The Decade of Behavior (20002010) is a multidisciplinary initiative to focus the

talents, energy, and creativity of the behavioral and social sciences on meeting many
of societys most significant challenges. These include improving education and health
care; enhancing safety in homes and communities; actively addressing the needs of an
aging population; and helping to curb drug abuse, crime, high-risk behaviors, poverty,
racism, and cynicism towards government.
The beginning of the 21st Century is the ideal time to highlight how insight into
behavior will help meet these worldwide challenges. Behavioral and social
scientists are encouraged to bring their research results forward to help inform the
public and the public policy process about the Decade of Behavior major themes:
Improving health
Increasing prosperity
Increasing safety
Promoting democracy
Improving education

www.decadeofbehavior.org

BEHAVIOR
MATTERS:
Communication Research on
Human Connections

Communication

e all know that behavior makes a difference in our

lives and that communication with our families, others
in our world, and with the media influences our behavior.
This publication presents examples of how communication
research leads to greater understanding in four
areascommunication and political activity,
communication and relationships, communication and
health, and communication and new technology.
These examples are written to pique your interest, with
references to original research articles if you wish to pursue
the topics further.
The material in this brochure should lead to a greater
appreciation for communication research and hopefully
will inspire you to spread the word that behavior matters!
This booklet, focusing on communication research, is part
of a series from the Decade of Behavior and was provided
by the National Communication Association, an Endorser
of the Decade of Behavior Initiative.

Special thanks to Joseph B. Walther and Marshall Scott Poole.

From our private lives to major world

events, we affect each other and are
affected by communication. On
September 11th, the dramatic potential of
communication became apparentcell
phone calls from the World Trade Towers
and from airplanes, e-mail messages
reassuring the families of survivors, Web
pages listing missing persons, videophone
images of bombs in Afghanistan, and
embedded reporters on the way to
Baghdad. However, just as important are
the day-to-day interactions we have with our loved ones,
friends, and coworkers.
Communication, as a broad term, is always on the tip of
the tongue. By definition, communication is how people
use messages to exchange meaning. It is what needs
improvement when relationships go poorly, when
organizations struggle, or when nations are at an impasse.
It is suspect when bad decisions are made, whether
communication processes are faulty or not.
Due to the fact that communication occurs around us
constantly, it may seem commonplace. But because
communication is a building block of human experience,
it is necessary to understand its complexity. Research on
human communication helps us understand and improve
our quality of life in many realms.
Communication research focuses on how people use
messages to inform, persuade, manage, relate to, and
influence one another in various contexts and cultures,
using a variety of channels and media. Communication
scholars work toward understanding these processes and
promoting their effective and ethical practice. Why all this
attention on a process so common that it is often taken for
granted? Because communication is not simple!

This booklet focuses on understanding the complexity

of communication and how it can be used to enrich our
lives. The four sections of this booklet address the role
of communication in (1) the democratic process, (2)
interpersonal relationships, (3) promoting health and
well-being and reducing violence and antisocial behavior,
and (4) adapting to the new communication technologies
that are changing human relationships and society.

GETTING AMERICANS
INVOLVED IN
DEMOCRACY
Communication is the lifeblood of our political
system. The media deliver news and political
messages, help set the nations political agenda,
identify pressing problems, and motivate people
to demand solutions. It is difficult to imagine
how we could manage a democracy that
stretches across six time zones without effective
communication. However, the media have sometimes
lowered the quality of public debate and contributed to
separation from the political process. As tragic experiences
of the 20th Century show, dictators can use the media just
as effectively as well-intended citizens. Communication
scholars study how communication media influence both
the public and political processes and how they can enhance
and encourage political participation.

Communication and Political Participation

DebateWatch 1996 and DebateWatch 2000, sponsored by the
Ford Foundation and the National Commission on
Presidential Debates, gathered American citizens together
in living rooms throughout the United States to watch
the presidential debates and discuss them afterwards.
Investigators found that participation in these events
significantly affected what people learned from the debates
and increased their overall involvement in the campaigns.
The practical implication is that active discussion of political
debates and speeches increases their impact.
Other studies of involvement show similar effects. Research
has demonstrated a trickle up effect among families
participating in Kids Voting USA. That is, when young

peoples political involvement was increased through

tracking campaigns and discussing politics in the classroom,
their parents were more likely to increase their involvement
as well. Other communication researchers produced a
toolkit for candidates that told them how to reach out to
young voters in Campaign 2000. Follow-up studies showed
that when these candidates were given reasons and
strategies for targeting the youth effectively, they became
much more likely to do so.
New technologies, that better enable the targeting of
messages to specific audiences and offer a greater degree of
interaction between senders and receivers of messages, may
change the nature and level of political involvement. The
Internet and interactive communication media offer new
possibilities for promoting civic discussion and engagement.
Researchers have been studying the role of Web-mediated
interactive focus groups on political participation in the
2000 presidential elections. Focus groups are a means for
gathering data on voter beliefs and preferences, as well as
promoting dialogue, debate, and reflection on the issues
confronting the candidates. Those who participated in
Web-mediated focus groupscompared to a control
group of voters who did not participate but were exposed
to the same informationindicated that they learned more
about the issues and were more motivated politically.
Birdsell, D., Carlin, D., Considine, J., Hinck, E., Kendall,
K. E., Leff, M., Parry-Giles, S., Pfau, M., Olson, K., &
Zarefsky, D. (2002). White paper on televised political campaign debates. Argumentation & Advocacy, 38, 199-218.
McDevitt, M., & Chaffee, S. H. (1998). Second chance
political socialization: Trickle-Up effects of children on
parents. In T. J. Johnson, C. E. Hays, & S. P.
Hays (Eds.), Engaging the public. Lanham, MD: Rowman
and Littlefield.
6

Defining the Issues

Early media researchers believed that what the public sees
and hears in the media has a direct and powerful effect on
public opinion. The case of Hitler using the radio to sway
the German public is an example of this kind of effect.
However, research has shown that this view of how the
media influences opinions is too simple. As it turns out,
news stories and advertisements we see frequently on TV,
on the radio, and in the newspaper do not change our
attitudes in a direct and obvious way. Instead, the way the
media influences our opinions depends on at least three
complicating factors. These include (1) the qualities of the
person delivering the message (e.g., was it delivered by a
scientist in a lab coat or by an attractive movie star?),
(2) the qualities of the message itself (e.g., was it a simple
argument based on gut feelings or a complex, logical
argument?), and (3) the qualities and personality of the
listeners (e.g., was the audience composed of gullible young
children or skeptical adults?).
While communication media do not alone determine what
people think, they do affect what people think about. The amount
of attention given to public policy issues by the news media
influences the publics perception of the
importance of these issues. For example, in the 1980s a
balanced budget ranked low on most Americans priority
list. However, persistent coverage of deficits and
deficit-reduction plans raised this issue to a high priority
by the early 1990s. The news media set the public agenda,
in the sense that the amount of news coverage influences
the relative importance of issues.
The strength of this agenda-setting effect is, naturally
enough, related to the amount of exposure an individual has
to newsthe greater the exposure to news, the greater the
degree of influence. And newspaper news exposure has a
stronger agenda-setting effect than exposure to news on
television. Presumably, this is because reading a newspaper

story is more involved and time consuming than watching a

quick sound bite on television.
One powerful way that the media shapes our opinions is
actually one of the most subtle. Specifically, the way the
news media frames a story can have a big effect on how
people think about it. Framing refers to a specific way of
looking at an issue that could just as easily be viewed from a
different vantage point. It is a window to the world, a way of
organizing an event. When the media knowingly or
unknowingly choose one way of framing an event rather
than another, people are encouraged to think about the
event in the ways suggested by that framing. For example,
imagine a story about how the Drug Enforcement Agency is
aggressively prosecuting doctors who prescribe narcotics for
patients with chronic pain. If this story were framed as a
part of Americas war on drugs, this would encourage a very
different attitude than if it were framed as a violation of
patients rights to effective treatments for serious medical
disorders. Or, consider framing a bloody ethnic conflict as
genocide, a civil war, or a centuries-long conflict.
Which framing of the story would make it seem more
appropriate to send troops to stop the conflict? The way
in which a story is framed is very powerful in large part
because people rarely question whether a specific framing
is appropriate.

The ways in which news media frame stories influence the

thoughts that are provoked by the story, the recall of
information from the story, and perceptions of people
described in it. For example, political campaigns can be
framed as a dramatic contest (two opposing candidates
seeking votes by strategic maneuverings) or as a personnel
selection matter (two applicants to be assessed against
certain job criteria). News coverage of political campaigns
more commonly employs the former frame and so
emphasizes how each candidates actions represent political
choices aimed at winning votes. Such strategy-focused

campaign coveragein comparison to more issue-focused

coverage enhances recall of strategy-related information
rather than issue-related information.
In a related study, researchers compared news coverage that
focused on the candidates standing in the preelection polls,
known as the horse race, to coverage that framed the
campaign around problems and their solutions. Horse race
coverage prompted people to think about candidates in
cynical termsas self-interested, superficial, and concerned
primarily with winning. For example, when the presidential
administration attempted to reform the health care system
in 1993-1994, news coverage focused not on the substance
of reforms that would affect Americans, but on which
politicians and powerful interest groups were in favor of
or against the plan. If you think back to that period, the
thing you probably remember most is the kitchen table
commercial in which a family discusses the dangers of the
proposed reforms. This commercial, devised and paid for by
insurance companies, received a great deal of attention in
the media, which discussed its effectiveness at length. This
clearly illustrates the power of framing that focuses our
attention on how a plan is promoted rather than on the issue
or proposal.
The logical conclusion that the public draws from this
focusthat politicians are simply interested in winning and
pay attention only to whether they are ahead or
behindencourages cynicism about politics and public
policy debates. Understanding these effects of the news
and media on politics and policy helps us understand how
decisions develop and are made in a democratic society. This
understanding also suggests guidelines for the media so that
their coverage can be more constructive and promote
informed participation of the citizenry.
9

Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of

cynicism: The press and the public good. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Lyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters:
Television and American opinion. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Price, V., & Tewksbury, D. (1997). News values and
public opinion: A theoretical account of media priming and
framing. In G. A. Barnett & F. J. Boster (Eds.), Progress in
communication sciences (Vol. 13, pp. 173-212). Greenwich, CT:
Ablex.
Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda-setting
research: Where has it been, where is it going?
Communication Yearbook, 11, 555-594.
Valkenburg, P. M., Semetko, H. A., & de Vreese, C. (1999).
The effects of news frames on readers thoughts and recall.
Communication Research, 26, 550-569.

10

IMPROVING RELATIONSHIPS
Interpersonal communication both creates and reflects the
quality of our relationships. What we say and what we
do notand particularly the manner in which we speak or
writetends to shape our relationships. Communication
with our work partners, as well as our loved ones, is critical
to success in these relationships.
Effective communicationplanning, selecting, and
performing communication strategiesis not solely a
natural gift. Adults and
children can learn from
explicit instruction, based
on research, about how to
be effective communicators.
When we learn to
communicate effectively,
our confidence about our
prospective success in
interactions generally
increases, leading to greater
fulfillment and an enhanced
quality of life. By the same token, lack of communication
skills is associated with depression, anxiety, shyness,
loneliness, developmental disorders, academic problems,
and drug abuse. On the other hand, the ability to engage in
positive and effective interactions enhances well-being,
enables us to form and sustain relationships, and promotes
effectiveness on the job.
Perhaps no form of communication is more important
than that between parents and children. The quality of
parentchild communication can have a dramatic effect on a
childs life. Studies show, for example, that some parents
tend to discipline their children by explaining rules and
offering clear reasons for the rules. Other parents are more

11

likely to use threats and punishments, without really

explaining why rules exist in the first place. Research shows
that the first style of parenting is much better for children.
Parents who share their own thoughts and feelings with
their children tend to have children who are academically,
socially, and emotionally well-adjusted. Research also
shows that nurturing parents and parents who frequently
express their love and emotional availability to their
children produce children who are happy and well-adjusted.
Finally, when parents
demonstrate empathy or
perspective-takingthat is,
when they demonstrate their
ability to put themselves in the
shoes of other peoplechildren
learn to adopt this same kind of
approach in their relationships
with others. These children
then tend to communicate more
effectively with peers and are
better at managing conflicts.
Working to develop a childs
communication abilities is also
extremely important. Research
has suggested that children who have good oral
communication skills are better liked, have more friends,
and are regarded as more socially effective by their
teachers. These outcomes are important predictors of
academic, personal, and professional success later in life.
Moreover, because good communication skills help children
to acquire social rewards and meaningful lives, children
with good communication skills experience fewer gaps or
lapses in their lives for which they feel a need to compensate
through artificial stimulation. As a result, research finds that
children with good communication skills are less likely to
become seriously involved in delinquency, drugs, and
12

alcohol. Being more effective socially seems to reduce the

need to engage in delinquent behavior.
Beyond social interaction, communication is also important
between loved ones. Communication research has identified
three communication skills that are
important in romantic relationships
and marriage: (a) clearly expressing
your desires and intentions so that
your partner understands you, (b)
knowing how your partner will
respond to different ways of
expressing something (e.g., knowing
how to express things so as not to
offend or hurt your partner), and (c)
being able to put yourself in your
partners shoes so that you do not
misinterpret his or her statements. Interestingly, research
has also shown that couples are happier when both partners
have about the same level of communication skill. Two
people with limited communication skills can be quite happy
if they both have limited skills. Unfortunately, this also
suggests that simply improving the communication skills of
only one member of a couple will not always lead to greater
happiness. Increasing the communication skills of one
person will be most effective when the persons partner also
improves his or her communication skills.
Effective communication skills also contribute to better
relationships in the workplace. Many of the same skills that
are valuable in child rearing and marriage have their place
on the job, too. Being able to inform clearly and persuade
effectively, provide and listen to feedback, and monitor and
motivate others are highly valuable skills in the workplace.
Individuals with these skills manage the performance of
others more effectively and advance through the
organizational ranks with greater ease. It is no surprise that
communication is linked to effective leadership.

13

Communication research explores why and how this

happens. For instance, research shows that when employees
make a request to a manager and the request must be
denied, the manager tends to maintain greater credibility if
he or she communicates the specific reasons the request is
denied. Just as parents who explain rules to their children
have happier children, managers who explain reasons to
employees have happier employees.
Burleson, B. R., Applegate, J. L., Burke, J. A., Clark, R.
A., Delia, J. G., & Kline, S. L. (1986). Communicative
correlates of peer acceptance in childhood. Communication
Education, 35, 349-361.
Burleson, B. R., Delia, J. G., & Applegate, J. L. (1995).
The socialization of person-centered communication:
Parental contributions to the social-cognitive and
communication skills of their children. In M. A. Fitzpatrick
& A. L. Vangelisti (Eds.), Explaining family interactions
(pp. 34-76). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rogers, L. E. (2001). Relational communication in the
context of family. Journal of Family Communication, 1, 25-36.
Sypher, B. D., & Zorn, T. E. (1986). Communicationrelated abilities and upward mobility: A longitudinal
investigation. Human Communication Research, 12, 420-431.
Wilson, S. R., Cameron, K. A., & Whipple, E. E. (1997).
Regulative communication strategies within motherchild
interactions: Implications for the study of reflectionenhancing parental communication. Research on Language and
Social Interaction, 30, 73-92.

14

PROMOTING HEALTH AND

WELL-BEING
As a society, we constantly strive to improve our members
physical health and sense of well-being. Among the many
factors that impact the achievement of these goals are the
messages that inform, educate, and persuade people to
engage in healthy activities.
Communication has the potential to
transmit useful information, provide
education, and motivate pro-social and
healthy behavior. Negative effects of
communication also existspreading
rumors and prejudice, encouraging
harmful and unhealthy behavior, and
encouraging and inciting violence.
Communication researchers study ways to
capitalize on and promote healthful living
and to reduce potentially harmful effects
of media on children and adults.

Campaigning for Healthy Lifestyles

A large body of research shows the impact of strategic
health communication programs on getting information
about important public health needs to consumers and to
health care providers. Promoting public health and
preventing the spread of dangerous health risks is a critical
communication function in modern society. Whether we
are focusing on the prevention and control of AIDS, cancer,
heart disease, or violence in our neighborhoods,
communication research, theory, and practice have been
used to guide effective health promotion campaign efforts.
Health communication campaigns involve a broad set of
communication strategies and activities for effectively
spreading useful and persuasive health information to the
people who need it.
15

Health communication researchers have studied how

scientists, government officials, and the media communicate
about risky events and threats. They have developed models
of persuasion for health-related situations and examined
how different audiences respond to health messages.
Messages that influence health beliefs and practices are
delivered not only through open public health campaigns,
but also unintentionally in normal entertainment and news
programming and advertising. Generally, the most effective
communication campaigns to improve public health appear
to be those that utilize a variety of kinds of communication
media and multiple messages in
combination with other forces,
such as changing laws and other
public policies.

16

What accounts for the

effectiveness of health-related
messages? Research has shown
that these messages stimulate
interpersonal communication
among viewers which, in turn,
influences their knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors.
Audience members readiness
for change, their beliefs about
possibly experiencing some
health problems, and their
attitudes toward their ability to
change all play a part in
determining the effectiveness of health messages. The nature
of the message itself is also important. For instance, studies
have found that messages designed to change behavior
through threats of future negative consequences are
effective only for people who can easily perform the
desired behavior. These negative messages are likely to be
disregarded by those for whom the behavior is not easy to
perform. Thats why ads trying to scare someone into

stopping smoking or giving up addictive

drugs are not likely to be very effective.
Much health communication research
occurs at the same time as the design of
major public health campaigns. For
example, a team of communication
researchers developed a campaign and, at
the same time, conducted research on the
use of safer sexual practices to help the
public resist sexually transmitted diseases.
The careful design of their approach proved successful in
San Francisco and was replicated in Bangkok and Tanzania.
Another research study occurred in conjunction with a
health campaign to encourage the consumption of low-fat,
high-fiber diets, the 5-A-Day Program. This program
succeeded in increasing awareness among diverse
populations of the importance of fruits and vegetables in
daily diets, and the use of new communication strategies
increased the publics consumption of these foods. In
subsequent efforts, researchers successfully used the
Internet to disseminate information about 5-A-Day
nutrition and cancer prevention among low-income rural
citizens. Similar use of World Wide Web resources has
proven successful in the efforts of local coalitions to reduce
tobacco consumption in their communities. Similarly,
campaigns to increase physical activity have also helped to
improve public health and have increased resistance to a
host of diseases (including heart disease, diabetes, and
many cancers).
Buller, D. B., Borland, R., & Burgoon, M. (1998). Impact of
behavioral intention on effectiveness of message features:
Evidence from the Family Sun Safety Project. Human
Communication Research, 24, 433-453.
17

Donohew, L., Lorch, E. P., & Palmgreen, P. (1998).

Applications of a theoretic model of information exposure
to health interventions. Human Communication Research, 24,
454-468.
Murray-Johnson, L., & Witte, K. (2003). Looking toward
the future: Health message design strategies. In T. L.
Thompson, A. M. Dorsey, K. I. Miller, & R. Parrott (Eds.),
Handbook of health communication (pp.473-496). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Salmon, C., & Atkin, C. (2003). Using media campaigns
for health promotion. In T. L. Thompson, A. M. Dorsey,
K. I. Miller, & R. Parrott (Eds.), Handbook of health
communication (pp.449-472). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.

Understanding the Roots of Violence and Fear

In addition to physical health, communication affects our
psychological well-being. While media-based health
communication campaigns promote positive social
outcomes, the media also have been blamed for promoting
violence and fostering negative attitudes. We all share
concerns about how communication media might frighten
or incite the worst in people, and ever-more careful research
is yielding insights into how these effects occur and how
to minimize them. Rather than making the blanket
presumption that media are so directly powerful, it is
important to determine the factors that influence the effects
of media on children and adults.

18

Research has shown that children react in various ways to

media messages, depending on their stage of development.
Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years old are
frightened by very different images and events in the mass
media than are older children and adults. Just as important,
the fears of different age groups must be calmed using
different techniques. Research has shown that children

between the ages of 2 and 6 years old are frightened by

mass media characters or creatures mainly on the basis of
how the characters look, rather than what they do. Young
children who are frightened are less likely than older
children to benefit from explanations that provide
reassuring information about the threat; they react better to
nonverbal strategies, such as distraction or loving behaviors.
Older children, on the other hand, benefit from verbal
explanations that describe why the threatening events
happen or how they can prevent them from happening
to them.
These findings are
helpful for parents and
caregivers who want to
promote healthy
psychological
development and
prevent unnecessarily
intense fears and
anxieties in children.
By understanding how
cognitive development influences responses to media
messages, parents can be much more effective caregivers.
Being aware of how different age groups relate to different
content and the different effects that media may have
depending on a childs age will help families use media in
ways that will have more positive consequences for their
psychological health.
Beyond scaring young children, the media can substantially
contribute to antisocial behavior by young and old alike.
Over the last 40 years, exhaustive reviews of scientific
literature have examined the relationship between exposure
to media violence and aggressive behavior. These reviews
have documented consistently that exposure to media
violence contributes to aggressive behavior in viewers and
19

influences their perceptions

and attitudes about violence
in the real world.
Communication researchers
have contributed some of the
most dramatic evidence on
attitudes toward violence,
concluding among other
things that heavy viewers
of broadcast violence
demonstrate increased
acceptance of aggressive
attitudes and increased
aggressive behavior.
Statistical analyses of
hundreds of experimental and long-term studies support the
idea that viewing violence in the mass media contributes to
aggressive behavior.
At the same time, communication researchers have found
that not all media depictions of violence pose the same risk
of harm to viewers. In fact, while some depictions of
violence increase the risk of antisocial effects, others
decrease such a risk. Why does this paradox exist? The
context, or the way in which violence is presented,
influences its impact on the audience.

20

One effect of media violence is emotional desensitization.

Seeing something over and over again reduces the impact
of whatever one is seeing, and, thus, repeated exposure to
television violence can desensitize viewers or make
them less upset by the violent acts they see on TV. This
desensitization also lessens viewers awareness of both the
frequency and intensity of media violence. By the end of
a lengthy exposure period, viewers seem to perceive
aggressive films as less violent than they had initially.
Altered reactions to television violence may lead individuals

to experience less compassion and formulate more harsh

judgments toward victims of violence in daily living.
For nearly two decades communication researchers have
been studying the effects of sexually violent material on
viewers. Careful research has studied the effects of the
combination of media depictions of rape or other forms of
graphic violence against women and more mild sexual
scenes (the sort of pattern often depicted in slasher films).
Among the negative effects is increased insensitivity toward
female victims of violence, especially toward rape victims.
These effects can occur without exposure to explicit sexual
content. In fact, many of the rape-related depictions used in
the research would not be considered pornographic. The
acts of violence against women in these programs is what
appears to produce the decrease in sensitivity. Research also
finds that these effects are strongest for men who already
possess insensitive attitudes toward rape or who are
predisposed to sexual violence in some way. These findings
are crucial for
developing effective legal
and educational solutions
to prevent and reduce
violence against women.
You may be wondering
how exposure to violence
in the mass media
changes people so that
they are more likely to
be aggressive or violent?
Research suggests that
viewers learn social
strategies by watching television and then try the strategies
out on those in their immediate environment. If these
aggressive behaviors are rewarded in some way, then they
are usually repeated. In other words, people learn to do
aggressive things by watching others do these things. This

21

theory is important because it explains how personal and

interpersonal factors may intervene and link the viewing of
violence to subsequent aggressive behavior. Five factors
predict increased aggression and violence due to TV
viewing in children: (1) low
intellectual achievement, (2) low
social popularity, (3)
identification with the television
characters, (4) belief in the
realism of violence, and (5) level
of fantasizing about aggression.
Viewing large amounts of
television violence sets into
motion a sequence of processes
based on these personal and
interpersonal factors that results not only in the viewers
being more aggressive, but also in the viewers developing a
desire to see more television violence.
Research into the roots of violence and fear offers hope for
remedying unhealthy media use in our homes and reducing
the potential for violence in our society.
Cantor, J. (2000). The media and childrens fears, anxieties
and perceptions of danger. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer
(Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 207-222).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Malamuth, N. M., & Impett, E. A. (2000). Research on sex
in the media: What do we know about effects on children
and adolescents? In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.),
Handbook of children and the media (pp. 269-287). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

22

Valkenburg, P. M., & Cantor, J. (2000). Childrens likes and

dislikes of entertainment programs. In D. Zillmann & P.
Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its
appeal (pp. 135-152). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

ADAPTING TO NEW
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Changing Interpersonal Relationships
Just about everyone seems to have
opinions about how the Internet affects
our day-to-day lives. Early fears and early
experiments held that e-mail, chat rooms,
and other text-based forms of interaction
had no nonverbal communication ability
and, therefore, they would limit our ability
to interact normally with others. More
sophisticated communication research has
shown that people are often able to
accomplish much of the same kinds of
interactions online as they do offline, depending on a few
circumstances. Studies have shown that it takes longer
to get to know one another online than it does face-to-face,
but that online relationships are similar, and in some
cases better, than those formed in face-to-face interaction.
Communication in families is also changing as a result of
technological developments and a faster-paced lifestyle.
Parental supervision of media use in the family is weakened
by the Internet; parents report concerns about child safety
as well as concerns about content issues, such as
pornography, violence, and hate speech. Nevertheless, the
benefits of new communication technologies in families are
also becoming apparent. The interactions between working
parents and children and among working parents are
becoming increasingly dependent on technology as family
members use e-mail, cell phones, and other new media to
stay in touch and relay information. Furthermore, a parent
in a divorced family who does not have custody of his or her

23

children can often maintain effective relationships with them

via e-mail, as can parents who travel for long periods of time
or who are in commuter marriages.
As the Internet becomes familiar to more people, more
family members are creating family Web sites and
round-robin family messages, researching family history,
sharing family pictures, and maintaining and rekindling
relationships with long-lost relatives. E-mail has increased
communication in some family relationships and has been
used as a substitute for face-to face conversation in others.
In fact, many siblings stay in touch by using electronic
messaging as opposed to talking with each other on the
phone. Women in particular are taking advantage of
electronic messages to maintain family ties, according to
research by the PEW Internet and American Life Project.
In work settings, the way we use the Internet to
communicate can bring special benefits. When people
devote themselves to virtual work teams, they sometimes
achieve better relationships than they do offline. In
professional contexts, the relationship aspects of
e-communication can also prompt more and better work
by drawing on electronic resources. Even though we have
natural inclinations to want to see and hear each other,
research demonstrates that with patience and effort virtual
relationships can pay off. Indeed, a recent experiment
showed that people who get to know each other online
without seeing pictures of one another get along better in
the long run than people who see photos online.

24

The Internet is now a primary source for information about

physical health, mental health, and lifestyle concerns.
Traditionally, most people went to their small circles of
friends and family members for advice about health, often
enduring embarrassment and the discomfort of dependency.
Online support groups now allow people access to useful
information 24 hours a day/7days a week from others

who often have no more in common than their shared

circumstances and a willingness to compare experiences by
typing messages in these public forums. Aside from official
information from the Web sites of health agencies, Internet
users answer each others questions, offer advice and stories
about hundreds of topics online, and share information
about side-effects, recovery, and other personal experiences
that most health specialists cannot convey from first-hand
knowledge. Often most important to these users is that they
learn they are not alone in their feelings and their fears and
that there are many others out there who feel the same
and will show concern for their circumstances. For better
or worse, people appreciate the relative anonymity, the
available expertise, and the lack
of stigma associated with
online groups.
Moreover, research shows that
the Internet transforms social
support through writing. Emotionally
overwrought or shy users report they
can express themselves better when
they type their messages to an
electronic group than when they talk
to those who are closer to them,
such as friends or family. In fact,
recent research has shown that people often search
among their online resources to find optimal support for
their problems.
Baym, N. K. (2002). Interpersonal life online. In L.
Lievrouw & S. Livingstone (Eds.), The handbook of new media
(pp. 62-76). London: Sage.
Walther, J. (1994). Computer-mediated communication:
Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction.
Communication Research, 23, 3-43.
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Walther, J. B., & Slovacek, C., & Tidwell, L. C. (2001). Is a

picture worth a thousand words? Photographic images in
long term and short term virtual teams. Communication
Research, 28, 105-134.

Communicating With Computers

Computers are machines, but we sometimes treat them as if
they were people. Research indicates that we react to
interactive computer interfaces as though we were reacting
to another person, reaching many of the same conclusions
and judgments about the computer that we would make
about another human being. We respond to the computer
on the basis of characteristics normally attributed to
human beings, such as its trustworthiness, dogmatism,
and cooperation. It is surprising that these reactions
and judgments can be triggered by relatively simple
manipulations, such as the tone of voice or wording of a
response. For instance, one study found that subjects
evaluated a computer that gave them positive feedback on
their work as a more intelligent computer than one that gave
them no feedback. This is an important finding for computer
design, because it means that designers of interfaces who
wish to embody them with human characteristics need to
focus on the cues that people use in judging one another. It
is not necessary to go to the trouble of simulating a person
on the computer. Minimal cues similar to those that people
use, such as voice tone, will cause people to respond to
computers as if they are human interaction partners.

26

A key characteristic of computers

and information technologies is
their interactivity. New
communication technologies are
interactive to the extent that the
communication that takes place is
synchronous and involving,
individualized, and creates
perceptions of connectedness and

similarity. Research has found that computer and other

systems that give generic responses to search queries that
put people in an observer or lurker role and that interfere
with the ability to create a coordinated, smooth-flowing
conversation violate communication expectations and
undermine trust. As with computers, the use of automated
phone answering systems by large companies creates a sense
of disinterest and detachment on the part of the corporation.
By contrast, interactivity should be built into information
systems to promote easy and open use and a satisfying
communication experience.
That said, an open and trusting attitude in computermediated communication is not always desirable. As we all
know, it is a good policy to be wary in online interactions
with systems or people we do not know. Research suggests
that lower levels of interactivity can foster the detachment
necessary for users to be more task-focused and to carefully
examine critical information. It also appears that the less
involved we are in a conversation, the more likely we may
be to detect deception from our conversation partner. The
relatively poor communication support offered by some
systems may actually make people less likely to be fooled by
others than in face-to-face conversation. With fewer
nonverbal cues to manipulate, potential liars are less able to
adapt to receivers responses and keep them unsuspecting.
Findings such as these will become increasingly significant
as our daily interactions with computers increase. These
intelligent, smart, or artificial agents carry out many of the
communication tasks traditionally associated only with
human agents. Based on the personal information invested
in them by their human owners, they can schedule meetings,
continually monitor or search for specific information, carry
out trades, and even enter bids on auctions.
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Burgoon, J. K., Bonito, J., Bengtsson, B., Ramirez, A., Jr.,

Dunbar, N. E., & Miczo, N. (19992000). Testing the
interactivity model: Communication processes, partner
assessments, and the quality of collaborative work. Journal
of Management Information Systems, 16, 3558.
Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Building Teams and Supporting Communities

Studies of computer-supported groups suggest that many of
the same dynamics that occur in face-to-face groups emerge
in virtual, geographically distanced groups. Virtual groups
experience the same difficulties sharing and using
information observed in face-to-face groups, and the
processing of information is slower. These and other studies
are interesting because they suggest that common problems
in traditional groups may be worsened in groups that
interact over networks. This is opposite to the thought that
computerized communication systems are supposed to
provide enhanced speed of communication and thorough
and rapid information exchange.

28

However, there is some good news. Studies have shown

that the problems in computer-supported groups have, for
the most part, simply copied traditional communication
using new media. The real potential of communication
technologies is to provide features and facilities that go
beyond face-to-face communication. Studies of systems that
provide higher-level features, such as computerized
decision-making laboratories and support for negotiation,
indicate that these groups often perform significantly better
in decision making and conflict resolution than comparable
face-to-face groups and groups that simply interact via
computer networks. Current research and development is
harnessing electronic communication technologies to help
grassroots organizations revitalize their communities.

With support from government and private sources,

communication researchers are leading a multidisciplinary
team in the development of the Connected Kids projecta
Web-based community information system that links
government and not-for-profit agencies in Troy, NY, a
once-prosperous upstate city now recovering from the
declines of the postindustrial era. Troy epitomizes the
digital divide in that it hosts a major technical university
where the Internet pervades learning, yet the community
has many organizations and less affluent residents who
cannot afford access to this new information technology.
Within this setting, several
community service organizations
try to enhance the quality of
life for the citizensthe city
government, the Boys and Girls
Clubs, the countys department
of family and child services,
school districts, the homeless
shelter, community police, and
so on. As is unfortunately common, these agencies,
notwithstanding their similar goals, often operate separately
from one another. Communication technologies, guided by
communication theories are helping reconnect these
agencies with one another and with their community. While
we are intrigued with virtual communities of strangers who
connect via the Internet alone, enhancing the well-being
of real-life neighborhoods is another worthy focus of
communication research.
Connected Kids is developing a searchable, interactive
database of information about youth programs and services
available to all of Troys residents. The community
organizations can use the database to become aware of each
others resources and services, to share information, and to
avoid duplication of services and resources so that bigger
and better returns can be provided. But information alone
wont do the job. In addition, the researchers are focusing

29

on the communication aspects that will link organizations

to one another and provide customizable connections with
and for parents, schoolchildren, teachers, and counselors
as well. A similar study is focused on the impact of an
open community network on public participation in city
government in Santa Monica, CA. Studies of the Santa
Monica Public Electronic Network, or PEN, showed
how the system was able to involve traditionally
underrepresented voiceswomen and the homelessin
civic discussions.
Rice, R. E. (2002). Primary issues in Internet use: Access,
civic and community involvement, and social interaction and
expression. In L. Lievrouw & S. Livingstone (Eds.), The
handbook of new media (pp. 105-129). London: Sage.
Sambamurthy, V., & Poole, M. S. (1992). The effects of
variations in capabilities of GDSS designs on management
of cognitive conflict in groups. Information Systems Research,
3, 224-251.

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POSTSCRIPT
This booklet demonstrates the significant influence of
communication on society and on peoples lives. The
examples of communication research provided here clearly
show how communication researchers are working to help
improve your quality of life in the areas of politics,
relationships, health, and communication and new
technology. Hopefully, you should now have a greater
appreciation for communication research and will let others
know that communicationand behaviormatter!

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