Chapter 8

Energy Quantization

8.1 Photons
A photon is a particle of light with momentum and energy but zero rest energy:
Ephoton = Kphoton
It may be thought as a packet of energy traveling at the speed of light
Photon is electromagnetic radiation (or simple light)

1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J

Electromagnetic spectrum: range of

possible photon energies

Visible portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum

Particle nature of Light

Visible light is a mixture of colors, which we
conventionally divide into red, orange,
yellow, green, blue , and violet.
Using a prism (or a grating), we can separate a
beam of white light into a rainbow of these
basic colors called a continuous spectrum

This experiment was first

reported by Isaac Newton
more than 300 years ago.

Atoms or molecules can gain or lose energy

by absorbing or emitting a photon.
Example: Hydrogen Atom
Applying the Energy Principle
Absorption of a photon:

EH,f = EH,i + Kphoton

Emission of a photon:

EH,f + Kphoton = EH,i

8.2 Electronic Energy Levels

The electronic energy levels for a hydrogen atom
are quantized (same as discrete, not continuous)
E N K U elec

1
13.6 eV 2 , N 1, 2, 3,
N

Uelec: electric potential energy of

an electron and a proton bound
together in a hydrogen atom.

The Hydrogen Atom

The lowest energy state is called the ground state

This corresponds to n = 1
Energy is 13.6 eV
The next energy level has an energy of 3.40 eV, and
is called the first excited state
The minimum energy needed to remove the electron
is called ionization energy. For the hydrogen atom is
+13.6 eV
The uppermost level corresponds to E = 0 and n

Example: Raising the energy of a hydrogen atom

A hydrogen atom is originally in its ground (lowest) electronic
energy state (N = 1). It absorbs a photon, which rises the
hydrogen atoms energy to the next energy level (N = 2). What
is the energy of the photon, in eV?

Atoms and Photons

Atoms can have certain
energies; other energies
are not allowed.

Each type of atom has a

unique set of energies.
Energy level diagram.

Emission spectra
Emission: An atom emits
a photon and drops to a
lower energy state, losing
energy.
The photons energy is equal

to the energy difference

between the two levels.

Ef - Ei = Kphoton

Line Spectra

Emission Spectrum

A low-pressure gas excited emits light which is

characteristic of the gas.
When the emitted light is analyzed with a spectrometer,
a series of discrete bright lines is observed.
Each line has a different color.
This series of lines is called an emission spectrum.

The emission spectra of some well-known elements.

The emission spectrum of a gas provides

a finger-print to that element.

Emission spectra
Example: Different atoms have different quantized energy levels.
Consider a particular atom (not hydrogen). What is the energy of a
photon emitted when such an atom drops from the second excited
state to the first excited state?

Example: Emission from hydrogen atom

Consider a collection of many hydrogen atoms. Initially each
individual atom is in one of the lowest three energy states (N = 1,
2, 3). What will be the energies of photons emitted by this
collection of hydrogen atoms?
Emission energies from N = 1, 2, 3
Three possibilities: 3 2, 2 1, 3 1

8.X.4 How many different photon energies would emerge from

a collection of hydrogen atoms that occupy the lowest four
energy states (N = 1, 2, 3,4 )?

Absorption spectra

Absorption: an atom
absorbs the energy of a
photon to go to a higher
energy level.
The photons energy

has to be equal to the

energy difference
between the two levels.

Ef - Ei = Kphoton

Line Spectra

Absorption Spectrum
A gas can also absorb light.
An absorption spectrum can be obtained by passing
a continuous radiation spectrum through a cooler gas
being analyzed with a spectrometer.
The absorption spectrum consists of a series of
dark lines superimposed on the continuous spectrum.
The dark lines of the absorption spectrum
coincide with the bright lines of the emission
spectrum.

8.2 Electronic energy levels

Line Spectra

The dark lines of the absorption

spectrum coincide with the bright
lines of the emission spectrum.

8.X.5 Suppose you had a collection of hypothetical quantum

objects whose individual energy levels were -4.0eV, -2.3eV, and
-1.6eV. If nearly all of the individual objects were in the ground
state, what would be the energies of dark spectral lines in an
absorption spectrum if visible white light (1.8eV to 3.1eV)
passes through the material?

Electron excitation
A fast moving electron can transfer all or part of its kinetic energy to
an atom through a collision, if Kelectron is greater than or equal to the
energy difference between two atomic states.
Example: electron colliding with a
mercury atom, whose first excited
state is 4.9 eV
An electron with initial kinetic
energy of more than 4.9 eV can
excite a mercury atom (Hg) from
the ground state to the first excited
state. The electron loses 4.9 eV of
kinetic energy.

8.X.6 The first excited state of a mercury atom is 4.9eV above

the ground state. A moving electron collides with a mercury
atom, and excites the mercury atom to its first excited state.
Immediately after the collision the kinetic energy of the
electron is 0.3eV. What was the kinetic energy of the electron
just before the collision?

8.X.7 The energy levels of a particular quantum object are 8eV, -3eV, and -2eV. If a collection of these objects is
bombarded by an electron beam so that there are some objects
in each excited state, what are the energies of the photons that
will be emitted?

8.3 The effect of temperature

The temperature is a measure of the average energy of a collection
of objects, so high temperature is associated with significant
probability of finding particles in any of many states, from the
ground state up to a high energy level.
All atoms are almost
in the ground state

The various atoms are

in different states

8.3 The effect of temperature

In a collection of atoms the fraction of atoms in a state E with
temperature T above the ground state is proportional to Boltzmann

factor:
, k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K) and T is
the absolute temperature in kelvins (K)

8.4 Vibrational energy levels optional

Vibrational energy in a classical Oscillator

Vibrational energy in a Quantum Mechanical Oscillator:

K+U=(p2/2m)+(1/2)kss2 =(1/2)ksA2. DE=(ks/m)=w0
h = 6.6 x10-34 joule second. where w0= (ks/m)1/2

Quantized vibrational energy levels optional

EN =Nw0 + E0, N=0,1,2,.., where w0 = (ks/m)1/2. For an atom and a
springlike interatomic bond: ks = ks,i (interatomic spring stiffness) and
m = ma (mass of an atom). = h/2p = 1.05 x10-34 joule second.

Energy levels for the interatomic potential energy

Energy spacing in various systems

8.5 Rotational energy levels optional

A diatomic molecule

8.6 Other energy levels optional

Nuclear energy levels:
Hadronic energy levels: energy spacing is of the order of hundreds of
MeV, or about 1 x 108 eV.

8.7 Comparison of energy level spacings

optional

A summary of typical energy scales for various quantum objects.