1

Impact of Distributed Generation on Distance

Protection Performance - A Review
Viraj Pradeep Mahadanaarachchi, Student Member, IEEE, and Rama Ramakumar, Life Fellow, IEEE

Abstract-Early power systems were comprised of centrally

dispatched conventional power generation facilities, delivering
power to customers via transmission and distribution networks.
With the changes in utility structures, development in
technologies, increased attention on environmental concerns,
increase in electricity demand coupled with attractive advantages
offered by small to medium generation sources have led to
increasing use of Distributed Generation (DG). However, high
penetration of DG will have an adverse impact on the power
system operation & protection. In this paper an extended review
is done to identify the impact of fault current contribution from
DG on the line protection performance. The disturbing factors
for proper operation of distance protection and further the
impact of fault currents on those disturbing factors are identified.
Index Terms - Capacitive coupled voltage transformer
transients, current transformer saturation, distributed
generation, distance protection, fault currents, load flow.

I. INTRODUCTION

RADITIONALLY electric power systems have been

designed with large centrally dispatched generation
sources connected to high voltage networks, which deliver
power through a distribution system. Power system protection
was based on unidirectional power flow from upper stream to
down stream and the sole source of fault current contribution
is from upper stream bulk generation [1]. With the
introduction of Distributed Generation (DG) in distribution
and sub transmission levels these assumptions will no longer
be valid since DG will result in bidirectional power flows and
act as an additional source of fault currents [2].
High penetration of DG will have an impact on short circuit
capacity, protection coordination, system transient stability,
voltage control and power quality, which can significantly
influence the proper operation and protection performance of
the power system [2-3]. In this paper, impact of DG on short
circuit capacity and load flow behavior are taken into
consideration as main disturbing factors for effective
protection operation.

This work was supported by the Oklahoma State University Engineering

Energy Laboratory and by the US-Egypt joint project on Extended Investigation
of Wind Farm Protection Systems funded by the USDA.
V. P. Mahadanaarachchi and R. Ramakumar are with the Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
OK
74078
USA
(e-mail:
pradeep.mahadanaarachchi@okstate.edu;
rama.ramakumar@okstate.edu).

2008 IEEE.

The presence of DG provides an additional contribution to

the fault current, which is determined by factors such as size
and type of DG, location of DG, interconnection transformer
configuration, DG earthing arrangement etc, [2-4]. This
additional fault current contribution could adversely affect the
performance of line protection, primarily on existing distance
protection schemes. Distance protection is based on the
measured current and voltage at the point of interest and
distance relay operation and /or accuracy could be affected by
factors such as changes in the power flow, current transformer
saturation, capacitive coupled voltage transformer (CVT)
transients, power swings etc,.
In this paper, after a brief discussion of different types of
DG, the impact of DG on short circuit capacity is considered.
The impact of short circuit capacity on performance of line
distance protection is reviewed by considering the factors
which disturb the distance protection performance.
II. DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Various efforts have been made to establish an universal
definition for Distributed Generation (DG) and still there are
some ambiguities among IEEE, work groups of CIGRE,
International Energy Agency, etc,. However, small to medium
size generators connected to the power system at distribution
level or sub transmission level close to loads are called
Distributed Generation, Embedded Generation (preferred
term in UK), Dispersed Generation (preferred term in USA )
or Decentralised Generation [5]. DG includes mostly
electrical energy provided by alternate sources of energy,
beyond the conventional sources such as hydro electric, coal,
oil, gas and nuclear [6]. DG can be in the form of wind
turbines, photovoltaic cells, micro turbines, fuel cells, other
types such as small gas turbines, diesel engines and gas fired
internal combustion engines. Their ratings could vary from a
few kW to a few MW.
A. Wind Turbines
Grid connected wind turbines (WT) as an effective DG
source has developed dramatically in the recent past. WT can
be operated at nearly constant or variable speed and coupled
to induction generators to produce power. Induction
generators are widely used in WT, and variable speed
technology is preferred in almost all newer installations [7]. A
squirrel cage induction generator could be connected to the
power system through a power electronic interface as shown
in the Figure 1 with full power conversion.

converted to electrical energy. The dc power produced by the

fuel cell is converted into ac using a dc/ac inverter.

Figure 1 Variable speed induction generator [7]

Alternatively wound rotor induction machine can be used

as a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), where the stator
is directly connected to the system and the rotor is connected
through a power electronic interface as shown in Figure 2.

D. Micro turbines
Gas fired micro-turbines in the range of 25kW to 1MW can
be used to generate electricity. They are designed to combine
the reliability of on board commercial aircraft generators with
the low cost of automotive turbochargers. These microturbines run at high speeds (50,000-90,000 rpm) with air foil
bearings. The ac generator is a high frequency generator that
cannot be directly connected to the power system, and hence a
power electronic interface is used [8]. Generated voltage is
rectified first using a diode rectifier and dc/ac voltage source
type inverter is employed to obtain utility-grade ac for
injection into the grid as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 - Micro-turbine electrical system [7]

III. FAULT CURRENTS

Figure 2-Doubly fed induction generator [7]

This method is the preferred in new wind farms since it

requires a much smaller power electronic system and since it
allows to support the power system in the event of a system
disturbance.
B. Photovoltaic Systems
The photovoltaic (PV) module or array is an unregulated dc
power source, which has to be treated and conditioned before
being connected to the power system. A dc/dc converter
(chopper) is used at the PV array output for maximum power
tracking (MPPT) as shown in Figure 3. i.e. for extracting
maximum available power at a given insolation level, which
means maintaining the voltage as close as possible to the
maximum power point [8].

Figure 3-Grid connection of PV system [8]

C. Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device,
where chemical energy in the fuel is directly and isothermally

There are several factors which determine the level of fault

current contribution from DG.
A. Number and size of DG
In a DG facility there can be a few or higher number of
generators. If there are more parallel connected generators,
they will present a lesser source impedance to the power
system and more fault current contribution in case of a fault in
power system side or at DG collector system.
Further, depending on the size of generators, generator
transient/ subtransient impedance and their short circuit ratios
(SCR), fault current contribution will be impacted.
B. Types of DG
Different types of generators are used in various DG
sources. In wind turbines induction generators (Doubly fed
Induction generators) are preferred and in small hydro
installations synchronous generators (Salient pole) are
preferred. In photovoltaic systems and in fuel cells power
electronic interface is used. Depending on the type of
generator/interface fault current contribution will vary.
a. Synchronous Generators
A Synchronous generator when subject to a three phase
fault at its terminals will contribute fault current as shown in
Figure 5. This will encompass a subtransient period, transient
period and a steady state period [9]. Since subtransient period
(time constant) is comparatively small, transient period
(thereby transient reactance) will determine the fault current
contribution.

as well as fault currents, which should be controlled. Fault

current contribution of inverter based DG is lesser when
compared with a similar synchronous generator. However
large amount of inverter based DG can have an impact on
transient fault currents.
C. Transformer Configuration
The selection of the interconnection transformer
configuration has a major impact on how the DG will interact
with the connected power system [12]. Figure 7 shows five
commonly used transformer connections. Here the High
Voltage (HV) terminal is the utility side and the Low Voltage
(LV) terminal is the DG side.
Figure 5 Synchronous generator short circuit current characteristics [9]
(ST-Sub-transient period, T-Transient period, S-Steady state period)

b. Induction Generators
Behavior of an induction generator under fault condition is
different from a synchronous generator since induction
generators do not have field windings to develop the required
electro-magnetic field in the machines air gap. A three phase
fault on the generator terminals will interrupt the reactive
power import, which is required to maintain the excitation of
the induction generator [10]. As shown in Figure 6, fault
current diminishes rapidly as the stored magnetic energy in
the machine decays. As a result the fault current contribution
is limited to subtransient period.

Figure 6 fault current of induction generator when a three phase fault applied
to its terminals (phase shown with minimum offset) [10]

c. Power Electronic Interfaces

Almost every DG (except small hydro based DG, diesel
engines etc.) will be interfaced to the power system through a
dc/ac inverter, normally a self commutated Pulse Width
Modulated (PWM) inverter. This interface allows the DG
scheme to configure and control functions such as reactive
power control, power system stabilization and power system
damping as can be implemented in ac synchronous generators
through the excitation system [11].
DC injection to the power system through the inverters can
create high frequency harmonic components in load currents

Figure 7-Interconnection Transformer Connections [12]

In first three connections, Delta(HV)/Delta (LV),

Delta(HV)/Grounded Wye (LV) and Ungrounded Wye (HV)
/Delta (LV), there is no connection to the ground in HV side
and thereby no source of earth fault current to interact with
utility side relaying. A ground fault at LV side of the
transformer will not be detected by utility side. With this
ungrounded connection, phase faults will have two sources of
fault currents. In last two connections, Grounded Wye
(HV)/Delta (LV) and Grounded Wye (HV)/ Grounded Wye
(LV), will have a source of earth fault current in HV side,
which increase the earth fault current level at utility side [1213]. Large number of DG facilities with several
interconnection transformers can make an impact to the phase
and ground fault contribution and there by maloperate the
existing protective devices.
D. Generator Earthing Arrangement
For DGs connected to the power system through a step up
transformer, the stator winding of the generator and the
associate transformer winding (if not earthed) will form an
isolated system that is not affected by the power system
earthing system. This floating system can lead to overvoltage
conditions. In larger DGs neural of the generator is earthed
through a single phase distribution transformer with a
resistive load on the secondary [14]. If the generator is not
earthed, (as in some small DGs) DG side interconnection
transformer winding should be earthed. DGs directly
connected to the power system with no step-up transformer,
are normally earthed through a resistance.
Depending on the earthing method (solidly, resistive or
inductive) used in DG facilities, fault loop impedance for

internal and through (external) faults could change.

IV. DISTANCE PROTECTION PERFORMANCE
Distance relays are used for primary and/or backup
protection for phase faults and/or ground faults on
transmission, sub-transmission and distribution lines. Distance
based schemes are also a very economical and simple
approach to protecting these lines. Distance relays operate by
measuring the phase relationship between an operating
quantity and a polarizing quantity [15]. Line drop
compensated voltage is the operating quantity, which consists
of measured voltage, measured current and reach setting.
Polarizing quantity should remain unchanged and unaffected
during a fault. Polarizing quantities for mho elements can be
positive sequence voltage, healthy or unfaulted phase voltage,
quadrature voltage (shifted leading 900) etc.
Distance protection should quickly detect and clear faults,
dependable when required to detect and isolate a fault/faulty
section, secure for external/out-of-zone faults and selective in
tripping decisions [16]. Voltage and Current inputs to distance
relays are taken from instrument transformers and it is very
important to select instrument transformers with proper
ratings and tolerable errors.
Distance protection performance could be affected from (i)
various dynamic system conditions such as changes in load
flow, stable and unstable power swings, mutual coupling of
transmission lines, sub-synchronous resonance, and (ii)
instrument transformer conditions such as current transformer
saturation, capacitive coupled voltage transformer transients.
These disturbing factors are further worsened by large
deployment of distributed generation in distribution and subtransmission lines. Increased in fault currents and changes in
load flow are the main adverse contribution from DG to affect
above factors and thereby the effective and efficient operation
of distance protection.
A. Load Flow
An ideal distance relay sees apparent impedance equal to
the positive sequence impedance from the relay location to
the fault location. The perfect behavior is affected by changes
in load flow coupled with fault arc resistance/ground fault
impedance. This will alter the measured impedance from
actual positive sequence impedance, which can result in
overreach for line-end faults and incorrect directional action
for close-in reverse faults [17]. More over, load flow causes a
shift of the distance relay characteristics as plotted on an R-X
diagram.
The type of relay characteristic and the polarizing quantity
used will determines the level of distance relay over reaching
problem. When looking high resistance phase to ground faults
directly in front of the relay, first zone relay characteristics
which have large first quadrant coverage in the R-X diagram
should be selected to reduce relay maloperation.
In most protection application and setting calculations load
flow is assumed as zero or not taken in to consideration in a
detailed manner. But load flow can have an adverse impact on
real-time protective relay performance. This impact is further
weighted with incorporation of DG, since large amount of DG

significantly alters the load flow and its direction. Further

Source to line impedance ratio (SIR, ZS/ZL) can be a critical
parameter in appraising the protective relay behaviour when
load flow is considered [17]. Since DG will have a clear
impact on system SIR, and thereby distance protection
performance.
B. Capacitive Coupled Voltage Transformer Transients
Capacitive coupled Voltage Transformers (CVT) provides
an effective way of obtaining secondary voltages for HV and
EHV systems. However they create some problems for
distance relay operation. During line faults, when the primary
voltage collapses, the energy stored in the stack capacitors
(C1 & C2) and the tuning reactor (L) of a CVT (as shown in
figure 8) needs to be dissipated.

Figure 8 Capacitive Voltage Transformer Circuit [18]

As a result CVT generates severe transients (with

significant magnitudes and for long duration) that affect the
performance of protective relays. Due to these transients it
will be difficult to differentiate faults at the reach point and
faults within the protection zone [18]. This will be prominent
in systems with high Source Impedance ratios (SIR).
Static and microprocessor based relays are highly prone to
these CVT transients, since they are designed for high speed
operation. Electromechanical relays can tolerate the
unfavorable CVT transients due to their natural mechanical
inertia, but with slower operation.
CVT transients can have a direct impact on (i) the transient
overreach (a relay operates during faults located out of its set
reach) due to the under estimation of voltage, (ii) the speed of
operation (slow tripping for in-zone faults under high SIRs)
and (iii) directionality [19].
Distance relays calculate a lesser value than actual apparent
impedance to the fault, due to the CVT transients, since CVT
transients will reduce the fundamental component of the fault
voltage. This can cause overreach of Zone 1 distance relay
elements [20].
A system with a higher SIR results in worse CVT transients
and hence DG will have direct contribution to CVT transients
since increased penetration of DG will have an impact on the
SIR of the connected system. Moreover, the shape of the CVT
transient is influenced by the fault initiation angle. CVT
transients will be worse for a fault at a voltage zero crossing.
Parallel operation of large amount of DG with the power
system will have an impact on fault initiation angle.

Relay manufacturers have used several methods to

overcome CVT problem, which includes narrow band pass
filtering of the voltage (which effectively adds delay through
filtering), reducing distance relay reach, and delaying the
distance relay tripping decision. These solutions have their
own disadvantages [21].
With the increase in fault current contribution and change
in power flow introduced by DG will worsen the CVT
transients and hence will have a direct impact on distance
protection performance. Further this impact is increased, since
relay settings are made based on system studies, which may
not have considered the contribution from increased
deployment of DG in to the system over the time.
C. Current Transformer Saturation
Secondary current from Current transformers (CT) are the
current input to the protective relays. Protective relay
accuracy and performance are directly related to the steady
state and transient performance of the CTs [21]. The
performance of CTs and its errors during short circuit
conditions are very important with regard to protective
devices in power networks.
CT output is affected drastically when the CT operates in
the non-linear region of its excitation characteristics.
Operation in this region is initiated by (i) large asymmetrical
primary fault currents with a decaying dc component, (ii)
Residual magnetism left in the core from an earlier
asymmetrical fault, or field testing if the CT has not been
demagnetized properly, (iii) large connected burden combined
with high magnitudes of primary fault currents [21-22].
CT saturation causes severe waveform distortions in the
secondary currents supplied to the protective relays. In
extreme cases secondary current can be zero. Protective
relays are designed to operate before the time period of the
transient disturbance during a system fault. However large CT
transient errors may delay or prevent relay operation [21-22].
A current waveform associated with CT saturation is shown in
figure 9.

Figure 9 Waveforms of saturated CT [23]

(E-induced emf, -flux in the core)

Saturation of the CT also causes a phase shift between the

unsaturated waveform and the saturated waveform, which can
result in distance element under reach or overreach [22].
According to the work done in [21], CT saturation will have
an impact on distance relay Zone 1 elements, which will

experience a minor tripping delay and a possible underreach

for faults near to the relay reach point and a limited impact on
longer set Zone 2 and Zone 3 distance elements.
In early distance protection schemes, it was unlikely that a
distance relay would be subjected to CT saturation for remote
faults or faults near the Zone 1 reach point. CT saturation
would occur for faults close to the relay terminals and this
will have a limited impact on distance relay operation [22].
But with the power system growth and changes in complexity
CT saturation has become a probable event. Moreover, with
high penetration of DG will change the system transient fault
behavior and can create greater probability of CT saturation.
D. Power Swings
Power swings are variations in power flow that occur when
the internal voltages of generators at different locations of the
power system slip relative to each other. While mechanical
power input to generators remains almost unchanged, sudden
changes in electric power in an interconnected power system
can happened due to power system faults, line switching,
generator disconnection, loss or application of large blocks of
load. These system disturbances can cause oscillations in
machine rotor angles which can lead to severe power flow
swings. Depending on the nature and degree of the
disturbance, and the power system control actions, for a stable
power swing, the system may remain stable and return to a
new equilibrium state. Severe disturbances will lead to
unstable power swings, which can lead to large separation of
generator rotor angle and thereby loss of synchronism which
is known as out of step (OOS) conditions [24].
Power swings can cause the load impedance to enter in to
the relays operating characteristic, which under steady state
conditions is not with in the relays operating characteristic.
This will be similar to a load encroachment problem in
distance relaying. Relay operation during power swings may
cause undesirable tripping of lines or the other power system
elements. Therefore, for transient power swings, distance
relay elements should be temporary prohibited from
operating.
In modern relays, a power swing block (PSB) function is
available to prevent distance relay element maloperation
during power swings and differentiate power swings from
faults. And an out of step trip (OST) function to isolate
faulted sections, and maintain stability and continuity.
Faults developed during a power swing should be detected
and cleared with a high priority. In protective relays Rate of
change of the positive sequence impedances is used in PSB
and OST functions to differentiate a stable power swing from
a fault. During a power swing, this rate is slower since it takes
certain time for rotor angle to advance due to the system
inertia. On the other hand the rate is very fast during a system
fault.
Depending on the DG size and voltage level they are
connected to the system, the location of the swing centre will
be determined (location of the swing center is given in [24
sec. 5.2]). Normally the swing center is located in the step up
transformer or in the Generator in the case of a small DG.
When large number of DG is connected to the system the

swing center may move out onto the distribution feeder. Then
feeder protective relays should be equipped with power swing
protection and feeder breaker with OOS switching capability
[24]. There is a significant impact on power swings from high
penetration DG and thereby on existing distance relaying.
E. Subsynchronous Resonance
Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) is an electrical power
system condition where the electrical network exchanges
energy with a turbine generator at one or more of the natural
frequencies of the combined system below the synchronous
frequency of the system [25]. SSR can be steady state (self
excitation) or transient (transient torques). For self-excitation
can be involved with rotor electrical dynamics (Induction
generator effect) or with rotor electrical and mechanical
dynamics (torsional interaction). Transient torques can be due
to the system disturbances resulting from switching in the
network which can excite oscillatory torques on the generator
rotor [25-26].
Previously the effect of SSR has been identified in series
compensated long transmission lines with large synchronous
generators. Also SSR may occur in small private power
systems with faulty induction machines [26]. With large
number of induction generators connected to the power
system, SSR can be a significant issue, which can impact the
transient fault current behavior.
F. Other Possible Factors
Mutual coupling of transmission line will have a major
impact on the zero sequence impedance on a double circuit
transmission line. This impact is considered in distance relays
and accordingly compensated when commissioning, based on
system conditions. When DG is added to the system and when
the penetration levels grew high, there can be a change in
mutual coupling and thereby an impact on distance relaying.
However this is a less probable scenario when compared with
other disturbing factors.
Ferroresonance is also another probable factor which is
normally initiated after some type of switching event such as
load rejection, fault clearing, transformer energization, single
phase switching or loss of system grounding [27]. Further
ferroresonance can occur due to DG going in to islanding
mode with a captive load [28]. Impact of ferroresonance on
distance relay performance is not specifically discussed in
literature.
V. FUTURE STRATEGIES
The impact of DG will be modeled and simulated in a
power system modeling software, PSCAD/EMTDC using a
standard power system model (eg. IEEE 14 bus
configuration). Initially the increase in fault current
contribution and load flow changes are verified through
incorporating DG in different buses. To assess the impact
from different types of DG, DG models for wind, solar, fuel
cells etc, will be employed. This modeling exercise will be
extended to evaluate the impact of distance relay operation by
considering the disturbance factors mentioned in this paper.

Moreover, the specific impact on different types of distance

relay characteristics such as mho, quadrilateral and, for
numerical and electromechanical relays using appropriate
relay models will be analyzed and verified.
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Grid connected Distributed Generation has experienced a
rapid growth in the recent past and is expected to have an
exponential expansion in the future. Though DG has
significant economic and environmental benefits, increased
penetration of DG will impose significant technical barriers
for the efficient and effective operation of the bulk power
system. Increased fault current contribution and load flow
changes are two of the major impacts on the utility system,
and these will affect the existing protective relaying,
especially overcurrent and distance protection. In this paper
distance protection performance is studied by identifying the
salient factors which will maloperate or disturb the proper
distance relay operation. Further, work carried out by various
researchers has been reviewed to assess the impact of DG on
distance relay disturbance factors.
Finally, planned future strategies are highlighted to evaluate
and verify the DG impact on distance protection by modeling
and simulation.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
J. B. Ekanayake for his valuable comments from his
experience in distributed generation field.
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IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Viraj Pradeep Mahadanaarachchi (S07) was born in Sri Lanka on
September 10, 1978. He received the B.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering
from the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka in 2004.
His working experience is on Manufacturing and
Designing of high voltage protection and control
panel boards at Cruickshank Ceylon, Sri Lanka, and
on Protection Testing and Condition Monitoring of
power plants at Generation Asset Management
Branch, Ceylon Electricity Board, Sri Lanka, as an
Electrical Engineer. Presently he is working on
protection aspects of wind farms, as a Graduate
Research Assistant at Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater.
His research interests are Power System
Protection & Stability, Condition Monitoring of high voltage equipments, Grid
integration and impact of Distributed Generation.

Dr. Rama Ramakumar (M62, SM75, F94, LF02) received the B.E. degree
from the university of madras, Madras, India, the M.Tech. degree from the

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, and

the PhD degree from Cornell University, Ithaca, NY,
all in Electrical Engineering.
After a decade (total) of service on the
faculty of the Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, India, he joined Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, in 1967, where he has been a
Professor since 1976.In addition, he has been the
Director of the OSU Engineering Energy Laboratory
since 1987. In 1991, he was named the PSO/Albrecht
Naeter Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His research interests
are in the area of energy conversion, energy storage, power engineering, and
renewable energy. He has been a consultant to several national and
supranational organizations in the field of energy and has organized and
presented short courses on renewable energy topics and engineering reliability.
His contributions are documented in over 150 publications, which include four
U.S. patents, contributed chapters in four books and seven hand books, and
technical papers in various journals, transaction, and national and international
conference proceedings. He is the author of the text book Engineering
Reliability Fundamentals and Applications (Englewood Cliffs, NY, PrenticeHall, 1993).
Dr. Ramakumars past and present leadership activities in the IEEE
Power Engineering Society include chairing the Awards Committee of the
Technical Council, the award Subcommittee of the Power Engineering Education
Committee, the Energy Development Subcommittee of the Energy Development
and Power Generation Committee, the Working Group on Renewable
Technologies, and the Fellows Working Group of the Power Engineering
Education Committee. He is a member of the American and International Solar
Energy Societies, the American Society for Engineering Education, and the
IEEE Industry Applications Society. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in
the State of Oklahoma.