International School of Asia and the Pacific 1

Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy

Review Notes in

LIE DETECTION & POLYGRAPHY

I. INTRO TO LIE DETECTION
The idea of searching the truth and
detecting lies began when the first people became
aware that there are deceivers among them. The
practice of detecting deception has been a constant
effort way back before the first scientific instrument
for detecting deception was invented.
In searching the truth, one must be aware of
the nature of the lies, deceits and fraud. A lie is a
falsehood or a false statement made deliberately. It
refers to anything that deceives or creates a false
impression. It could be something that gives a false
or misleading impression with or without intention to
deceive.
Deceit is a dishonest practice. Also called
deceitfulness, it refers to an act or practice of
deceiving or misleading somebody. It is something
that is done to trick or mislead somebody.
Lies and deceits are therefore synonymous
and they can be used interchangeably. Based on
their definitions, these are means of committing
deception.
In attempting to discover lies and deceit,
primitive people developed methods that are
founded on magic and mysticism. Since early
people believed that their gods send them messages
through fire and water, they used these things as
means to know the truth. This practice became
known as TRIAL-BY-ORDEAL. In some situations,
faith in mysticism surprisingly let innocent people go
unharmed while guilty ones die or get seriously
injured during their ordeal.

c. Intoxication with alcohol

3. Hypnosis (hypnotic induction)
4. Scientific observation and interrogation
However, there are new sophisticated techniques of
detecting deception not mentioned by Solis. These
include the ff:
1. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
2. Brain Scanning
3. Iris Analysis
4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
A REVIEW ON HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system is composed of central
nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
system. CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral branch includes all nerve tissues
outside the central nervous system. It is responsible
for providing sensory information to the CNS and
carrying motor commands out to the bodys tissues.
The peripheral branch has two sub-divisions - the
somatic nervous system (SoNS) and the autonomic
nervous system (ANS).
The SoNS controls
voluntary motor commands, such as moving
muscles to walk or talk. On the other hand, the ANS
controls involuntary motor commands, such as
digestion and heartbeat.
The ANS, which acts as a self-regulating
(autonomic) response of the body, is further divided
into two branches: sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system.

Dr. Pedro Solis, in his book Legal Medicine

provided a more elaborate classification of lie
detection methods available today.
1. Methods involving the use of scientific
devices that record psycho-physiological
responses these methods include:
a. Word Association Technique (WAT)
b. Psychological Stress Evaluation (PSE)
c. Polygraph Method (Polygraphy)

Sympathetic nervous system (SyNS), also called

fight or flight mechanism, increases alertness,
stimulates tissue, and prepares the body for quick
responses to unusual situations. Parasympathetic
nervous system (PaNS), also called rest and repose
system, conserves energy and controls sedentary
activities, such as digestion.

2. Methods involving the use of substances that

inhibit the inhibitor such as:
a. Administration of truth serum
b. Narcoanalysis
(also
called
Narcosynthesis)
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SyNS and PaNS act opposite each other. When a

person is under the influence of physical stimulus
(exertion) or emotional provocation (such as
excitement, fear and anger), the SyNS dominates
and overrides the PaNS. Once there is shift from
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
SyNS to PaNS (or vice-versa), there will be changes
in:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

offender or to pay a champion to fight for

him.

pulse (heart beat)

blood pressure
breathing
response-time
voice
other physiological reactions

When the conditions of stress are no longer present,

PaNS works to restore things to normal. Thus, the
parasympathetic branch is dominant when things are
normal and the person is calm, contented and
relaxed.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LIE DETECTION

Primitive methods of detecting deception were
usually in the form of torture and trial by ordeal.
Some authors take trial separately from ordeal. Trial
by ordeal involved the practice of settling a dispute
using divine intervention or Judicium Dei (Gods
judgment).
Ordeal refers to a form of antiquated trial rooted on
the practice of referring disputes to Gods judgment,
determined either by lot or by certain trials. The
following were the various forms of ordeal practiced
in different parts of the world:
1. FIRE (or HEAT) ORDEAL: In this ordeal, the
accused who claims that he is innocent is
required to walk barefoot over red hot coals
(or over a burning material).
If he is
unharmed (or he escaped unhurt), then his
claim is deemed to be true. In other words,
he is declared innocent. Fire ordeal was
allowed only to persons of high rank.
2. WAGER (OF BATTLE): Wager involves a
pledge to engage in a battle, especially in
order to establish guilt or innocence by
single combat.
3. ORDEAL BY DIVINATION: This ordeal was
practiced in Burma.
The two parties
involved in a dispute were given each
candle. These candles of equal size were
then ignited at the same time while being
held by the parties involved. The party
holding the last candle to die would be
considered as the winner.
4. ORDEAL BY COMBAT (also known as Trial
by Combat and Judicial Duel)
In combat ordeal, the judgment of God is the
primary determining factor. The aggrieved
party is given the right to fight the alleged
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
5. BALANCE ORDEAL: This was practiced by
the members of the Institute of Vishnu in
India. The accused person involved in the
dispute would stand on one end of a
balance. At the other end, a counterbalance
is positioned. The accused would then stepout of the scale and a judge will deliver an
exhortation to the balance. He goes back to
the balance and if the balance shows that he
is lighter than before, he is considered
innocent and thus consequently acquitted
6. RICE-CHEWING ORDEAL: This ordeal was
practiced by the Indians. A type of rice called
sathee is prepared with various incantations.
The accused is required to chew a handful
of sathee while facing the east direction.
After a few moments, he must spit on a pea
leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the
corner of his mouth swells or he trembles,
he is declared a liar.
7. BOILING WATER ORDEAL: The ordeal of
boiling water, according to the laws of
Athelstan, the first king of England,
consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling
water, where the hand had to be dipped as
deep as the wrist.
8. COLD WATER ORDEAL: This was the usual
mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a nowin situation just like some other dangerous
forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the accused
was put into a sack then thrown into an icy
pond. If the accused sank this showed he
was innocent, but he might well drown
anyway. If he floated, this was taken proof
that he was lying and he would be hanged.
9. RED WATER ORDEAL: Red water ordeal,
also called sassy bark ordeal, was practiced
somewhere in Eastern Africa. After fasting
for 12 hours, the accused is required to
swallow a small amount of rice. He is then
immersed in dark colored water (water
mixed with juice of sassy bark) which is
actually emetic. If the accused ejects all the
rice, he is considered innocent.
10. BIER ORDEAL: A bier is a table on which a
casket or a corpse is placed. Bier ordeal
was practiced in England. It was based on
the belief that the dead could point out their
killer. The accused is required to approach
the bier. If the wound of the dead starts to
bleed again, then the murderer is near.
11. CORSNAED ORDEAL
(also called
BLESSED BREAD ORDEAL)
In this ordeal, a priest would place hallowed
bread into the mouth of the accused while
uttering imprecations. If the accused
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swallowed the blessed bread, he would be

considered free from punishment.
12. EUCHARIST TEST: This ordeal was for the
clergy and monks as practiced in Europe,
particularly by the Catholics. Eucharist is a
ceremony in many Christian churches during
which consecrated bread and wine are
consumed to commemorate the last meal of
Jesus Christ with His disciples before His
death. Accordingly, when the accused takes
the host and he is guilty, God would smite
him with sickness or death.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
OF DECEPTION

SIGNS/SYMPTOMS

A. VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION

These signs are based on the manner of
answering questions by the subject during
interview or interrogation session.
1. Repetition of question
2. Incomplete statements or fragmented
sentences
3. Overly polite
4. Swearing to the truthfulness of assertion
5. Vague response
6. Use of I dont remember or Not that
I remember expression
7. Assertiveness
8. Inconsistencies
9. Slip of the tongue
10. Tirades
11. Pauses
12. Speed of speech
B. NON-VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION
1. Emblems
2. Manipulators
3. Breathing
4. Sweating and flushed face
5. Dryness of the mouth
6. Frequent swallowing
7. Facial muscle twitching
8. Gaze aversion
9. Facial expressions
10. Fidgeting
These telltale signs of deception can be shown
simultaneously or one at a time by a deceptive
suspect
while
being
questioned.
The
manifestations depend on the degree and type of
lie the suspect is using.

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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
TYPES OF LIES
Law enforcement and criminal investigation books
classify lies in this manner:
1. Direct denial - a lie that results to emotional
disturbance
2. Lie of omission - the type of lie commonly
used because it is easy to tell
3. Lie of exaggeration - the type of lie used by a
person who overplays what actually happened
4. Lie of minimization - involves acceptance of a
person that something happened but
downplays the implication or seriousness of
the offense.
5. Fabricated lie - also called lie of fabrication, is
the type of lie that is most difficult to use
6. Red lie - sometimes called misinformation, is a
lie in the form of information that is seemingly
valuable but is intended to destroy a political
belief or ideology. Red lie is better known in
politics as propaganda.
7. Malicious lie - a chronic (constant) lie that is
intended to mislead justice. It is usually in the
form of a pure dishonest statement for the
purpose of obstructing justice.
TYPES OF LIARS
1. Panic liar - a person who panics when
questioned about his involvement concerning a
crime but immediately denies the truth to avoid
shame or humiliation that it might cause to his
family. A panic liar decides to circumvent the
truth in order to avoid humiliating consequences
of his confession to himself or to his family.
2. Occupational liar - an individual whose job is to
tell lies and deceive other people. One who is
being paid to tell lies. He is a practical liar - he
will tell lies if doing it provides a higher pay-off
than telling the truth.
3. Tournament liar - a person who uses the act of
lying to test his ability and prove to his self that
he is capable of deceiving the police or
authorities. One who is gratified by telling lies to
mislead others. His view is that telling lies is
one form of contest.
4. Ethnological liar - a person trained to lie.
Members of intelligence agencies are good
examples of this category of liars.
5. Psychopathic liar - an individual who has no
conscience thus capable of lying to the point of
causing death to other people.

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6. Pathological liar - a sick person who tells lies

simply because he cannot distinguish what is
right from what is wrong.
7. Black liar - one who enjoys pretending. A liar of
this type is also known as hypocrite.
II. FUNDAMENTALS OF POLYGRAPH SCIENCE
POLYGRAPHY or POLYGRAPH SCIENCE is the
scientific method of detecting deception
using an instrument called polygraph.
Some people consider polygraphy as the
new name of lie detection.
However,
strictly speaking, polygraphy is just a part of
the broad field of lie detection.
A POLYGRAPH is an instrument whereby multiple
signals from the sensors are recorded on a
single strip of moving paper. A polygraph is
a scientific instrument that simultaneously
records the changes in physiological
processes of the human body.
In polygraphy, the SUBJECT refers to the person
to be (or being) examined, usually a
suspected criminal. The subject is also
called examinee.
The EXAMINER is the expert in polygraph science
who uses polygraph instrument to verify
truthfulness of a subjects statement or
testimony.
Other descriptions for the
examiner
are
polygraphist,
forensic
psychophysiologist (FP) and polygraph
examiner (PE).
The REQUESTING PARTY refers to the person or
persons who ask for the services of the
examiner to help verify the truthfulness of a
subjects statement or testimony.
The
requesting party is usually the investigator
of the case that requires the polygraph
examination.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION is a form of PVE
which involves the examination of a subject
using the polygraph instrument that
officially covers the moment the subject
enters the polygraph suite until he leaves.
It may, however, include the time when the
examiner officially accepted the case and
commenced gathering information from the
requesting party.
POLYGRAPH TEST is the specific part of the
polygraph examination that transpires from
the moment the chart drive (kymograph) is
turned on until it is turned off. It is the actual
test whereby the reactions of the subject on
a specific stimulus are being recorded
using the polygraph instrument.
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
PRE-TEST INTERVIEW is the first official stage of
polygraph examination whereby the subject
is informed about the nature of the
examination including his rights in relation
to the examination and conditioned to take
the test. During pre-test interview, the
subject is conditioned for the next stage of
examination known as instrumentation.
INSTRUMENTATION is the stage of polygraph
examination whereby polygraph instrument
is actually used while asking questions to
the subject. This is also known as the
actual test. It encompasses chart collection
and chart analysis.
POST-TEST QUESTIONING refers to the
questioning
that
concludes
the
examination, either in the form of post-test
interview or post-test interrogation.
What are the objectives of using Polygraph
services?
In crime detection and investigation, the
common objectives of using polygraph
services are the following:
1. To
ascertain
if
a
person
(witness/suspect) is telling the truth
2. To locate the fruit/s and/or
instruments of the crime under
investigation
3. To obtain additional investigative
leads to the facts of the
case/offense
4. To locate the whereabouts of
suspects and wanted persons
5. To identify suspects, witnesses,
and/or victims involved in the
criminal/civil case.
6. To recover valuable information from
reluctant witnesses
7. To eliminate innocent suspects
What are the principal uses of polygraph
examination?
There are 5 main uses of polygraph
examination.
1. Aid in investigation of criminal and
civil cases
2. Speeds up investigation process
3. Eliminate innocent suspects
4. Pre-employment screening
5. Personnel test for honesty
What are the limitations of the
instrument?
The polygraph instrument is aries gallandez_12

1. invaluable investigative aid but never a

substitute for an investigation.
2. not a lie detector, it is only a scientific
diagnostic instrument.
3. not capable of determining facts, it only
records responses of the subject.
4. not 100% accurate or 100% reliable, its
accuracy depends on the examiners
competency.
Most authors explain that polygraph examination
progresses in 4 phases. The 4 stages of polygraph
examination are as follows:
1. Preliminary Preparation
2. Pre-test Interview
3. Instrumentation
4. Post-test Questioning
The main part of the polygraph examination is
conducted by attaching the polygraph instrument to
three or more different body parts of the subject.
The purpose is to collect physiological data from at
least three systems in the human body. Convoluted
rubber tubes are placed over the examinee's chest
and abdominal area to record respiratory activity.
Two small metal plates are attached to the fingers to
record sweat gland activity. A blood pressure cuff, or
similar device is wrapped over the arm to record
cardiovascular activity.
Preliminary preparation basically involves the
process of interviewing the requesting party. The
questioning is done by the polygraph examiner. In
most criminal cases, the requesting party is the
investigator on case.
After the examiners interview with the requesting
party, initial questioning of the subject (pre-test
interview) takes place. The examiner interviews the
person to be tested for purposes of gathering
additional information thus finalizing the formulated
questions that will be asked during the actual test.
The instrumentation stage involves the actual test.
At this stage, questioning of the subject by the
examiner must occur inside the polygraph room.
Before actual questioning begins, the examiner
attaches first the polygraph sensors to the subjects
body. Polygraph sensors must be properly fastened
to various body parts such that subjects
physiological reactions towards the examiners
questions will be detected and recorded for
evaluation later on.

polygraph

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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

TASKS
OF
THE
FORENSIC
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIST (EXAMINER)
Interview - gather facts/information about the case
by asking questions
Profile the subject
Formulate polygraph questions
Prepare and set-up the polygraph instrument
Conduct pre-test questioning
Condition the subject to be tested
Collect polygrams
Analyze and interpret polygraph tracings
Conduct post-test questioning
PURPOSES OF THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
1. To psychologically condition the subject for
the test
2. To determine whether or not the subject is fit
to take the test
3. To have an opportunity to observe and
evaluate the subject thus determine the best
type of techniques applicable on the case
4. To enable the examiner establish rapport
with the subject
5. To provide opportunity for the examiner to
determine whether the subject voluntarily
submits himself to the test thus satisfy the
requirement of Miranda Doctrine (if the
subject is the criminal suspect in the case
that caused the examination)
CHART MARKING Chart marking is the process of
writing standard and customized signs on the paper
chart to denote the subjects reactions and other
circumstances that occur during the actual test.
Marking the paper chart while the pens are writing
on it will facilitate the evaluation and interpretation of
the subjects reactions.
CHART PROBING Chart probing refers to the
process of showing the polygram to the subject and
providing brief explanation on the dissimilarities of
responses. The main purpose of this is to determine
the true cause of recorded responses and to clarify
confusion or misunderstanding that might have been
caused by vague questions.
CHART INTERPRETATION Chart interpretation is
the process of reading and deciphering the meaning
of graphical responses of the subject based on the
chart tracings.
MAJOR PARTS OF POLYGRAPH:
1. PNEUMOGRAPH - Records breathing or
respiratory pattern. Tubes are fastened in the
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chest (P1) and abdomen (P2). As the subject

inhale & exhale, the tube will expand and
contract.
2. GALVANOGRAPH - Records the skin
resistance to a very small amount of electricity
attached on the index and ring finger. It has a
longer pen that Pneumo & Cardio (4-7inches).
3. CARDIOGRAPH - Records blood pressure and
pulse rate Arm cuff is placed around the arm,
inflated between 60-80mm
Pressure
is
measured
by
Sphygmomanometer
Normal BP: 120/80 for adult
Normal heart beat: 72-80 per minute
4. KYMOGRAPH - Referred to as Chart Drive
Module. Pulls the chart paper at the rate of 6-12
in. per minute. Chart roll is 100 ft. long, 6-12
in. width
PERSONALITIES Behind LIE DETECTION:
1. DR. HANS GROSS Stated that a large part of
the criminal work is nothing more than a battle of
lies. Known as the Father of Criminalistics
2. ANGELO
MOSSO

Developed
the
SphygMOmanometer designed to measure
the flow of blood while a person lies on his back
in a prone position.
3. CASARE LOMBROSO Developed the
Hydrosphymograph which is the first
instrument to detect deception.
4. WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON Known as
the Father of Modern Polygraphy.
5. JOHN LARSON Developed the first
instrument that simultaneously records blood
pressure, pulse and respiration.
6. LEONARDE KEELER Invented the Keeler
Polygraph that records BP, pulse, respiration &
GSR.Designed the Kymograph built-in in the
polygraph instrument.
7. VITTORIO BENUSSI Demonstrated that
changes in breathing patterns indicate
deception.
8. HAROLD BURTT Said that changes in
systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
determining deception than in respiration.
9. LUIGI GALVANI Developed the GSR or the
galvanometer.
10. VERAGUTH

First to use the term

psychogalvanic reflex.
11. JOHN REID Developed the reviewed control
question
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
12. Discovered the guilt-complex test
13. CLEVE BACKSTER Developed the Zone
Comparison Test designed to disclose outside
issue.
14. RICHARD O. ARCHER Founded the Journal
of Polygraph Science oldest polygraph
publications.
15. RICHARD I. GOLDEN Two answers in
control question technique; one is TRUTH
and the other is a LIE.

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16. FRANCIS GALTON - Developed the Word

Association Test.
17. ALLEN BELL - Developed the Psychological
Stress Evaluator.
18. ANTON MESMER - First to introduce
hypnotism as means of detecting
deception.
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