
The uncorroded pipe wall thicknesses were used for the Hydrotest case, whereas both
uncorroded and 50% wall loss resulting from corrosion were used for the operating phase.
Longitudinal expansion in a pipeline during installation and operation is dependent on the
temperature and pressure differentials, and the frictional resisting force between the pipeline
and the seabed. At some distance from the hot and cold ends when the forces producing the
111 | P a g e
expansion are balanced by the cumulative effects of the soil frictional force, the pipeline is
virtually anchored.
The methodology used in estimating the pipeline end expansion is based on the first principle
of stress-strain relationship. The stresses acting in the pipeline wall resulting from the
operating loads and friction resistance depend on whether the pipeline is unrestrained,
partially restrained or fully restrained.
The net longitudinal strain in the pipeline between the free end and the virtual anchor point is
given by the following formula.
E NET
E T f
Strain due to end cap effect
Strain due to Poisson effect
where
NET
E
=
Pi Ai
A E
T
f
=
=
Strain due to thermal effect

=
D
t
T
Ws
Ls
A
Strain due to mobilization of friction
WLs
Ai
P D 2t Pe D
i
2t E
A E
Pi
Internal pressure
Pe
External pressure
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Pipe bore area

Pipe outside diameter
Pipe wall thickness
Temperature difference
Submerged weight of pipe
Distance of pipeline from free end
Steel pipe cross section
=
Poisons ratio for steel
=
Longitudinal friction coefficient
For the restrained section of the pipeline, the stress-strain relation is given by:
LR
E NET T
=
112 | P a g e
E T
as
NET = 0 for restrained section.
In the pipeline between free end and virtual anchored point, there is some restraint from soil
friction, although not sufficient to prevent total movement. The stress-strain relation within the
partially restrained section is given by:
LP
E E f
The virtual anchor length, which is the distance between the free end of the pipeline and the
virtual anchor point is given by:
=
Ls
2
for short pipelines
T A E
Ws
=
for long pipelines
The end expansions at the hot and cold ends are calculated by integrating the net longitudinal
strain and is given by:
=
L AHOT
NET dL
for hot end

=
L ACOLD
NET dL
for cold end
where
LAHOT =
LACOLD =
Virtual anchor point at hot end

Virtual anchor point at cold end
Other parameters have previously been defined.

Pipeline End Expansion Offset Design
The pipeline expansion offset requirement is determined by checking the bending stress
induced in the riser bend due to pipeline end expansion.
The expansion offset is modeled as a left end free and right end fixed (cantilever), subject to
differential support displacement. The expansion offset requirement is estimated as detailed
below.
From Roarks Formulas for Stress and Strain by Warren C. Young and Richard G. Budynas
(7th Edition), Table 8.1, page 187 , the relationship between bending moment, M and
deflection, can be expressed as:
M
=
Where:
3EI
L2
E
I
=
=
=
=
Youngs modulus
Moment of inertia for the pipe
Pipeline expansion
Lowest riser span length / length of expansion offset
The bending stress, b can be calculated by using the formula below:
113 | P a g e
ii MD
2I
b
=
Where:
ii
=
Stress Intensification factor, per Fig 419.6.49(c),
ASME B31.4]
0.9
2
tR
=
=
=
=
Wall thickness of steel pipe (mm)

Bend radius (m)
Mean radius
0.5(D-t)
Where:
t
R
r
Combining the above equations and solving for L gives the equation:
0.9
L2
tR
3ED
2 b
Design Loads
The design load cases to be considered in the analysis are presented in the Table below.
Design Case and Loading
Phase
Pipeline condition
Hydrotesting pipeline under test
pressure, filled with test
medium
Operation
114 | P a g e
operating condition
Design loads
submerged pipeline filled with
test medium
hydrodynamic loads
test pressure
submerged pipeline filled with
product
hydrodynamic loads
pipeline maximum operating
pressure and temperature
Pipeline and Riser stress Calculation Philosophy

Circumferential stresses develop in the wall of the pipeline as a result of internal pressure and
overburden loading. Pipeline subjected to internal pressure produces circumferential (hoop)
stresses in the wall of the pipeline. For onshore pipelines, overburden loading comes
primarily from the backfill soil and surcharges from transient loads such as vehicles at
crossings.
Circumferential stress due to internal pressure, Sp, was calculated using the modified Barlows
equation.
Furthermore, additional stresses from transient external loads, such as trawl gear and
dropped objects, shall be validated during detail engineering.
Longitudinal Stresses for partially restrained Pipelines
For a pipeline, the total longitudinal stress is a combination of stresses due to internal
pressure loading, thermal expansion and bending. For straight, fully restrained pipeline
sections, the total longitudinal stresses include the internal pressure and temperature
components.
Pipelines expand or contract longitudinally under the effects of internal pressure and thermal
conditions. Internal pressure results in the pipeline contracting in the longitudinal direction
due to Poissons effect. Also an increase in pipeline temperature compared to installation
temperature causes the line to expand due to the effect of linear thermal expansion for the
pipe material. It follows that a decrease in temperature below the installation temperature will
cause the pipe to contract. For pipelines on the seabed surface, the surrounding soil friction
forces will partially resist this longitudinal expansion/contraction and for relatively long straight
sections of pipeline the surrounding soil will manage to exercise some restraint on the pipeline
to minimize the strain in the pipeline. The restraint of the soil against the tendency of the pipe
to shrink because of the internal pressure effect produces longitudinal tensile stress in the wall
of the pipe. The soil restraint against the thermally induced tendency to elongate the pipe will
cause longitudinal compressive stresses.
Longitudinal stress due to Poissons effect, Slp, is given by
Slp = Sp
where:
=
Poissons Ratio for the pipeline material
Sp
Circumferential stress due to internal pressure
=
Longitudinal stress due to thermal loading, Slt, is given by:
Slt = -E (Tmx Tint)
where:
E
=
Youngs modulus for the pipe material
=
Thermal expansion coefficient
Tmx
=
Maximum temperature
Tin
=
Installation temperature
The resultant longitudinal stress, Sl, (excluding bending) is the algebraic sum of these two
longitudinal stresses, given as:
Sl = Sp -E (Tmx Tint)
Thermally induced longitudinal stress was calculated using the mean maximum ambient
temperature, 31oC, as the installation temperature.
Equivalent Stress for partially restrained Pipeline
The equivalent stress is calculated using the Von Mises yield criteria after the total
circumferential and longitudinal stresses acting on the wall of the pipeline are determined.
115 | P a g e
Allowable equivalent stress (percent of specified minimum yield stress)

Functional plus environmental
loads
Installation
96
Hydrostatic test
100
Operation
90
Equivalent stress (excluding bending) can be calculated using the Von Misses equation given
as:
Seq
= (Sp2 + Sl 2- SpSl)1/2
.
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ROUTE OPTIMIZATION
Introduction to pipeline Route Selection
Pipeline Route Selection technique
Route selection is a complex procedure, which can be governed by several variables. Clearly,
the shortest distance between the terminal points is likely to be the most economic from a
material standpoint, but possible overriding factors must be considered.
Typically the route selection will be affected by:
Onshore pipelines
Population and building densities for the establishment of location classes, location of
inhabited buildings, taking into account any future land development plans.
Topographical data, location of rivers, roads and railways, including type and density
of traffic.
Records of any existing special features which will need reinstatement after
construction is completed.
Soil investigation for foundation design (burial and/or supports design), subsidence
areas (e.g. due to mining activities).
Soil resistivity for cathodic protection design.
Environmental data (climatic, floods, earthquakes, landslides, currents at river
crossings, vegetation, fauna).
Offshore pipelines
Seabed topographical data, location of rock/coral outcrops.
Soil investigation for foundation and on-bottom stability design.
Fishing, shipping (and other sea users) activity data.
Environmental data (climatic, currents, waves, bathymetry, earthquakes, landslides).
Third party facilities and concession areas.
Proximity to occupied buildings (onshore pipelines) Compared to pipelines transporting
category A and B fluids, pipelines transporting category C and D fluids constitute potentially
higher hazards to people nearby. There are no provisions in ANSI/ASME B31.4/8 to cover
this, apart from the location classes defined earlier which only address population densities.
For the purpose of initial routing, Appendix 1provides guidance for establishing minimum
distances of pipelines from occupied buildings depending on the type of the fluid, the pipeline
diameter and its maximum operating pressure. Final routing should be established following
the pipeline safety assessment.
Proximity to other facilities
For fluid categories B, C and D, the separation requirements between the pipeline (including
pig traps) and other facilities within the plant fences or on the offshore platform should be in
accordance with EP 55000 Section 21. For the definition of area classifications around the
pipeline, refer to the Institute of Petroleum Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15.
Special routing considerations
In the derivation of the route, due consideration shall be given to the anticipated installation
technique. This is particularly relevant to offshore pipelines.
Onshore pipelines route right of way (ROW)
All pipelines shall have a permanent right of way with a width ranging from 4 m forDN150 and
below, to 10 m for DN600 and above. The pipeline route should be centered on the right of
way. The radius of curvature of the pipeline foundation along route should not be less than
117 | P a g e
500xD, D being the pipeline diameter. Hot bends or field bends should be used when lower
values are necessary. When several pipelines are installed in the same trench, the separation
between 2adjacent pipelines shall be 0.3 m minimum. The minimum distance for pipelines
installed in a separate trench alongside an existing buried pipeline should range from2 m for
DN150 and below, to 5 m forDN900 and above.
The crossing of existing pipelines, cables, power lines, roads, railways and waterways should
be at an angle between 60 and 90degrees.
When installing a pipeline along power lines, the horizontal distance from any of the power
cables and posts should be at least 10 m for power lines at 110 kv and above, and 4 m for
power lines below110 kv.
Offshore pipelines routing
The radius of curvature of the pipeline along route should not be less than 2000xD, D being
the pipeline diameter. When lower values are necessary, a detailed analysis of the pipeline
lateral stability during laying should be carried out.
Pipelines close to offshore platforms should, as far as possible, be arranged in corridors to
facilitate the anchoring of vessels for support and future construction activities at the platform.
Straight lengths of pipe are normally necessary for start-up. Risers should be protected from
the marine activity around the platform and, except for category A fluids, located away from
the living quarters.
The crossing of existing pipelines and submarine cables should be at right angles.
When this imposes excessive additional route length, lower crossing angles may be used, but
not lower than 30 degrees.
The distance between parallel pipelines should not be less than 10 meters, or the value
compatible with the installation equipment whichever is higher.
Offshore route Optimization
Optimization of pipeline routing is usually not performed as the route probably has no
obstruction is in an accessible water depth and the seabed topography is flat: Hence a
straight-line between the two termination points would suffice. However, on seabed with
onerous terrain significant savings on fabrication and installation costs can be made if route
optimization is performed.
To perform a route optimization, reasonably accurate costs for the following activities are
required:
Supply of additional pipeline pipe/unit length;
Pre-sweeping a corridor/unit length, including cost of reduced lay rate due to a smaller
lay corridor;
Pre-lay free span correction supports (each), again including cost of reduced lay rate
due to smaller lay corridor;
Post lay free span correction supports (each);
Trenching, burying and rock dumping/unit length (for each).
Based on the derived costs, a total cost for each route can be derived.
It is worth noting that the optimization cannot be completed until all the pipeline design
parameters are finalized (for instance the number of free span correction supports will not be
known until the allowable free span has been determined)
The required minimum pipeline route curve radius (R s) should be determined to prevent
slippage of the curved pipeline on the sea floor while making a curve, in accordance with the
following formula [1]. If the pipeline-soil friction resistance is too small, the pipeline will springback to straight line. The formula also can be used to estimate the required minimum straight
118 | P a g e
pipeline length (L s), before making a curve, to prevent slippage at initiation. If L s is too short,
the pipeline will slip while the curve is being made.
Where, R s = Min. non-slippage pipeline route curve radius

L s = Min. non-slippage straight pipeline length
F = Safety factor (~2.0)
T H = Horizontal bottom tension (residual tension)
W s = Pipe submerged weight
= lateral pipeline-soil friction factor (~0.5)
if a 16 OD x 0.684 WT pipe is installed in 3000ft of water depth using a J-Lay method
(assuming a Catenary shape), the bottom tension and the R s and L s can be estimated as
follows:
The submerged pipe weight, W s = 22.6 lb/ft
Assuming the pipe departure angle (a) at J-lay tower as10 degrees Top tension, T = W s x
WD / (1- sin ) = 22.6 x 3,000 / (1- sin 10) = 82,047 lb 82 kips
Bottom tension, T H = T x sin = 82 x sin 10 = 14.2 kips
If the curvature angle (a) and the pipe rigidity (elastic stiffness = elastic modulus (E) x pipe
moment of inertia (I)) are considered to do a big role on the R s and L s estimates, the above
formula can be modified as follows:
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Once the field layout and pipeline route is determined by desktop study using an existing field
map, the pipeline route survey is contracted to obtain site-specific information including
bathymetry, seabed characteristics, soil properties, stratigraphy, geohazards, and
environmental data.
Bathymetry (hydrographic) survey using echo sounders provides water depths (sea bottom
profile) over the pipeline route. The new technology of 3-D bathymetry map shows the sea
bottom configuration more clearly than the 2-D bathymetry map (see Figure below).
Sample of bathymetry map

Side scan sonar is the industry standard method of providing high resolution mapping of the
seabed. It uses narrow beams of acoustic energy (sound) which is transmitted out to the
seabed topography (or objects within the water column) and reflected back to the towfish. It is
used to identify obstructions, outcrops, faults, debris, pockmarks, gas vents, anchor scars,
pipelines, etc. Typically objects larger than 1m are accurately located and measured (see
Figure below).
Side Scan Sonar Interpretation
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An acoustic sub-bottom profiler is a tool to measure geological characteristics i.e. subsurface

strata (stratigraphy), faults, sediment thickness, etc. Figure 5.3.0. shows one example of subbottom profile and its interpretation.
Magnetometer is a tool to locate cables, anchors, pipelines, and other metallic objects. It is
near-bottom towed by a cable from a survey vessel.
Sub bottom profile
Geometrics G-882 Magnetometer
ESHIA & Risk Considerations in Pipeline Routing

Pipelines will cross and impact different communities, cultures and populated areas. This
makes community affairs critical and sensitive, since the feasibility of the Pipeline project
depends on the development of the relationship with the communities and on a sufficient and
consolidated planning.
Negative environmental and social consequences shall be minimized and community
development opportunities shall be maximized.
Nevertheless, the pipeline routing shall consider the possibility of avoiding major impacts on
communities where opportunity is given, and shall follow routes on existing ROWs.
For pipelines requiring new routes, minimum land take approach should always be
considered.
All associated risks shall be taken into consideration during the selection of the most effective
route.
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Potential risks and impacts are listed below.
Bunkering
Sabotage
Explosion / Fire
Accidents during construction works
Restive reactions of communities
Environmental impacts
Safety and health of concerned persons and communities

EVALUATION OF ROUTE OPTIONS
Evaluation of the route options are carried out using a matrix-scoring process. Each of the
route options are scored based on the three major route selection criteria and their associated
route selection factors. The broad criteria and weight used for the route selection assessment
are listed below:
Environmental and Safety Considerations
45%
Engineering and Operational Considerations
35%
Pipeline Constructability
20%
Weighting Factors for the Predefined Route Selection Assessment Criteria
Environmental and Safety
Engineering and Operations
Pipeline Constructability
Weighting
Assessment
Weighting Assessment Weighting
Assessment Factors
Factors
Factors
Factors
Factors
Factors
River
Sensitive environment 10
Route length
10
10
crossings
Reuse of Existing
Construction
Settlements
15
10
10
RoW
logistics
Navigable Water Ways 10
RoW Maintenance
10
Facility Interference
Land Agricultural
10
(Pipeline
5
spread
Crossings)
Total
45
35
20
A point based approach is adopted in the ranking of various assessment factors. Each of the
route options are evaluated using the same criteria to obtain a total rating score for that route.
Ranking Factors for Scoring Predefined Route Selection Assessment Criteria
5
Little/no negative impact or very good to excellent opportunity
3
Minimal negative impact or generally good opportunity
1
High negative impact or little/no opportunity
The scoring from each of the routes is finalized by multiplying the route ranking for each of the
assessment factors with the predefined weight factors.
Preference is given to the routes with the most advantages and least constraints, implied in
the total score for the routes. The route options with the highest scores are statically the
preferred routes. These are the routes recommended for detail engineering survey.
122 | P a g e
Survey, positioning and charting

For survey, positioning and charting, it is compulsory to obtain the methods and specifications
relevant for swamp and marsh areas given from the COMPANY's Survey discipline.
It shall be noted that there are two main types of survey to be completed for the design part:
A pre-survey - which can be performed by helicopter or by car - along the planned route as
per the desk map study, shall aim at obtaining the pertinent data in order to assess the overall
project and to confirm the initial choice
The detailed route survey, which shall, in particular, aim at checking the accuracy and the
pertinence of existing as-built documents of previous projects, and aim at gathering the
environmental data.
Main results of all the various surveys shall be reported within the alignment sheets, and
inclusive of all the required technical elements.
The technical aspects of this General Specification shall include, at minimum:
Route drawings (preferably the alignment sheets) and the relevant maps
Survey scope
Recommendations on the methods and types of equipment to be used
The form in which the survey results are to be submitted.
Access to Site Location
Access to Site Locations may be found difficult for many reasons. Therefore assistance from
the Local Authorities may be required to guarantee the free and safe access of the project
workers to the different areas.
Contacts with the Local Authorities and negotiations (if any) with the populations shall be done
by a dedicated team.
On a practical way, physical access to the site locations may be found impossible within the
existing local road networks. Access tracks, tracks or ways may be constructed especially by
the Project for the construction phase.
Some of these access ways may have to be maintained all along the life of the pipelines to
allow future interventions (inspection, maintenance or repair).
Some parts of the routes or alternative routes need to be properly surveyed prior to any
constructions for access.
Photographic aerial surveys and mapping works shall have to be done consequently.
To be noted that, for environmental policy reason, it is recommended to perform an aerial
photo pre-survey. This dossier shall be kept in the Project Dossier.
Land properties and new Right of Way
The basic case is to use existing ROW. In the case where the ROW are constricted due to the
presence of other pipelines, it shall then be necessary either to try to use parallel adjacent
lands of the existing ROW or to create new ROW.
In this last case, inventory of the properties to be crossed and to be purchased/rented/used for
the Works is to be done with a sufficient accuracy to allow a reliable cost estimate.
Possible difficulties for expropriation shall be anticipated, in close cooperation with the Local
Authorities.
A typical arrangement of a ROW during the construction phase shall be as follows:
As a base case the following total width of right of way is to be considered:
For a 8" a ROW width is normally 12 m
For a 20" 15 m
For a 32" 16 m
The construction track shall be maintained during the whole life duration of the Pipeline
System for inspection/maintenance purposes.
In location class 3, it is requested to fence the side of the ROW and close the road access of
the ROW by gates.
123 | P a g e
Note: future next phases of a field development shall be anticipated in the pipeline positioning
within the ROW.
Alignment sheet specifications
A set of single overview of the whole route shall be produced on the most suitable scale,
which shall serve as a key plan for all the alignment sheets.
All alignment sheets shall be sequentially numbered.
Each alignment sheets shall have a legend box on the right hand side. The contents of the
legend box shall include, but not be limited to the following, and shall be displayed in the order
as given:
Title of the Project
Geodetic datum
Spheroid
Chart name
Contour interval
Survey vessel name (for near shore and river crossing surveys)
A miniature chart overview with the bordering charts shown
Issue number
Symbols as used on the charts/profiles
Projection
Chart datum (CD) / MSL
Chart/profile (vertical and horizontal)
Survey Contractors name
Date of survey
Kilometric scale, subdivided into tenths.
The pipeline alignment sheets shall be plotted at the vertical and horizontal scales, and shall
consist of four (4) main horizontal strips as follows:
First strip: General location and topographical chart
Site topography with reference contours for the whole aerial part of the route
The theoretical pipeline route (centreline) with fix numbers, Turning Points (TP), Kilometre
points (KP), and all necessary information
Location of types of forests (nipa-nipa, high trees, primary forest, mangroves, etc.) and
agricultural areas (mainly paddy fields)
Location of protected areas such as natural parks
Location of rivers and channels, river bank features as creeks
Location of roads and tracks
Location of aerial or buried electrical high-tension lines and networks, telephone lines, aerial
antennas, etc.
Location of prohibited areas such as military zones (camps, etc.)
Location of petroleum facilities
Location of aqua-agriculture areas such fish ponds, fish traps, shrimp ponds, etc.
Location of special features such as religious buildings, etc.
Density of construction along the proposed route of the pipeline (village)
Location of construction in progress
Near shore and river crossing
The corrected soundings over the whole surveyed corridor
Bathymetric contours with a 0.1 m internal contouring at the horizontal and vertical scales
124 | P a g e
An annotation for all slopes beyond ten per cent. The direction of slope shall be clearly
indicated. This information shall be made available to enable route development, if necessary
Geology and seabed features (e.g. sand waves, pipes and cables in/out of service and
planned objects or any obstruction if any, trawling tracks, etc.).
In addition, the following information shall be plotted:
Geotechnical borehole location
CPT locations
Current meter, tide gauge and wave recorders locations
Resistivity measurements locations.
Second strip: route profile
The second strip shall show the vertical profile along centreline of the route. In addition to the
altimetry and the bathymetry the following shall be displayed:
The nature of the soils with a shallow geological description and main geotechnical results
The slopes, with indication of the slope values in percentage
Turning Points (TP), Kilometre Points (KP), and all necessary information.
Third strip: Survey results
Main survey results shall be presented approximately below the measurement location
situated on the chart and the profile. These main results shall include:
Metocean data (tides, bottom and surface currents, Hs/Hmax)
Geotechnical data (main parameter values or curves and lithological description)
Soil resistivity values.
The selection of the final route shall consider all associated risks, primarily safety and
environmental risks, accessibility for inspection and repairs. Risks associated with the
pipeline, in terms of the safety of people, damage to the environment, and loss of income
should be fully analysed.
The key objectives and principal criteria for a Pipeline project success are prioritised as
follows:
Provide suitable pipeline route following existing pipeline ROWs, adopting minimum land
take for required new routes and very minimal land take for New ROW acquisition.
Comply with National and industry safety and HSE standards.
Comply with National and industry technical and operational standards.
Minimize the impact on environmental, social and health matters.
Minimize community affairs and community disruption before; during and after construction
trying not to disturb existing populated and industrial areas if by-passing is economically
and technically viable.
Complete on time.
Minimize disruption to ongoing operations and eliminate shut downs to existing Pipelines.
Protect Company reputation.
125 | P a g e
Overview of Pipeline Construction, CP Systems, Pre-Commissioning,

and Repairs
Pipeline Construction
For pipeline sections located in river crossings, swamp or onshore area, the required width of
the construction pipeline route of surface vegetation (in some areas roots removal may
destabilize the grounds), debris or obstructions, including fishing nets or ponds etc. shall be
cleared.
Necessary authorization shall be obtained form local authorities.
Attention shall be drawn to the potential existence of underground services; drains, cables,
pipes and he shall responsible for ascertaining the presence of such obstructions.
All necessary measures shall be taken to prevent damage to these services by approved
methods of working.
Soil along the pipeline route shall be graded and prepared as required to allow proper and
safe installation of the pipelines and doglegs.
Record of marking shall be done.
Location of existing pipelines shall be accurately marked before site preparation. Grading over
these pipelines shall be avoided. However, in certain circumstances, onshore gas or liquid
pipelines such as riser parts at river crossings or expansion loops may be aerial. In this case
the lines shall be supported.
Local regulations and rules shall apply anyway.
Pipeline burying
Trenching and burying onshore liquid pipelines and onshore gas pipelines (on a ROW) shall
be normally buried. In swampy areas lines shall be also normally buried.
Decision to pre trench or to post trench the pipeline shall be taken by on a case by case basis.
Burying depth
Burying depth shall be evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:
Environmental conditions
Soil condition
Pipeline diameter and weight
Local Regulations
Specific consideration related to upheaval buckling.
Burying depth of the different pipeline section shall be given in the Particular Specifications,
incompliance ISO 13623 requested burying depths are amended as follows (from top of pipe):
When geotechnical data are available in some areas along the pipeline, if better soils can be
reached, possibility to trench deeper is given.
Burying method
Burying method shall be selected on the basis of the soil conditions, the water depth, the
environmental conditions (current, wave), the pipe diameters and its characteristics, the
burying depths, and the geographical and topographical conditions.
126 | P a g e
Onshore and swamp area

Onshore, standard excavators can be used on safe areas; locally, hand excavations with
proper tools shall be done in critical areas.
Pre-trenching method shall be selected in onshore and swamp areas.
Excavators mounted onto swamp-buggies shall perform the trenching work in swamp area.
In swamp areas, Contractor shall perform a site visit prior to make selection of the pretrenching tool.
Near shore area
-Water depth ranging between 0 and 3 m
Pre-trenching method or post trenching method can be selected depending on the soil
conditions, slopes and prevailing currents.
In very soft soils (jelly mud) where the pre trench stability can not be ensured, temporary
sheet piles can be used for the stabilization of the trench.
- Water depth ranging between 3 and 15 m
Pre-trenching method shall be selected for competent clayey soils (undrained shear strength
>15 kPa).
Cutter-suction dredging or backhoe mounted on a barge may be proposed.
Post trenching method shall be selected for soft cohesive soil (typically undrained shear
strength < 15 kPa) and non-cohesive soil (sandy or silty soils).
The jetting machine may basically consist of a remote operated underwater vehicle that may
be powered from a barge, and may be mounted on tracks and self propelled.
Post trenching shall be performed with the machine straddling the pipeline.
Trench opening shall be carried out by two inclined articulated arms equipped with a series of
jetting nozzles and a clearing system.
The number and diameter of nozzles shall be optimized and shall be adjusted according to the
soil characteristics.
The jetting systems shall be also designed for the destruction of the soil and for the
evacuation of the sediments form the trench (side walls, regularity, and rectitude of the
longitudinal profile) are achieved.
127 | P a g e
The configuration of the pipeline during trenching operations shall permit acceptable free-span
lengths (see stability calculations).
Offshore Pipeline installation

In early days, the pipeline was fabricated at beach and towed to the project field by a tug boat.
Most widely used installation method is using a pipeline installation vessel which can weld
pipe joints on the deck and lower the pipes by releasing the pipes from the tensioners while
moving the vessel. Depending on the pipeline profile from the vessel to the sea floor, it is
called S-lay or J-lay. Another installation method is to fabricate the pipeline at spool base near
beach and reel the pipe onto the reel ship. Then the reel ship carries the reeled pipe to the
project field and lay by un-spooling the pipes. The four (4) pipeline installation methods are
listed below and illustrated in Figure below.
Towing- bottom tow, near bottom tow, mid depth tow and surface tow.
S-Lay
J-Lay
Reel-Lay
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Figure 11.1.0 pipeline installation methods

In shallow waters, an anchor moored barge cab be used but a dynamic position (DP) vessel is
widely used for deepwater installation. Details of each installation method are listed below.
(1)
Towing
Limitations on length that can be fabricated (beach size limit) and installed (towing limit)
Carrier pipe provides a corrosion free environment internally Requires several support
vessels (cheaper ones than S/J/Reel-lays)
(2)
S-Lay
Pipeline is fabricated on the vessel using single, double, or triple joints single section or
two/three articulated sections
Deeper water requires longer stinger and higher tension resulting in more risk
Typical lay rate is approximately 3.5km per day
(3)
J-Lay
Welding is done on vessel, but at one station, so is slower
Pipe has a departure angle very close to vertical, so less tension is required
Principal application is for deep water
Stinger is not required
Typical lay rate is approximately 1 - 1.5 km per day
(4) Reel-Lay
Pipe welded onshore in a controlled environment and spooled onto vessel in continuous
length until complete or maximum capacity is reached
Much lower tension and therefore more control than S lay
Limitations on reeling capacity by volume or weight
Typical lay rate is 14 km per day
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S-lay configuration
130 | P a g e
J-lay configuration
Typical S-lay tensioner and stinger, and J-lay configuration are shown in Figure above. There
are multiple welding stations in S-lay, depending on pipe size and pipe WT. Therefore, it is
important to control the time spending at each station. If one station spends 10 minutes while
the others spend 5 minutes, the pipe lay rate is reduced by 50%. For example, if each station
takes 7 minutes to connect one pipe joint (40 ft), the lay rate would be 1.6 miles per day as
below: (24 x 60 min/day) / (7 min/40 ft) = 8,230 ft/day = 1.6 miles/day The J-lay has only one
welding station but can weld multiple pipe joints such as triple to hex joints (120 ft to 240 ft).
Pipe strain or curvature variance during reel-lay is presented in Figure 14.1.5. The pipe strain
is near zero when the pipe departs the stinger. The pipe is reeled on a spool at due to pipe
strain and tension limit during reeling. The combined strain during reeling process will reach
approximately 3% to 4% (note: yield is 0.5% and ultimate tensile is 5%). The reeled pipe WT
needs to be thick enough to avoid wrinkle.
Deep water S-lay vessel and reeling vessel
Pipeline Installation analysis
Analysis Pipe structural integrity should be checked for during installation operation, including
initiation, normal lay, and termination. Also, abandonment & recovery (A&R), single point lift
(SPL), and davit lift analysis should be performed for contingency occasions. To determine
whether the designed pipe can be installed by any installation vessel currently available in the
industry, at least the normal installation analysis should be etc. should be checked in pipeline
installability evaluation. Several programs available for pipeline installation analysis are:
Offpipe, Orcaflex, Flexcom, etc. The pipe stress limit during installation is not specified in any
industry codes or standards. However, industry uses 72% SMYS at sagbend and 85% SMYS
at overbend. At sagbend, the pipe is hard to control, like at stinger, so more stringent stress
limit (lower stress limit) is applied. For the dynamic analysis, higher stress limits are used
since more severe environment and vessel motion are considered. If strain criteria are used, a
0.15% and 0.20% strain can be used at sagbend and overbend, respectively. Figure 14.3.1
shows one example of pipe stress analysis results.
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Overbend: 85%SMYS (static) 100%SMYS (dynamic)

Sagbend: 72%SMYS (static) 96%SMYS (dynamic)
Pipe stress analysis result for offshore pipelying
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Figure below illustrates A&R procedures. For abandonment, the A&R cable from a winch
on the vessel is attached to the pipe pull- head. While moving the vessel, the A&R cable is
lowered to the sea floor. Recovery follows the reversed order of the abandonment procedures.
Single point lift (SPL) is similar to the A&R operation except no-use of stinger. The SPL cable
from a crane or davit on the vessel is free hanged vertically, at side of the vessel. Multiple
davits can be used to minimize the pipe stress during lifting and lowering the pipeline.
Abandonment and recovery sequence and davit lift technique
133 | P a g e
Construction Hydrotesting
All new pipelines shall be tested after construction and burial (if applicable) to prove the
strength and leak tightness, by means of a hydrostatic pressure test. Only water from
approved sources should be used. Corrosion inhibitors, when required, should be selected on
the basis of lowest environmental sensitivity.
Prior to testing, the pipeline shall be gauged, either by a gauge plate pig or an instrumented
caliper pig, to ensure that no dents or buckles are left in the line.
Notwithstanding the ANSI/ASME requirements, the strength test pressure should be set to
give at least a hoop stress level of 90% of the specified minimum yield stress, based on the
minimum wall thickness. The pipeline sections with higher wall thicknesses and/or steel
grades (e.g. risers, crossings), should be tested separately, prior to incorporation in the
pipeline. The strength test pressure should be maintained for a duration of 4 hours minimum.
Pressure fluctuations caused by thermal variations should be prevented by adding/removing
suitable quantities of water from the pipeline.
Following the strength test, a leak tightness test shall be carried out on pipeline sections which
cannot be inspected for leaks during the strength test. The leak tightness test pressure should
be set initially at 80% of the strength test pressure, and allowed to fluctuate with temperature
changes (i.e. there is no adding/removing of water from the pipeline). The leak tightness test
pressure should be maintained for duration of 24 hours minimum. There should be no leak,
based on the correlation of pipeline pressure fluctuations and temperature changes.
A combined strength/leak tightness test may be performed at strength test pressure and
without addition or removal of water if it can be ensured that the pipeline stresses will not
exceed 100% SMYS at any location (accounting for pressure fluctuations caused by
temperature variations).
Tie-in welds, i.e. welds which are not subject to the hydrostatic pressure test, shall be
subjected to additional non-destructive testing (e.g. ultrasonic inspection).
134 | P a g e
Cathodic Protection
Pipe lines may be cathodically protected in either earth or water. To determine if cathodic
protection may be used to prevent corrosion of steel pipe lines, we must first learn how to
measure the resistivity of these environments.
Soil resistivity
The resistivity of soil is usually measured by the four-pin method with the Vibroground (see
Figure below), possibly the easiest instrument to use. It is possible to attach a set of pins and
leads which will minimize the time to get soil resistivities, and a complete survey may be done
in a relatively short time.
Vibroground
The newest example of the soil resistance meter is also shown in another figure below and
has been available since 1981. Its advantage is that there are no moving parts and no
vibrators to change. Although called a four-pin soil resistance meter, it is also excellent for
measuring water samples in a soilbox.
Soilbox
135 | P a g e
Potential survey
Although there are several reference electrodes (half cells) available for potential difference
measurements, only the copper/copper sulphate electrode is used for most of the readings the
corrosion engineer will take on land. Also, for precision, the potentiometer, particularly in the
form of a combination instrument, is preferable to the low-resistance voltmeters. The
placement of the reference electrode is best made on the surface of the earth directly over the
buried pipe line. Sometimes, the soil should be moistened, although preferably nothing should
be done to affect the environment. For contact with the pipe line, it is advisable to have test
stations installed at regular intervals along all major pipe lines. This will eliminate the problems
of direct metal contact with the pipe itself, which will be necessary if the permanent leads are
not available. Although the "leap-frog" system may be useful when there is a distance
between test stations, it would be advantageous to have a reel of wire available to extend the
measurements along the pipeline, particularly in regions near the midpoints between rectifiers.
Modern methods of pipe-to-soil measurement use recording voltmeters, which may be used to
complete a series of pipe-to-soil potentials along a pipe line in a very short time.
Line current
As has already been shown, if test stations along the pipelines have been installed, it is very
easy to construct a test section for line current measurement. Although the lengths may vary
for these sections, it is advisable to have them at least 100 ft long for 8-inch schedule 40 pipe
and as much as 400 ft for 30-inch OD pipe. Again, the meter can be used, since values as
low as one millivolt may have to be measured. Also, the test section may be used to measure
the coating resistance once the conductance of the pipe itself has been calibrated.
Ground bed design and installation
Once the rectifiers have been sized, the ground beds should be designed. Several anodes are
available:
1. Scrap steel.
2. High-silicon iron anodes, called "Duriron" and "Durichlor."
3. Graphite.
4. Special anodes (used mainly for seawater application).
Various arrangements are also available: horizontal, vertical, vertical in parallel and deep
anodes. The calculations for these have been described.
The basic formulas, plus others, have been included to show a typical installation design.
Cathodic protection systems have thus been designed using magnesium and zinc anodes to
give cathodic protection to certain pipe lines when the economic considerations warrant it.
Magnesium anodes are usually the first choice, but, since zinc anodes cost less and are more
efficient, they may be used to advantage in certain long-term situations.
It is seen that the major problem causing stray-current electrolysis in the past was directcurrent leakage from electric streetcars and trains. However, a present cause is direct current
from a foreign un-bonded pipeline under cathodic protection. All the techniques we have
learned to measure electrical current, including the recording meter, may be needed to
determine the problem and its source. Insulating flanges and negative bus bonding are often
used to minimize the damage caused by electrolysis.
Interference problems are always a possibility whenever a cathodic protection system will be
installed. This system will affect:
1. Foreign lines. These include protected lines and those with their own protective systems.
These interference problems are usually solved by resistance bonds.
2. Insulating flanges. To prevent the current necessary for protecting a line from being drained
off on such piping systems as tankage lines, well casings, and unused pipe lines, it is
sometimes necessary to install insulating flanges or Dresser couplings. Corrosion will occur
136 | P a g e
on the buried piping near these flanges unless bonds are placed around the flanges and
adjusted to balance corrosion forces.
3. Railroad tracks and road casings. Any metallic system in the vicinity of the protected pipe
line may cause problems. Each of these will be shown by accurate measurement and must be
solved as it occurs.
Once the cathodic protection system is installed on a pipe line, it must be kept in operable
condition at all times. Certain routines are necessary to be sure that the rectifiers are running
and that the anode bed leads have not been severed. A minimum inspection system has been
shown to maintain adequate performance. This is even more important when a sacrificial
anode system is used, since there is no rectifier to show inadequate performance. Since pipeto-soil potential measurements must be run at regular intervals along a pipe line, it is some
advantage to have a potential monitor station, usually a voltmeter with a zinc anode, installed
at certain critical points on a pipe line. However, a yearly complete
Cathodic protection measurement determining line currents, potentials, and coating
conductivities should be run.
The best way to assure a good coating system is by adequate inspection at the time the pipe
line is constructed.
The holiday detector is an efficient instrument to find cracks in the coating, but it does not
determine the bonding of the coating to the pipe surface. This must be done by careful visual
inspection. After the pipe is buried, several methods of determining coating conductivity are
available, and it has been shown that this characteristic can be used in the design of a
cathodic protection system. The instrument often used in looking for coating faults is the
Pearson holiday detector, which requires two people to make the measurements. After this
inspection, the pipe may be excavated and the coating repaired.
137 | P a g e
Pre-commissioning and Post-Construction Records

All pipelines shall be thoroughly cleaned to remove any remaining construction debris and
loose scale. The collected material should be properly disposed of in an environmentally
acceptable manner. Cleaning should be performed by successively pushing several Cleaning
pigs through the pipeline with water or air. The number of pig runs required will depend on the
size and length of the pipeline, and the initial cleanliness of the pipeline.
Clean linepipe and proper care during construction will minimise the cleaning effort.
The pipeline should be dewatered and, if necessary, be dried in a way compatible with the
required service. Drying should be considered when the design of the pipeline is based on
transporting dehydrated fluids, or when the dewatering operations are carried out long before
commissioning. The appropriate drying technique should be derived from an analysis of
product specification requirements (in terms of water content) and the risks of corrosion and
hydrate formation following commissioning of the pipeline. Drying techniques include
methanol or glycol swabbing, air or nitrogen drying and vacuum drying, or a combination of
these techniques. Vacuum drying is normally used when high levels of dryness are required.
Consideration should be given to voids in valves and fittings when planning a drying
operation.
Whenever possible, in-line pipeline ball valves should be installed after the cleaning
operations. This is to prevent the ingress of debris and dust in the valve bodies which may
lead to damage of the valve seats and seals.
A comprehensive set of as-built documents, to be included in the hand-over documentation,
shall be produced during construction and retained for the life of the pipeline. These should
include, as a minimum:
Changes to original design, with reasons.
Pipe tally giving the size, grade, wall thickness, identification number, coating details, and
location of each pipe joint used during construction.
Specifications used for field jointing (welding and coating).
Non-conformance reports and remedial actions taken.
Radiographs of the welds (radiographs need be retained for a period of five years only).
Detailed survey of the as-laid position of the pipeline, including burial depth as applicable.
Pigging records.
Hydrotest certificates.
The design drawings shall be updated based on the as-built condition, before hand-over of the
pipeline to the operations function.
The hand-over documentation shall include the design, materials, construction and precommissioning records, the Agreements, Permits and Authorisations related to the pipeline,
plus a pipeline operating and maintenance manual to be prepared during the engineering
phase of the project.
The manual should cover the range of key operating conditions that can be envisaged for the
entire life span, and the operating envelope for which the pipeline is designed, and should be
compatible with the operational and Maintenance practices already in place. The manual
should include, as a minimum, the
Following information:
A functional description of the pipeline, in the form of a process engineering flow scheme,
showing all operational, safety and instrumentation features (pig traps, valves, fitting,
instruments, alarms and shut-down logics, pressure and flow controls).
A physical description of the pipeline (route including major features along the route, linepipe
characteristics including corrosion allowance, coatings, supports, burial details, crossings,
cathodic protection, equipment drawings).
138 | P a g e
A description of the key operating parameters (specification of the transported fluid, ranges
of pressure, temperature and flow, design life, corrosion management including materials
design philosophy, expected corrosion rates and inhibition requirements,
Design environmental conditions).
The inspection and condition monitoring requirements of all parts of the pipeline (route
surveys, external and internal corrosion surveys, valves and instrument checks, cathodic
protection).
Requirements for special operations such as start-up and shut-down, conditioning for
prolonged shut-down, liquid hold-up control which may be required prior to pigging.
Pigging requirements (type of pigs, frequency) for the foreseeable operating conditions,
explaining the purpose, e.g. cleaning, corrosion control, liquid holdup control, including
criteria for adjustment.
Identification of the risks associated with the pipeline and the means taken to minimise them.
Line leak/break detection and contingency plan, including roles and responsibilities of
personnel, list of emergency equipment and contingency materials, and repair procedures of
all parts of the pipeline.
The pipeline documentation should be structured in a manner such that all parties involved
with the operation, maintenance and inspection of the pipeline system have ready access to
all data required to control pipeline integrity.
Repair and Remediation
The objective of this module is to describe the main pipeline repair techniques. The
applicability of each of the techniques Listed below for the repair of defects will be discussed.
grind repairs
local weld repairs
Clockspring and WrapMaster
welded sleeves
epoxy sleeves
Petrosleeve
o grind repairs
This application is normally preferred for repairing pipe with irregular edges and surfaces
minor with defects such as protrusions or dents resultant from manufacturers. Repairs are
easily done with grinding plates, and are very common during pipeline construction phase.
Grind repair process
139 | P a g e
o local weld repairs

Corrosion that is greater than 80%, or corrosion that does not meet the requirements of
applicable codes, and certain other defects such as laminations and cracks, require removal
from the pipeline. The affected area must be removed as a cylinder and a new piece of pipe
welded in place.
The pipeline section containing the defect must be depressured and the product either blowndown, displaced with an inert product, or drained. Qualified welding procedures are required
and mud plugs, vapor plugging tools, or other methods should be used to ensure that no
hydrocarbon vapors are present in the weld area. Pretested pipe must be used and the tie-in
welds should be x-rayed to ensure they are satisfactorily completed.
Alternate methods of repair that eliminate the need for draining or blowing down the pipeline
are also available. These include the use of stopples or remotely activated pipeline packers.
o Clockspring and WrapMaster
Clock Spring's patented design redefines the economics of pipeline repair, ensuring a
permanent repair that is safe, economical and effective. The Clock Spring repair is comprised
of 8 wraps of composite, a high-strength filler material and the Clock Spring adhesive.
Clockspring repair process
140 | P a g e
Clock Spring can be used to permanently repair external blunt metal loss defects.
The Clock Spring pipe repair system is a high-strength corrosion resistant e-glass and resin
composite sleeve, a high performance adhesive and a high-strength filler material.
The composite sleeves are uniquely shaped and sized to wrap around pipe diameters of 4
inches up to 56 inches. The individual layers are bonded together and to the pipe to fully
restore serviceability.
Clock Spring repairs are fast, economical, safe and easy. Since not cutting or welding is
required, there is not risk to the pipeline or the environmental, no release of greenhouse
gases or waste disposal issues.
Pipe Supports provide effective protection at support or hanger locations and can be applied
quickly and easily- requiring no special tools or training. The composite sleeve form a wear
surface to protect the pipe from wear and corrosion.
Contour is the latest advanced composite repair technique from the Clock Spring Company. It
is ideal for the repair of elbows, tees, reducers, nozzles and other pipe components. The
flexible repair technique allows materials to be tailored on-site to enable repair of complex
geometrical shapes commonly found in pipe systems.
The Contour system provides a highly durable repair with excellent chemical resistance.
Based on high-performance, non-woven glass fiber fabrics and epoxy resin, Contour can
provide protection from external corrosion, replacement of strength for damaged pipes and
can seal leaking defects.
o Welded sleeves
Welded Steel Half Sole Repair Sleeves are designed to avoid a costly shut down. Existing
lines can be cased without thru-put loss, because it is not necessary to shut down the carrier
line to perform the required repair. A full scope of sizes, ASTM grades of steel plate (structural
and pressure vessel quality), wall thickness and longitudinal edge options are available. Half
Sole Repair Sleeves, also called split casing or half wrap, are custom-fabricated to your
specifications, to assure a precision
Weld sleeves on damaged pipeline.
Half Sole are manufactured so that when two (2) halves of the sleeve are placed on the pipe,
their total circumference shall equal the circumference of the pipe minus a gap between the
longitudinal edges on either side of 1/16" (-1/16"+1/32") for welding.
Each Half Sole is fabricated to match the outside diameter (O.D.) of standard nominal line
pipe (bare) with tolerances of:
141 | P a g e
Wall Thickness
Half Sole ID Size
Tolerance
3/16", 1/4" plate
2" thru 12"
(+0"-1/8")
3/16", 1/4" plate
14" thru 42"
(+0"-1/4")
5/16" plate
6" thru 12"
(+0"-1/8")
5/16" plate
14" thru 42"
(+0"-3/16)
3/8" plate
8" thru 12"
(+1/8"-0")
3/8" plate
14" thru 20"
(+1/16"-1/16")
3/8" plate
22" thru 42"
(+0"-1/4")
1/2" plate
12" thru 20"
(+1/16"-1/16")
1/2" plate
22" thru 42"
(+1/8"-1/8")
Preliminary Half Sole Preparation

After the Half Sole length has been determined and the sleeve has been cut (torch cut in the
field), the circumferential ends are prepared. The backing strips, equal to the length of the half
sole, are tack welded to the sleeve with one half designated for the bottom portion of the
fitting. Tack weld shall be made in the groove of the weld prep side of the long seam of the
fitting. The backing strip is pre-crimped and the legs of the "V", provided by the crimping,
should face the inside radius of the fitting. The backing strip are centered in both directions of
the length and the width of the strip before tack welding into position.
Trial Fit-Up
Half Sole position the bottom half of the Half Sole (with backing strip attached) are placed
under the carrier pipe with the edges of the backing strip barely touching both sides of the
pipe. Plate clamps are beneficial in positioning the top Half Sole and can be driven from under
the top Half Sole when the proper position is obtained. Spreader bar rigging should be
considered when handling long Half Sole sections.
The top half are then be positioned over the carrier pipe using wedges on the ends of the top
half of the Half Sole longitudinal seam to provide clearance for the backing strip (when the
Half Sole is in position and down on the pipe) to fit underneath the top Half Sole half.
Clamping
Once the Half Sole halves are in close proximity of the carrier pipe, the chain clamps shall be
positioned around the Half Sole. Recommended chain clamps should be fabricated of a
diamond, double roller type chain and be of sufficient length to allow for the anticipated
application of fitting-up the two (2) Half Sole halves. The tightening mechanism should be of
the mechanical wrench bolt type, (the hydraulically driven type could be used) and supported
by a metal shoe contoured to the shape of the Half Sole/pipe.
The clamps are tightened at an equal rate on each clamp until the Half Sole has cleared the
backing strip. At this point the wedges can be removed. Tightening in a uniform fashion shall
be continued until the Half Sole is firmly in position. (Do not over tighten!)
Checking Line-Up and Gap
The longitudinal welds of the Half Sole may require positioning at positions other than three
and nine oclock. The gapping of the Half Sole weld groove is critical (longitudinal edges). The
gap should be 1/16" (-1/16" +1/32") on each side. To obtain this gap, due to the variances in
pipe O.D. tolerance, may require reduction of groove width by grinding or increasing the width
utilizing a buttering technique. Be sure that circumferential ends of the Half Sole are a tight fit.
142 | P a g e
After the gap is visually checked for dimensional tolerances and any final adjustment made,
the longitudinal seam shall be tack welded. The tack weld should tie-in both Half Sole edges
and the backing strip material (caution is necessary not to burn through the backing strip to
the carrier pipe). A welding machine setting should be made before starting the tacking
process.
o Epoxy sleeves
An epoxy sleeve repair system developed by British Gas has been used extensively for
permanent repairs of gas, crude oil, and product pipelines. It can be installed without the loss
of product and does not require system shutdown. Static and fatigue behaviors of the epoxy
sleeve repair have been thoroughly evaluated and proven by numerical studies, extensive fullscale testing, and system applications for more than ten years.
Epoxy sleeve repair, high strength repair with resin injected steel sleeves.
Petrosleeve
The PETROSLEEVE repairs defects such as Seam or Pipe Body Cracking, Corrosion, Dents,
Mechanical Defects, SCC (Stress Corrosion Cracking), and Arc Burns. Although the failure
mechanism varies for each defect type, the following is a good outline description of various
defects and how the installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently removes the failure
mechanism of the defect.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE provides mechanical support to the localized thinned
section. It is this support that prevents bulging for all pressures, including during high pressure
testing.
Corrosion.
These defects are caused by either third-party damage or non-acceptable workmanship, and
may include stress concentrators such as cracking. Failure occurs by the pipe material
143 | P a g e
containing the defect flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes
cracking. When the crack extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
Gouges, Groove or Arc Burns:
These defects are caused by either third-party damage or non-acceptable workmanship, and
may include stress concentrators such as cracking. Failure occurs by the pipe material
containing the defect flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes
cracking. When the crack extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE eliminates flexing in the pipe material and the stress
state in the material surrounding the defect is put into compression, eliminating fatigue, crack
extension, and rupture.
Dents
Dent defects are caused by either third party damage or non-acceptable workmanship. As in
the gouge, groove or arc burn cases, failure occurs by the pipe material containing the defect
flexing because of internal pressure variances, which in turn causes cracking. When the crack
extensions become critical, rupture occurs.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE eliminates flexing in the pipe material and places the
pipe material into compression, eliminating fatigue, crack extension, and rupture.
144 | P a g e
Pipe cracks
Pipe Body Cracking is caused by various means, including chemical action (Stress Corrosion
Cracking). Failure occurs when crack becomes unstable.
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently reduces the stress state in the material
surrounding the defect, removing the possibility for crack extension.
Weld defects
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE permanently reduces the stress state in the material
surrounding the defect, as well as providing support to the weld.
The PETROSLEEVE provides permanent mechanical support to the weld area and reduces
the strain induced in the weld by the external forces.
Weld defects
A grind defect is caused by mechanically removing metal from the surface of the pipe
material, resulting in localized thinning of the pipe wall. In addition, stress concentrators could
be present on the metal surface. Failure occurs first by bulging (yielding) at the grinding area,
followed by rupture of the steel membrane. Additionally, the presence of stress concentrators
could act as initiation points for rupture at lower strain levels.
145 | P a g e
The installation of a PETROSLEEVE prevents bulging by permanently providing mechanical

support to the localized thinned section. The sleeve also eliminates metal movement (fatigue),
and reduces the strain induced in the material by the external forces.
146 | P a g e

Pipeline and Riser System Design Course Manual

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PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

ABOUT THE COURSE

Pipeline systems definition and applications

Pipeline Mechanical design1

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Concerns for HP/HT and HIPPS

Pipeline Mechanical design 2

Pipeline and Riser Flexibility Analysis

Pipeline Route Selection optimization

Overview of Pipeline Construction, CP Systems, Pre-Commissioning,

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN course manual

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE SYSTEMS DEFINITION AND APPLICATIONS

Flowline (Specific Definition):

Bulkline (Specific Definition):

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

A Bulkline is a pipeline which transports un-processed hydrocarbon from a remote gathering

Trunkline (Specific Definition):

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Delivery line or Spurline (Specific Definition):

Risers (Specific Definition):

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

The Nigerian Pipeline Regulatory system

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

International Codes and standards for Pipeline Design and Construction

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and

American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM

American Petroleum Institute

Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials

Induction Bends for Pipeline Transportations Systems

Induction Bends for Pipeline Transportations Systems

Induction Bends for Pipeline Transportations Systems

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

AN OVERVIEW OF COUNTRY REGULATIONS, CODES, AND

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Pipeline materials and components

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

(All elements in formula as % weight.)

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Fittings (Tees, Elbows, Reducers, etc)

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

Type 2 - displacement/separation pig: primarily intended for use in multiband pipelines to

Disc and Cup Types

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN

PIPELINE AND RISER SYSTEMS DESIGN