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PRACTICE GUIDELINE
Conjunctivitis
OPTOMETRY:
THE PRIMARY EYE CARE PROFESSION
Doctors of optometry are independent primary health care providers who
examine, diagnose, treat, and manage diseases and disorders of the visual
system, the eye, and associated structures as well as diagnose related
systemic conditions.
Optometrists provide more than two-thirds of the primary eye care
services in the United States. They are more widely distributed
geographically than other eye care providers and are readily accessible
for the delivery of eye and vision care services. There are approximately
32,000 full-time equivalent doctors of optometry currently in practice in
the United States. Optometrists practice in more than 7,000 communities
across the United States, serving as the sole primary eye care provider in
more than 4,300 communities.
The mission of the profession of optometry is to fulfill the vision and eye
care needs of the public through clinical care, research, and education, all
of which enhance the quality of life.
Printed in U.S.A.
Conjunctivitis iii
iv Conjunctivitis
1.
2.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
I.
II.
B.
CONCLUSION
......................................................................................... 41
III. REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 42
IV.
APPENDIX ......................................................................................... 51
Figure 1:
Optometric Management of the Patient with Conjunctivitis:
A Brief Flowchart ............................................................ 51
Figure 2:
Procedures for Obtaining Conjunctival Cultures, Smears,
and Scrapings................................................................... 52
Figure 3:
Frequency and Composition of Evaluation and
Management Visits for Conjunctivitis ............................. 53
Figure 4:
ICD-9-CM Classification of Conjunctivitis ..................... 55
Abbreviations of Commonly Used Terms .............................................. 59
Glossary
......................................................................................... 60
Introduction 1
INTRODUCTION
Optometrists, through their clinical education, training, experience, and
broad geographic distribution, have the means to provide primary eye and
vision care services for a significant portion of the American public and are
often the first health care practitioners to examine and diagnose patients
with conjunctivitis.
This Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline for the Care of the Patient
with Conjunctivitis describes appropriate examination and treatment
procedures for patients with conjunctivitis. It contains recommendations
for timely diagnosis and treatment, and when consultation with other health
care providers may be indicated. This Guideline will assist optometrists in
achieving the following goals:
Allergic Conjunctivitis
4 Conjunctivitis
preformed inflammatory mediators.1 The types of allergic conjunctivitis
include atopic keratoconjunctivitis, simple allergic conjunctivitis, seasonal
or perennial conjunctivitis, vernal conjunctivitis, and giant papillary
conjunctivitis.
a.
Atopic Keratoconjunctivitis
Seasonal Conjunctivitis
Vernal Conjunctivitis
Most often associated with soft contact lens wear, giant papillary
conjunctivitis (GPC) has been reported in patients wearing soft, hard, and
rigid gas-permeable contact lenses, as well as in patients with ocular
prostheses or exposed sutures in contact with the conjunctiva.7,8
2.
Bacterial Conjunctivitis
6 Conjunctivitis
Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus species. The condition is
self-limiting, generally lasting less than 3 weeks.
c.
Viral Conjunctivitis
Adenoviral Conjunctivitis
b.
b.
A common infectious condition that can affect all ages and races and both
genders, acute (mucopurulent) bacterial conjunctivitis is caused by a
number of microbial agents, primarily Staphylococcus aureus,
Herpetic Conjunctivitis
Chlamydial Conjunctivitis
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular parasites that rank among the more
important causes of conjunctivitis. Chlamydia trachomatis is the causative
agent in the most common sexually transmitted disease in the United
States,20 and it can be accompanied by conjunctivitis. Ocular infection
from C. trachomatis may result in adult inclusion conjunctivitis,
ophthalmia neonatorum, trachoma, or lymphogranuloma venereum.
8 Conjunctivitis
conjunctivitis associated with contact lens wear are related to solution
allergy, tissue hypoxia, or GPC.
b.
5.
a.
Traumatic Conjunctivitis
Toxic Conjunctivitis
Mechanical Conjunctivitis
Neonatal Conjunctivitis
2.
Phlyctenular Conjunctivitis
Secondary Conjunctivitis
Keratoconjunctivitis sicca
Blepharitis
Reiters syndrome
Cicatricial pemphigoid
Erythema multiforme
(Stevens-Johnson syndrome)
Relapsing polychondritis
B.
Epidemiology of Conjunctivitis
1.
10 Conjunctivitis
Lyme disease
Superior limbic
keratoconjunctivitis
Floppy lid syndrome
Mucous fishing syndrome
Collagen-vascular diseases
Sarcoidosis.
Risk Factors
1.
Natural History
The natural history of conjunctivitis varies with the causative agent. Many
cases of primary conjunctivitis are self-limiting and resolve without
treatment. Although conjunctivitis is not a major cause of ocular morbidity
or vision loss in the United States, it can cause serious, permanent damage
to the eye. In fact, conjunctivitis has been reported as the initial
manifestation of an ultimately fatal systemic infection.31 Patients who
have undergone glaucoma-filtering surgery and who develop bacterial
conjunctivitis are at increased risk of developing endophthalmitis.
Inadequately treated gonococcal conjunctivitis can progress to keratitis,
endophthalmitis, and blindness.32,33 Chlamydial ophthalmia neonatorum
can be associated with chlamydial pneumonitis.34,35 Membranous
conjunctivitis and conjunctivitis with secondary conjunctival scarring may
lead to keratitis sicca, symblepharon formation, trichiasis, and corneal
scarring with resultant blindness.
2.
Allergic Conjunctivitis
Vernal conjunctivitis. Severe bilateral itching and copious, ropelike, mucous discharge. In the palpebral form of vernal
conjunctivitis, the upper tarsal conjunctiva has giant papillae. In the
less common limbal form, the development of a gelatinous
thickening of the superior limbal conjunctiva occurs, and distinct
nodules can sometimes be observed within the thickened limbal
area. Trantas' dots (small white dots composed of eosinophilic
concretions) on the surface of the thickened conjunctiva are
pathognomonic of limbal vernal conjunctivitis.
b.
Bacterial Conjunctivitis
12 Conjunctivitis
bilateral, accompanied by pain, globe tenderness, and preauricular
lymphadenopathy.
c.
Viral Conjunctivitis
14 Conjunctivitis
d.
Table 1
Signs and Symptoms of Common Types of Conjunctivitis
Etiology
Chlamydial Conjunctivitis
Bacterial
Condition
Onset/
Duration
Symptoms
Hyperacute
bacterial
Acute
Acute bacterial
Acute
Chronic bacterial
Chronic
Adenoviral
Acute
Herpetic
Acute
Tearing
Seasonal
Seasonal/
recurrent
Itching, tearing
Vernal
Seasonal/
chronic
Giant papillary
Acute/
chronic
Acute/
Chronic
Tearing
Viral
Allergic
Chlamydial
Chlamydial
Etiology
Bacterial
Viral
Allergic
Chlamydial
Conjunctival
Response
Preauricular
Lymphadenopathy
16 Conjunctivitis
e.
Discharge
Occasional
Copious purulent
Moderate diffuse
hyperemia, papillae
Unusual
Purulentmucopurulent
Low-grade hyperemia,
mixed follicles/papillae
Unusual
Mucopurulent
Diffuse hyperemia,
petechial hemorrhages,
follicle
Common
Serous, serousmucoid,
or mucopurulent
Diffuse hyperemia,
follicles
Occasional
Serous-mucoid
Unusual
Mucoid
Unusual
Ropey mucoid
Giant papillae
Unusual
Mucoid
Occasional
Mucoid
Etiologic
Agent
Onset
Conjunctival
Features
Cytology
Chemical
24 hours
Diffuse hyperemia,
purulent exudate
Polymorphonuclear
lymphocytes
Chlamydial
510 days
Diffuse hyperemia,
purulent exudate
Basophilic cytoplasmic
inclusion bodies
18 Conjunctivitis
Other bacterial
5 days
Diffuse hyperemia,
mucopurulent discharge
Causative agent
Neisseria
gonorrhoeae
35 days
Hyperacute
conjunctivitis with
mucopurulent discharge
3.
Multinucleated giant
cells
Herpetic
515 days
Diffuse hyperemia,
watery discharge
CARE PROCESS
Chief complaint
Ocular history
Previous episodes
Prior exposure to infected individuals
Trauma
Contact lens wear
Use of topical legend or over-the-counter
medications or cosmetics
Social history
Environmental exposure
Sexual history (as indicated)
Family history
Ocular history
Medical history
Patient History
Table 3
Components of History for Patients with Conjunctivitis
Diagnosis of Conjunctivitis
22 Conjunctivitis
Refer to the Optometric Clinical Practice Guidelines, Comprehensive Adult Eye and
Vision Examination or Pediatric Eye and Vision Examination, as appropriate.
24 Conjunctivitis
Ocular Examination
Table 4
Relevant Clinical Findings in External Examination
of Patients With Conjunctivitis
The ocular examination may include, but is not limited to, the following
procedures:
a.
Eyelids
Globe
Conjunctiva
Regional
Lymphadenopathy
Neuro-Ophthalmic Screening
External Examination
d.
Biomicroscopy
Bulbar conjunctiva
Tarsal conjunctiva
(upper and lower)
Cornea
Anterior chamber/
iris/lens
26 Conjunctivitis
f.
Supplemental Testing
a.
e.
Fundus Examination
Immunoassay
Tonometry
Conjunctival Biopsy
28 Conjunctivitis
B.
Management of Conjunctivitis
a.
Allergic Conjunctivitis
Every effort has been made to ensure the drug dosage recommendations are accurate at the
time of publication of the Guideline. However, as treatment recommendations change due
to continuing research and clinical experience, clinicians should verify drug dosage
schedules with information found on product information sheets.
30 Conjunctivitis
Concentration
Frequency of
Administration
0.1% suspension
and solution
Variable
Fluorometholone acetate
0.1% suspension
Variable
Fluorometholone alcohol
0.1% suspension
Variable
Loteprednol etabonate
0.2%0.5% suspension
Variable
Medrysone
1.0% suspension
Variable
Prednisolone acetate
0.121.0% suspension
Variable
Prednisolone sodium
phosphate
Rimexolone
0.1251.0% solution
1.0% suspension
Variable
Variable
0.5% solution
q.i.d.
Cromolyn sodium
4.0% solution
q.i.d.
Lodoxamide tromethamine
0.1% solution
q.i.d
Pemirolast potassium
0.1% solution
q.i.d.
Nedocromil sodium
2.0% solution
b.i.d.
Emastadine difumarate
0.05% solution
q.i.d.
Levocabastine hydrochloride
0.05% suspension
q.i.d.
Azelastine hydrochloride
0.05% solution
b.i.d
Olopatadine hydrochloride
0.1% solution
b.i.d.
Ketotifen fumarate
0.025% solution
b.i.d.
Steroidal anti-inflammatory
Dexamethasone
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
Ketorolac tromethamine
Mast cell stabilizer
Antihistamine/ H1 agonist
32 Conjunctivitis
b.
Bacterial Conjunctivitis
Type of
Antimicrobial Agent
Spectrum of Activity
(Genus or Species)
Concentration
Frequency of
Administration
Aminoglycoside
(gentamicin/tobramycin)
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Haemophilus, Proteus,
Escherichia coli, Moraxella,
Pseudomonas
0.3%
q.2h. to q.i.d.
Bacitracin zinc
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Neisseria
500 U/g
(ointment)
q.h.s. to q.i.d.
Chloramphenicol
Staphylococcus, Haemophilus,
Proteus
1.0% (ointment)
0.5% (solution)
q.2h. to q.i.d.
Erythromycin
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Neisseria, Haemophilus
0.5% (ointment)
Fluoroquinolone
(ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin,
levofloxacin)
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Haemophilus, Pseudomonas
0.3%0.5%
q.2h. to q.i.d.
Polymyxin B/neomycin
Staphylococcus, Proteus,
Moraxella, Pseudomonas
16,250 U; 3.5
mg/ml
q.i.d.
Polymyxin B/trimethoprim
sulfate
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,
Proteus, Escherichia coli,
Haemophilus
10,000 U; 1
mg/ml
q.3h.
Sodium sulfacetamide
Streptococcus, Haemophilus,
Moraxella
10%30%
q.2h. to q.i.d.
Sulfisoxazole diolamine
Streptococcus, Haemophilus,
Moraxella
4.0%
q.i.d.
Tetracycline
Staphylococcus, Neisseria,
Escherichia coli
1.0%
q.2h. to q.i.d.
34 Conjunctivitis
Hyperacute conjunctivitis requires special consideration because of
potential blinding from inadequately treated gonococcal infections.
Conjunctival smears and cultures should be obtained before beginning
treatment. The administration of systemic antibiotics that are effective
against the identified organisms should be started immediately. Saline
lavage may be beneficial in removing purulent discharge. In the case of
gonococcal infection, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) recommends the administration of a single dose of intramuscular
ceftriaxone.71 Although the CDC does not recommend topical treatment,
practitioners may wish to consider the addition of a topical fluoroquinolone
as adjunctive therapy. Patients should also be evaluated for co-infection
with other sexually transmitted diseases. Care of the patient with sexually
transmitted disease should be coordinated with the patient's primary care
physician.
c.
Viral Conjunctivitis
q.h.s. to q.i.d.
Chlamydial Conjunctivitis
36 Conjunctivitis
f.
Mechanical Conjunctivitis
Traumatic Conjunctivitis
Toxic Conjunctivitis
Neonatal Conjunctivitis
j.
Table 8
Treatment of Neonatal Conjunctivitis*
Etiology
Systemic Agent
Topical Agent
Gonococcal
Inadequate if used
alone; unnecessary with
systemic treatment
Herpes simplex
Inadequate if used
alone; unnecessary with
systemic treatment
Chlamydial
Inadequate if used
alone; unnecessary with
systemic treatment
None
Irrigation of significant
discharge
Chemical
38 Conjunctivitis
Because the vast majority of cases are self-limiting, the aim of therapy for
Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome is symptomatic relief of preauricular
lymphadenopathy. The application of a mild topical
vasoconstrictor/lubricant and warm soaks of the inflamed preauricular area
are generally sufficient. Biopsy of conjunctival granuloma not only
provides diagnostic information regarding the etiologic agent but may have
therapeutic benefits;23 however, this procedure is indicated only in severe
cases.
k.
Phlyctenular Conjunctivitis
Secondary Conjunctivitis
*Based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1998 Guidelines for Treatment of
Sexually Transmitted Diseases. MMWR 1998; 47(no.RR-1):1-118.
Patient Education
Once conjunctivitis has been diagnosed and treatment has been initiated,
the patient requires follow-up care. The frequency of follow-up visits
varies with the severity of the condition, the diversity of etiologies
considered, and the potential for ocular morbidity. Follow-up should be
designed for careful monitoring of disease progression and verification that
the selected treatment regime is effective. Alteration of therapy, when
needed, as well as recognition of adverse side effects and re-evaluation of
the condition and its response to treatment at regular intervals, are integral
to successful patient management (Figure 3)
Conclusion 41
CONCLUSION
Conjunctivitis is a common, multifaceted disease process that has a variety
of etiologies and clinical features, and requires a variety of treatments.
Professional care is needed for accurate diagnosis and effective therapeutic
intervention. Optometrists play an integral role in the diagnosis, treatment,
and management of conjunctivitis.
42 Conjunctivitis
III.
References
1.
2.
3.
Donshik PC, Ehlers WH. Ocular allergy. In: Smolin G, Thoft RA,
eds. The cornea, 3rd ed. Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1994:34764.
4.
5.
6.
Arrfa RC. Grayson's diseases of the cornea, 4th ed. St. Louis:
Mosby-Year Book, 1997:160.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
References 43
44 Conjunctivitis
12.
Wan WL, Farkas GC, May WN, Robin JB. The clinical
characteristics and course of adult gonococcal conjunctivitis. Am J
Ophthalmol 1986; 102:575-83.
22.
13.
23.
24.
14.
25.
15.
16.
Arrfa RC. Grayson's diseases of the cornea, 4th ed. St. Louis:
Mosby-Year Book, 1997:286.
26.
17.
27.
28.
18.
29.
Ganley JP, Roberts J. Eye conditions and related need for medical
care among persons 1-74 years of age, United States 1971-72. Vital
and health statistics, series 11, no. 228, DHHS publication no. (PHS)
83-1678. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
March 1983.
30.
31.
19.
20.
21.
References 45
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
46 Conjunctivitis
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
39.
47.
40.
48.
41.
49.
References 47
50.
51.
48 Conjunctivitis
57. Tabbara KF, al-Kharashi SA. Efficacy of nedocromil 2% versus
fluorometholone 0.1%: a randomized, double masked trial comparing the
effects on severe vernal keratoconjunctivitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1999;
83(2):180-4.
58.
59.
52.
53.
61.
62.
63.
64.
54.
55.
56.
References 49
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
50 Conjunctivitis
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
Appendix 51
IV.
APPENDIX
52 Conjunctivitis
Figure 2
Procedures for Obtaining Conjunctival Cultures, Smears,
and Scrapings
Figure 1
Optometric Management of the Patient
With Conjunctivitis:
A Brief Flowchart
Conjunctival Cultures
Patient history and examination
Supplemental
testing
Cultures, smears,
scrapings,
immunoassay,
conjunctival biopsy
Identify and
remove causative
antigen or
organism
Provide supportive
therapy (unpreserved
lubricants, cold
compresses)
Prescribe appropriate
regimen of
pharmacologic agents
Co-manage with
physician for
treatment of
underlying ocular or
systemic condition
Under topical anesthesia, the area of the conjunctiva most involved with
the disease process is sampled. After swabbing away excess discharge, a
sterile spatula is used to gently scrape the conjunctival surface. Scraping
should be firm enough to recover material but should not elicit bleeding.
Recovered material is immediately placed on a clean glass slide and
fixed with methyl alcohol. Stains commonly used on conjunctival
scrapings are Giemsa and Papanicolaou.
Appendix 53
54 Conjunctivitis
Figure 3
Frequency and Composition of Evaluation and
Management Visits for Conjunctivitis
Figure 3 (Continued)
Condition
Frequency of Follow-up
History
Visual Acuity
Condition
Slit Lamp
Biomicroscopy
Ophthalmoscopy
Management Plan
Allergic
conjunctivitis
Mild:
Every 5-7 days
Moderate:
Every 3-5 days
Severe:
Every 1-3 days
Yes
Yes
Allergic
conjunctivitis
Yes
As indicated
Bacterial
conjunctivitis
Mild:
Every 5-7 days
Moderate:
Every 3-5 days
Severe:
Every 1-3 days
Yes
Yes
Bacterial
conjunctivitis
Yes
As indicated
Viral Conjunctivitis
Mild:
Every 5-7 days
Moderate:
Every 3-5 days
Severe:
Every 1-3 days
Yes
Yes
Viral
Conjunctivitis
Yes
As indicated
Identify/remove allergen.
Prescribe unpreserved
lubricants, cold
compresses, topical
pharmaceuticals,
systemic antihistamines.
Educate patient
Identify organism and
specific antimicrobial
agent. Hyperacute form:
obtain smears and
cultures, do saline lavage.
Prescribe topical and/or
systemic antibiotics.
Obtain consultation for
evaluation and treatment
of underlying systemic
condition. Educate
patient.
Prescribe cold
compresses, lubricants,
ocular decongestants, and
topical pharmacologic
agents as appropriate.
Educate patient.
Chlamydial
conjunctivitis
Mild:
Every 5-7 days
Moderate:
Every 3-5 days
Severe:
Every 1-3 days
Yes
Yes
Chlamydial
conjunctivitis
Yes
As indicated
Prescribe systemic
antibiotic. Obtain
consultation for
evaluation and treatment
of underlying systemic
condition.
Educate patient.
Appendix 55
Figure 4
ICD-9-CM Classification of Conjunctivitis
Disorders of conjunctiva
Excludes: keratoconjunctivitis (370.3370.4)
Acute conjunctivitis
Acute conjunctivitis, unspecified
Serous conjunctivitis, except viral
Excludes: viral conjunctivitis NOS (077.9)
Acute follicular conjunctivitis
Conjunctival folliculosis NOS
372
372.0
372.00
372.01
372.02
Excludes: conjunctivitis:
adenoviral (acute follicular) (077.3)
epidemic hemorrhagic (077.4)
inclusion (077.0)
Newcastle (077.8)
epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (077.1)
pharyngoconjunctival fever (077.2)
Other mucopurulent conjunctivitis
Catarrhal conjunctivitis
372.03
56 Conjunctivitis
Simple chronic conjunctivitis
Chronic follicular conjunctivitis
Vernal conjunctivitis
Other chronic allergic conjunctivitis
Parasitic conjunctivitis
Code first: underlying disease, as
filariasis (125.0125.9)
mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (085.5)
Blepharoconjunctivitis
Blepharoconjunctivitis, unspecified
Angular blepharoconjunctivitis
Contact blepharoconjunctivitis
372.04
372.05
Chronic conjunctivitis
Chronic conjunctivitis, unspecified
372.1
372.10
372.2
372.20
372.21
372.22
372.3
Conjunctivitis, unspecified
372.30
Rosacea conjunctivitis
Code first: underlying rosacea dermatitis (695.3)
372.31
372.33
372.39
Pseudomembranous conjunctivitis
Membranous conjunctivitis
Excludes: diphtheritic conjunctivitis (032.81)
372.11
372.12
372.13
372.14
372.15
370.3
Phlyctenular keratoconjunctivitis
370.31
Phlyctenulosis
Use additional code for any associated tuberculosis (017.3)
Limbar and corneal involvement in vernal conjunctivitis
370.32
Use additional code for vernal conjunctivitis (372.13)
Keratoconjunctivitis sicca, not specified as Sjogrens
370.33
Excludes: Sjogrens syndrome (710.2)
Appendix 57
Exposure keratoconjunctivitis
Neurotrophic keratoconjunctivitis
Other and unspecified keratoconjunctivitis
Keratoconjunctivitis, unspecified
Superficial keratitis with conjunctivitis NOS
Keratitis or keratoconjunctivitis in exanthema
Code first: underlying condition (050.0-052.9)
Excludes: herpes simplex (054.43)
herpes zoster (053.21)
measles (055.71)
Other
Excludes: epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (077.1)
58 Conjunctivitis
370.34
370.35
077.3
370.4
370.40
077.4
077.8
370.44
370.49
Trachoma
076
Excludes: late effect of trachoma (139.1)
Initial Stage
Trachoma dubium
Active stage
Granular conjunctivitis ( trachomatous)
Trachomatous:
follicular conjunctivitis
pannus
Other diseases of conjunctiva due to viruses and Chlamydiae
Excludes: ophthalmic complications of viral diseases classified
elsewhere
077
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Paratrachoma
Swimming pool conjunctivitis
Excludes: inclusion blennorrhea (neonatal) (771.6)
077.0
Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
Shipyard eye
077.1
Pharyngoconjunctival fever
Viral pharyngoconjunctivitis
077.2
Due to Chlamydiae
077.98
Due to viruses
Viral conjunctivitis NOS
077.99
Appendix 59
60 Conjunctivitis
Glossary
AKC
Atopic keratoconjunctivitis
CDC
EKC
Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
FDA
GPC
IOP
Intraocular pressure
KP
Keratic precipitate
NSAID
PCF
q.d.
Daily
q.h.s.
q.i.d.
q. h.
Every
Unit
hours
Visual acuity The clearness of vision that depends upon the sharpness of
focus of the retinal image and the integrity of the retina and visual
pathway. It is expressed as the angle subtended at the anterior focal point
of the eye by the detail of the letter or symbol recognized.
Sources:
Hofstetter HW, Griffin JR, Berman MS, Everson RW. Dictionary of visual
science and related clinical terms, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann,
2000.
Grosvenor TP. Primary care optometry. Anomalies of refraction and binocular
vision, 4th ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002:3-112.
Stedman's medical dictionary, 27th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 2000.