Univ.

oi

Toronto

liBRAK

NATURAL
CTnD
HI
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

Index for

Volume XIX

Published from October to May,

THE AMERICAN Ml/SEIWI

<

>!

NEW YORK
1919

\ II

CITY

by
\l

HISTORY

An

illustrated

magazine devoted

to the

advancement of Natural His-

tory, the recording of scientific research, exploration,

and discovery,

museum exhibition and museum influence in

Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including
education.
the scientific staff, explorers, and members of the American Museum
and the development of

NATURAL HISTORY IS SENT

TO ALL CLASSES OF MUSEUM
MEMBERS AS ONE OF THE
PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX

w:v

.TAXI'

-ohm Burroughs
Henri Fairfield Osborn

Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt. Naturalist
The Friend of Man
H
Roosevelt and Africa
Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt

Robert E. Peart
Carl E. Akeley
David Starr Jordan
GlFFORD PlNCHOT

the Man of Abundant Life

Series of Photographs Suggestive of the Varied Achievements and Interests of Theodore RooseExplorer, Faunal Naturalist, Soldier, Statesman. Writer, and Friend of Man
velt
r

Has

Progressive Evolution

Come

to an

End

Wild Life Conservation along the Gulf Coast

on the Water Birds of Louisiana
Series of Duotone Reproductions Showing the Protected Bird Life
Our Louisiana Coast
"Four Years in the White North" A Review
<

35
41

Alfred M. Bailey
Herbert L. Bridgman
George D. Pratt

57
73
85
104
110
113
115
115
116
117

Iami.s

A
Billy the Boy Naturalist"
Review of Captain Dugmore's

Ret iew

in

"Adventures

New York

Beaver Stream Camp''

in

II.

Cook

Robert II. Lowie

Clark Wissler
G. Clyde Fisher
FOHN T. Nichols
FRANCES E. Moscrip

Measurements

An Indian Peace Medal

Sight Conservation Classes
Notes

1!'

Edwin Grant Conklin

T. Gilbert Pearson
Alfred M. B ui.kv

-tr,

of

lonservation in New York

Wild Horses of the Plains
Primitive Ideas on Numbers and Systems of
Forest

9
11
12
15
17

Schools

BUARY

Human

N. C. Nelson
George Grant MacCurdy

Culture

Nature Reflected

in

the

An

of

the Ancient Chiriquians

Tli.'
Method and Knowledge of Science
The Hoactzin Onlv Survivor of an Ancient Order

Collector in

tli.'

of Four-footed Birds.

Colorado Rockies

Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean in 1918

Recollections of Travel in Peru
Some Vanishing Scenic Features of the Southeastern
Nature's

United States

Winterton C. Curtis
Edward M. BRIGHAM
A. E. Butler
V. W. Greely
ROLLO H. BECK
Roland M. Harper
.

of

E. Shelford
F. A. G. PAPE

Victor

Mobilization

Yachting in the Seven Seas

The Myth of the Monkev Chain

The Remaking

Needham

Tames G.

lions

Museum

W. GUDGER
LUCAS

E.

F. A.

Collection

Notes

131
141
152
155
163
170
182
183
193
205
211
216
222
227

March
The Total Solar Eclipse of 1918
Painting the Solar Corona
The Plant Life of Northwest Greenland
ntrif ugal Society

American

Indian

Mitchell

A.

S.

Howard Russell Butler

W. Elmer Ekblaw
G. T. W. Patrick
Herbert

Poetry

Spindex

J.

Unknown Panama

Townsend Whelex

Senses of Fishes
Recollections of English Naturalists

Judson Herrick
T. D. A. Cockerell
TOEL ASAPH ALLEN
Barrixgton MOORE
C.

III.

Wild Animals of North America" A Review

"Our National Forests" A Review
Food for a Family of Five
Scientific Zoological Publications of the American Museum
A New Director for the British Museum
-

Mary Greig
for

FRANK

1918

LUTZ

E.

a pr]
ollege of Fisheries in the

i.

Mai

HUGH

Northwest

M. Smith

367
370

David Starr Jordan

rOHN M CLARKE
ALFRED M. B mi.i

Red Salmon

The New Gaspe Bird

Sanctuaries
Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation
Alexander Wilson
Thomas Jefferson's Contributions to Natural History
War Impressions of French Bird Life
u r Natural Resources of Sugar
or of the Human Face
The Wars of the Wind at Timber-line
3now Crystals
Art Mol
Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science and Education
S.
ical Sculpture in Relation to Architecture
Wild Life in Art
a
Statuary at the National Capita!
Studies in Aquicultnre or Fresh water Farming
Quest of the Ancestrj of Man
A Letter from John Burroughs
to Mr. Burroughs by I'r. W, l>. Matthew

Nob

s. Patton
dlow Griscom

loiix
Li

E.

>

334
337
341
347
349
351

Notes

Th*e

301
309
322
325
331

JOHNSON

R. D. O.

imbing Fish

245
264
273
292

Phillips

F.

373
"-_
397

405
411
-t

William K. Gregori
ENOS A. MILLS

421
42

Whitloce
Hi km

437
441

Breck Parkman Trowbridgj

Charles i; Knight

461

Hi bbert

P.

Charles F
R.

SHUFSLM

Frank Collins Baker

L49
17

479
489
'

''

I"l

493

DEO! MB! B
igrapher

at

Porto Rico
Roosevelt's Letters to His Children"
Sculptures of the Late Theodore R<
ivelt
iming I'.a.k of the Bison
the Man and His Work
ore

The Honorable Position of '

The Love Of Nature
Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction
graphs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia
kwn of Art: A Poem
-renting a National Art

W. Johnson

las

I
I

LOB]

Hermann Hag
Frank Owes Payni
0. Gordon Hiw rrr
Thow \s B irboi B
T

Henry

,;

Clyde Fisher

l>.

COOK]

1:1

511

523
>

553
567

568

Pair]
ld

614

SPINDEH

622

<

HERB] RT

J.

Mechanical

graphs from the First Exhibition of American Textiles

Pro

ruits
The 1
The Pj gmj Races of Man
Xomad Dwarfs and Civilization
\
Real Fl Dorado

631
657
665
CTl
6S0
687
697
715

Suluvan

Louis R.

Herbert Lang
William J. LaYarre
Allan- BrookCharles C. Adams
John T. Nichols
Frank E. Litz
F. W. NELSON

Wilderness

The New York State Wild Fife Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt

Garman, of the Agas-iz Museum
Scientific Zoological Publications of the Ameriean Museum
Alkaline for Crops
United States Biological Survey of SI
Latest Conservation News from the Pacific Coast
William Brewster: In Memoriam
rvation in New York State

Adam Hermann,

and

Charles T. Simpson"
Willard G. Van Name
George F. Arfs
M. R. Trabue

the Florida Keys

Island Animals and Plants
Army Intelligence Tests

An "Old Tramp" among

72

726
730
731
734
735
736
738
739
741

Frank M. CHAPMAN
W. D. Matthew

Preparator

745

ILLUSTRATIONS
Adirondack-.

New York

State Forest Preserves in

84-103
African monkey groups, 222-26
201
Alabama.
Altar of Liberty. New Y'ork. 154
Ameriean Museum public lecture hall. 505
Ameriean textiles, costumes, and mechanical procsses, 63154
Animal painting and sculpture. 46069
tli,-.

Aquiculture, studies
Arctic sci ties 77 -

Army

478

in,

intelligence tests.

38

67178

Assyrian sculpture, examples of. 44858

Baker, city of. 250-51: United State- Naval Observatorv station at, 263

416-20

s,

Belgium. Her Majesty. Queen of. 746

Bird Photographs of unusual distinction. 58397
of Louisiana. 44-72:
Birds. Gulf Coas
knot. 74-75: four-footed hoaetzin. 16263:
374-81: stormy
of the Gaspe sanctuaries,
petrels. 84(1
whale. 360: on the Hawaiian
:

reservation. 382-95: pelicans.

Bison. Ameriean. 333. 552-65

734

Bonaventure cliffs,
Bourlon Wood. 725

368-69
Colorado Rockies, flora of, 17081
lagnon frieze of six horses.

450: painting
450
Brooklyn Museum. 123
intellectual tests of Negro recruits.

eltic horse.
life group in
'

Diagrams, of

-4: Pygmy stature. 688: Pygmy distribution, 690 stature of man. 695
Drawing and notes by Alexander Wilson, 366
:

Eclipse,

of 1918. 244-71
of Lewis and Clark Expedition, 408
Honor Grove. 747
G. Clvde. addressing school children, 505
total

solar,

Elk horns

Elm

tree.

Fisher.
Florida
lades, 194. 196
Food exhiL.t for family of five. 336-39
Food values, diagrams of. 338-39
Forest. Fur<.
-rattd, 98
I

Forest fire sentinei. 334

Forest preserves of New York, 84-103
Frog. Nicaragua. 346
Gaspe bird sanctuaries, views of. 374-81
Georgia, scenes. 195. 197-99. 203

Canon, model in American Museum. 498-99

Greenland, plant life of Northwe-t. 272-91
Groups in American Museum. African monkey.
222-26: blue shark. 353; timber wolves. 237
i

Gulf coast, birds

of.

40-43

shells of.

664

Llewellyn Glacier. British Columbia, 614-20

Louisiana, birds. 44-56. 57-72
Map, Adirondack forest preserves. 87; distribution of Pygmy and short races of man. 690;
bird sanctuaries. 373; path of total
> of sun, 1918, 24849; physiographic
diagram of the we-tern theater of the World

War, 51-: Porto Rico. 528; "Save the Redwoods" 604; distribution of the Pygmy and
short races of man. 690; Honor Grove, 747
Marine camouflage. 359
Ma-todon jawbones. 407
M-dal presented to H. R. H. Prince of Walts. 7 4Microphotograph of a hydroid. 44 7
Monkevs. chain mvth. 216-17. 220: Museum
groups of. 22226
Museo Naeional de Chile. Santiago. 121
Mustangs of the Plains. 1067
Nature's mobilization. 2068
diagram showing
succession of five species. 209
Nicaragua, frog. 346: scene, 346 ~
Notre Dame, portals of. opp.
Panama, scenes. 30S-321
Peking, armistice scenes, 229-32
Peru, scenes, 1-589
Plant life of Northwest Greenland. 27291
:

culture, diagrams.

382-95

of,

i::t

::

i::> 39

422-25
346; haunt of, 346

head, evolution

Porto Rico, scenes in. 522

Portraits. Boulenger. G. A.. 566: Brewster. William, 73S
Camp. Charles L.. 354 Ekblaw,
W. Elmer. 273: Garman. Samuel. 730; Hermann. Adam. 741: Lucas, Frederic A.. 130;
7
Nelson. Edward W.. 330: Poh-we-ka.
Roosevelt. Theodore.
26.
sons of. 31;
4.
Yerke;. R. M.. 670
:

of.

Hy'a
Indian peace medal. 113
Indian-. Poh-we-ka of the Tewa. 357
Klamath Lake lie- rvation. 7
1

Pottery. Chiriquian. 14450

Puget Sound Biological Station. 500
Pygmy, jaws. 694: sroup in American

Museum.

698-713; skulls. 686

598613. 73
map. 604
Roosevelt. Quentin. 31; grave of. 32
Roosevelt. Theodore. 434: sons of. 31: sculptures
of the late. 510. 543-51: Wild Life Forest
,2!':
Experiment Station.
memorial
727,
flag, 744
696: photographs

Redwoods

Seasonal

of.

of California.

Sailing craft-.

213-14
and

faunal

floral

rotation

in

Illinois,

206-9
Selborne. England, 569
Sequoias. 598-613. 7::7
Shark, blue. 353
Skulls of Negroid Pvsmies. 686
Snail shells. 664

Snow

crystals.

436-40

Southeastern United State- scenic features.

192-

203

244-71
Exhibition. 631-54
at timber-line. 426-35: Sequoia-. 598-613,

Sun. total eclipse

Textile
Tree-,

73

Hawaiian reservation, views

Hoaetzin. 162-68
Honor Grove, map of. 747

Human
Human

of. 74: on nest. 74; with chick. 75

Lewis and Clark, memorial bronze. 404

British Guiana, scenes in. 714-22

Buffalo Park. Wainwright. Alberta, 55455
Burroughs, John, scenes about home. 5 7082
Camouflage for ships. 359
Catskills/New York State Preserve in. 84-103
Chiriquian pottery, 14450
Cinemaphotographs. of chick embryo. 443-45 of
hydroid. 447
Colleee of Fisheries. University of Washington,

Desert

Knot, eggs

of.

Universitv of Washington. 368-69. 500

Wasp. African. 34M-44
Wild Life Fore-t Experiment Station at Svracuse,
727. 729
Wilson. Alexander, 396; notes and drawings bv,
366

Wolves, timber, habitat group,

World War. famous

Zoological

Sculpture.

'

strategic po-ition*.

44877

51721

INDEX OF VOLUME XIX

*

Howarth, 10
Brewster. William. 356: In Memoriae
;.
/ our
F< ai 8 in
Betdg
Boyle,

th<

ii

228
Bbigham, Edwaed M.. The Hoactzin Onlj vivor of an Ancient Order of Four-footed

Bridgman, Herbert

Library, 239
Ornithology
Palaeontology,

The New York State Wild

Theodore Roosevelt, 726-29

es C,

m;i

Memorial

Adams, Edward

to

261, 264, 151

imp, 115

11::.

I'..

Vkm.ky. Cael
_

Theodore Roosevelt and Africa,

E..

E.,

Prince of Monaco
Allen, Joel Asaph, Nelson's \\'i<i inin
33033
.1 merica,
re\ icw
Allen. .1. A
Alien, -lames Lane. 396- 103, 194
American Anthropological Society, 120
American Association for the Advancement
-

All.ert.

sevent]

American
in

meeting

first

Association

of

Bureau of
501

Letter from

Burroughs,

t'

iation, 501
Directors' A
Forestry Asso<
Geographical Society, 227, 511, 513
Indian Poetry, 3017
'

Amerii

264

Caldwell. Harry R
lamp,
Jharles I...
So-

Anticlines in the Bis Horn

Archaeology and ethnology, bureau

Washington,

of

Brewster:

In

Monuments

China
[ntel

The Arm\

F.,

Intelligence

Tests,

673
Art Motivi
Atkii
Audi.:

in

vn

Crysta

756

77.::.

of,

621

academic

228;

Society,

work

encyclopedia, a
Chiriquians. Nature Reflected in the Ait of the
111 71
it,
iphora tinctoria,
-man. Erwin S 731
Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Sciand Education, 441
-

N
Snow

Creating a

L9,

355

in.

GEOEGE

William

M.,

Cherrie. George K.. >. 221, 360,

go, botanical garden, 75 i
Children's Museum of Boston

in

of,

731

I.

7:!.s=-39

Memoriam,

University of

ta,

Painting

262

4'.'

Frank

I'iiai'Max,

Association

tional

Clabke, John

122

of.

New Gaspe Bird

Tin-

Xotes on Our Hawaiiai

observations on the Water

England) The,

15;

Bird
es

178

in
--

Aquiculture

K. colic,

A..

>.

The

325-29;

Naturalists,

Bakee, Feane Collij

or Fresh-water Farming

T.

:>.

Bonlenger

D.

Northwest, New, 367-

the

69
Recollections of Travel in Peru,

II

Beebe. C. William. 163

Cook. James

H.,

Wild Horsi

National

Plains,

Mi thod

Dawn

of

Peru,

Hawaiian
56

Reservation,
Roj

al

Societj

t
Boo:
Destruction of Yellowstone Park
Dixon, 11 II

for

Hollo.

tl

>.

Elk,

7i

*.
1

--65

D
Man and His Work. 56667

Dunbai
Dwight, Jonathan
l

11

Know!

An. Thi

from
162-69:
382 95; of

Frederii

Boerker, R.

and

-61

Unusual Distinction,
The New Gasp6, 372

Blaschke,
Block

104-

_':'.

and a \\
northwestern
i

81

622

Art.

36

of
of

Birds

170

10

Creatine

11".

in,

jo

cal Surveys
Photographs

Collector

Coming Back of the Bison, Tl

Conklin, Edwin Gbant, Has ^Progressive Evolu35-39
tion Come to an End
rving Our Natural R
urces of Sugar, 416
I

6-20

Belgium, royal family ot". visited Museum. 747

Bequaert.
iniiller. William. 3
Big Hem Basin, Wyoming, 125

Protection.

496

Xature,

Laurent

Man and His

the

'.dish
of

iiry,
n.

Babboub, Thomas
Work. 56(

Rollo

Love

Baker. George F
Hanks. Nathan.

k.

Sanctu-

-1

Clarkin, Franklin

Bailey, Alfeed

M..

372

aries.

the

Campbell, W. W., 751

Carnegie Institution, marine research of the

the Florida

'."

<

<

Preservation

Bird

in

ector

Tl

Russell,

Ant.

Bei

honor

237
Russell,

F..

Howard

Butler.

Mammalogists, 502
360

of

Tramp" among

i>],i

Auk.

7:

Sc

iirnal of

Andrews, R

Art,

and Study, review.

Notes

F...

Howabd

Butlee,

ciety

-.

./

bird photi

of

Butlee, Albebt
Butler, Albert

Aki

Fi<

of.

Roosevelt,

227;

-John.

of

Camp

American Medical Associatioi

American Ornithologists Qnio
American Scenic and Historic

Army

Wilderness, 7_

Natural History of. 117

the Associated Mountaineering Clubs,
of

Bueeoughs, John, Theodore

117, 756
nual meet-

of,

fid

Museum

els,

48

Colorado Rockii

g,

American
American
American
American

An

Brooks. ALLAN, Birds ami

Brown. Barnum.

Akelev. Carl

Birds. 162-69
British Columbia, 61 1-20
British Guiana,
1
22
British Museum. A New Director for the. :: it
Britton. X. I... 352, 502
Brooklyn Museum, he-err Fife Croup in the
.

pus mi lanoh ucus

I...

Bkblaw, W.
w, st

_'

Plant

91

Life

of

North-

INDEX OF VOLUME XIX

El

Dorado, A Real, 714-22

Elephants, destruction of, in Soutli Africa. 749

Elk, Destruction of, Yellowstone Park, 743
Elliol Medal, 753
English Naturalists, Recollections of, 325-29
Kntoinological Society of America. fJ.">
Kntnniology, Bureau of, at Washington, 352
Evolution of the Human Face, The, 421-25
Expeditions, Abyssinia, 752; Africa, 752; British
Imperial Antarctic, 752; Rasmussen's Second
Thule, 496; Second Asiatic 229

Hildburgh, W. L 239
Hoactzin Only Survivor of an Ancient Order
Four-footed Birds, The, 162-69
Honorable Position of Naturalist, The, 568-69

Hornaday, W.

.1

HrdliSka, Ales, 119

Hubbs, Carl L., 345
Human Culture, 131-40

Hutchinson, Horace
Hygiene, public, 751
boulengeri,

Hyp elate

way and Long Ago, 500

352
of

Fertility

Field

devastated

territory

in

124

France,

and Study, 571

Fisher,

Clyde,

G.

The Honorable Position

Naturalist, 568-69
Fisher, G. Clyde, 227, 504
Fisheries, New College of,

Bureau

of,

of

496
The Senses

Salmon, 370; Climbing, 349-51

Fishskins, tanning and preparation of, 753
Five Land Features of Porto Rico: A Story of
Cause and Effect, 522-40
Flexner, Simon, 121
Florida, descriptive works on the flora of, 238;
Pish,

Florida

657-64

Keys,
a

An "Old Tramp" among

Family

of Five,

Forest Conservation in

the,

657-

336-39

New York

State,

84-103;

739-40
Four Tears in

the

346
662

trifoliata,

227
Intelligence of Negro Recimits, The, 68085
International, Bird Protection, 123 hydrographic
Research
and fishery investigation, 753
Council, 750, 751
International Journal of American Linguistics,
The, 120
Island Animals and Plants, 66569
;

Jacobi,

Abraham, 745

Jardin des Plantes, a new, 352

Thomas, 405410
Douglas W., A Geographer at the
Front and at the Peace Conference, 511-21
Johnson, R. D. O., The Climbing Fish, 349-51
Jonas, Coloman, 237
Jordan, David Starr, Personal Glimpses of
Theodore Roosevelt, 1516; The Red Salmon.
Jefferson,

64

Food for

239

of,

322-24

snails,

F.,

Illinois, museum of the University of, 352

14151; Misskito, 120;
Indians.
Chiriquians,
Surnu, 120
Indian, costume of chief, 235; Peace Medal, 113
14; poetry, American, 3017
"Inquiry," American organization known as the,

367-69; United States

753

Fisheries of the North Sea, The,

Fishes, Color patterns of, 497;

T., 228, 553

L. O., 352

Howard,

II ilia

Far

F.-irrand, Livingston,
Felt, E. P., 342

of

White North, review, 7383

Fowler. A., 750

Fox. William Henry, 750
Fresh-water farming, 478-88
Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, 331
Fustic wood, 238

Garman, Samuel, of the Agassiz Museum. 730

Geographer at the Front and at the Peace Conference, A, 511-521
Geography, importance of teaching, 233
Glacier, Llewellyn, 614-20
Gleason, Henrv Allan, 352
Goddard, Plinv E., 120, 756
Granger, Walter, 733, 756
Graves, Henry S., 119
Gbeely, A. W., Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean in 1918, 182
Greenland. Plant Life of Northwest. 272-91
Gregory, William K., The Evolution of the Human Face, 421-25
Gregory, William K., 348, 731, 755
Greig, Mary, Food for a Family of Five, 336-39
Griscom, Ludlow, War Impressions of French
Bird Life, 411-15
Group, blue shark, 353
Guatemala, reconstruction of. 238
Gudger, E. W., The Myth of the Monkey Chain,
Gudger, E. W., 125, 239

Hagedorn, Hermann, Theodore

Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, 54142

Hale, George Ellery, 749
Handbook of Travel, 236
Harmer, Sidney Frederick, 347
Harper, Roland M.. Some Vanishing Scenic
Features of the Southeastern United States,

192-204
Harper, R. M., 236
Harriman. William Averell, 239
Has Progressive Evolution Come to an End? 3539
Hawkins, Eugene D., 501
Heligoland, 749
Heller, Edmund, 752
Herm, Charles F., Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science and Education, 441
47

Hermann, Adam, 74142

Herrick, C. Judson, The Senses of Fishes, 32224
Hewitt, C. Gordon, The Coming Back of the
Bison, 552-65
Hewitt, C. Gordon, 228

Johnson,

370-71
Augustus

Juilliard,

Keen,

493

D.,

W. W., 495

Richard B., 239

Kentucky Warbler, The, 396
Klamath Lake Reservation, 734
Knight, Charles R., Wild Life
Knight, Charles R., 755
Kouznetsov, A. K., 495
Kroeber, A. L., 133
Kelly,

Lafavette

National

Park,

in Art,

Mount Desert

460-69

Island,

Maine, 121
Lambe, Lawrence M., 351
Lang, Herbert, Nomad Dwarfs and Civilization,
696-713
Langford, George, The Dawn of Art, 621
Lankester, Sir E. Ray, 750
LaVarre, William J., A Real El Dorado, 71422
LeConte Memorial Lectures. 500
Lectures at the American Museum, 504
Leng, Chas. W 341
Letter from John Burroughs, A, 491
Lewis and Clark, Expedition. 113; bronze memorial to. 754
Liguvs, 65764
Lincoln Highway, Delaware, 502
Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia, 614-20
Lobeck, A. K., Five Land Features of Porto Rico:
A Storv of Cause and Effect, 522-40
Lobeck, A. K., 357
Longley, William H.. 497
Louvain, library of the University of, 493
Lowie, Robert H., Primitive Ideas on Numbers
and Systems of Measurements. 110-12
Lucas, F. A., The Remaking of a Museum Collection, 222-26
Lucas, F. A., 360, 504, 679
Lumber, method of drying, 124

Lutz,

Frank

E.,

Scientific Zoological Publications

American Museum, 340-46; 731-33

Frank E., 125

of the

Lutz,

MacCallum, G.

A.,

341

W.

G.,

341

MacCurdy, George Grant. Nature

Reflected in
the Art of the Ancient Chiriquians, 141-51

MacMillan, Donald B., 73

McDunnough, J., 342
Mcllhenny, E. A., 45-46

Mahogany, monographs on, 238

Malheur Lake Reservation, 734
Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 496

INDEX OF VOLUME XIX

Matthew,
741

W.

Honor

D.,

Adam Hermann,

to

12

Matthew, W.

491, 503, 732, 7:::;

Medal, Cniversitj of Paris World War, 747
106
D.,

C. D., 238
Members, 125, 239, 361, 506, 756

Mell,

Metchnikoff,

filie,

Fairfield, Sequoia the Auld

of
Trees,
598 613; Theodore
Roosevelt, Naturalist, - LO
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 119, 348, 351, 352, 502,
504, 731, 733, 751, 755, 756
:>Osborn, Mrs. Henry Fairfield
Sir William, 745
\ uiuralist, 361
Society, 292
A' at innal Forests, review,

Osier,

Ottawa

.9

our Centrifugal

300

"//,

;;:;4 35

155-

of Science, The,

Oxystyla, 657, 660-61

Metropolitan Museum of Art,

forms in design, 503

exhibition

ot

plant
Coast,

Pacific

bureau

government

and

archaeology

of

Painting the Solar Corona, 264

Palos Forest Preserve. 7",

Miller, Gerrit S., 7.3-t

Miller, Leo E., 9, 221
Mills, Enos A.. The
ber-line, 426-35

Panama, Unknown, 308

Panda, giant 753
Pape, F. A. G., Yachting

Wars

Wind

the

of

Tim-

at

300
Patton, John

347

The Total Solar Eclipse

S. A.,

Mitchell,

A.,

S.

of 1918,

264

Mogridge, Mrs, E. S., 347

.Molma. Enrique, 503
Mona Island Declared a Forest Reserve,

t:;

of the

Monkej

222-26

a,

The, 216-21

National. Academy of Sciences, 118, 750, 751;

Councils, Federation of, 118; Parks Association. r.*7: Research Council, 352

Natural History,
Vatural
\ nt

bimonthly, 745

Nature Reflected

the

in

the

of

Art

Pygmj

20
Needham, J mes Q
Peace Conditions, 152-54
Negro, progress in education of, 751
i'
\
Human Culture
10
v E. W.. Region too Alkaline for C
I

-35

New Gaspl Bird Sanctuaries,

New York. Academj of

34 108;

servat

The. :;72-81
511; Aquarium,

(Jan;

anioal

Si

'orest

Con-

('on
ege of
Memorial to

Sight

Forestry, 501; State Wild Life

Theodore Roosevelt, 726 29; Zoological Park,
228

Hobart,

ols,

Nichols,

Samuel Garman,
M iseum, 730

Nichols,
Noble, <

the

Agassiz

in

Colorado

thi

".

Rockies,

-l

Oat

Rafinesque, C.

Ri

si

at

Ri

vi.

18295

on

nl. rim

('..

Water
1

Birds

of

Louisiana

56

Leander
6

Oknpi,

754

Ols; n.

Chris

McCormick.
i

?erkes

"71

264;

7 19

ftphs

I.

Columbia,

Briti8b
Recolli

with

Red Cross

so. iet ies,

196

of
Llewellyn
\
Fie'

Naturalists,

n^'lisii

Peru,

Recollections of Travel in

Glacier,

614-20

325 29

i-

leag

741

Repl]

Mr.

to

Burroughs by

Dr.

w.

l>

Matthew,

191-93
Ridgway, Rol

Kenn

rial
rial

235

S.,

746

Bird Founts
rii an
Musi
"nr
lolumbia
I

Permanent
Life.

and
Obsei

S.,

Rasmussen's Second Thule Expedition,

.1

Hawaiian

of

697713

Africa,

Mi morial

351-61

:::>

Collector

on

of Central

696 713

Civilization,

American Museum 235

Numbers and Systems
110-12

in

Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Sciences, 750

Quest of the Ancestry of Man. 18990

elt.

227

117 25,

Ideas

'

Pygmies

l.

bj

hall of,

Ridsdale, Percival
Rockefeller Found

.1.

Nomad Dwarf- and

170

of

T.,

-i

Abun

of

Prion

Nature's Mobilization,

Man

14151
Nature, The Love of, 570-82
riquians,

Re

dant Life, 17-18

Plant Life of Northwest Greenland, The. 272-91
Plant Materials of Decorative Gardening, 503
Plautus impennis,
Port ii Rico, Five Land Features of: A Story of
and Effect. 52
Potocki, Count, game preserve, 749
Potter, Frederics
Pratt, Georqi l>., Forest Conservation in New
York. 84-103

Measurement,

Ancient

Our Natural

Charles, 236
Gifford, Roosevelt, the

Primitive

fiftieth

237

B.,

Edward

tes,

569

History of Selborne, 566,

anniversary, 747

a,-.

W.

Pinchot,

bain,

Contribu-

Payne, Frank Owen, Sculptures of the Late

1 3 51
Theodori R to evelt,
Peace Conditions, j ",2-54
Pearson, Sir Arthur
T.
Pi urson,
Gilbert, A\"i l<l Life Conservation
along the Gulf Coast, 40-43
PEARY, ROBERT E., Roosevelt The Friend of
Man, 11
Personal Glimpses of Theodore I;
evelt, l.">-16
Peru. Recollections of Travel in, 1S3-91

Pickering,

'

J.,

292-

iet

IU4-10

Pheasant Farms in China, 354

Phillips, B. I'.. Conserving
sources of Sugar, 4 6 20

::

Jefferson's

tions to Natural History,

Patton, John S., 494

Peters,

Moscrip, Frances !.. SiLrlit Cons

in New Yolk Schools, 116
Murals in hall ot the Age of Mao
Murphy, Robert Cushman, L22, :c>:>.
Murrill, William Alphonso. 115
a.-innal de Chile, 121
Museum Collection, The Remaking of

Thomas

s..

re-

334 35
Moore, Barrington, 239
Moore, Clarence B., L20
Morgan, Lewis Henry, 120

Myth

view,

Andrew

-1

">

(/'/; of the Pheasants, 755

"Monographs on Experimental Biology," 495
Montana. University of, 500
Moobe, Barringtox, Our National Forests,

Mutchler,

the Seven Seas,

in

Qniversitj of, 747

Patrick, G. T. W., Our Centrifugal So*

1-63

15

Mineral Deposits of South America, The, 753

of, 750

Paris,

Minerals, International Control

Mitchell,

from,

Roy W., 504

II..

News

Conservation

Latest,

736-37

ethnology, 752
Michigan, public parks, 236

Mintorn,

Osborn, Henry
Lang Syne

74!>
i

Method and the Knowledge

Mexican

of

Man.

17 1Africa,

12

Theodori

adanl
Park.

National
Late
.

31

in

'omin

The M

Sculptures of the
Theodi
Theodore, Naturalist,

United

Memo

Nation. .1

'I

ite

i"

L18;
1351;

'

indross'

12;

bust

Wild Life Memorial

planted

bj

John

Burro
K

II

CM

in

INDEX OF VOLUME XIX

IV

Dunstan's Hostel for Blinded Soldiers. 233

St.
Sakurai, Joji, 228
Salmon, The Red, 370-71
ord, L. C, 753
Sargeant. Anna. Sartiaux, Felix, 358
Schmidt, Karl P., 239
the

Sciei

Method and Knowledge

tory.

Tokyo.

15561

of,

7 4 7
x
Scienti)
Is 1a nds

atific

y
7 3

Porto

of

Rico

and

American

Zoological Publications of the

Museum, 340-6; 731-33

Sculpture, Zoological. 44877
Sea lion and the fishing industry. 124
Seals on Pribilof Islands. 12 4
Selborne. England, 568
Selous. Captain F. C. 494; 752
Senses of Pishes, The, 32224
Sequoia
the Auld Lang Syne of Trees.
Seton, Ernest Thompson. 331

tional

593-613

The Intelligence

R.,

680--",
roadside
of.

Chemical

Re-

736

planting

Negro Re356: ConGrove" of

"Honor

in

of
of.

Central Park. 746: Sequoia. 59<-613

Tropical Research Station in British Guiana
Trowbridge. S. Breck Parkmax. Zoological
Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, 148-

at

United States Forest Service. 753

Unknown Panama, 30821

the Na-

47077

Capital.

M.

cruits.

Trees, artistic
servation

and

Physical
7:;::

59

Mobilization,

SurFKLiiT. R. W., Zoological Statuary

Contributions to Natural His-

of

Trustees, meetings. 228, 239

Shark, blue, 353

Shelford. Victor E., Nature205-10

Sherwood, George H.. 504

Trabfe.

re-

404-10

Institute

search in. 22 Torre. Carlos de la.

Virgin

thi

His Children,

Letters h

view, 541-42
Thomas Jefferson's

Conservation Classes in New York Schools,

116
Signposts indicating watering places in deserts,

Vax Name, Villard

Island

G..

and

Animals

Plants. 665-69
Victoria yattirali.st. 124

Virginia deer. 754

Sitrlit

7:/2

Simpson, Charles

T..

An "Old

Snow

crystals.

among

Tramp'"

the Florida Keys. 657-64

Sleeper. Governor, of Michigan. 236
Small. John Kunkel. 199. 238
Smith. Hugh M., New College of
the Northwest, 367-69
Smithsonian Institution. 495

Wars
in

at Timber-line. The.

426-35

360

killer.

Whitlock. Herbert
Crystals.

South-

the

s 88

The Pvgmv Races

of

Man.

Sun. total eclipse of, 496

Swietenia mahagoni 238; macrophylla, 238
Telescope, the second largest in the world, 122
Textile Exhibition at the American Museum, 631

54

of

Island,

relics

of.

501

White. Gilbert. 568

Sturtevant, A. H.. 342

R..

Wind

Whaling industrv on Long

Wheeler. W. M.. 352

Whelex. Townsbnd, Unknown Panama. 30321

Spier, Leslie. 133

Spinden, Herbert J., American Indian Poetrv.
301-7; Creating a National Art. 622-30;
Series of Photographs from the First Exhibition of American Textiles.
Costumes, and
Mi chanical Processes. 631-54
Spinden. Herbert J.. 120. 504
Sternberg. C. H.. 351
Stoll, Frederick H.. 235
Studies in Aquieulture or Fresh-water Farming.

Sullivan, Louis
686-95

of the

Whale, model
Fisheries

436-40

Solar Corona. Painting the. 264-71

Solar Eclipse of 1918. 244-63
Some Vanishing Scenic Features of
eastern United States. 192204
Spalding. Volnev M., 233

47

Charles D 749
in.
751
Impressions of French Bird Life. 411-15
Ward. Herbert. 752
Warren Ma<todon. 496
Walcott,

War. death rate

War

P..

Art

Motives

in

Snow

436-40

Wild Animals/ of North America, review. 330 33

Wild Horses of the Plains. 104-114
Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast.

40-43
Wild Life

in

Art.

460-69

Samuel Wendell. 755

Wilson. Alexander. 396-403
Wilson, President. 118, 227

Williston.

Winter Botany, 503

WlSSLBR, Clark. An Indian Peace Medal. 113-14
Wissler, Clark. 120. 750
Wolves, timber. 23 7

Woodcraft League

of America.

501

Seven Seas. 211-15

Yellowstone Park. Elk. 743 museum. 752
Monument. 749
National
Yucca House
Yachting

in the

Zoological

Sculpture in Relation to Architecture.

Statuary at the National Capital.

448-59;
470-77

Zoological Society of London. 125

NATURAL
I

THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY,

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP-

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

THROUGH THE MUSEUM

it-

iw

JANUARY,
Volume

XIX,

1919

number

NATURAL HISTORY
CONTENTS FOR JANUARY

Volume XIX

Frontispiece, Portraii of

Number

Theodore Koosevelt (1858-1919),

at his

home

at

Bay

Oyster

Copyrighted photograph by Underwood and Underwood

John Burroughs

Henry Fairfield Osborx

Theodore Roosevelt

memorial and an appreciation

Theodore Roosevelt, Naturalist

His

with the American

affiliation

Roosevelt The Friend of

Museum

of

Natural History

Man

Robert E. Peary
Carl E. Akeley

11

David Starr Jordax

Gifford Pixchot
the Varied Achievements and Inter-

15

Roosevelt and Africa

12

Reminiscences of big game hunting with Roosevelt

Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt

Roosevelt, the

Man

of

Abundant Life

Series of Photographs Suggestive of

Explorer,
ests of Theodore Roosevelt

Statesman, Writer, and Friend of

Faunal Naturalist, Soldier,

Man

Progressive Evolution Come to an End?

The future may hold no race of super-men, but it is

IT

19

Edwix Grant Coxklix

Has

35

present a super-state and a

likely to

super-civilization

Wild Life Conservation Along the Gulf Coast

The progress

T.

Gilbert Pearsox

41

of bird protection among the southern states through the work of the National
Audubon Societies, federal and state government action, and the interest of

Association of
individuals

Alfred M. Bailey

Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana

With illustrations of terns,
A. M. Bailey and others

pelicans, skimmers, herons, ducks,

and

geese,

45

from photographs by

Duotone Reproductions Showing the Protected

Bird Life of Our Louisiana Coast
Alfred M. Bailey

Scries of

"Four Years
With

in the

illustrations

White North,"

Herbert

Review

New York

owns and

protects about half of its vital forest land,

organized forest service
Illustrated with photographs of scenes in the Adirondacks
state

Wild Horses of the Plains

Tales of the mustangs by a famous Indian scout
Photographs of a descendant of the mustangs by Harold

Primitive Ideas on

Numbers and Systems

J.

Indian Peace Medal

A relic of the Lewis and Clark
With a photograph

"Billy the
The true

73

George D. Pratt

85

of the

maintaining a thoroughly

James H. Cook

104

Robert H. Lowie
Clark Wissler

113

Clyde Fisher

115

Johx T. Nichols
Frances E. Moscrip

116

Cook

of

Measurement

An

57

L. Bridg^iax

from the book reviewed

Forest Conservation in
The

110

Expedition dug up in Idaho

medal

Boy Naturalist"
story of a naturalist's

Review

boyhood

G.

in Virginia

Review of Captain Dugmore's "Adventures in Beaver

Stream Camp"
Sight Conservation Classes in

New York

Schools

Notes

115

117
Mary Cynthia Dickersox.

Editor

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irteau of

HIS

Underwood and Underwood

FORCE SEEMED TO INCARNATE THE SOUL OF AMERICA

Tin energy and latent action, the rational thought,

tin

controlled will,

th

al

ft

-that

was Theodon Eoosevelt (1858-1919)

He denied himself all things that weaken. He give his life to work and to whatever circumstances
"Work, duty, and
brought in the way of private and public duty and private and public fellowship.
fellowship" he preached them and lived them with the zeal of a prophet, and they pretty much make
the message he leaves us: "work" and "duty," the basis of moral force in man or nation, the iron
qualities on which the United States were founded; "fellowship," a key to an understanding of our
He believed in the "joy" of life also, but not merely
neighbor and a melting pot for class differences.
the old primeval heritage, and never pleasure sought as such. but. instead, that achievement which comes
as a by-product of work faithfully done, lack of self-seeking, trust in the good in one's fellow men. and

knowledge

of

nature

HIST

Volume XIX

JANUARY,

Number

1919

Theodore Roosevelt
REACHED

HIS AMERICANISM

JOB

By

NEVER

before in

been so hard for

my life
me to
man

the death of any

been

me

for

to

Theodore Roosevelt.

has

it

Early

He

always seemed

From

ln's

past

Virginia, called "Pine Knot," and help

him name his birds. Together we identified more than seventy-five species of
bird.- and wild fowl.
He knew them all
but two. and I knew them all but two.
lie taughl me Bewick's wren and one
of the rarer warblers, ami
taughl him
the swamp sparrow and the pine warbler.
A U'\v days before he had seen
Lincoln"- sparrow in an old weedy field.

to

On Sunday

in

many
in

presidency, at

lasl

Oyster

Washington

places.

woods

at

at

the subject

knew

various

the

Yon

felt

hi-

many
1

This

York

in

Februai

part,

was read

thoroughness
which I am

ignorant.

probably knew tenfold more natural

than all the pri
who

lie

history

i<

it

preceded

him. and.

safe in saying,

think one

more human history

al-o.

In the Yellowstone Park when I was

with him. he carried no u nn. but one

lessons as he grave.

article,

City,

same

was ostensibly a- teacher and pupil, but

it often turned out that the teacher
a-

the

He knew

did. while he

was a naturalist on the broadest

grounds, uniting much technical knowlwith knowledge of the daily
and habit- of all form- of wild life.

radianl

birding together

as

[e

had
vvent

life.

a- well

with

entirely

stairs.

When we

has been one of the

scores of other subjects of

before he got halfway np the

enersry

It

main studies of a long

of

term of his

Bay

the binl-.

i-

the door open.

an

White
House, and at my place on the Hudson,
have felt the arousing ami stimulating impact <>r hi- wonderful personality.
When lie came into the room
it
was a- if a strong wind hail blown
in

me

[ad he found this bird again, he would

have been one ahead of me. The one
subject
do know, and ought to know,

the spring

of L903, in his retreat in the

times,

for

hour, hut the sparrow did not appear.

Park

Virginia during the

after church, he took

we loitered around

there and

ranch days in Montana to

I saw ami was

In the Yellowstone

term
go

to

with him to his retreat in the woods of

a fieabite.

year or two
with him many times
the

last

me

of

have
an unlimited reserve of health ami
power.
Apparently he eared no more
for tlie bullet
which that would-be
assassin shot into his breast a lew years

ago than for

he asked

has

associate the thoughl of death

eanii.it

with him.

May. during the

in

of his presidency,

must
have unconsciously felt that his power
to Live was unconquerable.
Such unbounded energy and vitality impressed
one like the perennial forces of nature.
think

BONES

His

BROUGHS

it

accepl

death

MARROW OF

TO THE

X B r

as

accept the

IX

befoi

evell

Haven Putnam

Memorial

enturj

Club,

New

SAT URAL HISTORY

we were riding along, he saw a
mouse on the ground beside the
road.
He instantly jumped out of the
sleigh and caught the mouse in his
hands; and that afternoon he skinned
it and prepared it in the approved taxidermist's way, and sent it to the United
States National Museum in Washingday

as

live

ton.

proved to be a species new to

It

paw

get his

so caught in a tin can that he

and of course great pain

Buffalo Jones was sent
with another scout to capture, tie up and
cure these bears. He roped two and got the
cannot get

it

and injury

follow.

off

can off of one, but the other tore himself

can and all, and escaped.

loose,

Think of the grizzly bear of the early

Bocky Mountain hunters and explorers, and
then think of the fact that part of the recog-

the Park.

nized duties of the scouts in the Yellowstone

In looking over the many letters I

have had from him, first and last, I find

Park at

number

that the greater

of

them

are

taken up with the discussion of natural

history problems, such as Darwin's theory of natural selection, "sports," protective coloration. He would not allow
himself, nor would he permit others to
dogmatize about nature. He knew how
infinitely various are her moods and
ways, and not infrequently did he take
me to task for being too sweeping in

my

moment

this

grizzly bear

same
from the

to catch this

is

and remove

tin cans

paws in the bear's interest!

The grounds of the White House are lovely
now, and the most decorative birds in them
are some red-headed woodpeckers.
bear's

Give

my

regards to Mrs. Burroughs.

I wish I could see you at Slabsides

summer

course this

there

is

How

But of

no chance of

that.

Always yours,

Theodore Eoosevelt.

[Signed]

>tatements.

When,

in the early part of the last

man and

Eoosevelt was a many-sided

decade, while he was President, there

was a serious outbreak of nature-faking
in books and in various weekly and
monthly periodicals, Roosevelt joined

every side was like an electric battery.

me and

not only a full man, he was also a ready

man and an exact man. He could

others in a crusade against the

fakers and wielded the "big stick" with

deadly

effect.

He

detected a

ralist as quickly

sham natu-

as he did a trading

Such

rarely been united in one

bring

such
have

such vitality,
such copiousness,

versatility,

thoroughness,

all

He was

man.

his vast resources of

and knowledge

to bear

upon

power

a given

politician.

subject instantly.

Eoosevelt was much amused by the

change that had come over the spirit of

Courageous, confident, self-assertive,

he was yet singularly tender and sympathetic.
He was an autocratic demo"Hail fellow well met'' with
crat.
teamsters, mechanics, and cowboys, he
could meet kings and emperors on their
own ground. A lover of big-game hunting, he was a naturalist before he was

that terrible beast, the grizzly bear in

In a

Yellowstone Park.

comments

me

letter to

he

as follows

White House, Washington

August

Dear Oom John,

I think that nothing

than

the

is

1904

12,

more amusing and

development

of

a sportsman.

the

His Americanism reached in to the

changes made in wild beast character by the

wholly unprecedented course of things in
the Yellowstone Park. I have just had a let-

marrow of his bones. I could never get

him interested in that other great American, one more strictly of the people
than he was Walt Whitman. Whit-

interesting

ter

from Buffalo Jones, describing

his ex-

periences in trying to get tin cans off the

feet of the bears in the Yellowstone Park.

There are

lots

of tin cans in the garbage

heaps which the bears muss over, and

now become

fairly

common

it

for a bear

has
to

man's democracy was too rank and unrelieved to

attract him.

veltian strenuousness

The Roose-

and austerity and

hiffh social ideals stood in the

way.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Roosevelt combined and harmonized

opposite qualities.

Never have

known

many

enabled

sides

where

quickly

precision.

tician.

ter

There was always something imminent about him, like an avalanche that
the sound of your voice might loosen.

out

The word demanded by

of his countrymen.

good-fellowship

joined

to

the occasion

was instantly on his lips, whether it

were to give pleasure or pain. In his
presence one felt that the day of judgment might come at any moment. No
easy tolerance with him, but you could
always count on the just word, the
square deal, and tolerance of your opinion if it were well founded.
The charge thai he was an impulsive
man lias no foundation it was a wrong
interpretation of his power of quick de11 is singleness of purpose and
cision.
;

the vitality

and alertness of each of

his

stumble.

decide

to

and

hesitate

The emphasis and

such
austerity, such moral courage to such
physical courage, such prodigious powers of memory united with such powHe could
ers of original thought.
face a charging lion, or a grizzly bear,
as coolly as he could an angry polisuch

him

others

the sharp-

ness of his yea and nay. were those of

a

man who always knew

and knew
rashness in
a

mind

instantly.

own mind
What seemed

him was only

the action of

it

his

of extraordinary quickness and

His uncompromising charac-

made him many

enemies, but withhe would not have

n the
Roosevelt who stamped himself so
it

deeply upon the hearts and the history

When

I think of his death amid these

days when such tremendous world
events are fast becoming history, and

gr< a1

what a part he could have played

them, and would gladly have played,
had his health permitted, I realize with
new poignancy what a loss the world
recall

in

has suffered in his passing!

seems
world

bo settle
is

upon the very

pall

The

sky.

bleaker and colder for his ab-

sence from

it.

We

shall not look

upon

his like again.

Farewell

sreal Soul, farewell

The warm human fellowship about the camp fire, where our though!
and our tongues uttered intimate words of home and friends and the great adventure whicb

is

life

ourtesy

oj

<

harles IScrxbner s Sons

South America on the expedition which explored and mapped the "River
Roosevelt's books covering his explorations and his observaof Doubt.'' now the Rio Teodoro.
tions on animal life were written in the field, which in large measure accounts for their accuracy and vividness. (He is here shown protected from fever-carrying insects by gloves and
a mosquito net helmet)
Roosevelt in

Courtesy

The canoes

and Colonel Rondon on the "River

large tributary, the Bandeira
of Roosevelt

of

Charles Scribner's

of Doubt''

at

Som

the junction of

Theodore Roosevelt,

Naturalist

PERSONAL AFFILIATION WITH THE AMERICAN MUSEUM SERIOUS

AND SINCERE PURPOSE AS EXPLORER AND NATURALIST
By

ROOSEVELT
of

the

speni

and the
naturalist, and

his

as a

V A

E N R V

II

life

R F

years

joyed as

years

men

chanced

and

it

he was in close touch with the

American Museum a1 both ends of his
as

life

In the range of his

naturalist,

an

as

observer,

and

raveler, explorer, writer,

lasl

but

it'

<>

S B

()

much of life as any nine other

know
have had my full share,
is necessary I'm- me to leave my

firsl

Las!

that

wonderful career.

E LI)

it

Smith America.
am quite
-,."'
Although more prudent plan- prevailed, and we finally
determined upon a route which resulted
remains

in

ready to do

in

tin'

discovery of the Rio Roosevelt,

the exposure, the excessively moisl

not least, a biological philosopher, as in

yet

work over the vasl

government, and of
international relal ions, his sen ice was
si irpendous
and now thai we are able

climate, ami the dearth of food, clol h-

range of

the

his

fields of history, of

we

realize

one man. bul

many

to look at his life as a

thai

he was

nol

whole,

men, many personalities, combined and harmonized into one, all

impelled by indomitable will and de-

greal

termination,
all

all

by

inspired

warmed ami humanized

idealism,

by the mosl

loving ami sympathetic temperament.

This manifold ability ami multiple

nature came oul in the course of his
plans for a greal expedition to South

America, projected in the spring of

1913 ami executed between October,
1913, ami .lime. 19] |.
He had selected
an unknown ami particularly dangerous
region,

where

the

native

had

tribes

never been thoroughly subdued by the

Brazilian Government.
this

region

as

hi-

firsl

[e

marked

choice

"in

l'"!-

Smith American expedil ion, Inn

senl
word to him through Dr. Frank M.
Chapman, who was representing us in
these plan-, that
would never consenl
in hi- going to this particular region
under the American Museum flag; that
would not cm!] assu
pan of he responsibility hr what mighl happen in
case he did not return alive.
With a
I

smili

word

nt

hack

characteristic

ing, and supplies,

very nearly cosl
Theodore Roosevell hi- life.
It
was Roosevelfs warm sentimenl
tor his native city and the sun ival of
the memories d' his boyhood educal ion
a-

an ornithologist,

which broughl himbackinto

with the American Museum,
after he had. by means of his two years
in Africa, completed his magnificenl

.tin i;\

\i..

relation

service

our

to

"I

have alreadv lived ami en-

National

Museum

at

Washington immediately on leaving the

presidency.

planning the South American

in planning that to A Erica,
he prepared with the utmosl intelligence and thoroughness for what he
knew would lie a hazardous rip. even
after all precaution- had been taken.
I

journey, as

With the rained assistance of his son

Kermit
with
the
South
Roosevelt,
American experience and -talwart court

age of

and with
companionship of iolonel landido Mariano
da Silva
Rondon ami Mr. Leo E.

George

r.

the devoted ami

(

Miller,

1\.

<

mosl

Iherrie,

intelligenl

this expedition

the mosl important that

developed into
ha- e\er gone

Prom North into South America.

resull of this expedil ion

A- a
through Para-

Naturalist," American Mi -m
"My I. if'- ;iJOURN M.. M.n 1918
1

:i

so delight fully de-

scribed by himself in the pages of the

XATUEAL HISTORY

10

guay and the wilderness of Brazil, more

than 450 mammal and 13T5 bird speciH 11- were added to the American Museum's collections, in addition to the
geographic results which aroused such a
ii

chorus of discussion and diversity of

Roosevelt was so impressed
opinion.
with the importance of continuing this
exploration, that on his return he per-

marshes of Paraguay, to continue the

work of the first Roosevelt Expedition.

An American statesman, who should
have known better, has recently characterized Roosevelt as "one who knew a
little about more things than anyone
This gives an
else in this country."
entirely false impression of Roosevelt's
mind. His mind was quite of a con-

what Roosevelt did

know, he knew thoroughly; he went

to the very bottom of things, if possible
and no one was more conscientious or
modest than he where his knowledge
was limited or merely that of the intelligent layman.
His thorough research
in preparing for the African and South
American expeditions was not that of
the amateur or of the sportsman, but
of the trained naturalist

much

learn as

students

as possible

and explorers.

who

desires to

from previous
During his

preparation for the xAfrican expedition,

I sent

him from

the rich stores of the

Museum and Osborn libraries

books relating to the mammal

Americai]
all

the

These books went in inweek as each

installment was returned, another lot
was sent. Thus in the course of a few
weeks he had read all that had been

life of

actually explored in Africa, a

(Equus grevyi foai). Roosevelt went

to the map, pointed out directly the
particular and only spot where this subspecies could be found, and said that he

seum accordingly sent Messrs. Leo E.

Howarth Boyle to Colombia
and Bolivia, and Mr. Cherrie to the

for

who had

The Mu-

Miller and

order;

I remember at a conference with African great game hunters at Oyster Bay,

where were assembled at luncheon all
the Americans that he could muster

question arose regarding the locality of

naturalists back to the field.

trary

but the localities where particular species and subspecies were to be found.

from his litsend his companion

sonally contributed $2000

erary earnings, to

Africa from Sclater to Selous.

He
knew not only the genera and species,

Africa.

stallments, five or six a

written about the great

mammals

of

a particular subspecies,

Grevy's zebra

did not think the expedition could possibly get down in that direction.
This

was but one instance among hundreds

not only of his marvelous memory but
his

thoroughness of prepara-

shall

have a memorial of Theo-

of

also
tion.

We

dore Roosevelt, the Naturalist, in the

American Museum of Xatural History.

He honored

the institution by his pres-

it and gave his inspiring

touch to many branches of its activity
during the closing years of his life. In

he loved

ence

the

intervals

of

politics,

duties of every kind, he

of

pressing

would repair

here for keen and concentrated discussions

on animal

coloration,

or

geo-

graphic distribution, or the history of

human races, or the evolution of some
group of animals, or, perchance, the
furtherance of some expedition. What
the Roosevelt memorial shall be it is
premature to say, except that it will
certainly be a memorial to the beautiful
and courageous aspect of his manifold
character and life as a naturalist. This

memorial will be such as to remind the

boys and girls of all future generations
of Americans of the spirit of love, of
zeal, and of intelligence with which
they should approach nature in any of
ii- wonderful aspects.

Roosevelt

The Friend of Man

KOBERT

By

PEA R

E.

Rear Admiral, United States Navy, Retired; President, Aerial League

Chairman, National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission

SORROW!

tribute

\<;

pays meel
passing of the

nation

the

to

Club Expedil ion to the North Polar

Regions which resulted in reaching the

tic

l
greatesl American of his time
Theodore Roosevelt.

The one outstanding

complex

America;

of

Pole April
In

feature of the

L909.

6,

L912,

al

the annual dinner of the

Explorers' Club,

ventured the proph-

the

ecy that in a few years the polar regions

was his friendship

rad
and when this
friendship took concrete form for the
individual, it became, for its recipient,
a tower of strength as fortifying and as
impregnable as ribraltar.
The friendship of Theodore Roosevelt was indeed a mosi precious possession. Whenever and wherever extended,
it
had the effect of a superlative supera step by
incentive to greater ilml^
step advancement, onward and upward,

would lie reconnoitered and explored

through the air.
That prophecy is
about to be consummated.
The great war has forced the devel-

man

of

character

many

man

for

Roosevelt,

of

parts,

in the absl

<

never permit! ing

I

make

out

fear

thai

ii"

ret

rogression.

ion of the globe exists today that cannot be visited and explored by either
plane or dirigible.
1It
indeed a fitt

ting tribute to Colonel Roosevelfs earnest support of aeronautics, at all times,

that the Bartlett
Arctic Expedition,

promulgated and organized through the

of the Aero Club of America,

the following statement with-

efforts

contradiction,

should

of

successful

other single personality

in

this

world of ours today has gathered

from such
multitude, from all quarters, kind-, and condil ions of life, the

greal

.1

utmost

opment of the science of aeronaut icand aircraft to that point where no por-

in

spontaneous affection

thai

known

be

as

"The

Memorial Expedit ion."

lolonel Roosevelt was

porter of aeronautics.

In

Roosevelt

veteran supL897,

when

he was Assistant Secretary of the Navy.

he used his influence to secure the nec-

has been accorded him during his years

essary appropriation n

of contact with a world's people.

sor

Thousands upon thousands, in all

part- of the world, became his friend

was also
responsible for gh ing the United States
Army an aeroplane before any other
nat ion had one.
n I90*i he approved
the ordering of a biplane and a diri-

through the magnetic personality of hia

written words, which have reached to
the uttermost ext remes of enlightened
<-i\

ilizat ion all

over the globe.

[nestimable tribute should be paid to

(

lolonel

Roosevelt's

memory

for the ad-

and support, given u hen President

of the Cnited State-, to he Peary Arc\

ice

aviation.

led by

continue his
Colonel Roosevelt

Langley

to

Profes-

plan-:

for

gible.
3

ient ific results of

to the

inestimable value

United States and

to the

world are directly traceable

velt's

to

whole
Ro

friendship for man.

11

Theodore Roosevelt and Africa

THE MAN WHO FELT THE ATTRACTION OF LIFE IN THE SILENT PLACES
AND THE WIDE WASTE SPACES OF THE EARTH
Bv C A R L

FROM

field naturalists

Roosevelt

he

always

who knew
received

profound and unstinted admiration; they

knew that

his greatest pleas-

ure lay in seeing and learning; that lie

found infinite joy in studying wild ani-

mal

life in its

native haunts; that he

had the observing eye and keen mind of

the ideal naturalist.

His expedition to Africa had been

planned in his mind several
vcars before it actually came about.
I
had returned from an expedition to
Africa late in 1907, and recall the emphasis of his words at the White House
one day as he said to me, "When I am
through with this job, I am going to
definitely

Africa.""
I

met him in Africa

in

1912 on the

La >in Gishu Plateau. It was morning

and our American Museum Expedition
was inarching toward the WZoia River,
when one of the boys called my attention to a safari two miles or so to the
south. With the thought that it might
possibly be the Roosevelt Expedition. 1

sent a runner to make inquiry, while

we proceeded to the banks of the river
and made camp. The runner soon returned, stating that he had met a runner halfway, that it was the Roosevelt
party, and that they were going into
camp on the edge of the marsh not far
from where we had seen them.
When our camp was made, we started

out on our horses in the direction of the

marsh, but when about halfway met the
Colonel with Kermit, and two others of

We all returned to our camp

good part of the afternoon was
spent making arrangements for an elephant hunt for the next day.
Within an hour or two after leaving
his party.

and

12

E.

AKELEY
camp

in the

trail of a

morning, we picked up the

small herd of elephants, and

were easily tracked through the

rapidly. At about
eleven o'clock, while we were following
as they

grass,

we moved very

the trail quite casually, someone in ad-

vance heard a sound which resulted in

our coming to a standstill. We made a
short detour to the left,- and a few minutes later were looking at a small band
of cows and calves enjoying their midday siesta under a clump of bush. We
advanced under cover of a large ant hill
to within about fifty yards, from which
point we looked them over carefully
and decided which were valuable for
our scientific purpose.
I indicated the particular cow that I
wanted the Colonel to shoot for the
American Museum group. Of course
at this distance from the elephants we
could speak only in lowest whispers and
every move was guarded. I waited for

the Colonel to take a shot, expecting

him

to do this from behind the ant hill

where we were afforded a splendid pro-

tection against a charge, but he started

forward toward the elephants and I,

with Kermit, was obliged to follow
closely.
My impulse was to tell him
that I wanted him to shoot the cow
and not "take her alive !" He continued
go steadily forward, how ever, intending to get so close that there could be
no doubt of the effectiveness of bis
r

to

but the elephants suddenly began

in our direction, at which he
promptly fired. This did not stop their
advance, but rather accelerated it instead, so that quick action was necesWhen we got through we had
sary.
four dead elephants.
All of the party, except the Colonel
shot

moving

;;

THEODORE HOOSEVELT AX J) AFRICA

and myself, rel iirned to camp to send
equipment, and men, preparataking care of the greal

to

tory

11

He -poke much

of us will

modern times has gotten

In the

"Foreword"

of his African

it

merely

every bit of

learned to love Roosevelt.

man'.-

mind

of this

velt

man who

beyond

passed

What

own

not an easy thing to give expres-

sion to the thoughts that

our

come

has so recenl

range

of

is

feel

mosl

is

In

Ids
I

have this Foreword on

at the entrance

the

would

bronze tablei

II

rds of Roosevelt

of Africa and golden

the joy of wandering through
lonely lands the joy of hunt ing the

life.

mighty and

lower things that craw I. and fly, and

sting, and bite, he finds swarming
foe- far more e\ il and deadly than

>n the land and in the water

there are dread brutes that \'m\ on
the flesh of man
and among the

-peak"

""I

joy-"

these

In

of

greatest

the

any

world's

hunting-grounds there are

mountain peak- whose -now- are
dazzling under the equatorial sun
swamps where the -lime oozes and
bubbles and festers in the steaming
:

lake- like seas

above deserts where the iron desolation i- shrouded from new by the
wavering mockery of the mirage
asi
grassy plain- where palms and thornrees fringe the dw indling -t reammighty rivers rushing out of the
heart of the continent through the
sadness of endless marshes foresl - of
gorgeous beauty, where death br
Is
in the dark and silenl depth.-.
There are regions a- head till athe northland, and other regions, radiant w ith bright-hued flowers, birds
and butterflies, odorous with sweei
and heavy -cent-, hut reacherous in
their beauty, and sinister to human
;

that

kill

foe- before

dwell

in

the

woods and

prey on creatures not much wilder

or lower than themselves.
The land teems with beasts of the
chase, infinite in
ible in

variety.

number and

incredhold- the fiercesl

and the fleetesl ami
1

beasts of ra\ in.

mosl
imid of those beings that live
in uml\ ing Tear of talon and fan-'.
t

who

ages,

hold- tin' largesl ami the smallesl

hoofed animals.
hold- the
It
mightiest creature- that tread the
earth or -w im in it- rivers
it
also
It

of

foe-

his cattle,

Quoted from the Foreword

reptile:

or

and

which he himself peri-he- in his hundreds of thousand-.

The dark-skinned races that live
Some are
in the land vary widely.
warlike, cattle-owning nomad-: some
till the soil and live in thatched huts
shaped like beehives some are fisherfolk
some an- ape-like naked sav-

hum

skies that

beasl

his crops

greal

heat

terrible lord- of the wil-

derness, the cunning, the wary, and

he grim.

intense

morial to Theodore Roosevelt.

that

Africa 1

stands for the

it

own personal experience and

ly

vision.

whereas Roosegone, his influence seems greater

thinking and feeling.

wish that the A frican had of the American Museum origin be dour as a me-

my

to

Game

consists of word and phrase

tence of

is

oui of

with a vividness others have failed to

in volumes.
And no single sen-

family, of Mrs. Roosevelt, and Ids sons

It

much

so

give

of his

was then that

Roosevell

Trails he describes Africa in two pages

and daughters.

It

with

feel,

that

thin,!;'-

the "I >ark Continent'" as did Roosevelt.

to talk of.

the

to

wanted us to do and which we never

seemed to have time to do, thai now
we have time for nothing else.
As to Africa, perhaps no man in

skins
I

much

Many

ever.

respecl

and skeletons of the four elephants.

[e
and
>ai d"\\
under a tree with our
luncheon, and for two or three hours
we conversed of intimate things.
For
a number of months the
Jolonel had
seen no one from home excepl the members of his own party.
We were fresh
from the United State- and there was
I

lian

"in tools,

13

through the go

barlea

Scril

XATlh'AL U1ST0HV

14

holds distanl kin-folk of these same

no bigger than woodcreatures,
chucks, which dwell in crannies of
the rocks, and in the tree tops. There
are antelope smaller than hares, and
There
antelope larger than oxen.
are creatures which are the embodiments of grace; and others whose
huge ungainliness is like that of a
The plains
shape in a nightmare.
are alive with droves of strange

and

animals whose like is not

known elsewhere; and with others
even stranger that show both in form
and temper something of the fantasIt is a nevertic and the grotesque.
ending pleasure to gaze at the great
herds of buck as they move to and
fro in their myriads; as they stand
for their noontide rest in the quivering heat haze as the long files come
down to drink at the wateringplaces; as they feed and fight and
beautiful

and make love.

The hunter who wanders through
these lands sees sights which ever
afterward remain fixed in his mind.
He sees the monstrous river-horse
snorting and plunging beside the
resl

boat the giraffe looking over the tree

the
tops at the nearing horseman
ostrich fleeing at a speed that none
;

may

the snarling leopard and

with their lethal
python,
beauty; the zebras, barking in the
moonlight, as the laden caravan
passes on its night march through a
In after years there
thirsty land.
shall come to him memories of the
lion's charge ; of the gray bulk of the
elephant, dose at hand in the sombre
woodland ; of the buffalo, his sullen
exv^ lowering from under his helmet
of horn; of the rhinoceros, truculent
and stupid, standing in the bright
sunlight on the empty plain.
These things can be told.
But
there are no words that can tell the
hidden spirit of the wilderness, that
can reveal its mystery, its melanrival

coiled

choly,

and

charm. There is dehardy life of the open,

its

light in the

in long rides rifle in hand, in the

thrill of the fight with dangerous

game.

Apart from

this, yet

mingled

with it. is the strong attraction of

the silent places, of the large tropic
moons, and the splendor of the new
stars; where the wanderer sees the
awful glory of sunrise and sunset in
the wide waste spaces of the earth,
unworn of man, and changed only
by the slow change of the ages
through time everlasting:.

Personal Glimpses of Theodore Roosevelt

ST A R R JO R

By D A V II)

ROOSEVELT

Harvard

entered

College in 1876 at the age of

eighteen, hoping to heconie a
naturalist, having already

siderable

many

collection

of

made

a con-

besides

birds,

observations as to their

habit.-.

His eyesight being defective, however,

and not connecting well with magnifying glasses, his early ambition was dis-

whom

couraged by his teachers to

the

chief range of study lay within the field

of the microscope.
fact that besides

They overlooked the

primordial slime and

determinant chromosomes, there were

also in the world grizzly bears, tigers,
elephant > and trout, as well as song
birds and rattlesnakes, all of which
yield profound interest and are alike
worthy of study.
So, bein.L:" di-couraged as to work
along his chosen lino, and in his Love of
outdoor science, the young naturalist
turned to political philosophy, his secondary interests lying in history and
politics.
He then closed up his private
cabinet, giving

hi-

stuffed

bird

skins

(through Professor Baird of the Smithsonian) to me. These I transferred to

tin- University of Indiana where they

now in a befitting glass case in

Owen Hall, each skin nicely prepared

are

and

correctly labeled in the crude

boyish handwriting which the distin-

guished collector never outgrew.

Long after all this. I once took occasion to remind Mr. Roosevelt that "they
spoiled a good naturalist" in

him

making

statesman. But the naturalist was

never submerged in the exigencies of

statesmanship.
During an automobile
drive in i912 across the Santa
ley.

in

(
'

la

ra Val-

Roosevelt displayed a keen interest

the

sparrows and wa riders of the

These he could

thickets along the road.

names and mostly by

Once in the Yosemite with
John Muir.he noted elements in bird and
squirrel life which had escaped even his
keen-eyed and sympathetic companion.
call

by their

first

their second.

This incident

is

republished by courtesy of The

I)

A N

In our exploration of Hawaii in 1901,

colleague. Dr. Barton W. Ever-

my

mann. and
ful

came

across a very beauti-

golden

the Kalikali,

fish,

yellow

with broad crossbands of deep crimson.

This then bore the name of Serranus
brighami given it by its discoverer,

Ah in

But the species was no

it was moreover plainly
the type of a new genus. This we ailed
Rooseveltia, in honor of "Theodore
Roosevelt, Naturalist" and in recogniScale.

Serranus; and

tion of hi- services in the

With

zoological research.
meiit he

was '"delighted."

be?" he

not

the

In

this eompli-

"Who would

said.

various natural history ex-

plorations undertaken by

during

oilier-

promotion of

his

me and by

administration

as

we
Dnited State
could always count on intelligent and
President

of

the

sympathy. In so far as scienappointments rested with him he

effective
tific

them careful and conscientious

gave

hid
I.
during his adscience
governmental
reached its high-water mark. In 1905
1
was preparing for an exploration of
the deep seas around Japan by means
of the Fish Commission steamer "Albatross." While
was talking this matter over with Roosevelt he said, pounding the table with his fi-t: "It was to
help along things like this, Dr. Jordan,
consideration,

ministration,

that

The

took this job

!"

story of Roosevelfs relation to

Tutuila in Samoa has never been told,

and though

may

scientific

only in part,

it

be related here. 1

The

three islands of

Samoa were

held

under the joint

protectorate of Great Britain, Germany,
and the United States. The general
result was unsatisfactory, a condition
due mainly to the petty intrigues of
for a period of years

German

agents.

In Stevenson's words.

"There was a fresh conspiracy every

dav." and a good account of this situaNew Republic Unit. Editor.
15

NATURAL

16

turn

was given by "R.

no te

to

L.

S." in

Foot-

History.

England
here

f<>r

and

tlic

at last

exchanged her rights

certain advantages elsewhere,

themselves were

islands

di-

II I

STORY

having in their tissues a substance

analogous to strychnine, which would
produce the dangerous and often fatal
disease known as ciguatera.
In addition, Professor Kellogg had rendered a

vided. Upolu, the center of population,

material service in teaching them

and Savaii, the largest of the group,

going to Germany, while Tntuila. with

to get rid of the

its

magnificent harbor at Pago Pago,

and

little

Manna went

to the

United

The native Tutuilans took the

matter seriously and were much pleased
with the new arrangement.
The two
States.

chieftains,

Mauga and Paa

Vei, then

caused to be drawn up an elaborate

document formally deeding the sovereignty of their island to the United
Slates.

Now,

in the etiquette of the

South Seas, to receive a present without

acknowledgment is a flagrant insult,
but the people saw the United States
occupy the island and erect docks,
storehouses, and residences without a
word of thanks.
When
went to Samoa in 1902, 1
found the inhabitants of Tutuila much
worked up over the matter. Tuamanua,
chief of the tiny outlying island, was in
a state which, on a larger scale, would
be called rebellion.
I went before the
little congress at Pago Pago and explained to the people that the United
States did not wish to take away any
of their rights. It had paid the owners
i

for the land occupied as well as for all

service

required.
It had. moreover,
through the governor. Captain (later
Pear Admiral) Uriel Sebree, taken
great pains to safeguard the interests
of the people in their relations to traders

in

copra,

the dried meat

cocoanut which
of that region.

is

of

the

the principal export

I also called attention

to the fact that in the interest of the

people the President had sent Professor

Vernon Kellogg
sity)

and

me

(of Stanford Univer-

to study the fisheries of

the islands to find out

all

the kinds and

what they were good for. I had myself

furnished them with a series of paintings of poisonous fishes, some species

how

mosquito and thus to

abate their two most dreaded scourges,

"dengue*' and "elephantiasis." both diseases being produced by minute animal

organisms carried from person

son by the mosquito.
I also called to their

to per-

minds the sad

time their deed

of gift was received at Washington, the
President of the United States had
Keen assassinated by an insane ruffian.
It was probable that in the confusion
fact that just about the

which followed, the document had been

misplaced and the incoming President,
always thoughtful about such matters,
had possibly never seen it.
I would
bring the affair to his attention, sure
that he would make a courteous reThis kept the people quiet for

sponse.

the time, and expectant as to the future.

I

then sent a statement of facts to

President, and soon after left the

land

but

read in the press

in

lie

is-

the fall

had
watch each to Mauga and

of 1902 that President Eoosevelt

sent a gold

Paa Vei.

also a ilag to the little native

and that in
Pago Pago they had had a "red-letter
day of rejoicing.**
On returning to Washington I found
that the deed of gift had been filed under the head of "Docks."' Pago Pago,
from the official point of view, being
police corps or Fitafitas,

merely the water front of a naval staFear of precedent had prevented

tion.

acknowledgment.
McKinley's advisers emphasized
point

but

did not care

Roosevelt
a

straw for precedent.

man should do.

He

He

said

did what a natural

made

il

this

charact eri st icallv

right with the people.

He

afterward to me in regard to it. "It

always pays for a nation to be a gentleman."'

Man

Abundant
gifford pincho t

Roosevelt, the
Bv

WE

who

ties

we treasured
genial

his

friends

honor

in

him,

in

prefer

himself,

to

his

others,

for

made him

the generosity which

quali-

kindness,

thoughtfulness

unwearied
his

The

him.

Lost

Loyalty,

his

Roosevelt have

loved

lmt

his

tenderness with children, his quick dein living,

light

his

of

and the firm soundness

foundations,

life's

are

potenl

pathy which bound

who never s'aw his

him the millions

to

face, his clean cour-

age and self-forgetful devotion

to his

was the greatest

Roosevelt

righteousness

of

preacher

modern

in

times.

Deeply religious beneath the surface,

he made right li\ ing seem the natural

and there was qo man beyond

thing,

the reach of his preaching and example.

n the sight of all men. he lived
things he taught, and millions followed
I

him because he was

the clear exemplar

of his teaching,

The broad human sym-

with ns yet.

Life

of

we may except

rnless

his

<

lonserva-

tion Policies 2 Roosevelt's greatest serv-

during

ice

presidency was the

Ids

spiration he gave

young men.

in-

To them

country, the tremendous sanity of his

he was the leader in

grasp on the problems of the nation

and the world, and the superb simpli-

good.
The
generation which was entering manhood while he was President will carry
with it to the grave the impress of his

and

city

though!

directness

still

the basis for the

which

is

The

of

hi-

life

live as the inspirat ion

new and

and
and

better world

people

and

Roosevelt because

loved

he was like them.

him the common

<\n

the boys of

they Imped to be

ger,

and

unafraid.

greater power, but they were

What

derst

and would have

The

people

loved

though

thoughts,

within

he did plain

their

in

and

they hoped in

America he was
a

hunter,

There was no part of his

example hut was good for boys to fol-

do.

low.

his

end. yet the manliest of men. of

were

yet

ness

liked

his

their sight.

to

motives

They

all

rider, a

because

loftier,

reach,

were always clear

him

still

men un-

all

common

sportsman, eager for the tang of dankeen and confident, and utterly

qualities were lifted to a higher ten-inn

the same.

for the

leadership and personality.

To

come.

to

be

Roosevelt, half boy

his

best

was their

friends

ideal,

and

till

fine-

understood,

best
will

his life's

not

cease to

be because he has passed on.

knew his purposes were always right.

To millions he was the image <>( their

there was but one, was betrayal of the

better selves.

interests of his country.

Address at Roosevell
Sundaj February 9.

Memorial

Meeting,

Metr

To him

tat

unforgivable

the

Opera

sin,

and

The man who

Philadelphia,

afternoon

of

The name of Gifford Pinchot is closely connected with the work in conservation accomplished bj
who states the high value he placed on Mr. Pinchot's services in the chapter <>n "The
Natural Resources of the Nation" in his Autobiography
"Gifford Pinchot is the man to whom the nation owes most for what has been accomplished as
the preservation of the natural n
Be led, and indeed, during
vital period embodied, the fighl for the preservation through use of our forests.
He played one of the
leading parts in the effort to make the national Gi
the chief instrument in developing the
.*'
irrigation ( the arid West.
The story o
try work of the Roosevell administratioi
ereal historical interest.
It
the tram
iened forest school at Vale, the development of our
with trained foresters in control of the public land-, the great increase by Exi
order of the area of the national forests, and their opening to Bettlers under regulation, the calling of
the Bra' "
ting of governors in this countrj (May, 1908), and the appointment oi
al Conservation Commission with the pui
aking an inventorj of all the resources of the nation.
Gifford Pinchot was chairman of this commission.
All of this work from
"f the count]
practical enlightenment on conservation
Tin Editor.
2

Roosevelt,

il

17


NATURAL

18

sinned that sin he neither forgave nor

For opposition to himself he
forgot.

enemies he had in
plenty, but they east no shadow on his
soul.
lie was a gallant and a cheerful
fighter, willing, as he often said, to be
beaten for any cause that was worth
fighting for, and whether in defeat or
victory, never unbalanced and never
dismayed.
but

cared

little;

Roosevelt lived intensely in his famThe doer of great things himily life.

and the occasion of great accomplishment in others, what he did was

not done alone.
It is but right that
we should recognize the part played
self,

1/ISTOI,')-

The

greatest of his victories was his

He was the first

need for it. To gain it he
seemed to throw away his future. In
the event he won results and earned a
name which will live while the knowledge of America's part in the Great
a

people long misled.

to see the

War still endures.

He was the leader

and his enthusiasms were such

man could entertain and understand.
It was only in the application of them that he rose to heights
beyond the reach of all the rest of us.
as every

and

most

memorable

achievements.

The

What

greatest of executives, he trans-

formed the machinery of government

with the flame of his own spirit.
He
was his own hardest taskmaster, and
always unwilling to ask of his men the
tiling he was not ready to do himself.
He was our leader because he was the

man.

better

He worked more

hours,

with wider vision. He

and gave each man his head.

soundness

so.

purposes, his points of view, his hos-

ing woman, whose hand was so rarely

seen yet still more rarely absent in all
living

hi,-

More than any man of

his time, he was loved by those who
ought to love him, and hated by those
who ought to hate him. His ideals, his

made him

tilities,

that was best in her great husband's

of the people be-

cause his courage and

by the strong and gentle, wise and lov-

finest

over the indifference of

last, his victory

explains his power?

Life

is

warmest and
fullest
and freest, at its utmost in
vigor, at its sanest in purpose and restraint, at its cleanest and clearest,
life tremendous in volume, unbounded
in scope, yet controlled and guided with
a disciplined power which made him,
the answer.

as

Life at

men have

few

its

ever been, the captain

at higher speed,

of his soul.

trusted us,

without fear, free from arrogance and affectation, with few hesi-

Always eager to recognize good work

and give due credit for it. always ready
with an excuse for the

man who

hon-

and failed, he had nothing

but scorn and contempt for the man
who never tried at all.
estly tried

Filled with the joy and the spice of

living,

afraid

neither

of

life

nor of

death, thankful for sunshine or rain,

never sorry for himself, never asking

odds of any man or any situation, he
used the powers he had as only his great
soul
if

could use them

powers

seldom

ever before assembled in one indi-

vidual, but nearly

all

of

them

dupli-

cated, one here, one there, within the

knowledge of us
his soul

made

all.

It

of his body

was the use

and his mind

that was the essence of his greatness.

Alert, glad, without

mean-

ness and

tations
ise

and few

regrets, slow to

prom-

hut ardent to perform, delighting in

welcoming

danger, sensitouch of every phase of

human existence, yet dominated by
standards more severely set for himself
difficulties,

tive

than

to

the

for

any

others,

sustained by

breadth of knowledge and of sympathy

and by an endurance, both physical
and mental, which belonged to him
alone. Roosevelt lived with a comthat lesser men can never
know.
In Roosevelt above all the men of his
time, the promise of the Master was
fulfilled
"I came that ye might have
life, and that ye might have it more
abundantly."

pleteness

BoonmU

Carl

Alceleij

elephant hunting on th

British East

from

asin

<-

i,
The elephant show, here frta. where
elephant stud o. Roosevelt,
preparation in the America,, Museum's
permanent exhitation in the \ nited
hunted and shot elephants for

fell
_

])^

GUM

Plai

Ifrica

j^^S^S^
^^

University of California

SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

SUGGESTIVE OF

INTERESTS OF
THE VARIED ACHIEVEMENTS AND
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
STATESMAN.
EXPLORER. NATURALIST. SOLDIER.
WRITER. AND FRIEND OF MAN

Courtesy of Underwood and Underwood

ROOSEVELT AND YOSEMITE

The man who had a broad vision of things spiritual. In an address on nations and their future ("Biological
Analogies," delivered at Oxford University, 1910), he points out that there are many ominous
signs to warn the nations
that their growth approaches the fate of the law of death of nations.
He makes clear that the all-important factor
is national character, that there promises a great future
for the civilizations which have expanded in the course of their
development but that if it does not come, we must at least all carry forward the torch which men
mighty of heart have
handed on from

20

civilization

to

civilization

throughout recorded time

&fb

>*
'

%\

\f
Courti sy

ON A HUNTING TRIP

IN

o)

"/

and Undi rw

COLORADO, 1905

an incalculable added pleasure to anyon*

if he or shi
gro
to know, even slightly or
liow to read and enjoy the wonder-book of nature.
All hunters should be nature-lovers.
It is to be hoped
from now on the hunter ill stand foremost in working for the preservation and perpetuation of the wild
big
or little."From Pastimes of an American Hunter.
whether
"It

is

rfectly,

thai
life,

The invitation to get out into the western country on hunting trip for a few weeks each year ram.' to Rot
neither from the delights of natural historj and sportsmanship alone, nor alone from interest in conservation problems;
be especially gloried in remembering the heroic pan played by the pioneers, and bj the nation in handling earlj problems
of Btateh
".
which our people have filled B
In all the history of mankind there is nothing that quite parallels the way
vacant continent uith self-governing commonwealths, knit into one nation. ... It is a record of men who greatly dared
and greatly did; a record of endless feats of arms, of victorj after victorj and ceaseless Strife Waged against wild man
and wild nature.
The old iron days have u
Let us see to it that, while we take advantage of every gentler
and more humanizing tendency of the age, we yet preserve the iron quality.
We need the positive virtues of re
power
without
work that must always be done, and
tion, of courage, of indomitable will, of
shrinking
to do
to persevere.
From address at the Quarter-Centennial Celebration of Statehood in Colorado
l

21

1903. They are on their way to the big geyser

from a boy on such occasions, sitting with the driver
Roosevelt was especially interested in the big game and would go entirely alone on
of the sleigh.
long twenty -mile tramps for the pleasure of creeping up unawares on a band of elk or mountain sheep
and eating his luncheon while he studied them. Burroughs says, in telling their experiences and
laughter when racing on skis down some of the hills: "The spirit of the boy was in the air about the
Canon of the Yellowstone, and the biggest boy of us all was President Roosevelt." It was on this trip
that Mr. Burroughs first came to know of Roosevelt's great natural history knowledge and of his
trained powers of observation
"Born observers are about as rare as born poets. Plenty of men can see straight and report
straight what they see; but the men who see what others miss, who see quickly and surely, who have
the detective eye, like Sherlock Holmes, who 'get the drop/ so to speak, on every object, who see
minutely and who see whole, are rare indeed.
President Rooseve't comes as near fulfilling this
ideal as any man I have known."
From Camping and Tramping with Roosevelt, by John Burroughs

With John Burroughs

in

Yellowstone Park,

region, Roosevelt, in accordance with his habit

Portraits of two bird lovers in the Yellowstone. He lived thus in the wilderness, he followed the

and the antelope, he listened to bird songs as though there were nothing else in the world. But
he emerged after a few days into a world of people, politics, and speeches again, and waged anew
and strenuously the fight for a high type of national service
elk

.Hz,
<
gy of Brown Bros.
Roosevelt with a group of Easl Side children. Roosevelt believed in the doctrine of will for a
York
grow
legislative
conscience,
beginning
a
New
conscience,
and
he
helped
a
one
even before the day when he knew Jacob Riis and How the Other Unit i
fact
perfectlj
thi
Citizen
"The
is
he
is
a
in
Roosevelt,
things
Mr.
Riis
says
him
of the truest
o\
logical product of a certain course of conduct deliberated entered upon and faithfully adhered to
character worth mentioning."
New York's East Side
all through life, as all of us are who have anj
genuine reverence to this character of Roosevelt which fearlesslj righted wrongs in tenements
and playgrounds, in liquor anil police laws. Ilf hrliiM'd in (lie good in his follow moil, and his trust
was never more fullj justified than in his work on New York's East Side
i

man. and he had

An

inspiration

courage and hardih

back of Peary's work

rica
no man in A
1

it

was more readj

great explorer.
wandet
Also with his lo\
standing in positions of great personal
lonelim
esponsibilitj of the life of the explorer.
as to the
ualities in 1ms [ntroduction to Peat

that with his admiration for

evelt lo do homage to the
R
wilderness, and in his experience in
vould so well appreciate the wearing
compares the explorer and the soldier

the

He

than

V.
hJ-

Courtesy of

BESIDE

'

Brown

Bros.

GRIZZLY GIANT," ONE OF THE SEQUOIAS HE PROTECTED

Theodore Roosevelt in California at the time of his administration (at the left stands
Governor Pardee at
the right
order John Mmr; Dr. Butler, of Columbia; Secretary Loeb; and President Wheeler
of Berkeley)
\Ve can realize the delight that it was for John Muir to show his beloved Yosemite and
Sequoia
canons and forests 'to
a man of Roosevelt's appreciation and power of observation.
They spent three days at this time trampin"
and
camping together sleeping
the open, between trunks of giant Sequoias-as Roosevelt said Stir "iS *
great
g
solemn cathedral, far vaster and more beautiful than any built by the hand of man"
Roosevelt s initial work in conservation of natural resources, especially of forests,
will go down in historv
y as
the greatest constructive legislation ever established by an executive in
the United States
he s teen th of January, 1919, ten days after the death of Theodore
Roosevelt,'
a
bill
designating
the
OxUfZlu
re ,
Ct aS "Roosevelt National Park," passed the Senate of the United States
mousij.
v
riQnf7

tie said,
1903 the Sequoias
should be preserved because they are "the only things of their kind in
the world,
"monuments of themselves"-they now stand majestic monuments for him

24

H\iH m

Man'

AT WASHINGTON
/

do solemnly swear thai

of my

ability

/</' si

r<

J
.

will faithfully enceeutt

protect,

and defend

thi

IN

ourti ay of

1905

Underwood

"n<l

nder

United sinti*. anil will to tin

office of President of thi

Constitution of tlu United States.

tin

And

tlms

best

swear."

Roosevelt became President in 190] he was the youngest man who had ever taken the oath.
Bis
natural history immediately recalled the administration of Thomas Jefferson; bul he bo far outstripped his pre
Washington marked a golden age for zoology, for exploration, and conand publication- were instigated
d,
and naturalists and
explorers from all over the world were welcome guests at the White House.
He studied the problems of the
As to statesmanship, a man of great constructive imagination was at the helm.
nation and the psychology of men.
He made himself aco
rerj man from everj section of the country.
He
their points of view, their interests.
He worked with an insatiable desire to understand the thought and feel
ing of all ranks.
the true leader, he marshalled all his data before him, formuThen, like the great syntheti
of the country ami themselves that they should go.
lated conclusions, and led the people where it was best for the g
Hut the greatest thing th it R
evelt did as President "a- to bring back to the mind of each man in the country a
of
the
realization that the government i- in truth "for the people,
people, and by the

When

est

in

or that his seven and one half years in

servation, a time when scientific expeditions

ROOSEVELT, THE THINKER AND WRITER.-HE PREACHES READABLENESS

IN SCIENTIFIC WRITINGS
Theodore Roosevelt wrote plain prose, but which had the first characteristic of the highest type
There was never anything uncertain or obscure about the meaning of what lie
wrote, any more than there was in his own mind about what he thought. And the meaning is always
there, ideas jump out at us from the heat of his human experience to inflame our imagination and
Whether he wrote of the commonplace or the dramatic, it was with equal power
incite our action.
and sometimes also with great literary charm
11^ has expressed definitely his own opinion on the form writing should take: "If he [the
of writing, clearness.

possesses the highest imagination and literary quality, he will be able to interest us
writer]
in the gray tints of the general landscape no less than in the flame hues of the jutting peaks
Otherwise no profit will "come from study of the ordinarv for writings are useless unless they are
From this as a theme he eulogizes "the
read, and they cannot be read unless they are readable."
lofty imagination" necessary for the great historical or scientific writer, and drives away the bugawriter often stigmatizes the "readtechnical
boos of inaccuracy" and shallowness" with which the
able" book: "Very few great scientists have written interestingly, and these few have usually felt
when
the mighty sweep of modem
the
will
come
time
apologetic about it.
Yet sooner or later
scientific discovery will be placed, by scientific men with the sift of expression, at the service of
already
science has owed more than
Indeed. I believe that
intelligent and cultivated laymen
[for instance, in regard
it suspects to the unconscious literary power of some of it- representatives
Darwin and Huxley succreated
hardly
ripple,
a
where their predecessors had
to evolution]
ceeded in effecting a complete revolution in the thought of the age ... I believe that the chief
explanation of the difference was the very simple one that what Darwin and Huxley wrote un."
interesting to read
.

Photograph* by

SIMPLE DELIGHTS OF NATURAL HISTORY

IN

THE

//. rh, ,/

FIELD

in a Louisiana
In ih, /;. !,!, a
- heron encounter each other
Bird Preserve.
Mr Berber) K Job also was a member of the partj and snapped the photograph.
Louisiana
At the request of the National Association of Audubon Societies Roosevell
he made this tour of the
Bird Preserves bj Executive Order
administration,
he estab
i.
of
his
islands with Mr. Job
Between March
1903, and
and ter
lished by Executive Order fiftj one National Bird Reservations, distributed ii
from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Alaska.
One
need t" be a boy it:
The photograph
imed when all was till and deposited tl^-ir
the beachet
Coast whei
. _
under the -and

Courtesy

<yf

Underwood and Underwood

QUENTIN ROOSEVELT SLEEPS ON FRENCH SOIL

Quentin Roosevelt was shot down while fighting at odds with enemy aeroplanes over the German
Chateau-Thierry region.
He was buried with military honors by German airmen near
where his machine fell. Much was expected of him, but he gave more. His sacrifice is to
America as a symbol of the soul of democracy, of the country's young" manhood offered to the cause
lines in the

the spot

of liberty.

Quentin visited France in 1909.

A letter written to an old teacher at that time shows his
boyish interest in flying (he was eleven years old)
"We were at Rheims and saw all the aeroplanes
flying, and saw Curtiss who won the Gordon Bennett cup for swiftest flight.
You don't know how
pretty it was to see all the aeroplanes sailing at a time. At one time there were four aeroplanes in the
air.
It was the prettiest thing I ever saw.
The best one was a monoplane called the 'Antoinette,'
which looks like a great big bird in the air. It does not wiggle at all, and goes very fast.
It is
awfully pretty turning." And at the close of the letter, "Tell S
that I am sending' him a model
of an aeroplane that winds up with a rubber band.
They work quite well. I have one" which can fl'a hundred yards, and goes higher than my head."
When he was in training at Mineola. he often chose the air above his home at Sag-amore Hill
to practice his most startling maneuvers, his father never being sure until afterward that the army
plane which had so thrilled them was Quentin's.
When the news of the boy's probable death came from France, Roosevelt, who had been sorrowing
that he could not personally be on the western battlefront, dauntlessly gave answer: "Quentin's mother
and I are very glad that he got to the Front and had a chance to render some service to his country,
and to show the stuff there was in him before his fate befell him"
:

sy of

THE HOME AT OYSTER BAY AND AEROPLANES WHICH DROPPED

WREATHS OF MOURNING
Th- -tory of Rex

is told, and we realize that his spoken and written word- ha\
Those who know the facts will
vivid experience as boy and man.
graphical: "I would order them [young men] to work ... I would
that he who lia< not wealth owes his tirM duty to his family, but he who
I
would preach the doctrine of work to all. and to the mai

"f his

stood
_-.ize

the

the following

young man

own

wealth the doctrine of nnremunerative

ave a right
Now. the ehan
a good American man.
good deal of a boy. He must not he a
work hard and play hard. He :n
all circumsta
all coi
- linst
"In life as in a football game, the

work."

American boy is that he shall turn out to be

og that he wont he much of a man un
coward or a weakling, a bully, a shirk, or a prig. He must

to expect of the

minded and

and able

clean-lived,

to hold his

own under

shirk, but hit the line hard.''

In such plainly spoken
generations of Americans.
ing all hi-

From

Hit the line hard; don't foul and don't

is:

the spirit of Roosevelt will live for innumerable future

none

which emli

principle to follow

"The American Boy,"

wo
ttle

i-

more important

the light
following

of

in

the

in

diffien

the

quoted from

Th*

men who preeminently and

In speaking to you.
the

American character,

wish

distinctly

embody

all

Lmerican

'

toil.

it

i-

'

in

t<

ife, the life of toil and effort, of labor

which com.-. ... to the man who
nol -hrink from danger, from
A- n i- with
and who out of these win- the -plendid ultim
jood faith to
with the nation ... If w<
V.
part in the world.
hem well or ill.
w >" "
the fate of many nations. ... If we -brink from
of their lives and at the risk of all thej
world.
Lei US -brink trot:
by. and will win for
.'.
mora
within or without the nation, providi
for it is only through hard
.

'-

:l

our!

with

'

stifled,

,rue

'

HZlU
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Has

Come

Progressive Evolution

an End?

to

AND [NTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION >F MAN THE

FUTURE MAY BOLD NO RACE OF SUPER-MEN, BUT IT

LIMITS OF PHYSICAL

<

LIKELY TO PRESENT A SUPER-STATE

AND A SUPER-CIVILIZATION

is

D>

I)

CO

G R A N T

N K L

Professor of Biology, Princeton University

Til E

term "evolution"

in

it-

ample with

is

When

several senses.

used

larger aspects, as for exrespecl

to

increasing

the

complexity of organization

in

the suc-

cession of Life forms upon the earth,

organization

When

progress.

may

what

are dealing with

progressive

in

considered

or

considered

I"'

we

called

organic

from the

standpoint of increasing diversification,

shown in the appearance of varieties

and species which arc no more complex
in organization than the forms from
which they sprung ami which may he
even less complex, we have a type of
evolution which is nut progressive and
which may be called speciation or diA third asped of evoluversification.
tion is that which deal- with increasing
adaptation to conditions of life and
which may he called progressive adapas

tation; this

may

or

may

no!

path
Tin'.-

In the long history of

life

may

possible way, they

lie

upon the

did

when

in

finding the path of progressive

evolution,

and

path

been

has

every

in
in

the

instance this
direction

of

greater specialization ami cooperation.

Millions of year- ago unicellular

uisms reached the utmosl limits of

the differentiations which were possible

within

single cell.

Thereafter

new

separate and com-

A wholly similar process

by

formation

cell

of differen-

take-

the development of the egg

formal ion

i-

place
if

cell

-topped in this case, differ-

never go beyond a stage

comparable with those of the unicellular organism, ami if the different
cells fail in -tick together they generally
lose many of their differentiations ami
entiations

simpler organization of

the

t"

revert

divides,

ments

became

it

into a unit of a higher order.

-aid to have

million- and millions of experi-

Multicellular

between cell products were preserved

ami increased a! successive divisions. In
this way entire cells became new units
of differentiation and at the same time
all the cells remained bound together

the egg.

made

occur.

plete individual, the initial differences

every

in

to

in the direc-

assumed, hut rather by the failure of

1" divide completely; when the
original cell divided, the products uo
longer moved apart as separate and
complete individuals but remained attached to one another, and instead of
restoring all missing pari- as each cell

in

earth, organisms have varied

was

cells

with speciation.
kind,
whatever
mean- differentiation and integration,
specialization and cooperat ion,diversity
and han
ly.
Progressive evolution
invariably and inevitably mean- increasing differentiation and integral ion.

further ad-

if

forms did not arise by the coming togei her of separate cells, as i- somel imes

tiation

of

found

new path was found

ciated with progressive organization or

Organization,

he

to

organization

in

tion of multicellularity.

asso-

lie

had

vance

Whenever a complex protozoan

goes back in organization to
ive condition, ami after

it

nmre primil

division

again

it

and

-tan-

protozoans make
organization.
multicellular

they do

to

differentiate over

so successive generations of
little

or no advance in

Bui when the cells of

animal

or

plant

divide

the

stage of

differentiation of the egg bul

preserve

not

go back

t<

the differentiations which they have al:;r.

NATURAL HISTORY

36

ready attained and continue to augment

them during the process of development. In multicellular organisms this

a new path of evolution and

But here also, as in the former

increasing differentiation of the cells

and inteIn this way biological colonies

or societies are formed, and in various
animal societies one can trace the stages
of social evolution from a condition in
which all the individuals are much
alike and the bond of union between
them is a very loose one, to such societies as those of ants, bees, and termites
in which the differentiations and integrations of individuals have gone much
further even than in human society.
We do not know whether progressive
evolution of such animal societies has

made

interdependence of the

cells,

is

and

possible by the close union

whereas

in the unicellular forms the very inde-

pendence of the

cells

prevents increas-

ing differentiation.

In a manner wholly similar

to the

case of the one-celled forms multicellular organisms reach a stage of differ-

entiation beyond which they cannot go

within

the

limits

The very nature

fies

of

body.

single

of differentiation signi-

limitations in certain directions in

order to secure further development in

other directions.
If a creature have

wings

it

cannot also have hands (ex-

cept in the case of the angels)

if it

have limbs for running it cannot also

have limbs for swimming; if it have
enormous strength it cannot also have
great

delicacy

of

are increasing differentiation

gration.

already reached

tiated

is

relatively undifferen-

his limbs,

hands and

further evolution,
involve a

still

feet,

his

are

these

organs in many other animals, but his

brain is much more highly differenti-

This very fact of a highly specialized nervous system and a generalized condition of many other organs
has led to the wonderful intellectual
and social evolution of man and has
ated.

possible not only the rational con-

own

greater degree of differ-

Path of Intellectual Evolution

new path

of evolution, namely, the in-

tellectual

and

was

evolution but also the

and just

as there

movement when

the path of multieellularity was taken,

again when

and

social

organizations

took the place of solitary individuals,

human

advances in the path of inand morality are perhaps the

most significant in the whole range of

organic evolution. Here, as in the cases
of physical and social evolution, the

which the
new organization is builded are present
in the lowest and simplest forms of life,
factors or elements out of

but

it is

entiation

only by the progressive differ-

and integration of these

tors that progress

is

fac-

achieved.

The elements out

of which the psychic

have been developed
are present in all organisms, even in

control of his environment.

faculties of

Path of Social Evolution

Just as the multicellular condition
permits a higher degree of organization
than is possible in the unicellular, so
the union of multicellular organisms
into a unit of a higher order opens

ethical,

great forward

so

trol of his

we do know that
it occurs, must

Meanwhile man has entered upon a

telligence

made

if

or of colonies.

teeth and alimentary tract are far less

than

limits in colonies of

and integration of individuals

entiation

highly

differentiated

its

ants and termites, but

Thus

movement.

no one animal can be differentiated in

all directions.
In man differentiation
has gone farthest in the structures and
functions of the brain. In many other

man

instance,

the principles of progressive evolution

while certain animals are differentiated

in one direction and others in another,

respects

progress.

up

germ

man

form of sensitivity,
memory, and
a few other factors in more complex
animals these take the form of special
senses,
instincts,
emotions and ascells,

in the

tropisms, reflexes, organic

;

'

EVOLUTION COME TO AN END?

//.is l'i;<x;i;i:><IVI-:

memory

and
and especially

sociatiYe
aniin.il.-.

blossom

forth

as

the highesl

in

man. they

in

reason,

intelligence,

and consciousness. All stages of

this developmenl may be seen in various
animal- below man ami also in the development of the human personality
from tin' germ cells.
No one knows whether human beings
have already reached he limit - of developmenl of their intellectual, ra1 ional,
and volit ional powers, h i- customary
to assume thai there is no limii to
he
possibilil ies of developmenl in this direction, and certainly in the knowledge
of and control over natural phenomena

will,

the ni"-t striking progress

made,

is

now being

however, by cooperative
i- nol the question in-

chiefly,

Bui this

effort.

man

volved when we ask whether

has

already reached the highest possible de-

velopmenl

of

his

and

intellectual

ra-

tional powers.

There

thai no recent

human

beings have sur-

such powers

many men of the

many other indi-

passed

in

ancienl Greek race or

Perhaps the
s rei

-t

ti

e\

idence

the past.

in

n
advances have
made, and changes arc -till going on at
a rate which is amazing if nol alarm*-

The

ing.

ence

evolution are to be
that

the instincts,

Plato

and

Aristotle,

new path

of evolution has

man

tion, that

the further developmenl

in rat ional

coopera-

society on a basis of intelli-

gence rather than of instinct. Certainly

in

this direction

it

the limit- of

have nol

may

been

human

reached

in-

he -aid that the rational

evolution of society ha- barely begun.

It

notable fact that the social evolu-

is a

much

man

going forward at a very

nmre rapid rale than hi- physical

tion of

i-

or intellectual evolul
In
lectual

bodily

the

due

to the

whereas

man

they are very

the

and

in

intel-

were,

the

of

physical

seems mosl
and rare.

There

is

evolution

Many

in

have

continue
the w

the pasl

in

for

already

than

new

apparently
a

been

the

single cell

reached.

cell-

lead to better adaptations

la.le will

to existing conditions, hut

probablj

those

living will

and In. die- will

undergo changes which on

both

to

more com-

forms

lived or are

evolved,

body

future

more complex
than those which

develop

Hit le likelihood that

be

Lines

probability that

tie

will

which have
ever

doubtful,

\'rw

Progress Has Ceased

will

he

such changes

relatively

slighl

as

compared with the greal evolutionary

Among

no new phyla have appeared

in the Silurian, or perhaps
ince the mamm
no new
In the
the Triassic and the birds in the Jurassic.
evolution of animals onlj about fourteen times in
of
tin. whole history
life have new phyletic paths
n found mimI several of these were blind alleys
which led nowhere. The climax of the progressive
evolution of fishes was probably reached in the
Devonian, of amphibians in the Permian, of rep

since

animals

vertebrates

the

even earlier

In all these classes tin- forBpecies has been going on more or

less continuously, but progressive evolution in the
tio

in

mation
s.'n^.'

ha- changed bul

it

experiences of hi- ancestors,

which

thin-

tiles

ion.

structure

capacity

a-

shoulders

man begins his developmenl anew in

each generation from the germ cells,
and if he inherits any bodily feature-

'

deed,

generation,

standing upon
preceding one,

Doubtless,

been found by

evolution

each

erations,

er

human

hat

limit- of complexity within

Path of Rational Cooperation

tact

more

through intelligent society pasl experiences are transmitted to future geni

multicellular

han
than
t

are

permanently impressed
upon the bod} or
and especially in he fact

plex

future there

the

in

he intellect than

i-

of

Shakespeare, Newton and Darwin.

of

and

quickly

found

experiences

individual

upon

for this differ-

there

the distanl

in

chief causes

the rate of physical and social

in

so

even

i>

personages of history,

never appear greater geniuses

Finally, a

organization the

social

animal or plant cells

new exisl "i- have existed

may

Socrates,

in

bu1

enormous

most

in

evolution
its

thai

in

history,

climax

intellectual

already readied

lias

these

good

who have appeared

viduals

man

is

since the beginnings of recorded

little

of

of
:

Mesozoic.

'

increasing complexitj
it* climax.

or pa

of organisation

has

NATURAL HISTORY

38

advances of the past ; protozoa will still

remain protozoa and man will still be

man.
There

no evidence and little probahigher animal than man

To a
will ever appear on this planet.
larger extent than in the case of any
is

bility that a

be hoped for by the scientist

is that the
standards of races as a whole may more
nearly approach the best individual
standards which now exist, and under a

wise system of eugenics and education

improvement can be

this

Paths of Future Progress

man controls his destiny,

the human race should be-

other creature

and even if
come extinct, from what other existing
group of organisms is it conceivable
that a higher type Wuld arise ? There
are other animals which in certain respects are more highly developed physically, there are social insects which in
some regards are more highly developed
socially, but no other animal approaches
man in intellect and probably none will
ever surpass
physical,

him

in the combination of

and

intellectual,

social

ca-

pacity.

Furthermore,

there

is

no

present

effected.

On

the other hand, there

is

good

evi-

dence that in social organization and in

cooperative efforts the limits of

human
The

evolution have not been reached.

future

may produce no super-men

likely to

it is

but
produce a super-state and

a super-civilization.

Progressive evolution, then, has proceeded along several lines and not along
a single one; it may be represented, not
by a ladder, but by a branching tree in
which growth has ceased in certain
branches but is still going on in others.

man

In

there have been three

main

but

reason for supposing that in the future

lines or branches of evolution,

man

more highly organized

physically or will be endowed with

cal,

greater intellectual capacity than have

ing differentiation and integration.

Furthermore, the directing and regu-

been

be

will

many

individual

men

of the past

all

lines

in
progress has meant increas-

or present, though in both body

lating principles

mind he

of these lines;

will probably

and
become better

and

intellectual,

physi-

it

social,

may be the same in all

may be, for example,

adjusted to conditions of life.

It is
conceivable that further evolution of
the brain of man may occur, just as it is

the survival of the

possible to conceive of a further evolu-

it

tion of the neck of the giraffe or of the

the most ethical.

trunk of the elephant, but there is a

limit to increasing specialization beyond
which it is not practicable to go. It is
doubtful whether the brain of man
could undergo much further differentiation without introducing disharmonies
within the organism or with the environment, and the facts that since the
beginnings of human records there does
not appear to have been any appreciable growth of the brain in size or
complexity, and that since the ancient
Greeks there has been no appreciable

not necessarily antagonistic, as Huxley

supposed, but all three may and do
cooperate in such a way that each
strengthens the other. Least of all is

many

fittest is

limits

of

evolution

have been reached.

in

this

The most

possible

direction

that can

is

fittest,

fitness.

the most viable

the most rational

but there are

Physically, the
;

intellectually,
socially, it is

These three lines are

there any justification for the views of

Bernhardi and other biological milithat the most powerful, combative, and dominating are the fittest
tarists

socially.

Darwin himself long ago pro-

tested against this mistaken conception

of natural selection and showed that in
social evolution the

most

most ethical

is

the

lines

of

fit.

But while these

increase in the intellectual capacity of

man, plainly indicate that the

kinds of

different

evolution are not necessarily antagonistic, it is

all

important to remember that

life processes,

including evolution,

HAS PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION COME TO AN END?

39

human

species,

balanced as
tending forces.
are

evolution,

Life itself as well as

continual adjustment of

is

were between con-

it

condition- to externa] condi-

interna]

between constructive
ami destructive processes, a combination of differentiation ami integral ion.
of variation and inheritance, of the
needs of the individual and id' those of
tions,

balance

And

the species.

addil ion to these

in

we find in man the

opposition of instinct and intelligence,
of emotion and reason, of selfishness
and altruism, of individual freedom
and social cooperation.
conflicting relations

The
curred

man

evolution of

pasl

almosl

without

entirely

human guidance;

scious

ha- oc-

hut

con-

opportunity

have

been

man

given

of

directing

and ethically his own evoMore than anything else, that

lution.
which distinguishes human society from
that of other animals is just this ability
to control instincts and emotions by
Those who
intelligence and reason.
maintain that racial, national, and
class antagonisms are inevitable because
they are instinctive, and that wars can
rational])

never cease because man i- a fight ing

animal, really deny that mankind can
ever

experience;

by

learn

they

look

to the instinctive origins ami

forward to the rational organiza-

backward
imt
tion

of society

have

to

We

inst incts,

balanced

and

human

society will

pack,

of

foundat ions of
gregarious
foundation-

in

erected that

we

reverl

herd,

human

to

the level

The

hive.

society are laid

inst incts,

human

or

reason,

by

upon

hut

intelligence

enormous

st

hese

has

ructure which

call civilization.
(

'an

there he any doubt

evolution
in

never cease

unless these are

controlled

of

the

-hall

hut

the

of

human

future,

it

that,

society

will

larger

the

bring into one

and ever
numbers of men until perhaps

organization

if

continues
larger
it

may

whole

at

the same time lead

greater specialization and more inti-

body, the union

members?

its

into one

cells

many persons into

union of many colonies
a\'

one colony, the

into one nation have marked great advance- in evolution, so, let us hope, the
union of many nations into one league

may mark

the next great step

in

human

progress.

development of inand of rational society we

Finally, with the

telligence

reach

in

human

evolution the highest

stage of organization

winch has ever

been attained and. so far as we can

the

intellect

profiting by experience,

will

it

mate cooperation of all

A- the union of many

-ee.

great

of

i"

with the

and the capacity

a new and
and responsibility

appearance of

finally include the

and that

the highesl attaiuahle, for

now
we have

here not merely the different iations of

human bodyand the countless differhuman society but much

ential ions of

moie we have the control over environment and the forces of nature which
makes man the most powerful and
speedy of all living things whether on
land, in water, or in the air; which
gives him a keenness and range of sensation that are unparalleled elsewhere,

and which practically extends

hi- nerve

connections to all parts of the earth.

Man has indeed by means of intelligence added to hi- own personal powers
the power- of nature.
i- evolution i<
no longer limited to his body hut take1

in

the whole of hi- environment.

This new path of progressiva evolu-

all
respects the mosi imwhich ha- ever y<
been disThe course of
covered by organisms.
progress ha- led from -mailer and
simpler units to larger and more comnow. h\ means of
plex one- until
rational cooperation, we have governmental unit- which include as much as

tion

is

in

portant

one fourth of the entire human -p.

we are on the eve of bringing together
i

-mue form of league or federation

we are
process of annexing to our "\\ n per-

into
all

in

the nation- of the world, and

sonal

powers the illimitable

the univ er-e.

forces of

Photograph

bij

Alfred M. Bailey

THEIR INTERESTS ARE SAFEGUARDED BY UNCLE SAM

Now and then a cry is heard that birds are injurious to man's interests and should be killed. For example, this last summer great pressure was brought to bear on the United States Food Administration to
destroy all the pelicans in the Gulf Coast region, especially those on the coasts of Florida and Texas,
because of the claim that they "existed by millions" and were daily eating "hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of food fish."
The Food Administration asked the writer to investigate this. With the kind cooperation of State Fish Commissioner Woods, of Texas, Conservation Commissioner Alexander, of Louisiana, and Shellfish Commissioner Williams, of Florida, I was able to cruise the coasts of these states and
visit all the breeding colonies of pelicans.
We counted and estimated their numbers, and gathered quantities of the food which the adult and young alike disgorged in the writer's presence.
At the conclusion of
the investigation it was found that only about 65,000 adult pelicans were inhabiting the Gulf Coast of the
United States in the summer of 1918, and that more than 95 per cent of their food during the month of
June consisted of menhaden fish never used for human consumption

-III

Brown

iid Lumps.''

Wild

Photograph by Alfred M
on the United States Bird Reservation locally
the month of the Mississippi River

pelican flying above

at

home

its

colon;

Life Conservation

Along

Bailey

known

the Gulf Coast

FLORIDA, ALABAMA, MISSISSIPPI, LOUISIANA, AND TEXAS IN BIRD

PROTECTION, THE FIRST WITH MISSISSIPPI A NATIONAL
SHAME, LOUISIANA A NATIONAL PRIDE
By

T.

GI

P E A

L B E R T

NO

area

of

like

exteni

in

the

United States i- so memorable

from the standpoint of wild
life conservation as thai region which
we may designate as the Gulf Coast.

Beginning with the mouth of the

Grande, this area sweeps northeastward, and then southward

Rio

ward,

for fourteen

hundred miles

until

we

far-famed bird islands of

the Dry Tortugas off the south end of
Florida.
This region, with its shallow
seas, islands, sand beaches, and extensive
marshes, has for ages been the abode of
innumerable water birds that have long
attracted the avarice of mankind.
reach

the

at

its

height,

Societies

\wn! nn elsewhere along the Gulf Coast

at
that time.
The egging business
also flourished

those ami even later

in

days.

In

Mr.

1904,

New

Frank M.

Miller,

Orleans, reported thai

of

thou-

five

sand eggs had ju-t hem broken on one

tin- Louisiana islands inhabited by

id

-'a

birds,

gathered

in

the

fresh ones.

taken

in

this

markets

the

order that
nexl

all

sand

eggs

used

in

the

ggs

morning might be

For years cargoes of

manner were supplied to
of

V\\

were

that

He

Orleans.

stated further that at least

thou-

fifty

year

taken

and

the manufacture of glue.

Along

Thirty years ago, when bird killing

for the feather trade was

R.

Audubon

Secretary of the National Association of

Louisiana coasl

tin'

Mississippi

River westward

there extend vasl

from
to

Texas,

marshes varying

one could have found a dozen vessels

at mice cruising the Florida coasl in
<>f tin' vasl assemblages of gulls,
31
terns, egrets, and shore birds which at

width firom five ti> thirty mill-.

in
This extensive domain, which the land
nly partly reclaimed from

time inhabited the mangrove isSimilar killing

lands and rural reefs.

of

that

tin-

sea.

is

duck-

-alt

the winter
aii'

home
To

of myriads
tin-

tv_
41

NATURAL HISTORY

42

were attracted thousands of hunters,

who, until recent years, shot unrestricted the wild fowl that gathered
The
here in winter to feed and rest.
markets of the Louisiana cities were
open to the sale of the bodies of these
birds, and enormous numbers were
shipped to northern markets.
The first serious attempts to protect
the wild life of the Gulf Coast were
made by the National Association of
Audubon Societies. As far back as
1902 these societies were conducting
campaigns of education and seeking
arouse

to

among

the

people

of

that

region an interest in conserving their

These efforts have

bird life.
continued through the years, hut have
produced little effect in much of the
territory, and pronounced hostility has
wild

encountered

been

Thus on July
the

Association's

Sable,

in

many
Guy

14, 1905,

Florida,

regions.

Bradley,

warden near Cape

was shot by plume

hunters and the birds in the colony

he guarded were destroyed. Later, up
in Charlotte Harbor, Florida, on No-

Columbus G. McLeod, another Audubon warden, was

killed and the boat in which his body
vember

fell

30,

1908,

done much

Passing on to Mississippi, we find

the only state in the Union, aside from

makes no declared

Florida, that

through

state

oificers

effort

enforce

to

laws for the protection of wild

Two
a

its
life.

years ago the legislature passed

bill to establish a

game commission,

but the courts declared

it

unconstitu-

and Mississippi hunters kept

merrily on as heretofore, killing very
much when and where they pleased.
In regard to Louisiana the story is
tional,

long one,

one should undertake to

Mr. Frank Miller, backed
by the National Association of Audubon Societies, secured the establisha

tell

ment

if

all.

it

of

number

of

Federal

bird

reservations off the coast, and in July,

1908, induced the legislature to create

"Board

Commissioners for the

Game and Fish."
He was appointed chairman of the
board, and undertook the great work
a

of

Protection of Birds,

of conserving the wild life of his state.

In due time his political life came to

an end. Under the leadership of the
present

game commissioner,

orable L.

made

was sunk with sandbags.

The Association has worked system-

to conserve the bird life for

his state.

of

the

Hon-

M. Alexander, Louisiana has

notable strides in the protection

its

wild

life,

and considering the

when

atically for the establishment of state

conditions which he found

game warden systems

about six years ago, no

state in the Union can equal his record.
During the winter Louisiana contains more wild waterfowl than any
other two states in the Union, and

states bordering

the various

in

on the Gulf, but with

In 1913 the

only moderate success.

legislature

of

Florida finally enacted

game warden and deputies. Two years later the

law was repealed. Florida stands today
a law providing for a state

as the

Eip Van Winkle

matter of wild

life

state

in the

conservation.

The

state's efforts to protect its wild life

have been practically nil.
To the westward lies Alabama with
a short coastline, and inhabited by
comparatively few shore birds.
The
subject of bird and game protection
was taken up by the Honorable John
H. Wallace, in February, 1907, and

since that

date this active officer

lias

tering

en-

office,

here also there are surely as many gunners to the square foot as can be found

anywhere on this continent. Yet Mr.

Alexander has secured the enactment of
reasonable and necessary conservation
laws and he enforces them with a tact
and wisdom that are most stimulating.
Aside from the Government bird reservations,

the

Audubon

Societies'

is-

and the work of the Louisiana

Game Commission, mention should be
made of the three large tracts of marshlands,

land

set aside as

bird refuges.

One

of

WILD LIFE CONSERVATION ALONG THE GULF COAST

Marsh

77,000 acres in
by Mrs. Russell
Sage, and set aside as a bird sanctuary.
This was in 1912. Two years later the
these.

Island,

extent, was purchased

Foundation

Rockefeller
ract

wesl

of

it,

purchased

acres a few miles to the

of 86,

and declared

it

to be a bird

Mr. Edward
for all time.
Mellhennv, who was responsible for
both of these purchases, together with
Charles Willis Ward, bought and sel
aside another reservation of 5?. (hid
acres of marshland. These three tracts,
carefully guarded at all times, constitute the most important refuges for
sanctuary
A.

wild

life in

Thus

the southern states.

Louisiana,

states that

their wild

are intelligently conserving

life.

From

the

standpoint

of the

which consists of gulls,

terns, herons, and pelicans, this region
is today not an important one, for the
bird life that was once abundant has
been reduced to extremely small prosea-bird

stay the hand of the gunners.

Few birds along the Gulf Coast are
now killed for the feather trade, with
the except iuu di' the egrets. Thanks to

the wardens of the Audubon Societies

and the Louisiana conservation guards,
egging as a business is a thing of the
past, and as we have already seen, the
killing of ducks in their winter haven,

Louisiana,
It

life,

now carefully regulated.

that one more silly

is

was shown

prejudice against our wild life was

without foundation when, this summer,
the food of the In-own pelican was invesat

the

request

of

Food Administration (for deAs I sailed along

tails see page 40).
parts of the Gulf Coast where twenty
year- ago water birds were found by
tens of thousands and saw how scarce,

many

regions, they are today.

destruction which

man may work

details

with

the helpless wild life of a country,

tant

it

is

should do

and

how tremendously impor-

I felt again

that
all

the present generation

within

its

power

to save

the remnant of the wild life along our

beautiful southern coast.

Pearson, secretary of the National

practical investigation of the food of the

was

impressed anew with the possibility of

Photograph by
Mr. T. Gilbert

I'nited

the

State-

in

There remain- bu1 one state along

the Gulf Coast to mention, that is
Texas.

portion-, and the state has done little

to

tigated

one time a
slaughter pen for wild life second only
to the state of Florida, is today occupying an enviable position among the
at

43

<>i'

brown pelican

regarding the recent demand of fishermen fur

of the investigation bj Mr. Pearson, see page 40
t ii

.1

Ifrt

/ M.

/'

Audubon Societies, making n

liation
A
For
(compare with photograph, page 61).
extermination of the brown pelicans, and the

- -

Photograph by Alfred M. Bailey

SUMMER "SNOW FIELDS" OF TERNS

The Cabot terns (Sterna sandvicensis acuflavida) are smaller than the royal terns, more slender and
graceful, and of a more affectionate disposition with one another.
They are beautiful birds with silverpearl wings, eyes of piercing blackness, crests of jet, and dark bills tipped with yellow truly little
"doves" of the sea.
These terns have been especially persecuted in the past by the feather hunters and had become almost
extinct when Louisiana, in conjunction with the Federal Government, the National Association of Audubon Societies, and various private individuals interested in bird protection, undertook to conserve the
state's bird life on an extensive scale.
Bird refuges have now been established throughout Louisiana and
on the outlying islands, and a state board of commissioners 1 has been inaugurated to promote the protection of wild life.
During the winter Louisiana is a haven for more water birds than any other two
states of the Union, and in recent years she has occupied the enviable position of being one of the most
conscientious protectors of her feathered guests
1
See note at bottom of following page

44

*m

^H0T7\JV

Observations on the Water Birds of Louisiana

By

A L F R E

1)

M. B All, E Y

Of the Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans

LOUISIANA

so

is

geo-

situated

graphically and has conditions

^j
she

favorable

so

stands

states

<>f

tin-

for

bird

life

I'nion.

their places a- her

In years

that

among the bird

The great hordes

foremost

birds arrive from farther south to take

fowl from the frozen North,

using the Mississippi Valley as a migration route, find a place of refuge and a
source of food supply that have no

of wild

slaughter

and each

these
large

return to their nesting grounds

molested.

in

any

other

state,

at

the

sea

areas

continually,

numbers of waterfowl

Among

North, veritable "snow field-" of white-

winged terns and other beautiful

residents.

wing hunters, hut today Louisiana lias

under her protection more than three
hundred thousand acres of land and
salt marsh giver over entirely as plac of refuge for wild Life. Wardens patrol

spring when these winter guests again

equal

summer

gone by, this state was the

ground of the plume and

early

ion in Louisiana

'Illustrations from a series of remarkable bird photographand Alfred M. Bailey.

bj

E.

A.

so

that

shall be

the

un-

attempts at eonservawas that of M r. E. A.

McHhenny, Stanley

('.

Arthur,

dership of Mr. M. L. Alexander, and is doing a good

present ai
Public Bentiment has a great deal to do with enforcing laws, and
State Museum have been conducting an edupartment of Conservation and thi
cational campaign by means ot motion pictures and exhibits of wild life showing economic and aesthetic
so
In a Btate
able swamps, it would be very difficult to pro
cut up with waterways
'"' work the department
To
tect all places desired without this aid from the peopli as r whole.
The men chosen for the work are
has eighteen patrol boats and a force of more than one hundred men
ed
They are therefore familiar with the
ho chance to hav<

Note.Thi

work.

rd

is

at

(Jam<- laws are not sufficient.

region and are able to be on hand

at

all

tin
4.".

NATURAL HISTORY

46

Mcllhenny, the well-known sportsman

and conservationist, when he started his

within one hundred yards, with busy

famous Avery Island heronry.

railroad runs

'Phis

wonderful bird paradise is on a little

pond of scarcely two acres, which was
made by damming a small creek. Nesting places were provided by planting
In the
send) willow and buttonbush.
swamps near by, Mr. Mcllhenny captured eight snowy herons, or egrets, a
species which was at that time nearly
extinct

in

because

state

this

of

the

During
months he kept

ravages of the plume hunters.

summer and

the

fall

these egrets in captivity along the edge

of his little pond.

He visited them daily

When the

and they soon grew tame.

other birds started their return south

Mr. Mcllhenny gave his pets their libThey stayed around the pond for
several clays and then joined the others
In the
on their southern journey.
spring, however, five birds returned and
two pairs built their nests in the scrubby
erty.

and reared their young in safety.

That fall eleven of them migrated to

trees

their southern

the

spring,

home: nine returned in

several young were

and

raised.

To

increase the

number

Mcllhenny resorted
ments.

As

to

of egrets Mr.

many

experi-

the little blue herons lay

eggs similar to those of the egrets and

as their

young are

also white, he trans1

ferred egrets' eggs to the herons' nests.

When

the egrets missed their eggs, they

again laid, so that two broods were ob-

tained in glace of one.

From that time on these snowy

herons increased rapidly. Other species
joined them until today the little pond
has a wealth of bird life that can be
equaled by few other places of similar
had heard of

this little

haven for

many

times and expected to find

swamp, but contrary to my expectations, I found the
heronry snuggling at the foot of the
rolling hills of Avery, a most unnatural
birds
a

along the edge of the

pond, the birds nesting within thirty
Indeed, the birds do not
feet of it.

even

rise

wild,

inaccessible

place for birds,

for

there

is a

factory

as

And

the trains go by.

same birds that go out

daily to feed in the swamps and there
will not allow man to approach closer
Such is
than several hundred yards.
these are the

the response of birds to protection

On

the great wild fowl refuges of

Louisiana a development of natural

colonies is going on under the protecThese areas are caretion afforded.
fully guarded and thousands of black
mallards and other summer birds breed
The last stand of the
here each year.
roseate spoonbill in Louisiana is in the
western part of the state at Cameron
Parish, truly a wonderful sight in June

when we

We

visited

traveled

('anal to

it and

along

the

yet pitiful.

Tntercoastal

Black Bayou, a weird, beauti-

moss-hung
and paddled down the little

ful stream with its gnarled,

cypresses,

We counted
287 spoonbills clustered in the tops of
the cypress trees, their pink colors
showing against the green with all the
freshness of peach blossoms in springtime. These few birds are all that are
left of the large colonies which once
gave color to the southern swamps.
The year 191 T was very dry, and
the spoonbills did not nest along the
bayou, but they were building during
our visit, and it is reported they had a
Their warden
very successful season.
side stream in pirogues.

was formerly a market shooter and

hunter yet he

gator

tected the birds,

efficiently

alli-

pro-

and although he could

neither read nor write, he could obey

One day some men came down

town near by to "shoot out" the
birds as they had been accustomed to
As they were approaching, the
do.
warden paddled up in his pirogue,
shoved his gun in the ribs of the nearest man, and then asked their business.
They "allowed" they were going to kill

orders.

size.
I

factory folk hurrying to and fro, and a

from

2 S
u
-

- B
B

^ - o

:-

s-sS

-r

_3

>

.-

? i M -g

Photograph by Stanley G. Arthur

perhaps the most interesting species breeding on the shell
Great bands of these solemnly dressed birds stalk gravely along the shell and
keys of Louisiana.
then rise and wing away with a peculiar erratic flight, swinging here and there, and calling out
monotonously. They are very conspicuous against the ground and show up plainly on the nest, but
sometimes in flight the whole flock will disappear from view, for their wings are margined with
white and may blend with the colors of the sky

The skimmer (Rynchops nigra)

is

Photograph l>y Alfred M. Bailey

The young skimmer when crouching in the sands looks not unlike a young tern. It has the upper
and lower mandibles of about the same length (compare with adult skimmer above). These birds nest
in large colonies

proper place

48

on

all

the "outside" islands of the Gulf Coas, choosing the exposed beaches as the
four protectively mottled eggs in a mere scoop in the sand

to deposit their three or


OBSERVATIONS ON THE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA
Soon from afar

few birds, but Buck thought other-

wise and proceeded to read the law

to

call

He said that he had been comthem.

missioned i" "run-hell-out-of" anyone
coming in there, and he was going to

call

do

Under

it.

men decided

the

the waste lands.

Coast, and

shaped masses, wedgingtheir way surelj

and confidently with little V's trailing from the ends of the first great
hand, and weaving shadowy, intricate

have observed

in

men

the

all

dim lit sky.

The answering calls of the birds on
the ground made a perfect bedlam, as

lines across the

living in that

In fart, the geese

such hordes in L911

region say the same.

and duck- were

in

that

they inflicted serious loss on the

rice

farms of Cameron

flock after

The great
preciate the beauty of it.
"pastures" of the gulf, wide-stretching
feeding grounds of

There seemed

throng.

flight

of blue geese that

forget and

of

Louisiana say there are relatively only

a

hour, until

horseback late one after-

rode mi

still

In

all

the

were

they

it

lingered for the sheer joy of

those w

morning
leaving

again they seemed

voices.

ild

saw the birds as

day.

the

for

to \\y in great

and
com-

panies, their long V-shaped Hocks trail-

feu of the blue geese left today.

I

more than an
grew too dark to see. ami

tinual arrival of geese for

never

shall

old-timers

the

yet

-till

another great horde could he heard off

in the distance.
watched this con-

hearing

company would

precision, another

tary

then

witnessed

be from a

swirl in out of the grayness, while

multitude of blue geese, Canadas, and

I

to

dozen to fifteen flocks in a company,

and as one company settled with mili-

white-fronted

geese.

Hoek of calling birds circled

out of the sky and joined the resting

The

Parish.

ground was white with thousands

of snow geese, and clouds of ducks
poured into the fields.
It is a sight
that make- a bird lover happy
even
though the rice farmer does no1 ap-

prairies, are the

In the gray distance.

unmo-

numbers of the
wild fowl which swarm along the Gulf
increase

vague, wavy forms appeared, great V-

few years

n the last

great

from apparently all direction-,

and resonant, carrying far across

clear

lested.

heard he echoing
Hock of blue geese, a

circumstances, the

leave the birds

to

of another

49

ing aero-.-

the

sky

a-

far

a-

the eye

noon to some fresh-water ponds near

-me of the Cheniers (an oak-grown
ridge), ami awaited the coming of the

COuld

evening resting place.

Before my arrival, one Hock of geese
could hear
had already settled, ami

stretching prairies and the burned salt

birds

their

to

Inn-

[me before the birds

came into view. When within one hundred yard- of this great decoy Hock. I
dismounted and crawled along the edge
w here
of the little
could watch
them.
Their white head- loomed up
conspicuously against the dark background, the sprinkling of -now _
their calls

marking the
I

could

where

tell

size of

bow

co-aid

the flock, so that

extended. e\ell
it
no longer see the darker
far

birds.

They

"talked"*

moved

about

from

another.

com

one

inually,

grassplot

ami
to

-ee.

These great
semble

each

flocks of blue geese as-

winter

on

wide-

the

marshes along the ('ulf Coast to feed

on

tin'

tender shoots of the new grass.

a \'r\V white-headed

There are always

patriarchs in the vast band which stand

sentinel-like,

disturbers.
rise

up

and

watch

for

When alarmed

in a cloud, like so

possible

the

g<

many gigan-

tic
squitoes, and circle oil' a U'\v
hundred yards.
They \'rvA during the day ami a'
night prefer to re-t in the numerous
Each
lagoons that dot the marshland.
day great horde- arise from the feeding
grounds, circle around, and then head
"Hell
I'm- the -hell banks to "gravel."
Cole" i- their favorite resort, and tinI

XX y^

Photograph by E. A. Mcllhenny
The blue geese {Chen coertdescens) are conspicuous among the waterfowl for their pure white
heads.
These geese breed in the Hudson Bay country and migrate to the southern United States
during the winter months.

Great flocks assemble each year along the Gulf Coast to feed on the tender shoots of the new grass and to "gravel" on the shell banks.
The mouth of the Mississippi and
the region around South West Pass of Vermilion Bay are the greatest blue goose sections of Louisiana

Photograph by E. .1. Mcllhenny

Occasionally the stock raisers of the western part of Louisiana complain that the geese injure
for these birds settle down in great flocks to guzzle in the mud. digging thousands of small lagoons across the fields. They are great "talkers" when flying in bands or when
collected together at night, but a few white-headed patriarchs always stand as sentinels to give an
alarm at the approach of am intruder. The blue geese associate freely with ducks and other species
of geese (especially the snow geese), from which they differ little in habits
their pasture lands,

50

Photographs by Alfred M. Bailey

MISSISSIPPI

"MUD LUMPS" AND THEIR SUMMER RESIDENTS

the Louisiana Gulf

{Pelecanus oceidentalv,) nest on the different islands along
Lumps'' of the Mississippi Delta.
in the country is found on the --Mud
wooded hills with an outspread
of the gulf one sees what appears to be
mud and a row
On nearer approach this resolves itself into a fifteen-foot mound ot
city at their toot.
Delta forces up
The soft mud underneath the tenacious river bottom of the Mississippi
of'pelicans.
The
small mud islands.
bumps in the latter and then bursts through as a mud -volcano.- forming
Pass a lOutre. where at
"lumps- most thickly inhabited by pelicans are found off the mouth of
islands are occupied first; then, as
50 000 birds come each vear to raise their young. The outermost
gradually filled up, until finally all
larger numbers of birds arrive, the islands toward the shore are
white youngsters. Three chalkthe islands are covered with families of awkward parents and downy
of the mud lumps which are
white e<-s are laid in a rather neatlv made grass nest, although on some

Brown

pelicans

and the largest colony

Through the faint blue haze
Coast,

The pelican nests

together.
devoid of vegetation the nests are merely a pile of sticks clumsily thrown
thousand nests ou Grand Cochere
are at times subject to raids by raccoons: in one instance nearly one
Island were destroyed by these animals in six weeks
51

Photograph by E. A. Mcllhenny

YOUNG ANHINGAS, OR "SNAKE

BIRDS." AT

HOME

The anhingas (Anhinga anhvnga) hide their nests in secluded spots directly over the water,
The adult
frequently selecting the cypresses which abound in the swamps and ponds of Louisiana.
birds are wonderful divers and swimmers and when frightened tumble precipitously into the water.
In fishing, the anhingas do not drop on to their prey, as do the gulls, for instance, but pursue their
They swim under water for long
victim under the water as it tries to hasten out of harm's way.
distances with only the head and lithe neck above the surface, looking not unlike some strange water
serpent in fact, they are commonly known as '"snake birds.''
They have the
The young are covered for the first few weeks with a buff-colored down.
peculiar habit (as can be seen in the photograph) of drawing themselves up from the nest by placing

If the young are approached, they

branch or the edge of the nest.
merely cling tenaciously to the nest, and when thrown into the water are quite helpless.
For the most part anhingas eat small fish, but they will take any of the small creatures of the
ponds, even young alligators and small terrapin--. The adults feed the young by regurgitation

their bills over a convenient

Photo

The roseate

among

traj I

by E.

.1.

nest

the dense

and bayous near the Gulf Coast.

Bize, and lay their three or four eggs about the first of June.
Previous
the old birds pass through their spring molt, after which they are arrayed in a plumage
carmine and white, in marked contrast with the dark green of the cypress

considerable

The beautiful

little

Mcllhi tiny

moss-hung cypresses by the liipimiThe birds dwell near together on flat nests built with sticks of

(Ajaia ajaja)

spoonbills

snowy

egrets

(Egretta

candidisaima

to

nesting,

of beautiful

Photograph by E. .1. Mcllhenny

were once common

candidissima)

throughout the Gulf region, but they have fallen before the hunter-- of "aigrettes" for the millinery
trade until no.v the Bpecies is on the verge of extinction. Thesnowj egrets start nesting late in March.
building their nests in remote marshes or on the margins of lake and ponds.
Mr. Mcllhenn] started
"Averj Heronrj
with eight of the
grets on
little muni artificially prepared for them.
Tin birds
;i

have become much attached

its

to their

nesting place, and return to the heronrj year after year to

protection

53

OBSERVATIONS ON HIE WATER BIRDS OF LOUISIANA

and scolding, and then go back again
as though out of patience with the wayward offspring.
Terns are ideal birds to study and
They sail
photograph from a blind.

ously with the light

hack

for food.

eggs within

to their

few

feet

of

the photographer almosl before he has

had time

t"

At

conceal himself.

firs!

so

that

-rem

all

the

more

ground,
form and bill

of the

"in of proporl ion.

The skimmers
from

>h<'ll

their elongated

receive

their ha hit of

their

skimming

Whole

strings

darting

along,

"l'

name

the water

them may

their

lower

mandibles cleaving the surface.

They

he

seen

Photograph by E. .1 McIU
young are white
rets.
A.U stages "t plumage are found between the
and easily mistaken for tin- young of the
adult
the bird- of mixed colors being known locally as "crazy herons" <>r "calico birds"
The herons are timorous and seclusive and their rookeries are always in tin' wildest
67).
and most inaccessible places. The species is -tin wry abundanl in different parts of Louisiana
.

The adults

of the little blue

herons

[Florida eeervlea)

they are very suspicious and stand

"attention,"

bul

they

soon

lose

caution and devote themselves

t<

at

their

their

ten. pes!

en these islands

by the thousands. These grotesque birds

Btalk

whole

solemnly

along

the

-hell

key-,

them together, their

black colors gleaming in striking contrast with ih" sea and the sky, and their
white underparts blending harmoniflocks

of

at dusk and
mere or less nocturnal
them about at all hours

are particularly active

believe they are
for

have

-''en

of the night.

domestic duties.

Skimmers,

are dark blue, bul their

The young

are

fuzzy

little

fellows

and have a habil of "taking to their

heels" immediately they see anyone, but
they crouch down \\ hen cornered and
depend upon their gray coloration to
They can make a little
protecl them.
]iit
in the sand in no time by qe

NATURAL HISTORY

56

feet and breast, and when so

crouching they will allow one even to
step on them.
Then there are the clumsy-looking
pelicans which have so aroused the
wrath of the fishermen recently along
the Gulf Coast. The largest colony of
brown pelicans in the country is at the
mouth of the Mississippi Eiver on the
United States Bird Reservation locally
called "Mud Lumps."
These lumps
themselves are of geologic interest because of their peculiar formation,
being squeezed up from under the river
bottom by pressure beneath. Here fifty
thousand pelicans nest with their thousands of downy young and make the
"lumps" one of the most interesting

their

places in the world.

The young when

semble

little

first

hatched

re-

black India-rubber balls,

and are extremely sensitive to the sun

and therefore constantly sheltered by
their parents.
In a few days the white
down appears and the rookery is then
white as a cotton field. As soon as the
youngsters are able to paddle about,
they keep their parents busy fishing in
order to satisfy their enormous appetites.

rival

Then

there

of old birds

is

a continuous ar-

timed strokes, a few strong beats and

then a coast, each bird following the
wing strokes of the leader and all scaling so close to the water that it seems
they must strike the surface at every
And what excitement there is
among the young when the old birds arbeat.

The white fellows follow after

with anxious begging cries; the parent
bird opens wide her bill and disgorges
the fish, while the youngster anticipates its arrival by thrusting his head
!

down

the old bird's throat.

It is

amus-

ing to see a heavy young one, weighing

more than the adult, feeding this way,
and the more they receive the more they
beg.

They

flop their

jerk their heads back

wobbly wings and

and

forth, blink-

ing their eyes, and staggering about.

many

receive so

when an extra

large fish

course can be followed

fish that

down

and

taken,

is

its

the skinny

Often they become so gorged

neck.

that they sprawl over on their breasts,

or flop over on their backs with feet
extended in the air. At first when I
walked around the rookery, I thought
these stuffed fellows were dying, but
when they were straightened out, they
immediately disgorged and started
paddling away.
Those birds large
enough to travel take to the water immediately on the approach of danger,
and they gather in large flocks as they
drift idly on the quiet water and wait
until their rookery is undisturbed again.
Besides the birds which make up the

many

vast colonies, there are

other in-

teresting species nesting in this state.

The

ibis,

the

beautiful

the

awkward wood

stork,

and

spoonbill

roseate

found in different

parts.

are

The anhingas

choose the cypress, hiding their nests

among

the dense curtains of moss, and

darting away at the first approach of
danger.
What wonderful divers they

and how interesting

are,
(

their

young

Sec page 52.

from afar; a long

string of birds flying with methodically

rive

They often

the tail of the last remains in sight,

Louisiana
diversified

is

not a state of greatly

scenery,

but

she

offers

when compared with

the Union. The placid

beautiful contrast

other states of

lagoons
presses
all

are

bordered

with huge

and wide-stretching

live

cy-

oaks,

clothed with a drapery of Spanish

The swamps

moss.

are often a jungle

of tropical luxuriance, impassable be-

cause of the clinging vines.

The low-

lands have their fascination with their

beaches and wind-blown trees, their

wave-beaten

palmettos,

and inviting

waters.

As

a natural bird paradise, the state

of Louisiana

is admirably adapted to
become a haven of refuge, which will

be able gradually to send

its

feathered

folk throughout the country to gladden

the hearts of the thousands

out of doors.

who wander

A SERIES OF DUOTONE REPRODUCTIONS SHOWING

THE PROTECTED BIRD LIFE OF OUR
LOUISIANA COAST
BY ALFRED

M.

BAILEY

***

aph by Alfred

Bailey

GRACEFUL FOLLOWERS OF BOATS AT SEA

The laughing

gulls

(Larui atricQla)

fish

the boats for the trails of refuse.

unlike harsh,

call of

cries

the flock

is

may

be heard early and lata as they follow

the mosl peculiar of pull cries and not

keen of vision, they sail with mar-

Fast fliers, light of wing, and

tar.
movements in graceful, clear-cut figures which make them a delight
They circle the boat round and round, without apparent wing
movement; they suddenly stop in their flight to hover above Hie Mir
face or to dive downward upon some scrap which they

dl

controlled

velously
to

far out at sea

The prolonged

BUatCfa as they sail past

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73'

"Four Years
Bv

White North" -A Review

E B T L. BRID G M A X

in the
II

E R H

DETERMINATION

of the scien-

value of the work

tific

<>i'

the

Crocker Land Expedition i- for

/'<////
Years in the
White NorW of its leader. Mr. Donald
B. MacMillan, may be appraised at
once as a human document, one of the
the future, hut the

mosl instructive and entertaining conthe

literature

of

the

tributions

to

North.

should not, however, he inMr. MacMillan evade- or

Borup's tragic and untimely death, almosl wrecked the second night out of
port, navigation entrusted to a hesitant

and inexperienced master, a company

which made up in enthusiasm what it
lacked

in

jective

upon which

training,

principal

its

existence, the very reason for

dissolved

like the

ob-

Dame and

rested

it-

being,

fabric of a

baseless

avoids the scientific inquest, which must

dream, with no sight or news of relief

>hi|is the first summer and none the
second, incompetence of men and per-

and experts

versity of nature both conspiring to pre-

ferred

It

that

later he held by specialists

on

On

his work.

tinctly invites

the contrary, he dis-

by

it

a detailed,

itemized

records ami
which more than a
score of distinct and comparatively independent piece- of Work are set forth
of

list

the

expedition's

achievements

;i-

if

in

to aid in di-t rihut ing the credil

in

and authoritative valuation of

the whole.
It
may fairly he doubted
whether any expedition which ever
soughi and wrought in the Arctic zone
was more per-i-teiit l\ dogged by ill luck
than that whose adventures of chance
or mischance are recounted in MacMillan"- four year.-" absence; a term
it may he well worth while to remark.

final

never exceeded by any expedition

and

Arctic

eastern

equaled

in

the

only

by

Admiral Peary's in 1898-1902, during

which he accomplished his greal .journey around the northern end of Greenland and definitely eliminated that
route to the North Pole from the posin

shadowed

the ships from breaking through

effecting

and imaginal ion.

delayed
George
by

refracl ion

and

/
wr Years in "< White Vorth, bj Donald B.
MacMillan.
Harper & Brothers, New York. 1918.

rescue, the party gradually

dwindling one by one, each taking

chances ami making the best of Ins way
homeward, a disclosure of what must
have been the low ebb of spirits and
mental vitality, until at Christ ma-.
1916, only two of the original party remained all these incident-, and others
like them which are obvious, and still
others which must inevitably have existed, demonstrate a condition of things
which, protracted through four long
years, mu.-t have meant a strain on
nerves, temper, and mental and physical force which only the hest equipped
and mosl wisely conserved could withThat MacMillan endured the
stand.
test and begged 1<> he allowed to stay
another year when Captain Robert A.
Bartletl and the "Neptune" finally arEtah and insisted that he
rived at
:

return,

-ihilit ies.

Horn

vent

the pack and reaching destination and

shows that

lie

is

of

the stuff

of which explorers arc made.

i-

It

tend

imt

perhaps worth while in atnarrative and ex-

i" re-state the

periences of the expedition.

'That

has

Mr. Bridgman i- secretary of the Pear) Arctic Olub, president of the department of geograph) of
the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, vice-president of 0"' American Scenic and Historic Preser
vation Society, and
Ne^ York. He
member of the board of regents <>t' the University o(
was delegate of the t'nr<
Pearj Arctic Club, and New York
ol the National Geographic Society,
Explorers' Olub to thi [nternational Congress for Studj of Polar Regions which met at Brussels ii
and United States delegate t" the [nternational Polar Commission which met at Brussels In L908 and at
Rome in 1913. 11'- i- actively engaged as manager and editor of the Brooklyn Standard Union, ami in
his interests as a journalist is chairman of the Publishers' Association of New York Citj
'

The eggs

knot (Tringa canutus) are very rare in collections, for

sandpiper has not

Greenland. Greehj
of all wild fowl which nest along the shore
was the first to describe the egg of this species.
are a regular source of food supply to the Eskimos and are preserved for winter use by freezing
of the

often been found by explorers because

it

makes

home
The eggs

its

already been done by Mr. MacMillan in

magazine and other articles, although
tlic Four Years does sensible and valuable service in bringing the whole story
together from beginning to end. Here
anyone by a little study can determine
exactly the order, personnel, and time
of the several field parties, and jn-t
where any member was and what he
was doing on a certain date. It i> no
depreciation, either, of the work to say
that the manner rather than the matter
of the story will mosi surely arrest and

hold the attention of the

style

and

quality

The knot on its

The rump is

yellow.

renders the sandpiper

74

reader.-,

absolutely

nest.

In

white,
difficult

unique

well

back in the

among books

this

hills of

of

it-

class.

certain

optimism, not to say exuberance,

soon impresses itself on the consciousness of the reader and. as he goes on.
he is inclined to wonder whether MacMillan may lie. not the original Mark
Tapley, in which case he would be
sort of

rather

venerable,

but

his

intensified

and more highly developed reincarnation.

When

Crocker

Land "busted."

to

quote the street's expressive irreverent

word. MacMillan took the whole experience philosophically.

retraced

his

steps

to

When

he had

Peary's

Cape

summer the feathers of the back are black, margined with reddish
This coloration
tinged with red, and the lower parts are deep bay.
to discern when on the nest

'FOUR YEARS IN THE WHITE NORTH"

Thomas Eubbard outlook, and saw
what Peary had seen two years before,
he sturdily confirmed

Peary's opinion

pathy with the natives, his faithful

comrades and helpers, MtacMillan is
unique and remarkable.
A consider-

and declared that, except for his experience and physical and ocular demon-

able understanding of the language and

stration, he should

indefinable something, racial spirit, of

that

say unhesitatingly

he saw distant land.

years later, he was

[si and

WTien, two

King Christian

at

after an arduous and obstinate

march, and was obliged to turn back

with his reconnaissance incompleted be-

comprehension of customs and of that

the Eskimo, seem to have brought about

a
i

condition of confidence and cooperaion,

terly
lan's

which

until

Peary's

unknown, and which

ime was

ut-

MacMilcase was doubtless the consequ

in

a familiar visitor to our Atlantic coast, tin- knot has gone tin- way of many edible waterIt
ia species of very wide distribution, breeding in tin- Arctic
fowl and i- now relatively rare.
In olden
countries from Iceland to Siberia and wintering on all the continents of the world.
tin- English netted and fattened these birds for the table, and several earlj writings on their care and
culinary uses are -till to he found

cause his dogs were "all

food nearly "all

in"'

and

his

he accepted the

nut."*

inevitable with the same good temper

and quenchless opt imism.
Apart from the narrative and itrunning accounts of the expedition,
two chords dominate Four Years and

give

it

books of

distinctive
it-

class.

place

To

among

these might

all

be

added a third, that of literary style,

although it so fuses ami intermingles
itself with tin- more prominent and
essentia]

features

less readily

that

it-

presence

is

recognized and appreciated.

First, in hi-

understanding and svm-

and fruitage of

hi- years of association

with that great leader.

MacMillan applied and enlarged the

Peary method and the principles of his
master, and demonstrated again that
the supporl and loyalty of the Eskimos
are indispensable t" any explorer workin the eastern Arctic hemisphere.
MacMillan, however, seems to have
graces of the whole
gained the
trili.-. old and young, women and children, a- well a- of the in. -ii. the hunters

in-

i^

and

tin-

<

sledge

drivers

It

hi- poise

and control that

i-

id

his

field

qo slight testimonial to

parties.

In-

was able

NATURAL HISTORY

7G

Two

hold them all loyal and attached

throughout the expedition's long stay in
Into all the Eskimos' dothe Arctic.

no

mestic, even love affairs, the current of

MacMillan entered with lively sympathy and keen

This is reflected on alappreciation.
most every page of his book and ex-

outdoors

to

daily life

and

gossip,

pressed in numberless instances of service

and

hospitality.

The other

characteristic

of

Four

no lover of
the tropics and their languor and luxury ever lost himself in "wonder, admiration and praise*' more genuinely
and unreservedly than MacMillan loses
himself in his affection for and loyalty
to the Arctic, its phenomena and environment. Torngak, the demon, had
no terror for him. While of course it
is admitted that there have been times
and places more agreeable than the
weather side of a pressure ridge in the
blinding snow at 40 below, or on a
toboggan in darkness rushing down a
glacier to whatever may be at the bottom, or plunging along the ice foot on
a ledge from which the dogs are occasionally pulled up to the trail again by
main strength, or snowbound in an
igloo, oil gone and food almost exYears

rests in the fact that

hausted, nevertheless,

gotten

all

these are for-

when summer and

the million

less,

omissions, one more, the other

important,

map

work which
is

be noted.

much

so

is

inexplicable,

excusable. This
as

may

That

should have been provided for

is

almost

possihly

all

in-

the

more remarkable,

all

the geographical

maps on which

and the track charts have been

located are readily available, and it
would seem that the first duty of the
publishers should have been to supply
an edition which would contain a simple outline map by which the different
parties and their relations to one another might be followed and underoutlines

stood.

which

The
is

caricature of a

map

used.

notable mainly for misspelled

names, in no degree answers the puris not worthy author or pub-

pose and
lisher.

MacMillan wisely ignored the Cook

controversy, or what the malicious and

misguided tried to make a controversy,

of ten years ago but his faithful and
loyal E-took-a-shoo remembers it all,
identified the landmarks, the courses,
distances, and locations. If MacMillan
had chosen to have the testimony of an
eyewitness, he could have given the finishing and conclusive blows to a foul
;

thing,

which, however,

is

rapidly re-

ceding from deserved contempt into

merited oblivion.
Sometime, possibly

and for the

birds conic the waters are unloosed, the

in the interest of the truth

picturesque falls flow again, and the

poppies carpet the scanty fields with

help of future historians, MacMillan

may give to the world from E-took-a-

their "cloths of gold."'

The

transposi-

complete and Mr. MacMillan

has succeeded in transferring its spell
to the pages of his book.
Less severe and nervous in style than
Peary, less stately and scientific than
tion

is

Scott, less verbose

and

subjective, for-

than Xansen. MacMillan

writes with a freedom, almost abandon,

tunately,

of appreciation,
tinctly

new note

which

strikes

a dis-

in the annals of the

Four
own in--.,

Arctic and which will carry his

Years to
trinsic
sition.

many

readers for

its

charm and sympathetic expo-

shoo's lips the true

and

literal story of

that extraordinary episode.

The seven appendixes

are all valuable

to

Four Years

and contain much sup-

plemental and collateral information by

the other members of the expedition.
Ekblaw's nearly one hundred pages give
the tale of his great traverse of Grant

and

Ellesmere

lands

in

1915,

with

other sledge excursions, and a study of

the vegetation about

Borup Lodge, the

headquarters, while MacMillan contributes a detailed memorandum of the

thirty-five species of Arctic birds with

which he made personal acquaintance.

lht.l

SUMMERTIME
When

the Uiv.z

summer day

breaks and the snows melt.

II

of the birds.

great hunt

and

The

begins and the sun cornea up from the south,

Then on
hills

holiday, and

all

sides

c-.-m

be heard the sound of

lmr>t into blossom, the

Nannook, the polar

l..;i r.

Eskimo trih

goes

fishi]

thi

running water and

T3

*-

11

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---

Copyright, 1918, Harper

"Four Years

in the

&

Brothers,

White North"

Apparently Nannook visited Borup Lodge expressly to be photographed, and very

accommodatingly climbed a berg near by for his pose. Cold and ice and freezing salt
water have no terrors for the "King of the North," but dogs and Winchesters are easily
It is no great sport hunting the polar bear, but he supplies good meat for
his masters.
winter days and warm fur for winter trousers. Peary introduced the wearing of furs as
does the Eskimo in place of woolen clothes, and this innovation has been a life-saver for
polar explorers

njiiirinh',

WIS,

Hitr/ter

d-

Brothers

"Four Years in the White North"

This pathway,
Traveling on the ice foot, the great natural highway of the North.
lying between high and low tide, is formed by the continual accretion of ice left by each
This fringe extends along the shore line, even where the sea cliffs are
receding tide.

and after the sea ice breaks up it forms the only smooth, although at times precarious, thoroughfare for the Arctic traveler and his dog sledge
vertical,

82

Copyright, 1918, Marpt r & Brothi rs,

"Four Years in '/< White North"

which held down Greely's tent in "Starvation Camp" on Cape

surviving seven of his party of twent; Ave were finally rescued by
Greely had established on Ladj Franklin Bay
Schley as thej were at the verm- of death.
the international ci re unipolar scientific stations planned by the United States Go\
sit.
MacMillan, working from
ape Sabine, explored considerable stretches of
hitherto unvisited shore lin<
rior on the large islands off the Greenland coast

The

oe,

tr

where

'>t

rocks

the

<

Fowl

ar

in tht

WhiU North"

1
during the unsuccessful North Pole Expedition
Peary's old hut at Cape Sabine,
1900 L902, just across Smith Sound from Etah, where Pearj and, later, MacMillan
From Etah Pearj sledged to Cape Sabine and established headquarters from
ered.
which he could move uorth in the Bpring to Port Conger, Greely's old headquarters, and
This is the so-called "American Route" by which attempt
on to the polar ice
^

-i

1 i 1

,,,-

reach the Pole have been

made

IN

THE NEW YORK STATE FOREST PRESERVE

The New York State Forest Preserve in the Adirondacks and the Catskills is a glorious garden
nearly 2,000,000 acres in which every resident of New York State is part owner. The state
seeks to conserve this great area of field and forest, mountain, lake, and stream to
safeguard New York's water supply, present and future, as a permanent protecWhile doing this it leaves
tion to the sources of the state's greatest rivers.
the entire tract open to the people for sport, recreation, study, or camp
life
a playground for 10,000,000 people, and room for them all!
The state asks only their appreciation of what conservation of
the forests means, and that it can be done only through

the cooperation of
ture

many

the

all

the people.

are destroyed

84

It

has taken na-

grow the forests and set

watercourses, and only the same slow
process can restore them if they
lifetimes to

of

New

Forest Conservation in

York

THE FOREST PRESERVE is OWNED COLLECTIVELY BY ALL THE

PEOPLE OP THE STATE

GEORG

By

New York

NEW

York

Pre-

Foresl

State's

was

serve

created

L885. ]

in

Since that date the state-owned

in the Adirondack and Catskill
mountains has lnvii ineivased. until the

state,

322

now includes
an

acres,

tota]

L,838,-

"I'

greater

area

than

the

>elasmal] states of Rhode [sland and

ware combined.
> administration is
in the hands of the Conservation Commissiona big task when we consider
1

land

[s

bounded

by more than 9000 miles

"I'

property

thai

state-owned

tin'

lines.

tions

many

involves

It

of

intricate ques-

sociology,

litigation,

and reforestal ion.

land comprising the

of

the

Foresl Preserve unfortunately consists of

comparatively small parcels, intermixed

with privately owned land: in fad only
50 per cent of the

aboul

owned by the
maining
per cenl

land

i-

"><

ni<>-i

uncontrolled

order

to

19

6,

bond
chase

approv

'd

issi

by

the

to

New York

by

State, in

large majority a

$1 ,500,000
state

hold-

state

tin'

re-

the
In

exploitation.

consolidate

ings, th'' voters of

subject

is

foresl

vital

and the

state

the pur-

for

land-

of

in

the

Adirondack and Cat-kill regions to be

added tc that already owned by the
A- long
nor of

322,

New

York,

!> Win Clinton, then

told

the

Forests are tailing rapid!]

reas of settlement, and a Bcarcitj

ship

and house building,

legislator!

before

the

prog

wood for fuel,

and other useful purof

is
already felt in the increasing prici
No system for plantathai indispensable article.
tion for tin- production of fcri
em of
economy for their preservation, has been ado

and probablj

none will be until severe privations

that anj
experienced."
We havi
definite action followed this good advice, doubi
becau-,
pri\ ation
Witt
low in arriving.
Clinton were
It
was not until
1885 that hi- wise suggestions regarding foresl
conser\
n to ! follow ed.
are

"to be forever kept as wild

foresl lands." 2

One df
now

the greatest problem-, there-

fore,

servation

before the

New York Con-

!ommissiorj

i-

the

\\

isest

and

most effective expenditure of the money

authorized by tin- bond issue for additions

to

the

Forest

Preserve.

Lands

must be purchased for the state which

will be most useful for Forest Preserve
purposes and which will round out the
state*.- holdings in it- mountainous and
natural forest regions.

The problem

recrea-

tion, fire protection,

Much

T T

ami. according to the state con-

stitution,

land

preserve

PR A

D.

State Conservation Commissioner

is

not so simple a one

of buying and selling as might at

first

Forest Preserve as a safepresent and future water

supply, and as a protection to the sojirces of \v
fork's greatest rivers, is practically self-evident.
But there arc further economic advantages of
forested areas whicb are no1 generally appreciated.
Thej are not only conservers of water
supply, but they are actual regulators of climate
and inducers of rain.
Regions of extensive tree
growth are cooler in summer and warmer in win
ter, with smaller sudden fluctuations in temperature,
that!
barn
of similar location.
Moisture-laden winds from the ocean or from
large inland bodies of water sweep onward over
(lie laud
until the\ Strike the cooler currents of
w led area-. This moisture is then precipitated
a- rain, which falls over wide areas of forest and
farm land.
In this respect New York is most
atelj situated, drawing rain from botli the
Atlantic Ocean and tie- Great Lakes.
In conserving the rain that ha- fallen, the for,--trender a still further service.
The ground
under the trees i- covered with the accumulated
del, ri- of years or even of centuries.
This is the
dull', the carpet of the foresl tie,, r
it
serves two
purposes, namely, preventing rapid evaporatio
alue

guard

for

New

of

the

fork's

water

when

wind-

sweep over the

hold the rainfall
and control the run oil'.
In the arid regions of the
We8l the ram run- down the creek lied- like water
from a shingled runt', ami -non after the rain hath,- ground
ia- dry a- before.
The for
id

land.

drj

i,,

thus equalize the How of the streams and

regulate the power they generate for industrial
purposes, by reducing floods in the spring or after
lieavj rain-, and providing a steadier tlow in the
summer.
The deep snow of winter melt- more
-lowly under the tre,-. and the run off igradual.
e-t-

J.

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i-

NATURAL HISTORY
In
be imagined.
the preservation of

the one great prob-

lem of completing

stream

flow,

the

the state's Forest

forests

upon

the

Preserve before

steep

mountainof

are

sides

Protection

first

forests

the

If

importance.

it

forever too late.

is

of

from

which, in a

have

fires,

been denuded by
the ax, and after-

large

number

of

cases,

start

in

ward, perhaps, also

swept by fire, ero-

the "slash" left by

slopes

these

sion

from

carry

will

the

lumbermen on privately owned land,

rainfall

soil,

one of the most

tasks
important
of the Conservation Commission.

away
and it

is

will be forever im-

renew

possible to
a

The

growth.

forest

must

tions that

in

rangers,

forest

sec-

numbering sixtyfive.
They report

are of

character,

this

is

the hands of the

accordingly

determine the

detailed care

of the forests

Commission

The

to the five district

which no
further lumbering
of any sort should
and
done.
be
which should be
immediately pur-

upon

who

rangers,

in

turn are in immediate touch with

*y

the

main

Albany.

office

in

In addi-

the

tion there are fifty-

of
Sections
other lower lauds

two fire observers

on duty during the
dry season.
In the fighting

chased

by

state.

not subject to ero-

may

sion

out

detriment

the

forest

Where

to

nature

bered

corduroy" road built by a lumber company

from the mountain slopes. Many
of the high slopes have been denuded by the ax
and eroded by rainfall so that forest growth can

slopes.

never be renewed on them

mountain
These are

state

land.

others, but they

observation

sta-

for

the

tions

quick detection of

but two of the considerations that we

must have in mind in purchasing additional

the

of

country which permits the maintenance of mountain

for hauling logs

than
tim-

because of

mountainous

the

the state at a far

sum

over

states,

cover.

this can be

thickly

advantages

some of the other

can he acquired by

the

New
many

York

allowed, the land

lower

has

of forest fires.

have

some of the timber removed with-

are

There
all

are

many

corollaries of

conflagrations.

are

now

tions,

all

in

New York

fifty-two such

there

mountain

sta-

of which are connected by

telephone with the nearest ranger.

On

"
permanent

take :nh

ai

and heart
of

life

in

unstinted
t

floor

open cabin of

The upper picl

(i.-n~.- growth
with ample firi

in
l<>:_'~

;i

hospitality

most

popular camps,

full

simple pleasure

for
:i

tent

with

Ul^JL2^

"J

New York State nursery at Salamanca, one

mately 10,000,000 seedling trees are propagated
tect the tender young trees from direct sun in
the growth for winter.
After permanent snow
trees

from the danger

of alternate freezing

of six nurseries owned by the state, where approxiannually to replant denuded areas. Slat screens pro-

and are removed in early

summer,
comes,

single

layer

of

to

harden

and thawing

Ten-year-old transplanted trees in state plantation near Ray Brook.

stat<-

fall

burlap protects the young

With

nurseries about 4000 acres are planted each year by the state, and as

young

trees

many more by

from the

private en-

terprise.
The trees are planted close together to encourage "natural pruning" through lack of direct
sunlight on the side branches, thus stimulating the formation of long straight saw logs free from knots

90

EXAMPLE OF REFORESTATION BY PRIVATE ENTERPRISE

Twentj

years ag<
planted with white pine which todaj
.lie.

in-

it-

eighi

maximum comm

ir
is

verj
in

Ohestertown),

denuded

valuable and constant!]

ftboul

fiftj

ai
I

illy

oming more

worthh
White pine

so.

y<

91

NATURAL HISTORY

92

nate in the last few years in weather

we have, nevertheless, had

numerous outbreaks of fire, and have
conditions,

been able to prove that they can be

promptly detected and the fire-fighting
forces quickly put into action.
As a further step toward more complete efficiency, the Conservation

Com-

mission has

after

recently

prepared,

careful examination of all of the forest

land by the ranger force, a fire map

is indicated the character
of every acre of land in the forest sec-

upon which
tions

green timber, land lumbered

for

wood, or for both hard and soft

wood, with the year when lumbered,
burned-over land, barren land, or agrisoft

cultural land.

The map

also indicates

roads passable for automobiles, or for

wagons

only,

and

also foot trails.

Upon

Branch of young white pine, dying from white

pine blister rust, a parasitic fungus which came
from the forest nurseries of Germany in 1909,
and has wrought great damage ever since. The
whole tree is doomed

many

of the

were at

mountains wooden lowers

first

above

servers

during the

last

the

ob-

obstructions,

but

erected

near

to

lift

two or three years most

of these have been replaced with steel

towers of permanent construction. The

steel towers have a room at the top

about seven feet square, with glass windows.

The windows protect the ob-

from the sweep of the wind and

on the tower
every day and all day long, throughout
the critical periods. In these steel towserver

make

ers

possible his presence

telephones

rooms

are

in

installed

the

Cabins for the residence of the observers are provided near

at the top.

the towers.

In working out the system, we have

kept

in

vigilance

The yellow spring spores

blister

mind

the

and quick

fact

that

action,

eternal

with co-

ordination of all fire-fighting forces, is

the key to the safety of our forests.

While we have been particularly fortu-

of

the

white pine

rust are ready to start on the

wind

to

on the under side of currant

and gooseberry leaves, where they will develop
until they again go forth on the wind to continue
their infection of the pines.
Drastic measures
ara being taken to save the pines.
Fortunately
the State Conservation Commission can accomplish what would be impossible for private entheir next nursery

terprise

On

him.

guard over part

This

alert

ed

wi~|is

smoke

of

to

distinguish

promptly often
miles for nothing

Black Mountain

on

almost

the

momentous

beyond control, and

get

to

it

which stretches <>ut far and wide beneath

is
one of the keen-sighted, cool-headed,
imperceptible difference between wisps of cloud and

forest preserve

great

state's

observer

fire

floating over the tree tops

allows

it

of the

Conservation

also indicated every telephone Line

is

way.

men

follows

each, as well as points

al

where supplies and

In

the

brief,

"war map." and

discussions

tools

map

are

and

loca

foresl fires.

we

veritable

alone

serves as

basis for

125,000

which

iim-t

be

all

brought back npon

come familiar with

the

forest

This
have developed.
and preparedness

ysis

that

is

followed

->

we

thai

fires

stem of analthe

is

system

every well-organized

department, and

city fire
tern

in

problems

fire

before the

districts

believe

it

the

is

necessary

forests are to be protected

in

our

if

the mosl

points on a high-

are

ing

denuded land

suitable foresl

if a

it.

with

growth

of privately owned
same condition and demandthe same sorl of treatment, if we

the

in

are to pass on
forest

to

our descendants the

resources that we ourselves found

when we

first

There are

also great quantities of idle,

came

into

region.

this

non-agricultural land scattered through-

Three years ago he dist rid ra

were equipped with Ford automobiles

der forest growth by reforestat

for gett ing easily aboul

learn

Ii

ion.

many

may

be

that

of the ent ire extern

surprising

to

taking

for

Last year

camp

oul

need be

men

their terril

Empire

quickly

we added railers Loaded with

fits and tools, so that no
ime
i

losl

to be

Besides this there

out the -taie that should be brought un-

critical tin

and

forest
is

stretches

vast

land

approximately

such

replanted

Commission; where
of the

fire

today

of

acres

trees

be-

report

n the Forest Preserve

have

private landowners, and officers of the

concerned

to

have referred tothedenudal ion which

from unrestricted lumbering

meetings of the rangers,

al

is

fire

failure

men and equipment many long

arl icles to the nearest

and even the telephone inst ruments.

Camps are shown, with the number of
available

a^

distinction,

mistake sends

in

eretl

ing these neeessan

cenl
but

great

is

not

State

approximately

suitable
for

for

agriculture.

problems

of

the

forest

One

to

of the

35

per

growth
of the

Conservation
93

NATURAL HISTORY

!!

stood

when we consider

ring countries of

that in the war-

Europe wbole

forests

have been cut down to supply timber

and that virtually

had been artificially
created by planting. Without these forests the armies of Europe would have
for the uses of war,
all

of these forests

been in desperate plight indeed. If this

is

true in war,

how much more

true

is

which has so many and

varied uses for adequate supplies of
timber and wood.
it

in

peace,

another

Still

conservation

forest

problem of tremendous urgency is now

before the Commission. There has been
an invasion from Germany in the guise
of the white pine blister rust. This is
a fungus disease which attacks white
pine trees and accomplishes their complete destruction.
It was imported
from some of the forest nurseries of
Germany and has already gained a
most alarming foothold in many of
the eastern states and even in some
of those in the Middle West.
It
is found everywhere throughout Xew
England to an extent that threatens the
absolute extermination of white pine
Fire observation tower on Black Mountain.
Mountain climbing is becoming a favorite sport
More than 50,000 persons climbed
in America.

peaks in the Adirondacks last summer for the

view to he obtained from the top

is to bring about the planting of forests not only upon the state's

Commission

own denuded land, and upon privately

owned denuded land in the forest re-

Already it has
border into New

trees in those states.

spread

across

the

York and our utmost efforts must be

put forth if it is to be checked.
This parasitic fungus has a life history described by the expression "alternating generations."
The spores are
ripe in

May and June and

are carried

land in agri-

by the wind from the pine trees to the

leaves of currant and gooseberry bushes.
whore they undergo a change and are

cultural parts of the state that are fit

for nothing but to grow trees. A great

other currant or gooseberry bushes or

gions, but also

upon the hundreds

thousands of acres of

beo-inning has been

idle

made

in this

of

work

again carried by the wind either to

back to the white pine.

by the establishment of six state nurseries which produce each year approximately 10,000,000 young trees. This
is only a beginning, however, and tremendous strides must yet be taken before we can feel that we have even

eradication

begun

amount

approach our goal.

How important this matter of reforestation may become is better underto

The method

of

accordingly to destroy all

currant and gooseberry bushes in the

immediate

is

neighborhood

infected

of

areas, as well as to destroy the infected

trees

them xdvos.

rigorously applied.
of

The cure must be

It will cost a large

money and must be

carried

out with the utmost degree of thor-

oughness

otherwise within

compara-

Where man lias made botli science and nature helpless. A hillside firs1 denuded by wasteful
lumbering and then swept by fire in the slash.
This was ten years ago.
Rain completed the ruin
by washing away the unprotected soil, leaving only barf rocks.
The place must now be forever
barren, but could have been saved by modern forestry and fire protection

XATl

96

//.I/,

I/ISTOL')
time we shall have no white
in the >tate of New York.
lonservation Commission's cam-

tively short

pine forests

The
paign

against

the

blister

rust,

and

with fire in the

woods, has been greatly aided by a system of educational work with the pubagainst

carelessness

by means of posters of various sorts

and lectures illustrated with lantern
slides and motion pictures.
lic,

Finally, one of the greatest benefits

of

conservation in

forest

New York

State and one of the chief interests of

Commission

Conservation

tlir

is

the

value of the forests for recreation and

for aesthetic purposes.

It

must not be

forgotten that the Forest Preserve

owned

collectively

is

approximately

by

10,000,000 people, and that increasing

thousands of them are actually making
annual use of it for vacation purposes.
The sportsman seeks the forests for the
fish and game which alone can be
found there. But the people who travel
to the mountains today for purposes
other than fishing and hunting far ex-

ceed

in

number

sportsmen.

those

who rank

as

It is estimated that fully

50,000 persons climbed the mountains

summer, for
from the tops.
More than 1300 climbed one mountain
alone and that not one of the most
popular ones. Tramping, camping, and
canoeing are becoming increasingly
favorite forms of recreation, and are
annually bringing to the woods more
and more vacationists. Many of these
people who come to enjoy the Forest
Preserve find their shelter in hotels and
boarding houses outside its limits. For
others the Conservation Commission
has formulated the most liberal plan
possible under the constitution of the
in

the Adirondack^ last

the views to be obtained

The New York Conservation Commission's new

observation tower on Mount Adams, replacing an old wooden structure. The construction
steel fire

is

strong-

but open,

offering

little

resistance to

wind and quickly shedding the snow. There

is a room on top about seven feet square with
glass windows to keep out rain and wind, which
is very high at this altitude, and a telephone for
prompt reporting of fires. The observer has a

the

comfortable cabin close by, but during the danger

season he spends all the daylight hours in the
tower room

state of

New York

for the erection of

and lean-tos for temporary occupancy on state land. It is upon the continued interest and cooperation of this
large body of vacationists and the pubtents

generally, that the success of Xew

York's broad forest policy depends.

lic

A
Such
Thirty-five

can make

STREAM THAT COMES FROM FOREST-COVERED HILLS

it

New York
profitable fo

valuable
valuable for agriculture bul
State is nol Buitable for agriculture, but modi

fc

Btrj

owth
97

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Wild Horses
By

-I

AMES

of the Plains
H.

CO

Introductory Note. Mr. James H. Cook was famous in his youth as an Indian scout and is now
recording some of his early experiences on the frontier, of which this article is an excerpt. The American Museum and in fact American science are indebted to him and to his son Harold for the discovery
of the Agate Spring Quarry, near the Cook Ranch, on the Niobrara River of western Nebraska, which
has proved to be the most wonderful deposit of fossil mammals in the world, with the single exception
At Agate Spring Quarry were found the Moropus skeletons described in the
of tii.' Raneho-la-Brea.
February number of the Journal (1918).
The following pen picture of the mustangs is the most perfect I have seen. The superb qualities of
The real
these animals were derived from their barb and from their much more remote Arab ancestors.
mustang is now very rare. Mr. Cook has secured a very typical example for the American Museum's
collection of horses. Henry Fairfield Osborx

SO

far as

we have any knowledge, no

has

evidence

been

yet

as

obtained

which would prove that horses were

North American continent at
the time of its discovery by Europeans.
That vast numbers of horses, however, in
several stages of evolutionary development,
living on the

existed here for millions of years prior to

that discovery

is

proved by abundant

evi-

dence.

We may
countless

well

what manner the

ask in

numbers

of

horses

which

once

roamed our great plains could have been

terminated.

Their passing

is

ex-

as mysterious

mustangs of the Plains originated

from the stock of "Moorish barb" horses
which Cortez and other Spanish explorers
brought to Mexico in the sixteenth century.
During the numerous exploring expeditions
the true

of

the early Spaniards,

one of which ex-

tended as far north as the region now occupied by Kansas and Nebraska, no doubt
some of the horses used by the explorers escaped from time to time. Stampede* might
be caused by storms, or at sight of the herds
of bison likely to come thundering by.

away from

their

owners and became

as the sudden disappearance of the millions

their efforts to find water or grass.

of

''passenger pigeons," which inhabited

some of our eastern states up to within the
last half century and are now considered

way

extinct.

ago and they multiplied.

At the time of which

Grand

Recently, while on a visit to the

rado River. He said he had seen and killed

many "back East" when he was a boy, and
that he knew well the difference between the

true mustangs,

ago."

Possibly

we may

find,

little

later

some evidence showing that scattered

herds of horses were still in existence upon
on,

this continent at the time of its discovery.

Only two years ago (1916) the fossil remains of a horse which connects the prehistoric horse with the horse of today, were
discovered in the state of Nebraska.
Our greatest scholars have thought that
i

]i>4

write,

1S70 to

1SS0, there were thousands of these inbred

beautiful

evidence relative to the days of the "long

lost in

In this

horses doubtless were scattered over the

Plains between three and four hundred years

Canon, I met an old resident who told me

that during the last few years he had seen
several small flocks of passenger pigeons in
the timber of the mesa lands along the Colo-

"banded tailed" or "wood pigeon" of the

West, and the passenger pigeon.
Each year as time goes on we obtain new

Prob-

ably at times, tired, thirsty horses strayed

little

horses living on the ranges

of the West, in the vast

country that

lies

between the valley of the Mississippi River

and the Rocky Mountain region. They were

named by

the inhabitants of

Their average weight, was about

Mexico.

eight hundred pounds, I think.

that predominated

buckskin,

or

stripes about

colors

mouse-color.

few

black

the legs above the knees, or

and a black

hocks,

The

among them were cream,

stripe along the middle of

the back, extending

from the mane

to the

were common markings. The stallions,

although they usually had rather heavy
manes, did not have a shaggy appearance.
They were clean-limbed and their hoofs were
black and perfect, as a rule. Never having

tail,

known
fluid

forage

Of Agate. Nebraska

and deriving their

from the native grasses and

the taste of grain,

entirely
plants,

they certainly

were hardy.

WILD

//"/.>/>'

OF THE

/7..I/.YS

15

They could stand more hard riding with ao

other food than thai which they could "rus
tie" when turned loose, than any breed of

be on the lookout at all times was the big

This cowardly pest was
wolf, or "lobo."

have ever had experi

ence, either on the Plains or in the mountains.
As blacksmiths or "hoofshapers"
never had tinkered with their feel or forced
tIh'ih to wear iron shoes, their hoofs were

mals weakened or crippled from any cause,

were easy prey if the
hi- very young cults,

horses with which

would

ami

strong

wear

stand

the

over

ever hungry for a taste of horse flesh.

wolf could but sneak up and cut their ham

strings with his sharp teeth before the deFor the
fenders in the band saw him.
strong, active mare or stallion a wolf might
-nine

thoroughly enraged

roughest kind of mountain trails.

I have seen many bands of mustangs on

show

the Plains as far north as the head of the

Loup River, Nebraska. North of that point

oing-like blows with its forefeet,

have never seen any, neither have I heard

from any of the old white trappers or the
i

Indians,

who

lived in that country, that they

When

saw any.

across the Plains to California, and to

made

army

the various
in the

the

wagon roads were

the

trains occasionally and joined the

wagon

hands

posts that were established

West, horses and mules escaped from

Strange

of

mustangs.

the

well-broken,

as

may

it

and

horses

gentle

mules which joined the bands of mustangs

and lived with them for a few months or
became,

years,

if

such

thing

could

1"'.

plaything

abled them tu scent a

-|

ially

man

pack

of

wolves

to

the mustangs, caused the heretofore purebred mustangs to become gradually more ami

more scarce. By 1880 almost all had disappeared from the Plains; and the few mustangs remaining today are to be found only
among the her. I- of Indian ponies on some
reservation where the breeding-up process to

get larger horses with which to haul freight

the

till

Now and
tion,

soil,

has not been rigidly enforced.

then a pony having the conforma-

coloring,

and marking of the mustang

may yet be obtained from the older Indians,

who have long known the good qualities of
mustangs.

the

In

few places

so-called

may be found, but they are

They
iginal breed of mustangs.

"wild horses"
not

th

are band- of range-bred horses gone wild or

hi

led.

bad manage-

usually by someone's

or luck

at long range,

one who carried about with him

Stallions and mares which escaped from

emigrant and freighting wagon trainson their
way across the Plains, and intermingled with

even

for

and playis no

heel-,

its

tackle.

Their extremely delicate sense of smell en-

"double tattoo" with

.,

or

respect:

horse, tiyhtintj with its teeth, striking light-

more wild and watchful than the mustangs.

am quite sure that a few old, long headed
army mules T have noted ranging with bands
of mustangs were aboul tin' most wisely wild
n my good fortune
reatures it ha- ever
Hack in Missouri, or some other
iir under tin- gentle '-are of sonic expert government "mule skinner." they had
red a knowledge of men and their way-.
I

Ani-

when

trying to corral them.

A sudden scare a1 the entrance

make horses turn and try

to the corral

to run back
should they succeed in one

a large halo from an old pipe or "chawing

will

plug."

on to the range,

After ime of these nudes had lived in the

open with the mustangs for a few months,

attempt, they will be hard to corral after

ward, and if they break back from the cor-

the slightest scent of a

man

night or day, would cause

a

it

at

manner

wildly terrifying

any mi]

that

ntire

tl

two Or three times, they become a pretty

lot of horses
but must nol be
confused with musta
ral

such

hand of mustangs would stampede, running

perhaps forty miles at topmost

sj

before

d,

they could net control enough of their cour-

hack to Bee whal had caused the

excitement.
have observed that both mus
I look

-e

smell and are able tn scent

the trail

Of

made

by horses with which they have been asso

following

I,

where

man

One thing

could

rapidly,

it

see

for which

no sign thai

tin-

ground
horses

to

badly Bpoiled
In

tl

arly seventies, while

with wild Spanish

western pari of Texas, getting

cation as a cowboy.
had my
I

was working
in

the south-

my

early edu-

opportu-

first

nity to learn something regarding

There were many

tively

small

living

prairies

on

scattered

musta
the comparaabout

brush eountrj of thai region, and

in

the

number

men were making a business of catching

band- of mustangs to sell in the states to the
east and north.
The method employed in the capture was
of

DESCENDANT OF THE MUSTANG, AGATE, NEBRASKA

In former years great herds of beautiful wild mustangs roamed the Western Plains of the United
They were small, averaging about eight hundred pounds in weight, but clean-limbed and very
Cream, buckskin, or mouse colors prevailed, with a few black -tripes about the legs above the
hardy.
knees and a similar stripe along the middle of the back from mane to tail. By the year 1880 almost all
had disappeared from the Plains. and only an occasional descendant may now be found among the herds
of Indian ponies

States.

lOfi

WILD HORSES OF THE PLAINS

follows: la some
from the edge of a

thicket

as

rated and

back

little

moving

m;

in

rode out

a half circle,

rcular

of the timber and chaparral on the side of

and strong, of heavy

ground and bound together
The entrance
with green rawhide thongs.
led into a chute or passageway, wide at the
outer end and narrowing toward the inner
more than three hi
end, where not

the prairie where the wild horses ranged, and

This type of

prevented any from turning back. The riders drew nearer and nearer together as they

prairie

la

corrals were built, high

posts set

pass

could

abreast

through.

riders

made

be put

the

corral

on either side were

outside

of

entrance

the

tending in the shape of a

short

distance

out

Unit

For

corral

made very

their

the

corral

shows

Tlii<

and

1"'

well

a letter

only

strong, and so

the

'

wings were

quite widely

whereupon the leaders among

pistols,

to

in

i]

tent that

thos,.

up to such an exbach when the rush

piling

ral.

farthest

Bhoulder stripe which characterizes the full-blooded mustang

.1
Cook, -en of the author, will explain that it i-

i- indebted for the

"I have not I
n able to find
!"-! thin- I could think
st

trapped.

themselves hopelessly

find

The fright of these horses can be imagined.

They rush frantically around and around
the ...rial. Sometimes they all make for one

from Mr. Barold

History
*

its
-.

of the wings of

opening in the green thicket through which

they might escape, rushed through the narrow opening at the inner end of the chute,

these

brush.

When

Is

the mustangs, on the lookout for any little

high that a horse could QOt jump over. Then

wings and entrance were concealed by green

readiness, a

for the on.

straighl

As soon as the muswore well within the wings, their pursuers closed in on them, yelling, and firing

wings, which often extended a quarter of a

mile or more, were

of the half circle thou

_-

wings ex
V.

lar-..

from the

Is

approached the conal.

the

to

the en.

mustangs running toward the corral and

the

up and securely lashed.

From

at

the conal, while the rest of the riders kept

entrance prevented the horses from escaping

in a rush for the gateway when they found
themselves trapped, before the heavy bar
poles could

The

the horses, of course, fled before them.

the

in

in

The following
him N

il

anywhere photographs
of.

caught

up

;i

of the real

descendant

of

'old

time mustang,' bo

havi

somi

I
have ti
of him.
[ndians, and took Borne nowed, rained, and blown wildcats. The pony has the characteristic back and
to get
lild, and make-up he coniorn
view showing these.
little if any of the hot blood of the white man's horses in hi- veins"

tri.-.l

:i

sh<
.1

with

SAT URAL HISTORY

ins

up over those trampled

a hundred or more
are knocked down and piled up close to the
corral fence, some escape by jumping from
started, can climb

down

When

front.

in

the pile of struggling horses over the top of

the corral.

By

method of capture many

this

and clogs are removed from those horses

which are most subdued. At the end of a
few weeks the entire herd is freed from hobbles and clogs, having become accustomed to
control by riders to the extent of being
bles

driven in any direction desired.

hundreds of horses are maimed and many

When
riders

I never took

any part in "mustang hunts"

of this type, but I have watched the per-

killed.

the horses are securely corralled, the

go to
animals

generally

terror-stricken

camp and let the

settle down for a

few hours. Then they return to the corral

and the real scare for the horses takes place,
for the terrible looking creatures who have
driven them into that awful pen now climb
down from the top of the circle of posts into
the corral with them. As the mustangs are
somewhat exhausted by their previous attempts to escape, they soon become a panting, foaming, almost breathless mass of
Sometimes the old stallions show
horses.
fight, in which ease they are promptly shot.
The
Lassos are then brought into play.
horses are lassoed by the feet, thrown down,
and either strong rawhide hobbles or clogs
Hobbles for horses are

many

in

common

use at

parts of the West, but I

never have heard of clogs for horses being

used in any part of the West other than the

brush country of southwestern Texas. These

clogs are made by taking strong, forked

about an inch and a half or two

diameter and about two feet in
length, and lashing them with rawhide
thongs on to the front leg of a horse. With
these the animal can make little headway
when he tries to run. Like a hobbled horse
sticks

inches in

he soon becomes very tired of trying to go

man

to

make

a business of

catching mustangs on a larger scale, on the

open plains.
them down."
tured

He

called his

method "walking

In the spring of 1876 he capseveral bands of mustangs on the

them into
Nebraska and Iowa, where they were sold as
saddle or driving ponies. In his method he
took three or four good riders and made a
plains of eastern Colorado, driving

camp on the range of the mustangs, at a

when advantage could be taken of

time

moonlight for the work.

From some good

a band of horses with his

field glasses,

by

Bright and early in the morning

the work of capturing the horses would beMustangs have a habit of settling on
gin.
moonlight.

a range. When possible, they confine their

feeding and their flights from danger to certain boundary lines.
This fact is well
known to plainsmen.
I'pon discovering a band of mustangs, a
rider approaches

them from a direction

op-

posite to that in which he desires the horses

to

As the mustangs have wonderful

and are always on the lookout for

run.

sight

danger, they take to their heels as soon as

at speed.

When

think, the first

observation point, a rider would then locate

are placed on their front legs.

this date in

formance a few times. It was certainly a

pretty cruel business. During the days when
I hunted big game in Colorado and Wyoming Territory, a hunting partner of mine,
best known as Wild Horse Charlie, was, I

not race after them, but follows fast enough

clogged, they are usually left in the corral

to keep

the

horses

they are pretty hungry and thirsty.

until

Then the bar poles are taken down and the

horses allowed to work their

way

out of the

through the narrow chute and into

These wings usually take in
some little water hole, or the bend of a
creek, where the horses can drink.
Eiders
frighten them back if they try to work beyond the mouth of the wings of the corral
for the first day or two. Gradually they are
allowed to work their way out on to the
prairie to graze during the daytime.
At
night they are driven back into the corral.
After a few days of this treatment, the hobcorral

the

wings.

the rider comes into view.

This rider does

which are neither

killed nor injured have been hobbled or
all

them

in sight.

The other

riders, sta-

tioned at as good observation points as possible,

note the direction in which the mus-

tangs start to circle, in order that each rider

in turn may be relieved every few hours during the long- r-hase.
At the end of a few
hours, the

first

man

to start after the horses

rider.
He can then go
camp, change his tired saddle horse for a
This relay
fresh one, and get a little rest.
system, continued night and day, never allowing the mustangs to stop for either food
or drink, will, at the end of a few days,
exhaust them so that the riders can approach
and begin to control the turning of the inns-

is

to

relieved

by another

HORSES OF THE PLAINS

117/./'

tangs

any direction desired.

in

Naturallj

camp

the riders keep them as close to their

as possible.

The mustangs cover man}' miles of

two or three days of the

chase
a distance of one hundred miles Eor
each twenty-four hours is nol an exaggerated
during the

lirst

On about

estimate.

the seventh

or eighth

day of the chase, or sooner on some occathe aged or weaker mustangs, completely exhausted, phvj ou1 and stop, or some

109

one side, three sides of the washout

only

having high, perpendicular banks.

These
.reek banks leading to the water hole made

wings that were probably about one hundred

and fifty feet long.
conceived the idea
I

thai

if

watering
drink,

to

could hide

in

place until

all

be

should

in

leading to the water,

the vicinity of this

coming
narrow runway
could dash up to the
the horses,

the

sions,

mouth of the runway and, as the horses

rushed pasl me in making their escape,

aged stallions turn on their purs

Such stallions are shot by the
fight,
s
riders, and the exhausted animals lassoed,

COUld crease the desire,

of

tin'

hobbled,

Sidelining

"sidelined."

or

means

the

end

of

day after the chase

tenth

the

begins the wild horses are under such control

that tlie\

tie corral

>

en to some

the use of the six shooter.

Alter weeks of waiting, an opportunity to

A third method of capture

This

ing."

musta

used

is

to

cause of

is

capture

beauty,

their

get

first

ting distance of 'hi- must

animated target,
bullet

musl

horse, a person

in

must then place a rifle

its oeck, grazing the
just enough to stun the

lie

top of

the

of the ne.-k

animal and knock

it

down

so thai

it

down before recovering from the shock.

Nol only must one be a mighty good shot,
but extremely lucky, to make a success of this
method it is yyy
r to break
the
;

of the animal,

simply

give

it

a bad

I tried it once but I never

second mustang.

attempted
While engaged

work of gathering wild

cattle

Frio County, Texas, I eaughf

tail.

Eis

within ten feet of me,

was

the middle of his back, and also one around

legs.

horses was
little

band of
the habit of drinking from a

discovered that this

in

pool so located in a washout of an old

creek bed that

it

dense

could be approached from

me approach.

At

Deck.

first

when

cessful, but

result

They

made an attempt
was

thought
1

could have cried.

had

SUC

had done, I

did, for

to

broke

thai

saw what
Perhaps

cer

very sorry to have taken the life

of that beautiful creature.
realized then
tainly

fell

had

my

thought to use

my

lass,,

have es
Seldom would one find

band of musti

l1

with an opportunity
at

instead

six-shooter, he either would

down in
m nu-

Diane

The

caped Or been mine.

parted and hung equally heavy on both sides

of his oeck.
He had a black stripe down
his

in

in

merous occasions, of a small band of mus-

mane and

horse

up some action in getting past

rode into the runway.
me when
As the
stallion came rushing madly by.
passing

to

tangs led by one of the handsomest stallions

I
have ever seen.
He was cream-colored,
with white

to the place.

linly gol

of

miss.

the

my

that they did not hear

ami a slight wound, or score a (lean

-e a

them

beat

from

crease him.

ca

tied

oeck

sight,

'ii

the mouth of the runway through

which the horses would go to get a drink.
The horses must have fell thai there was no
danger, for they rushed in a bunch down the
runway and into the water, where they made
such a noise splashing and pawing aboul

than successfully carried out.

To crease

tic

chaparral thicket about one hundred yards

eonformative

color,

Keeping out

trailing toward the water hole.

Individual

marking, or because they show unusual sp

This method has been more talked about

withii

out

by "creas

specially valuable be-

m\ scheme at last arrived. While

hunting for some saddle horses which
had strayed from our camp, I saw this band
out

try

concealed myself and

the country.

in

six-

of

my

stallion with

considered myself
At that time
shooter.
hard to bent, either mounted or on foot, in

tying together the front ami hind foot on

one side of an animal with a pair of hubbies

At
to prevent it from traveling at s]
d.

to

use either

ural

lasso

or

made

I never

such short range.

rap

another attempt to rease a mustai

me w liters have told us of certain ribes
of Mexican Indians who were possessed of
i

such

s|

could run

that,

starting oul

down and capture

on

foot,

'hey

the mustang.

have been told about both white men and

Indians w b,
,,n foot, had run down, killing
,.

or capturing,

many

wild animals, including

antelope, deer, and mustangs.

seen a performance of this kind.

have never
1 can un-

derstand how a man trained to the work of

NATURAL HISTORY

110

trailing or tracking game could follow an

animal for an indefinite length of time, provided the course followed by the animal led

over such ground as to

pos-

Unless a man did depend largely

tracking qualifications, he would

sible.

upon

make tracking

his

have to lope along at a lively clip for the

first forty-eight hours of his chase after a
mustang, or lose sight of his game, if the

mustang acted

in the

manner of those pur-

sued by horsemen.
Doubtless,

away back

when the
knew nothing of

in a time

wild life of our country

men on horseback, mustangs may

when out of range of arrows
from bows, even when the archer was

pursuit by

have

felt safe

shot

in full view.

All wild life seemed to know,

Primitive Ideas on
of
Bv

tribes

their

ROBERT

are incapable of conceiving

inability

notions.

develop

to

This

is,

adequate arithindeed,

exactly

what has taken place among many of our

North American Indians, whose conceptions
and vocabulary of numbers have been materially enlarged through contact with modern
i-ivilization. Under the old conditions of life
there simply was no need for such conceptions and accordingly they had not sprung
into existence.

Nevertheless, there are probably few, if

any, stocks of humanity that are not able to

count up to twenty.

The reason

is

it

it

could feel safe, even from

and automobiles are now aiding the

mighty Nimrods in ridding the world of its
wild waterfowl and the last of its fleetSuch things as
footed, pronghorn antelope.
pump guns and rapid-fire, high-power rifles
proved too slow.
To me there is a certain grace and beauty
about wild creatures that is lost as soon as
they become domesticated.
They certainly
lose their alertness, and my respect and adcraft

miration decline in corresponding ratio.

Measurement

numbers greater than three or five. Even

if such peoples exist and this seems highly
problematical the lack of terms for any
but the lowest numbers would not prove
metical

which

Numbers and Systems

IS sometimes rashly asserted that primi-

ITtive

knew, that there was a distance at

its most
feared enemy- man. If instinct did protect
the wild life at one time, I think it hardly
can be depended upon in these days, at least
without being very much readjusted.
Air
or felt

obvious:

man

has twenty fingers and toes. It is interesting and almost startling to find how
many of the numeral systems on record have

a digital basis, quinary, decimal, or vigesiThus, Mr. Waldemar Jochelson, of

mal.

American Museum Jesup Expedition fame,

has analyzed the terms of the Yukaghir of
One really means "one
northern Siberia.
finger"; five is derived from the stem for

H.

LO W I E

"wrist" or "hand";

ten signifies at bottom

One hundred formerly marked the limits of Yukaghir numeration and was expressed by doubling the

"the fingers all together."

word for "ten."

The Kai, a Papuan tribe occupying the
mountainous and wooded hinterland of

New

Finschhafen,

Guinea,

their fingers in counting;

the little finger of the left

regularly

use

they begin with

hand and after

finishing both hands proceed to the feet, be-

ginning with the big toe in each case.

practice

is

strikingly

illustrated

in

This
their

Seven is "two on the other

hand"; eleven "one on the foot"; sixteen
"one on the other foot." When introduced
to the white man's week the Kai logically
enough allotted to each finger a day, and he
will say, "I shall be back on the thumb,"
vocabulary.

when he wishes

to indicate that he will re-

turn on Friday.

Remarkably similar is the method pursued

by the Tamanac of the Orinoco River. Five
means "the whole hand," six is "one of the
other hand," eleven "one to the foot," sixteen

"one to the other foot." That the same type

of numeral system should be found in Siberia, in

New

Guinea, and in South America

IDEAS ON NUMBERS AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

assuredly

is

noteworthy phenomenon.

may recognize

here some evidence

challenged

lately

doctrine

unity of mankind, for

of

for

served.

the

20

psychic

the

this case at

in

We

leas!

sents

Maya [ndians

tern of the

them

enabled

cending

In fact,

a million.

other

of

distinctive

the one peculiar to

monuments, the
books

fiber-paper

the

Confining our attention

(codices).

we

latter,

numbers transtwo systems were

stone

on

inscriptions

the

of Xucatan, which

designate

to

vogue among them

in

numerical sys

developed

the highly

find

method of numeral

must

to

the

inn

b\

Primitive

means w

as

Precisely

13

gether

ward
more

the higher positions;

to

than

significant

and, whal

purely

this

was

arrangement, the basis of the system

Per-

not decimal bul essentially vigesimal.

haps the most

scheme

is

astonishing

of

the

"This invention of

it:

practically one of the

for not!

feature

the development of a zero symbol,

Tylor 2 puts

for as

is

external

moves ever made in Bcience." The

was unknown to the ancient Greeks

tesl

zero

Romans, and European civilization learned

hrough he in
086 from Eindu culture

its

Maya

the

rational

considered

is

no

however.

cast,

unlucky

an

an

plays

exceptional

arranged

hree

in

folk tales the heroic ex-

accomplished at the fourth attempt

regions

oi

her

five

as

Paviotso of Nevada, or nine as

the

parts

n ied.
number may be

bai e misca

ia Is

mystic

the

among
in

cere

in

each stop the chanters will sing

at

is

a fter

Tims,

procession there will be four halting

i.il

ploit

of

Siberia,

Pythagorean

or

as amonrr the

ten

of ancient

pi

Grri

Sometimes different peoples entertain

the

contradictory notions as to the same

mosl

number.
vered

Thus,

seven

while

parts of Asia, the

in

is

highlj

Kikuyu of

re

Brit-

it the most unlucky

shamans forecast the

Kast Africa consider

ish

of

or

the universe musl

in

quartets.

in

mystic

tribes have conceived

the idea thai everything

!'

as

pari

Some

sacred number.

numbers when

their

future by pouring oul counters from

gourd

container after the manner of a dice game.

Let

from

turn

ii-

primitive

notions

of

termediation of the Arabs.

To express 20

intellect.

characters and potencies.

North America four generally

four songs; and

from the deci ma point."

nstead of proceeding from right to left, however, in the
expression of numbers, the Maya started
from the bottom ami worked their way up-

of

peculiar

In aboriginal

places;

distance

method

number with us. so among most of the ruder

cultures numbers are invested with alto-

the value of a figure depends on

in

its

This

numbers are by

on

of a

repre-

position

fifth

always rank as a capital

ideas

which "the numerical value of

the symbols depended solely on position,
jusl as in our own decimal system, in which
position,

the fourth position equals

in

JOOx 20= 144,000.

numeration

Very different from those primitive gropis

unit

7200; and the

achievement of the human

the theory of borrowing seems excluded.

ings

360

111

did

principle

in

what we do to write 10; that is, they wrote

the zero symbol in the first position and the'
symbol in the second. The numbers from
1 to 19 were all put into the first position

numbers
ages

record

hioii,

Sav-

superb observers and are

impressions in graphic

indeed

are

able to
fa

to their practical application.

their

imt they rarely require precision of

statement.

man

Primitive

incomparably

is

and expressed by

One

bars.

dol

represented

one bar stood for

for

1,

'lots

inconsistency

and

two dots

the

in

system occurs

habitat

his

in

data

than

is

the

ollege

with his own environment, but

2,

The

19.

of

atudenl

one bar and four dots

5,

three bars and four dots for

9,

only

combination of

with the fauna and flora

better acquainted

he

has

the

accumulate,! are raw material

II is
for sciem e ra1 her than science itself.
standards of measurement accordingly can
not
pected to attain a higher plane than
I

the

third

which instead of repre-

position,

senting the value of

only stands

for

100,

number of days

of the

thai

is,

20 by 20,

undoubtedly because

360,

in

year since the

system bad a purely calendric use.

wise,

however,

vigesimal

the

basis

Otherpro

is

those current, say,

A concrete
ter clearer:

Smithsonian [nstitution, Bureau

<'..

lor,

1904.

p.

E.

815

.1

Bulletin 57, p
v, D- Appleton

nthro)

&

the illiterate peas-

whose

illustration will

unusual

make

the mat-

The Baganda of Easl A

intricate

well-developed
'Motley, S

among

antry of Europe.

degree

political

and

orga

trade

relations

of

intellectual

suggest

an

sophisl

tion, measured building poles by the "foot":

one toot was placed immediately before

NATURAL HISTORY

112

After the

other along a felled tree and the length de-

of the breast to the finger tips.

termined by counting. But there was apparently no attempt either to standardize

coming of the Caucasian a definite series of

values was established on this basis.
Ten
of these "sticks" were made equivalent to

modes of linear
measurement into any consonance with the
On some occasions the outstretched
foot.
arms formed the standard, in measuring
fences and roads the cubit was used, while
the span from the tip of the thumb to the
the foot or to bring other

top of the second finger served to determine

minor distances.
What holds for linear
measure applies in equal degree to dry
measure. Salt was tied up in small packets
in larger
approximating a tablespoonf ul
quantities it was sold by the basket holding about ten pounds. Sweet potatoes, however, were bundled up into thirty-pound lots,
firewood was tied into bundles of about
Beer was measured by the
forty pounds.
gourd or for brewing purposes by the tub,
a vessel six feet long by two feet six inches
wide and eighteen inches deep.
Judged by the Baganda standards, the
measurements of at least the greater number of American tribes are on a lower plane,
although it is inconceivable that the masons
and artisans of Yucatan or Peru were without adequate means of determining lengths.
Oddly enough the foot, which plays so important a role in the Old "World, was apparently never used among the North AmeriIt also seems strange that
can Indians.
there is no evidence for the use of scales
and weights nor of liquid or dry measure.
The kind of linear standards employed may
;

be illustrated by the case of the Pima of

Here a yardlike measure is emArizona.
ployed, that

is,

the distance from the center

one "cut" of calico, equaling one load of

wheat, or about 150 pounds and ten cuts or
loads were reckoned equal in value with one

Land

horse.

five feet,

in

measured by steps of about

is

while long distances are estimated

terms of a day's journey.

To turn

to

still

another

region

of

the

In the Banks Islands, Melanesia, the

globe.

fathom

is

prominently

favorite

the

unit

and appears

the measurement of money,

in

measuring rod serving as an auxiliary

In monetary transactions two pegs
are stuck into the ground a fathom apart,
and strings of shell money are looped round
them until the specified number of fathoms
Another standard is
has been told off.
represented by the distance from one shoulder to the tips of the extended fingers of
more rarely the Banks Isthe other hand
landers employ the distance from the elbow
A short
to the finger tips of the same hand.
measure is based on the length from the

device.

wrist to the finger tips.

The study of primitive methods of measurements has been much neglected and it is
thus impossible to make a broad comparaThere are indications, howtive statement.
ever, that anthropologists are becoming interested

in

ascertaining

details

about the

concrete knowledge possessed by the peoples

they

visit,

ments
will
in

will

and

in this connection measure-

inevitably be

investigated

and

assuredly prove a fascinating chapter

some future historv of

science.

An

Indian Peace

With quotations from

original diaries of th

tht

Expedition, 1804

C L A R K

Bv

medallion type, found

graA e on the banks of

he

<

ts

in

and

Expedition.

Clark

was

lal

ed in

medals with the Impression of a farmer sowing grain."

Peace medals for promoting friendly rela
tions with the Indians were manufactured
to the third chiefs,

by Mr.
Bandsaker, an engineer engaged
on the construction of the Northern Pacific

The

L E R

Heai

the exploral ion of this

Lewis

the

WISS
chiefs

River, Idaho, recalls one of the mosl

tinent

Lewis and Clark

1806

form coat, hat and feather. To the second

we gave a medal represenl
domestic animals and a loom for wea

peace medal of the Jeff<

in an Indian

i:i;

ASII/V

Medal

L899

Lester S.

in

America as early as the year 1757

bj

1001 by Mr. Edward

Inasmuch as the railroad follows

Railroad.

almost the exact route of these earlj explor

show that they distribmedals among the Indian

tribes that they encountered, it seems unmistakable that the one thus brought to lighl
tnd the records

uted

many

such

famous expedition.

arried on that

When Lewis and

made

Clark

mem-

their

orable journey from the mouth of the Mis

where the Columbia empties its wa

Pacific Ocean, do more virgin

souri to

nto the

country than that traversed could be imagIndians and

ined.

animals were

wild

the

occupants of the greal territory after

war.) known as the Louisiana Purchase, but
sole

which, at the time the undertaking was conAt

ceived, was -till the property of Prance.

of

suggestion

the

January,

1803,

Jefferson,

Congress,

in

made an appropriati

the expenses of an expedition, to be

Meriwether

under the leadership of Captain

Lewis and his friend Captain

William Clark,

for

purpose of

the

ing the Missouri and Columbia

their

-um

principal

were

visions,

ami presents

for

articles

paints, flags, knives,

An account

and
small

instru-

camp equipage, medicines,

included

item

this

mathematical

purchased

ments, arms,

With

branches.

ex]

rivers

Indians.

of

pro

The

clothing,

lasl

beads,

tomahawk-, and me. lal-.

of a council meeting with the

at Fort Mandan, on the Missouri

River six or eight miles below the mouth of

chiefs

the Knife River, where the expedition passed

the winter of 1804-05, state-

"We proceeded

distribute presents with greal

to

One

ceremony.

town was acknowli

by a gift of a flag, a medal with the likeness
of the President of the United States, a uni1

chief of each

This medal was presented to the American

Adams,

of

New York

Museum

of

Natural History

in

City.

113

NATURAL HISTORY

114

Philadelphia association composed chiefly of

members of the Society of Friends. One of
the first issued had on the obverse the raised

head of King George II and on the reverse

the sun, an Indian sitting at a camp fire,
and a white man offering him a pipe of
After the Eevolution such medals
peace.
always bore the head of the President in
One
office at the time of its manufacture.
struck in 1792, bearing the profile of George

Washington, was presented to Red Jacket,

Chief of the Iroquois and last of the Senecas, who never afterward was known to be
without

it.

The Jefferson medal, which differed in design from that issued by "Washington, was

made of bronze
was also struck

in three

The smallest
and was furnished

sizes.

in silver

with a stem and ring for suspension. All

sizes bore the same design: on the obverse
a medallion bust, with the legend, "Thomas
Jefferson, President of the U. S., A.D. 1801,"

and on the reverse clasped hands, pipe and

battle ax crossed, and the legend, "Peace and
Friendship." It was a silver medal of this
type which was found by Mr. Handsaker in
the Indian grave beside the Clearwater River
in

Idaho;

it

now forms

a part of the collec-

American Museum of Natural

History as a gift from Mr. Edward P.
Adams of New York City. When discovered
it was wrapped in many thicknesses of buftions of the

falo hide.

Both Captain Lewis and Captain Clark

kept full diaries of the events of each day
These original
while on the expedition.
diaries have been published precisely as writ-

ten with the quaint spelling

and

capitaliza-

On

tion used

by these

them we

find that in September,

their

way

explorers.*

to the Pacific, they

consulting
1805, on

met with Nez

Perce Indians on the Clearwater near the

spot where the medal was found. We cannot,

Mubut we do see by

of course, be sure that the medal in the

seum was given out

these

diaries

here,

that the

explorers

gave out

medals.

Under date of September

21, 1805, Clark

wrote

people were glad to see us & gave us dried

sammon one had formerly been taken by
the Minitarries of the north & seen white
men, our guide called the chief who was fishing on the other side of the river, whome I
found a cherfull man of about 65. I gave
him a Medal."

Again on September 23, 1S05, the diary

medal was given out.

states that another

Upon the return journey on May 10, 1806,

Captain Lewis made the following entry in
After having stated that he met
his diary.
near the Clearwater some of the Nez Perce
Indians who received them so kindly and
treated them with such hospitality Lewis records the event in his diary as the most
He says:
so far experienced.

happy

This is a much greater act of hospitalthan we have witnessed from any nation
or tribe since we have passed the Eocky
mountains, in short be it spoken to their
immortal honor it is the only act which deserves the appellation of hospitallity which
we have witnessed in this quarter, we informed these people that we were hungry
and fatiegued at this moment, that when we
had eaten and refreshed ourselves we would
inform them who we were, from whence we
had come and the objects of our resurches.
a principal Cheif by name Ho-hast-ill-pilp
arrived with a party of fifty men mounted
on eligant horses, he had come on a visit to
us from his village which is situated about
we invited
six miles distant near the river,
this man into our circle and smoked with
him, his retinue continued on horseback at a

".

ity

we had eaten a few

them as we had promised,
and gave Tinnachemootoolt and Hohastillpilp
little

distance,

roots

we spoke

each a medal; the former one of the small

size with the likeness of Mr. Jefferson and
the latter one of the sewing [sowing] medals
struck in the presidency of Washington, we
explained to them the desighn and the importance of medals in the estimation of the
whites as well as the red men who had been
taught their value." It is interesting to note in this last

Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Ex-

pedition,

1905).

1804-1806, Vol.

3,

pp. 81, 85

entry

the specific mention of a Jefferson medal as

having been presented to one of these chiefs.

As this region has always been the home of
the Nez Perce, it is a fair assumption that
the medal found was from the grave of one
of this tribe.

passed down the river 2 miles on a steep

hill side at 11 oClock P.M. arrived at a
camp of 5 squars a boy & 2 children those
".

after

to

that

it

vidual,

It is of course even possible

was the grave of this particular indithough we must not forget that many

similar medals were distributed, as the pre-

ceding extracts from the diaries suggest.

(New York,
-

)riginal Journals, Vol. 5, pp.

1516.

Boy

"Billy the

AN

;iit!

that

aci

'

L appeared from
A.

liam

Murrill,

New York

when

assistant

he

it,

graphical, that

tit le

Alice's

jusl

Roberl

of

the

When one
autobio-

is

it

arranged

boj hood experiences,

For

them.

calls

most

tin'

complete

is

in

being simply

itself,

To

write these

in

book form was a happy

down and

and
ing

idea.

It

is

authority on fungi, turning aside to write

oi

Charles Lutwidge

on

Virginia

when

mathematics,

higher
trill.

\Villi;un

jusl

aftei
d

Ai.

<

War.

W.

bj

as

Boy

is

\ii.

well

for boys, as a vehicle to present

Her and smaller.

in

the public schools

New York

City,

known

meat

information

ness,

are four of his photographs of these animals

known

been

to

relates

the

experiem

two boys, castaways on the wild coast of

Newfoundland, with only the simplest tools
with,

begin

of woodcraft.

rudimentary knowl-

It

tells

turns where polar expeditions have perished.

how. when the

lost:
t

depending entirely en their own resources.

(

Page & Co

in

he

closing

"'You

we were not
thi

Tepee

"Indian right here.

story:

words
see.
lost,

the traditional

in

when asked

reply of the Indian,

in spending the
comparative comfort and Bafety,

Adventures Cn
Doubleda\

philosophy

Thert

necessity arises, they succeed

whole-

of

full

Stefiinsson tells us how, by following the

customs of the natives, he has
n able to
live in comfort in the Arctic under CO

life.

The narrative

more.

is

from pure abstract mental helplessand a story of this nature has

educational value.

in

Camp"

environment, has often

perish

Newfoundland caribou; and

number of full-page illustrations

in

L918,

Civilized man, separated fortuitously

his

the

winter

naturalist's boyhood
illustrations from

ore.

to

The story

Bupply.

some advent

among

ami,

also for use

with the caribou forming their principal

.and

of

about

from

and

Vaturalist, the true storj of

1252.
Forty-three half-tone

primarily one

tale,

collecting butterflies,

mountain, and catching

the

The\ combine good human naG. C. F.

ture with good natural history.

more rethe British Army.

in

has chosen the present

on

fire

the home.

in

and.

cently, for his services

and sorghum-molasses makVoting people will enjoy these

Beaver Stream

in

photographer

writer,

African
lie

the

sin.-i

Bronx-wood Park,

"Adventures
DUGMORE
CAPTAIN
nature

wrote

Pp.

.Murrill.

A.

he

been

not

prisoner's base at school, and

home.

at

grades

author of works

i,

similar

or

have

These stories will make capital supplementary reading for use in the elementary

botanist, a leading

arroll"

identical

in

will recall,

they ran out as the field of standing grain

got

volume, reminds

it

young rabbits at wheat-cutting time when

of thing before.

this

because

probably

which

playing

fighting

one has not thought of doing this kind

To think of an eminent

it

made bow ami arrow,

30

why

pleasing that one cannot help wondering

reallj

is

it

and the other incidents, such as catching a

fish with a pin hook, exploits with a home-

memory.

them together

put

that

in

memories,

pleasanl

"husking-bees"

ord of an incident that had permanently impressed itself upon a normal boy's

in

thought of for years, such as "spelling bees"

each

is,

of

hooks

juvenile

experiences

the stories

part,

arc unrelated to one another, that

one

as

groups, or chapters, as the author

ological

or

in

Grown-ups, who were born and reared

four ehron

in

Wonderland,

professor of physics

the country, will read

instead

booh consists of many short stories of

the

I,

true.

not

is

W. W
Eopkins

above

"the true story of a

But the story

Adventures

Johns
University ami author of
works on optics, when he produced How to
I'.ut
Tell Un Hints from the Flowers.
the
work um lor consideration differs from the

Wil-

>r.

Murrill himself

Dr.

is
is

it

of

the usual biographical way,

in

director

that

finds

naturalist's boyhood."
told

wit b

Garden.

Billy

boy, that

pen

he

Botanical

delves into

volume

little

appeal to children has

\\ ill

Naturalist"

of

<

laptain

Mother,'

if

he were

lost"; or, in

Charlie

onb mislaid."' J.
I

itain

A.

added,
T.

Radclyffe Dug-

19
LI

New

Sight Conservation Classes in

York Schools
By F B A N C E S

MOSG K

E.

Inspector of Classes for the Blind

THE

Board of Education of New York

City

is

conducting classes for partly

sighted pupils,

known

as "sight con-

rated in the winter of 1917 and has grown

number nineteen

until the classes at present

in

three of the boroughs of Greater

York.

The centers are located

elementary schools with

iu

registers

Xew

various

ranging

from ten to eighteen pupils each. The classrooms are selected with a view to even distribution and proper diffusion of light.
Provision for ample blackboard space is

made on account

of the nature of the in-

for

the

control

of

abnormal

or its cause.

This work was inaugu-

servation" classes.

and

classes,

physical conditions arising from eye trouble

The character of the instruction given

to

these pupils does not impose eyestrain. Their

lessons

oral

are

received

in

regular

the

grades with the normally sighted children.

and such of the written work as is feasible

done in the regular grades. Most of the
written work is done in large type in the
is

and for short periods of

The blackboards are utilized for this

special classroom,

time.

Masses of figures are not given

purpose.

either for reading or writing.

The reading

struction given to the partly sighted pupils.

lessons

To avoid undue fatigue and

by means of charts and clear type readers.

The notes in the various subjects are prepared by the special teacher in print or
script more than double the size of the
ordinary print of textbooks. Manual work

to facilitate the

handling of large books, maps, and other

objects, the desks

and

seats are placed on

movable bases, and large tables and chairs

are provided for the use of the pupils.

The

are

teachers assigned to these classes are those

involving

who have had experience in the regular

grades and whose temperaments and special
aptitudes are such as to enable them to de-

as

little

knitting,

ing,

conducted by special teachers

or no use of the eyes, such

chair

caning,

basketry,

cook-

and the larger forms of carpentry,

is

given to pupils of sight conservation classes.

velop handicapped children.

Typewriting by the touch system

The need for sight conservation classes

sj)rang from observation of pupils with some

taught.

is

also

and persistently

making
and enjoyment
for those who, handicapped by poor sight,

used their impaired vision to read the em-

are unable to receive their education in the

sight in the classes for the blind,

belled against finger reading

bossed

print,

who

re-

and from the existence of

numbers of children

in regular grades

were unable, because of

who

short-sightedness

and other eye defects, to keep up with their

classes.
Our classes are operated much the
same way as are the classes for myopes in
London, which have been conducted for a
number of years.
The purpose of these classes is twofold,
the hygienic care of the child

cational development.

and

clinic

his edu-

under the

The sight conservation

regular way.

classes are also placing

educational

methods and the necessity of

properly lighted schoolrooms.

The

special

attention given to the care of the eyes, and

the development of thought, initiative,

and pleasing personality, will fit the pupils

to

of these special classes for responsible posiin

tions

salesmanship,

and various

service,

insurance,

lines of farming.

social

Oc-

cupations like these present no risk to eyesight.

by the Board of Education, is conducted

for the refraction and treatment of the eyes
of the pupils and candidates of the special

nature

116

The

emphasis upon the improvement of general

supervision of the Board of Health, authorized

classes are

possible lives of usefulness

ing to

with

The investment in work of this

more than justified in the savthe state on its work in connection
is

its

care of dependents.

Notes
Attention

Natural

name

known

has

restricted

itself

to

consideration

Museum's work and interA- expressed many times by the Ed:

letters to contributors, the magazine

of the American
ests.

tor

in

would

like

dium

that

feel

stands as a

ii

between
America and the

in

place

pie,

publication of readable articles on

for

results of the scientific research

of

me-

authoritative

expression

of

science

to

nation for people

tin-

These

trained.

cally

time nor desire

who

and thought
have

neither

pore over technical, un-

to

readable articles, but nevertheless arc

practically,

ligently,

stand

for

natural

and

the highest

type

expressed

history,

like to

authoritative

ut'

by

the

in

observers

addition

laboratory

in

or

In

field.

the technical

desires to interprel

it

understood nut only bj

lie

by the

with mi knowledge of the shorthand of

need especially to have a knowledge of

The

nature ami science today.

.lay of

;es

for conservation of the world's

sity ha-

come

natural

resources

ami

of ani-

preservation

becoming extinct; there is seen

approaching the time ut' conscious control of
evolution; ami just ordinary culture de
mals

fast

mands

the

in

science

demanded
these

in

decade knowledge of
what it has always

present

addition

in

to

ami

literature, music,

reasons

Ami

art.

not take account of

'In

the

added joy in life that comes from a kniiwldge of nature. We people of todaj need n.
know the
k of the earth, to study it as a
i

feeling the divinity

Bible,

in

Natural

it.

BlSTOR"? hopes to meet this nee.

in

part.

WE

welc

Museum

news

the good

'

of

the Royal

thai

History

Natural

in

Brussels

escaped unscathed the ravages of the Ger

mans.
There has
an
n sent to Ndturt
|

gators themselves, by explorers, by the accu

rate

In

technical man, but also

intel-

profoundly

often

Natural Bistort would

interested.

tin'

are not techni-

people

way

in

We

with other publi-

because the magazine for these years

partly

man

"Museum Journals" and

as

write

the trained,

the scientific vocabularj

change

two years or

for

partly to avoid confusion

cations

and historical

Bistory.

title

in

Musei m

rican

<

rable,

ti

contemplated

been

A m

from

sine

to the old,

\i.

change

called to the

is

maga

of this

from

extrad
Louis

Dollo,

professor

publications

Museum, reporting
h.re.

through reviews by other well-known scien

written

by

palaeontology

.>f

in

the University ami Conservateur of the Royal

bj

ut' our scientific thinkers, if not

popular articles by the same authors, then

recently

letter

"that

our Mns< urn

that

lutely nothing

is

lust,

everything

well

is

abso

intact, that

is

and that we are safe!"

thinker-, these "reviews" being, a- sug-

tilie

of

discussions

given

gested,

readable

subject

apropos of the technical work.

tie-

It

Tin seventj

meeting of the American

first

Association for the

Advancement of Science

There has been so much shallow, inaccurate, "popular" science, nature study, and

was held at Baltimore in December, of the

four hundred or more addresses, many were
concerned with problems connected with the
war, but the program as a whole showed a
quick adaptation t.i the broader problems of
reconstruction now confronting the country.
That the experiences ,,f the last two years
have left a marked effed on American sci

natural history, written by persons untrained

entists

Weill.

of

also

course

phases of the

report

educational work being accomplished by the

departments of
Government ami by the

scientific

the

United States

various

scientific

institutions of the country, especially thos*

ut'

in

the

museum

science ami

that a
el'

tj pe.

with distorted

prejudice

-till

remains

-nine -. icii t isls against

Bervations

and

value

form.

But

tur

in

the

minds

putting their

oli-

when

of

even

conclusions,
the

imaginations,

layman,

the time of such

into

readable

greatest

ut'

an idea

scientific

is

Well nigh past, aie

men of

tioual

'r.

<

teoi

ge

E.

Research Council,"

CUSSed the past

siliilities

ut'

the

results an.

Council

[ale

which he

in
I

in

the

as

the

on "The Na

.lis-

future pos

permanent

body.

suspicion an.)

condemnation against the mere form of ex

Hiii

was particularly brought out

paper by

the

country

daily proving their willingness ami desin

the

are

Following
scientific

the inauguration of national

organizations such as our National

Research Council, there has been under way

organization of an international body

the

117

NATURAL HISTORY

118
for

the

promotion

of

scientific

research.

Kaweah, the Kern, and King's.

park, the

Representatives of the scientific academies

is

of the Allied Countries and the United States

flows the middle fork of King's, excels

held a meeting last October in London.

Committee of Inquiry was appointed which

met later in Paris and constituted itself as
a temporary International Research Council
with the object of becoming a Federation of
National Councils.
A permanent executive
committee of five was named which is to
have its seat in London. There are great

It

said that Tehipite Valley, through which

YosemCanon in grandeur. The former Sequoia

Park with its giant Sequoias, the "big trees"
of California, is drained by the Kaweah
River. The Roosevelt National Park is to be
ite

preserved for the true lover of the out-ofdoors

who may

still lose

and snowy peaks

American wilderness.

trails

himself on the long

in this heart of the

possibilities for international cooperation in

scientific research, the internationalization

great

laboratories,

cations,

and

the

Above

the

preparation

of

During

of

exchange of publibibliog-

the manifest spirit of

the

war and the excessive demand

for coal, attention has been turned toward

the Arctic, especially to the island of Spitz-

cooperation will certainly prove a stimulus to

bergen where effort alone is required

create one of the chief coal-producing

scientific workers.

gions of the world.

raphies.

all,

to
re-

It is said that in 1918

the shipment to Scandinavian ports reached

Scientists have recently called attention

to the

need of replacing German in certain

It has been

100,000 tons.

time that vast quantities

known

for some

(estimated as at

classes of scientific literature with English.

least 4,000,000,000 tons)

The prevalence of German as a scientific

medium is exemplified by the fact that of the

are present in this Arctic land and a cargo

286 journals listed in the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature under gen-

later years

German and only 49

There has been a similar Ger-

was shipped

to

of good steam-coal

Europe as early as 1899.

in

American, British, and Swedish

companies have mined more or less unsys-

eral biology, 169 are in

tematieally and in 1912

in English.

company alone shipped out about 40,000 tons.

Iron ore in unknown quantity, as well as

man

conquest in the case of the yearly

re-

views and great compendiums of scientific

other mineral products,

advance.

exploitation

It is suggested that the collection

and

is

it

is

said that one

is also present, but

hampered, especially by the

publication of scientific information

might well fall among the activities of the
National Academy of Sciences which has recently been requested by President Wilson in
an Executive Order to take over and per-

lack of definite political control in the island.

petuate the work of the National Research

World.

Council in the stimulation and formulation

occasion to confer their doctorate, honoris

President Wilson, while on his visit to

Europe, has been signally honored by the
learned societies and universities of the Old

The University of Paris took

this

of "comprehensive projects of research," in

causa, before a distinguished gathering in

promotion of cooperation, and in the

gathering and collating of "scientific and
technical information at home and abroad,
in cooperation with government and other
agencies," and the rendering of "such information available to duly accredited per-

the Sorbonne.

the

sons."

A fitting memorial to the memory of

Theodore Roosevelt is the greatest of our
national parks which is now being established in the Sierra Nevada as an extension
of the old Sequoia Park. Along its eastern
boundary runs the main ridge of the Sierra,
by Mount Whitney, the
highest peak in the United States.
Three
rivers rise among- the mountains of the new
crested at the south

In acknowledging the honor

conferred upon him the President delivered

a

brief

address

contrasting especially the

two systems of culture between which the

war has been waged. "I agree," he said, "with
the intimation which has been conveyed today, that the terrible war through which we
have just passed has not been only a war
between nations, but that it has been also
a war between systems of culture; the one
system the aggressive system, using science
without conscience, stripping learning of its
moral restraints, and using every faculty
of the

human mind

race;

the other system reminiscent of the

to

do wrong to the whole

high traditions of men, reminiscent of

those struggles,

all

some of them obscure, but

XnTES
revealed to the historian, of

others clearly

men of indomitable

everywhere strugand seeking, above

spirit

gling toward the right,

things else, to be free.

all

."

The

the world.

in

existing scientific society

the oldest

universities of Bologna,

Rome, Padua, and Florence

deputa-

sent

all

and confer
England the Pres

tions to bear their greetings

rious

In

was unable

to stop a1

>xford or

but he had opportunity to meet

of

representatives

leading

and science
liim at

Buckingham

Tin;

construction

va-

Iambi

many

of the

literature.

art,

banquet tendered

state

the

at

the one borrowing from natural science an

organic and social conception of art, while
the other is recognizing the aid which the

can lend to the study of nature and

fine arts

The ancient universities of Etalj also honored him on his brief trip to Rome and he
was elected a member of the Accademia dei
Lincei,

L19

Palace.

man.

Among

may

1918

election of Colonel

Henry

United StateScottish

So, dety

Arboricultural

and

Carrel,

of the

Crave-, of the

S.

Service, to the Royal

Forest

burgh,

bestowed upon
be noted the

honors

foreign

Americans during

promotion

the

Rockefeller

of

of

Edin-

Dr.

Alexis

[nstitute,

to

the

rank of Commander of the Legion of

Honor. Dr. Simon Flexner also received the

Honor and

of Officer of the Legion of

title

was elected

corresponding member of the

Societe des H6pitaux.

way

nil

Museum

politan

M iseum

connecting pathPark bet ween the Met roof

and the American

History, proposed by

Art

of

\atural

oi

Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, gives occasion to Mr. Lewis

Monthly,

Mumford,

the S

in

in

Physical

of

or

Britain and

They have changed

two museums.
from mausoleums of ancient art and animal
remains to educational institutions which

Institute

Anthropological

Royal

tendencies

recenl

to

HbdliCka, curator of the DiAnthropology at the

United State- National Museum, was recently elected an honorary fellow of the
Dr. Ai>ks

Great

of

reland.

these

respectively

illustrate

their

to

the

visitors

past history of man's handicraft and display

the

facts

natural science

<it'

that the student

and
grown up

be instructed by their

will

The

surroundings.

order

response to

in

mands, therefore,

way

such a

in

artistic

rightly understood, must

have

arts

Under

the heading "Notes

man

writes

on

tions

journey

The

the

route

of

his

South America for the Red Cross.

to

and

fall

along

life

Trav-

of casual observa-

Bird Lort

in

bird

from

Major Frank M. Chap-

eler in the Tropics,"

winter

seasons are

not

pro

natural social de-

pitious

our

southern

productions, to be

states or in Cuba, as the southern

migrants

have disappeared and

residents

be taken, so far as

finding

for

birds

the

in

winter

viewed as unrelated fetishes for some man

have not yet arrived from the north, but on

the Csle of Pines, off the coast of Cuba,

her

Major Chapman was entertained by many

possible,

ot'

their

in

natural

contexl

and

beauty worship.

The Metropolitan Museum, notably

Swiss, the Georgian, and the Queen
rooms,

givu

is

the

in

i.nne

feathered

is

ion to this org

hosts,

oi

the very few really unpleasant bird

view of art with scenes that impress by their

notes.

unity

diver-

Colon to

Natu

extremely

sity

confuse

than

rather

ami multiplicity.

ral

Historj

Museum

the

artist's

vision

primitive

life,

in

nected

its

Similarly, the

taking advantage of

is

the

in

reconstruction

in

the

general

collections so as

story of

of

the arrangement of animal

habitat groups, and

zation of

their

bj

the

earth

.and

its

artist

and

the

called

upon

to assist

natural

inhabitants.

animal
in

to

org
a

tell

history

con-

of the

The landscape

Chapman sailed from Havana to

the Panama Red Cross and the

Dr.

passing

visit

In
('anal Zone Chapter.
Gatun Lake he noted thai the

active

the

trees, killed by flooding this great area,

were disappearing and that this partly artif becomomi
ficial body of watet

dead

ing

oi

It-

by the birds

.harms
except

cans,

cormorants,

laying oul this pano-

ested

-h

have

to

afford

migrants.

beautiful lakes of the

the most

tropies.

been

sculptor

The two museums are accordingly

becoming complementary in their methods,
rama.

including the Anis, a com-

species of Cuba, whose whining whistle

mon

and

;1

,e a- yet

for a

ami
rocky

future

undiscovered

few brown

ducksbut
islands

home

for

are
the

its

peli-

for-

certain
tropica]

NATURAL HISTORY

L20

The
its

Aeronautical Society of America, at

meeting January 9, elected Mr. Carl E.

American Museum,

Akeley, of

the

membership

in recognition of his

to

life

important

invention of a camera especially designed for

Spinden examined the public and private

collections of native artifacts, including
golden vases and figurines from the Cauca
River Valley which are the most beautiful of
their kind to be found in the New World.

use in aeroplane work.

We

quote the following from El Palacio,

the journal of the Museum of New Mexico:

"Indian

Commissioner

Sells

giving em-

is

phatic praise to the part taken by the Indians in the war. Out of 33,000 eligibles for
military duty, more than 6500 served under
the flag in the

Army, 1000 were

Navy,
other war

in the

A bronze tablet, commemorating the one

hundredth anniversary of the birth of Lewis
Henry Morgan, is now on exhibition in Memorial Hall of the American Museum.
Lewis
Henry Morgan was

in

many ways

the "father

of American anthropology." After publishing

the

League

Iroquois, he

of

the

Ho-de-no-sau-nee

or

became aware of the similarity

and 500 were regularly engaged in

More than 6000 of the enlistments
were voluntary.
Indians bought Liberty
Bonds until now an equivalent of a $50 bond
is held for every man, woman, and child of

between the Iroquois system of reckoning

relationship and that found among the
Ojibway. As a result of this comparison he
made an extensive study embodied in Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the

the Race."

Human

work.

Face, which

is

work on
The general

the pioneer

primitive social organization.

At the annual meeting

of the American

Anthropological Association, held in December in Baltimore, Dr. Clark Wissler was

elected president of the Association

and Dr.
Pliny E. Goddard was reelected editor. A
plan for a future permanent research body in

ornamentation of the tablet

of Indian

wampum

is

representative

one of which

belts,

record of the famous Iroquois League.

is

Mor-

gan was adopted by the Seneca Tribe of the

The commemorative tab-

Iroquois in 1842.
let is to

be sent to Wells College in Aurora,

connection with the National Research Council -was considered and referred to Professors

New

Franz Boas, Alfred M. Tozzer, and Dr. Ales

The inauguration of The International

Journal of American Linguistics under the
editorship of Professor Franz Boas, of
Columbia University, and Dr. Pliny E. God-

Hrdlicka for definite formulation.

Dr. H. J. Spinden, of the anthropology
department of the American Museum, has
just returned from an archaeological and

York, Morgan's birthplace.

Museum, with the

dard, of the American

ethnological expedition to Central America

and Dr. W. Thalbitzer, of Copenhagen,

and Colombia, where he acquired extensive

collections of textiles, pottery, mesh bags,
and other articles of aboriginal handicraft.
In eastern Nicaragua he studied the social
organization, arts, and ceremonies of the
Sumu and Misskito Indians. He found these
Indians still wearing the style of sleeveless

a previously unoccupied

cotton
egrets'

jacket, with designs of interwoven

down, that Columbus described in the

account of his fourth voyage.

cal explorations

and Nicaragua.

Archaeologi-

were conducted

in

Honduras

In the latter country he

discovered heavily forested regions virtually

devoid of population, although the archaeological remains indicated that they were
once inhabited by a relatively highly civi-

Apparently more savage tribes

have come in recent times from South Amerlized people.

ica

and forced out

tion.

In

the

the indigenous popula-

republic

of

Colombia

Dr.

co-

operation of Professor Uhlenbeck, of Leiden,

ogy.

Two numbers

field

of the

already appeared, the

first

fills

in anthropol-

new journal have

containing a gen-

Boas in
most pressing needs
and problems of American linguistics.
eral

introduction

which he

by

Professor

sets forth the

Mr. Clarence B. Moore has added anmonograph 1 to his many publications

on American archaeology, giving the results
of recent explorations in Florida and Alabama. The aborigines of this region originally practised the custom of "killing" or
breaking a hole into the pottery which they
buried with their dead in order that its soul
might accompany its previous owner.
So
expensive a custom, however, was later reother

1
The Northwestern Florida Coast Revisited
(Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. 2d Series, Vol. XVI, part 4, 1918).

NOTES
cheap pottery manufac

fined into the use of

tared especially for funeral purposes, with

made

bottom or even

hole

already

with

Inasgenuine ornamental openwork.

as the Indians of this neighborhood
their deposits of earthenware to the

much
made

east of their burial

in

the

mounds, Mr. Moore and

were able to obtain large amounts

of material, local searchers having content.']
themselves usually with digging a hole in the
his party

center of the

121
inception in the work of the French natu-

its

Claude Gay (author of the Hisioria

ralist,

n politico de Chile, 24 volumes, Paris,

1843-51), who visited the country (1828-42)
fisica

to study the natural history.

prominent place

in

It

now

Dr. Eduardo

scientific progress.

fills

Chile's educational

and

Moore has

been the director since 1910.

Secretary Lane, of the Department of

announced the renaming of
the national monument on Mount Desert
the Interior, has

mound.

The Museo Nacional

de Chile occupies a

beautiful and spacious building constructed

Maine, as Lafayette National Park.

-land,

one of the

formerly known as the

Monts National Monument, has
n singled out to commemorate our anIt was discovcient alliance with France.
ered and named by Champlain in lb"04.

most beautiful of the world, and besides

being the capital of Chile, is also the center
In
of that country's culture and learning.

pathologist and director of the laboratories

the Eunseum the departments of archaeology,

of

geology, botany, and zoology are represented

Research, was elected president of the Amer-

for the International Exposition in 187.".

the Jardin des Plantes or Quinta Normal, of

the old Spanish city of Santiago.

with a population of 400,000,

is

This

city,

This

reservation,

Sieur

de

Rockefeller

the

by extensive Dative and exotic collections:

ican

and for printing the

Science,

scientific contributions

to Chilian natural history the

lishes a Boletin del

and a

Museum pub-

Museo Nacional <l> Chih

The institution had

series of dnales.

Association

more.
the

Flexxer,

Simon

De,

at

their

for

the

Institute

the

renowned
Medical

for

Advancement of

recent meeting in

Balti-

Dr. Flexner has been serving during

war

as

Lieutenant

Colonel

in

the

Medical Corps.

'

of the BvIL tin

I'n a-. l merican I

'ourtt ay

of

tin

iwn

The Museo Nacional de Chile, in the oM Spanish city of Santiago. It carries on important work
and research and cooperates with the schools by means of exhibits and lectures

in exploration

XATl'IUL HISTORY

'!

Natural History owes an apology

included

form of an appreciation of Roosevelt, bearing on the cover the legend: "He taught and

with the January instead of the December

practiced clean, straight sportsmanship, with

number and that there has been delay

a power that has caused thousands of

readers that the index for 1918

issuance of these two numbers.

is

to its

in the

Fortunately

the February number is in press as the January number appears. Attention is called to
what will prove the unusual interest of the
March number, including articles descriptive

of the total eclipse of the sun

June, 1918,

in

by Professor S. A. Mitchell, director of the

Leander McCormick Observatory of the University

corona, by the artist,

ler,

with

painting

Virginia,

of

Howard

reproductions

in

the

solar

Russell But-

the

color,

wild

by W. Elmer Ekblaw,
Expedition and the
University of Illinois, and the unknown
jungle of Panama, by Lieutenant Colonel
Whelen, of the United States Army.
flowers of Greenland,

of

Crocker Land

the

Canada
ing

the

world,

to be congratulated on possess-

is

second

recently

Astrophysical

largest
installed

telescope

British Columbia.

the

the

Dominion

near

Victoria,

in

Observatory

in

Dr. J. S. Plaskett, direc-

walk

afield to

men

in straighter paths."

The work of the wardens engaged by the

National Association of Audubon Societies
to guard the Federal Bird Reservations, the
egret

colonies,

and

breeding

the

islands

along the Atlantic Coast, has been affected

way by

no

in

These wardens

the war.

re-

port that the egrets have fared better than

the sea birds, which have
year,

many

had but an average

natural accidents destroying the

eggs by thousands.

A new

and crafty method of egret destrucThe hunter erects a

tion has been reported.

He

canvas screen near the egret rookery.

then flashes a strong light into the rookery,

which startles and bewilders the birds. As

the stream of light is changed from the
rookery to the white screen the victims

fol-

low and dash to their destruction against

the canvas.

It is said

that this trick

was

tor of the observatory, narrates the history

suggested by the accidental killing of some

of the construction of this gigantic seventy-

birds in a similar

two inch reflector in the Journal of the

Boyal Astronomical Society of Canada. The
glass disk, east and annealed by the St.
Gobaiu Glass Co., Charleroi, Belgium, narrowly escaped a possible tragic ending, being
shipped from Antwerp but one week before

when a steamer's searchlight was turned

war was declared, in July, 1914. The cast

was 73 x/> inches in diameter and 13 inches
thick, with a central hole

mirror

of giving the final polish to the

required nearly two years, but the

in

Brashear Co., of Pittswhose hands the work was, as the

maximum

deviation of the curve of the glass

result is a credit to

burgh,

from theoretical perfection is but one eighth

The mounting of the
of a wave-length.
telescope was constructed by the Warner and
Swasey Company, of Cleveland. No difficulty was experienced in setting up the parts
and the instrument was in use a week after
the delivery of the mirror to Victoria.

The National

Association

of

Audubon

Societies has issued a call to the nature lovers of

America

Fountain.

to erect a Roosevelt

Their

announcement

Memorial
is

in

the

al-

on the

white canvas of a passing sailboat.

The Brooklyn Museum

has recently con-

structed and opened to exhibition a Desert

Group which

Life

is

of

one

habitat exhibits ever conceived.

the

largest
repre-

It

what might be termed the "optimum

conditions of the North American Des-

sents
life

cult task

the Florida coast,

ternately on an egret rookery and

about 6 inches in

The rough mass weighed about

5000 pounds, but when finished it was reduced to 4340 pounds. The great and diffidiameter.

way on

ert" as seen in spring in southwestern United

States or northern Mexico.

plants are, of course, giant

The dominant
cacti,

around

which are grouped models of the various

smaller species of cactus and other deseri
plants collected near Tucson, Arizona.

The

animal representatives of the desert fauna

were taken by Mr. Robert Cushman Murphy
on a hunting trip to northern Lower CaliFive specimens of pronghorn antefornia.
lope are prominent in the right half of the

group.

The antelope might

at one time have

Arizona, but the species is now

so far extinct that it can be found only in out
of the way and inaccessible haunts. To the

been taken

in

and modelers of the group there were

presented unusual problems, particularly in
artists

the reproduction of the cacti,

and the

results

are a brilliant tribute to their craftsmanship.

a,

"The wilderm
[saiah

xxxv,

ip

in

dry land Bhall be glad;

tie

the

springtime
Th<
smaller buBhlike
prickly pear (left

of

Two

L)

ool

1 i

ow) recently installed in

American Museum, onlj <m a larger
ipper photograph shows Borne of the

scale,

it

reveals the desert

;i

left),

the full flower

cacti

the

public

attention

i>

of bird

protection.

problems by agreement between nations we

voted an article
this question,

the international

bearings

Dr.

Joseph Grinnell, of

the University of California, 1ms recently de-

can

;it

At this time when

look

in

k.

of the group, the giant saguaro, the

bisnaga or barrel cactus (beneath the saguaro), and the low
The lower photograph shows the five specimens i>t' pronghorn antelope
presentatives >>i' a distinctly North American family of ungulates, and recognized
American mammal
e

turned toward the solution of international

well

Quarterly

and the deserl Bhall rejoice, and blossom

wide Desert Life Group (left half of the group,
the Brooklyn Museum.
Like the Arizona Bird

in

th>'

Scientific

Monthly

to

pointing out the necessity for

123

NATURAL HISTORY

124
some

joint, action

to protect the

migratory

the soil to great depths, supplies nitrates,

much more rapid than

birds.

saves labor, and

in

digging the holes for the

Our American golden plover breeds

northern Canada and summers as far

is

trees.

south as Argentina, passing through about

seven political jurisdictions.

swallow

England

of

Africa, and the knot

seven seas.

is

South

A commission appointed by the Biological

Board of Canada has submitted a report on

the

the relation of the sea lion to the fishing in-

good

dustry.
At the instigation of the fishermen
a bounty of $2 a head had been placed on
these animals on the ground that they were
inimical to the salmon fisheries. It was not

The common

migrates

to

a visitor on

all

single country, however

can do little to protect such

may only spare the birds for

its intentions,

travelers;

it

the guns of

its less

conscientious neighbors.

beginning was made in the direction of

by the treaty between the United States and Canada with

reference to insectivorous and game birds.
It is hoped that the countries which have
shown the most consideration for the birds
international

protection

may

bring a moral influence to bear in extending an appreciation of the value and

necessity of conserving the world's wild

life.

by the commission just

what constitutes the main food of the sea
lion, but it was satisfactorily shown that
the destructiveness was too slight to warrant a general slaughter. The sea lion may
entirely ascertained

be legitimately exploited, as
fur

seal,

Naturalist

Victoria

that

reports

1,500,000 penguins are annually killed for

the sake of their

enormous

oil,

slaughter

have not decreased.

Australian

representative of the

Ornithologists'

Union has been

delegated to investigate the

traffic at

once;

seems scarcely believable that the penguins can escape extinction under such
it

treatment.

A method
don)

Quite sufficient protection

The number
Islands,

of fur seals on the Pribilof

according to

census

for

1918,

The pups born for the season and the breeding cows each numbered
is

496,600.

143,005.

33,881

These figures are exclusive of the

taken during the calendar

seals

and 26,881
The catch did not reach
the total of 35,000 skins authorized by the
Government, but a few seals were likely
to be killed from time to time during the
remainder of the year as a source of meat
year, 7000 on St. George Island

of drying lumber, reported to

Quarterly

the

cousin

can be given to the fishermen's nets by

frightening away these very timid animals.

but that in spite of this

the penguin colonies

its

guano,

for

mercial reasons.

The

is

and for leather

and oil by taking the young only, and its
protection may therefore be urged for comthe

would

Journal of Forestry (Lonto be the direct an-

seem

tithesis of our familiar "kiln-drying"

by hot
The temperature of the drying shed is
reduced by means of a refrigerating apparatus in one end of the shed to such an extent

air.

that the moisture of the air

is

condensed as

hoarfrost and the air kept continually dry.

on

St.

Paul Island.

In addition, 386
from canoes by
the Indians on the coast of Washington, as
reported by the superintendent and physupply for the natives.
seals were speared

fur

Sciences,

United States Indian Service

The Canadian and Japanese
governments each are entitled to 15 per
cent of the year's take of skins, in compliance with the terms of the North Pacific
Sealing Convention of July 7, 1911, the
market value of this amount being credited
to the respective governments to offset certain advance payments made to them by the
United States. Work on the new by-products plant for St. Paul Island, designed
for the manufacture of oil and fertilizer
from seal carcasses, was pushed rapidly in
order that the carcasses of seals killed on
the island in 1918 might be utilized in the

this

preliminary operations.

In this way all moisture given off by the

lumber is immediately disposed of and the
lumber dries without the danger of the
cracking and checking which accompanies
hot-air drying.

The more than ordinary fertility of

ground which has been plowed and harrowed
by shell fire has suggested the possibility of
using explosives in the

operation

of

tree

planting, especially where large areas must

be covered quickly as in the rehabilitation of

the devastated sectors of France.
In a report of experiments to the Academie

des

M. Andre Piedallu recommends

method for the reason that it loosens up

sician of the

at

Neah Bay.

XOTES
"Anticlines in the Southern Part of the
Big Horn Basin, Wyoming," is the subject
of a report dealing with the oil fields of
Wyoming, lately issued as Bulletin 656 of
the United States Geological Survey.

Anti-

clines, those folds of the earth's crust

which

125

includes contributions 168-192, which appeared during the years 1915-17 inclusive,
from the studies of Messrs. Osborn, Mat-

thew, Brown, Granger, Gregory, Mook, An-

and

Watson,

thony,

von

Huene.

These

from the Museum Bul-

articles are collected

volumes of the corresponding years.

cause the strata to dip in opposite directions,

lie in a broad belt around the border of the

letin

Big Horn Basin and are almost certain indications of the presence of oil. According to

tributed to the principal research centers in

this country

the authors of the report, those anticlines

Dr. E.

lying nearest the central trough of the basin

greatest

the

offer

drilling, while those

prospect

for

successful

separated from the cen-

trough by other anticlines show scarcely

Oil was discovered in the
a trace of oil.
basin as early as 1888, but no great attempt
tral

The edition

is

limited to sixty

and

is

dis-

and abroad.

W. Gudger,

of the State

Normal

College at Greensboro, North Carolina, spent

months

several

1918

in

Museum working on
fishes,

which

is in

the

at

the

American

bibliography

of

preparation by the depart-

ment of ichthyology.

Methods of

fishing

practiced in the South Seas, including the

was made to produce it until 1906, and it

was not until 1014 that the largest wells were

use of vegetable poisons and other primitive

opened.

terest in his research.

Since that time, however, the out-

put has increased from 3,560,375 to 6,234,-

137 barrels, obtained largely from the Grass

Creek,
fields.

ral

ductive

Eli

Basin, Greybull,

A-

inn'

trough
nil

and Torchlight

anticlines adjacent to the

remain untested, other pro-

fields

may

jet be discovered.

devices,

were among the points of chief

Dr. William K.

Gregory, associate

in-

in

Museum, was
corresponding member of

palaeontology in the American

recently elected a

the Zoological Society of London.

At

the meeting of the Entomological So-

America held in Baltimore in December Dr. Erank E. Lutz, associate curator

of invertebrate zoology in the American
Museum, was elected a member of the execuciety of

y.h.i m k

jus!

yi of Fossil Vertebrates

in

Tht

Must u in of Natural History has

appeared from the department of verte-

brate palaeontology of this institution.

It

Journal

the

Since the

las!

issue

of the

following persons have been elected members

of the American .Museum

Life Jf< mhi rs, -Messrs. Sidney A. Kirkmax, B. E. Seamans, and Paul Watkins.
-

rtaining

and Me. A.

Members,

Kiss. J lmi

McLean

M Ewen.
1

Annual Members, Mesdames Maurice W.

Kozmixski. Charles J. Liebmaxx, Annie
Tbumbull Slossox, Harriet Weil, Misses
Katharine N. Rhoades, i>
b.
Smith, Henrdette Strauss, Marion Wilkinson, Major Garrard Comi.y,
Dr. Arthur If. Judge, Doctors Abraham
lan, Philip Horowitz, Leo Kessel,
Jokichj Takamink, Messrs. William Edwin Allaun, I). Ellis Hamburger, A. C.
ii
:v
W. Kennedy, John E.
Leikaik, William Menke, Henry Mielke,
hkim, F. A. Park, Walter
Pforzheimer, Living o
Rutherford, and
Henry Stemme.
.

Associate

Members,

Mesdames Everard

tive

committee.

Appletox, Humphrey Birge, Misses Eleanor J. Chadeayne, Helen A. Iler, Tiie

Rev. George A. Thayer, Doctors Max C.
Breuer, Robert H. Ellis, Curtiss Gixx,
George M. Horton, J. C. Oliver, John P.
Stephan, Messrs. Chas. E. Adams, Joseph
A. Ar( bbald, Charles K. Arter, Leland
G. Banning, Prank W. Commons, Edward
Cookixoiiam, William G. Crocker, Harry
Trevor Drake. \V. M. Dixoax, .1. McF.
Eaton, Louis McLane Fisher, William
IIi'XTINGTON FOBES, EDWARD I. GARRETT,
Louis W. Hill, Evan IIollister, Jr., II. E.
Holmes, Charles R. Huntley, Richard N.
Jackson, John G. Jennings, Clarenci h.
Johnston, William B. Kirkiiam, Hugo A.
Koehler, F. W. Leadbetter, A. L. Lowrie,
James R. MacColl, Elbert B. Manx, Donald McBride, Amos B. McNairy, Charles
\ \'.EL, O. E. OVERBECK, EDW'ARD S. PAGE,
Wm. P. Palmer, II. E. Partridge, Charles
L. Sommers, Franklin D. L. Stowe, CarleB. Swift, and Master Benjamin Patterson Bole, Jr.

So,

The American Museum

Its

of Natural History

Work, Membership, and

The American Museum

Publications

of Natural History was founded and incorporated in

Museum and Library of Natural History

and developing the study of Natural Science; of advancing the
general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular
1869 for the purpose of establishing a

of encouraging

instruction.

The Museum building

is

New York

erected and largely maintained by

City,

funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of sections from time to time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation is made
for heating, lighting, the repair of the building

and

its

general care and super-

vision.

The Museum

open free to the public every day in the year on week days
on Sundays from 1 to 5 p.m.
The Museum not only maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history,
including the famous habitat groups, designed especially to interest and instruct
from 9 A.M.

is

the public, but also

and

travel

is

to 5 p.m.,

its

library of 70,000 volumes on natural history, ethnology

used by the public as a reference library.

The educational work

of the

Museum

is

carried on also by

numerous

to children, special series of lectures to the blind, provided for

lectures

by the Thorne

and lantern slides

There are in addition special series
of evening lectures for Members in the fall and spring of each year, and on Saturday mornings lectures for the children of Members. Among those who have
appeared in these lecture courses are Admiral Peary, Dean Worcester, Sir John
Murray, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Eoosevelt.

Memorial Fund, and the

issue to public schools of collections

illustrating various branches of nature study.

The following

are the statistics for the year 1918

Attendance in Exhibition Halls

Attendance at Lectures
Lantern Slides Sent out for Use in Schools
School Children Peached by Nature Study Collections
-

627,302
64,036
72,287
817,610

Membership
For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research,
publication, and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endowment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership
Fund is of particular importance from the fact that it may be devoted to such
purposes as the Trustees may deem most important, including the publication of
\ ltural History. There are now more than four thousand Members of the
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is
doing

a useful service to science

and

your support by becoming a Member.

to education, the Trustees invite

you

to lend

NATURAL

I-L7

jLJf

In
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY,

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP-

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

THROUGH THE MUSEUM

IffE

i^j2JS&3

'

FEBRUARY,
Volume

xix,

..

1919

Number

L HI
CONTENTS FOR FEBRUARY

Volume XIX

Frontispiece, Portrait of Dr. Frederic

Director of the American

Human

Museum

Number

Augustus Lucas

130

Natural History

of

X. C. Nelson

Culture

culture center as the point of a pyramid from which we may look down
succession of cultural stages and look out upon an identical geographical
mosl primitive in time corresponding with tin- most remote in space
Diagrams by the Author illustrating the "age and area" hypothesis

Nature Reflected

in

upon

131

historical
distribution, the
a

the Art of the Ancient

George Grant MacCurdy

Ghiriquians
The art of the New

Stone age reflects almost exclusively man's zoological environment, as

illustrated by pottery

from Panama

James

Peace Conditions

G.

Winterton

The Method and Knowledge

of Science
Author contends that human progress has

141

Needham

152

Curtis

155

('.

not come by the method of intuition,

In which the
bat by the accumulation of facts and their interpretation by the common sense of science

The Hoactzin Only Survivor

of an Ancient Order of

Edw \i;i>

Four-footed Birds

M. Brigham

163

Discovery of the quadrupedal character of the young and observations on their habits and
habitat
illustrations

With

Notes by

from

C.

William Beebe's Tropical Wild Life

in

British

Guiana

Butler

170

Greely

182

Rollo H. Beck

183

Roland M. Harper

193

Collector in the Colorado Rockies

A. E.

Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean in 1918

A.

Recollections of Travel in Peru

With

illustrations of Colorado scenery

and

flora,

\V.

by the Author

Some Vanishing

Scenic Features of the Southeastern

United States

Destruction in the Southeast from economic causes, is already well under way, so that it is
time to take action in these states for the preservation of the flora for scientific study and of
the scenic features for their natural beauty

Nam re'-

Victor E. Sheleord

Mobilization

Millions in food and money may often be saved bv accurate knowledge of the time
tions under which various insect pests appear and develop in field and orchard

F. A. G. Pape
in the Seven Seas
Strange sailing craft, faster than any modern racing yachts, invented in days when speed
meant opportunity for plunder and piracy
With illustrations from original drawings by the Author, of Malay, Arab, and other racers

Yachting

The Myth

of the

Monkey Chain

E.

Museum

The Remaking

of a
Collection
Additions and reorganizations in the American Museum's hall of Primates

With photographs

of

some

of the

W.

205

and condi-

211

rnoi:i;

216

F. A.

Lucas

222

Museum's Primate groups

227

Notes
Mary Cynthia Dickerson,

Editor

Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History,
York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year.
Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St.
and Central Park West, New York City.
Natural History is sent to all members of the Ann rican Museum as one of the privileges
of membership.
Entered as second-class matter February 23, 1917, at the Post Office at New York, New
York, under the Act of August 24, 1912.
Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918.

New

THH AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

MEMBERSHIP
For the enrichmenl of its collections, for scientific research and
exploration, and Eor publications, the American M iiseum of Xatural
Elistory is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the generosity of friends.
More than LOOO friends are now enrolled who
are thus supporting the work of the Museum. The various classes
of

membership are
Benefactor
Associate Founder
Associate Benefactor

$50,000
25,000
10,000

Patron

1,000

Fellow

500
100

Member
Sustaining Member
Annual Member
Associate Member (nonresident)
life

annually
annually
annually

25
10
3

Full information regarding membership may he obtained from

the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West.

NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

X \ri i;\i. Eistory, recording popularly the latesl activities in
natural science and exploration, is published monthly from October
to May, inclusive, by the American Museum of Natural History.
The subscription price is Two Dollars a year. Natural Eistori
3ent to all classes of members as one of the privileges of memberSuli-eriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the
ship.
-

Museum.

POPULAR PUBLICATIONS
A

large

number

of popular publications on natural history, hased

on the exploration ami research of the Museum, are available in the

form of handbooks, guide Leaflets, and reprint-. A detailed li-t of
[Sthese publications will he Eound in the Appendix to Natural
tort. Price lists and full information may be obtained by address1

ing the Librarian of the

Museum.

SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
The

Held and laboratory researches of the American Museum of

Natural Eistory and other technical scientific matters of considerate popular interesl are represented by a series of scientific publi-

cations

prising

the

Memoirs,

Bulletin,

and

Anthropological

A condensed lis! of these publications will be Eound on the

Price lists and complete
inside hack cover of Natural Eistory.
data may be obtained from the Librarian.
r>i/

rs.

Photograph by Champlain Studios

FREDERIC AUGUSTUS LUCAS

Director of the American.

Museum of Natural History

Before coming to the American Museum as director, in 1911, Dr. Lucas had many years of museum service as curator-in-chief of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and as curator of the Division of Comparative
Anatomy of the United States National Museum. He has given his labors not alone to the technical branches of zoology,
but he has also furthered by his writings and his museum policies the broader fields of popular scientific education

See "The Remaking

130

of

Museum

Collection,"

pa

NATURAL HISTORY
FEBRUARY,

Volume XIX

H uman
ITS

Number

1919

Cult ure

PROBABLE PLACE OF ORIGIN ON THE EARTH AND

ITS

MODE OF

DISTRIBUTION
Hit tim>

ix
is

lijn for organ izi il interpretative work in world archaeology, and such interpretation
of interest and importance, not only to students of anthropology, but also
tn the

students of everything

By
With

THE

origin of

X.

illustrations

human

C.

N E

culture

is

which has challenged

the thought and imagination of
man since long before the days of writNearly every people, whether of
ing.
high or low attainments, possess myths
and legends to accounl for the principal
inventions and technical processes of
which they make use
Prehistoric man

the ie
-la-tii- scientist
of the
few decades such explanations have
too often been only mere nonsense. We
are

somebody invented
them or brought them from elsewhere, and the person who accomthat, in Bhort,

trying

explain

to

many

the

which our rude predecessors have

left us to enjoy; and our explanations,
partial and imperfect as yet. are at
language
supposed
day when

best written in terse technical

which only the

the

always

-till

gifts

to

been

To

things as hammerstones and houses and

qo1

human

las!

evidently recognized thai such ordinary

had

LSO

is

from original diagrams by the Author

question

domestic hearth-fires

thai

elsi

specialist

i>

understand.
Bui some
matter-of-fact
investigator
the

finished

structure

skeletal

though! on the subject of

ture a gifted imaginal ion

has

of

human

his

cul-

will arise to

plished such a feat for the general en-

and make it live. Of such

poetic nature i- undoubtedly much of

hancement of human

tile

immortalized as

known

best

doubtless
theus,

the

t-

heaven

the

life

was usually

culture-hero.

Our

and classic example le

Greek story of Prome-

who, with the aid of Minerva,

of wisdom, wen! up to

>

<

l<

to light his

torch at the chariot

of the sun and thus broughl

down

fire

clothe

it

lore,

gestion

were

'I

nation of

man

proc

i_

if;

to

<>f

id,

for with the help of tire.

led in

the earth.

make himself master

tile

h'oinrt llell>

story,

from the
ancient East.
Originally based al leas!
in part on sound observation, it was
adapted so that all who saw and heard
mighl understand, each according to
hi- capacity.
We of the Wes1 with our
cut-and-dried views on every subject

man. The implication is

that
Prometheus literally stole the
sacred flame ami for this crime he was
duly punished.
But the gods had been
outwitted and though they raged, they
as a

like

which has come down

have

all

literal

ion

to

commonly

interpretation

us

insisted

on

where only sug-

to encourage original though!

was intended.
And what now of our modern expla-

presenl

human culture? We of the

generation think that we have

done much

in

building the aeroplane

i:.l

NATURAL HISTORY

132

but in the process which we

making

ture history, the

call cul-

of a simple

pointed stick for digging edible roots

out of the ground, was hardly less important.
If now we should attempt to

name

all

which

lie

the discoveries and inventions

between these two extremes we
should be astonished at how much was
really accomplished before our own day.
We need not, however, go to such
lengths here but we may properly ask
when and where the more important
inventions were made.
When did man
actually

first

make

Where

use of fire?

were our numerous domesticated plants

and animals first brought under con-

What

trol

the

first

knife?

people

books, nor

form

the

first

loom,

The answer

questions

ilar

made

potter's wheel, the first flint

is it

to these and simnot yet recorded in

is

handed down in

as oral tradition.

for the answer

reliable

The material

scattered all over the

is

world, even in places where

we should

widely separated parts of the world,

they had probably a common center of
origin. This center of origin is not yet

we know

definitely located but

at

any

much

nearer the cen-

ter of the earth's land

formation than

rate that

it lies

does to any one of the various con-

it

In other words,

tinental extremities.
lies

it

nearer to the meeting place of

Europe, Asia, and Africa (a great traditional center of origin,

it

well to

is

than it does to the Cape of

Good Hope, or to the far away island
of Tasmania, or to the still more distant Cape Horn.
The whole question is one of profound interest and importance, not only
to students of anthropologj-, but also to
recall)

the students of everything else that

is

human. The subject is here approached

from the point of view of several years'
archaeological work clone under the auspices of the American Museum in the
Pueblo region of the Southwest.

in ruins located on the desert and on

Cerdeveloped from this

investigation are of such a nature that
they seem to throw light not only on the

the plain as well as in the forest and

archaeological problem presented

not have expected

men

to congregate.

For the most part the data

lie

buried

among mountain fastnesses; they

cur in mounds and in cemeteries,

oc-

in

conclusions

tain

by the
whole American continent but on the
problem presented by the entire world.

caves and in rock-shelters and even in

peat bogs and the

The

bottoms.

muddy

depths of lake

Discovery

human life and

become known largely
through accident and it is only of late
that we have begun honestly to admit
their significance and to go deliberately
of the record of early
activity

has

in

hitherto

unex-

plored section of the Pueblo area

known

investigation

and adjacent

Xew

is

slowly

gaining

stated this opinion

ground.
is,

first,

Briefly

that the

most widely distributed inventions like

fire-making and flint-chipping are the

in

as the Galisteo basin, directly south of

Where this search will ultimately

But
lead we do not precisely know.
with respect to the time and place of

many of the fundamental elements which go to make up what we

term human culture a definite opinion

American Southwest

In 1912 the writer began archaeological

in search of them.

origin of

the

of the .1 p pa rent Lair of Distribution of Human Cultures

fact of these occurrences

Mexico.

to the city of

The

Santa Fe,
was

region, which

abandoned by native settlers finally

toward the end of the eighteenth centiiiy, comprises about twelve hundred
square miles and contains upward of
one hundred ruins, about sixty of which
are small, even insignificant, while the

remaining forty

attain,

some of them,

the size of respectable towns.

After
having spent a whole season sampling

oldest; and, second, that because these

seven of the larger settlements,

inventions are so nearly identical in

came apparent that in addition

it

be-

to being


himax
the repositories of important materials
for

Museum exhibition

tlements, as

purposes, the

group, presented

set-

very

definite chronological problem.

The
o\

ruins

themselves

Ldence of difference

in

showed some
age, and the

broken pottery which lay strewn over

their surfaces was particularly eloquent,
there being

variety of

which were obviously

-t\ les,

not

some

of

contemporary.

In certain of the mosl recently vacated

settlements one such style was soon
eliminated

of

as

historic

early

date,

being always found in association with

bones of the horse and other domestic
At the
animals of European origin.

end of the second field season in \^\ l.

through the discovery of occasional
sup< rposed ruin- and also through finding a stratified refuse heap of considerable height, the time order of all the

more

distinctively local pottery styles

five or sis in
it

all was determined, and

possible at once to indicate

bea

with certainty the relative ages of the

different ruins.

This principle of ceramic

stratifica-

cuLTiin:

133

merly extended

direction.

that

in

made

variety of observations was

senting

successive styles or

-i\

tlir

all

types characteristic of the various ruins

of thf vicinity, including the modern

N". 6, Figure on page 134)

style
which came into general vogue about
This
modern ware c<
L680.
roughly speaking, about twenty miles
south of the city.
About twenty or
twenty-five miles farther On, beyond
t

southern

the

limits

the

of

basin, the next preceding style

in

appears.

Fifty

mile-

next preceding style

fically to that

cisive

results

type of work.

were

ao1

De-

immediately

forthcoming,
partly
because
refuse
heaps turned out to be absenl in some
localities; but with the assistance of
Professor Kroeber and M r. spier, also

American Museum staff, other

methods of determining the tun
quence of pottery styles were worked
out. and at the presenl moment the

of the

that, pottery

and other indication- of

Pueblo

beyond

this

cease

life

limit

i-

of pottery found in the outer

Pueblo zone is nut. a- mighl have been
expected, comparable w ith -t\ le No. 2
of the central area near Santa Fe, but
i- in part a mixture <>\' the -l \ le- numami 2. And. what i- most inbered
1

teresting, there are associated with this

and

potterj

Pueblo culture had

for-

other

certain

distinct

Pueblo features several nomadic traits

such as small temporary dwellings, mortars

\'<>v

grinding foodstuffs

tribes

the

remains

nomadic peoples.

In conned ion with this st ratigraphic

work the writer had occasion, in 1917,
i<> travel
from Santa Fe" Eor about 350
miles Boutheastwardly to the town of
in Texas with a
>s
iew to learning
far

a-

The type

the genuine nictate and

how

altogether.

clearly assignable

chronologic order of the mosl

important prehistoric centers of Pueblo
settlement i- tolerably clear.
ral

off.

">

to

the better

drops

ished in the Galisi

>n,

dis-

Eighty miles onward the next preceding

run- out, and somewhat
style (No.
mure than one hundred miles hcyond

Such archaeological evidence

.*>.

farther nut the

No.

remainder of the Pueblo area and. after

the contemplated excavations wi re finseasons was devoted

Galisteo
\n.

vogue between 1540 and 1680)

former

of two field

A
but

we are here concerned with one only

and iint- which was QOt at first reeognized a- of any special importance.
Santa Fe i- situated on the ext reme
edg of the present Pueblo habitat and
so, in wandering about the outskirts,
one finds fragments of potterj repre-

tion seemed capable of extension to the

part

-<>

in

on.

place of
1

other

words, this zone clearly marks an ancient

transition belt connecting the hunting
At

caused

and the agricultural

zonal

first

this

little

wonder.

It

tribi

arrangement
was regarded

simply as the accidental result of successive advances into the Pueblo territory mi the part of the nomadic ribes
I

NATURAL HISTORY

134

(Apache and Comanche) localized on

southeastern border an invasion
which was brought to a standstill close
to Santa Fe in modern times. A somewhat similar dropping off of the various stratigraphically determined ceramic levels was recognized as taking
the

nized that a very similar cultural ladder

could be descended in a southwesterly

direction where several tribes

place also in a northwesterly direction,

mountain range has served

invasion and the Pueblo

the outer border being located on the

been

Lake in Utah.
But on this line, too, there had been
steady encroachment of nomadic tribes
such as the Ute and Navaho.
Gradually, however, it was recog-

from the

shores of the Great Salt

live

still

hybrid Pueblo-Nomad kind of life.

On the northeast, no very marked zoning has taken place because here a high
a

to

ward

tribes

left nestling against its

off

have

near base

earliest times to the present.

The outstanding

facts

of this geo-

graphical distribution of Pueblo pottery

may

be represented diagrammatically
And if we
Figure below.

as in the

.-.---"^omadic culture'

No.O

Diagrammatic presentation of the geographic distribution of six successive styles of Pueblo

The distance from the center to the outer zone represents several hundred miles. Within
the inner circle are to be found every one of the six styles, including the one still in process of
manufacture.
In the next circle every style except the modern occurs, and so on out to the
The last zone is the
next to the last zone in which only the most ancient ware is to be found.
illimitable foreign area into which no Pueblo pottery has penetrated

pottery.

HUMAN CULTURE
make

represental Lou of the

seel ional

region

phases
i

that,

was,

as

basin by determining the zonal

order of pottery distribution instead of

_^

by -eanhing the refuse heaps for

the

EARLY HISTORIC

Nomads had

if

are
the

<>

No.4

re-

iginal

EARLY PREHISTORIC

Pueblo border we
s h o u 1 d
still have

had

localized
if

there

fixed

LATE PREHISTORIC

mained quietly on
the

And

No.

Thus even

qo1 so.

No.

culture
is

levels.

something

and necessary about

this zonal

order, then

No.2

Qomadic

it

Would

seem

tO

follow

that

we

have here a principle of wider application

in

PURE PUEBLO

the

any

historic order of the ruins in the Galis-

while certain fea-

features

into

teo

other

up

In dealing with this Pueblo problem

we mighl have obtained our key to the

has been

enon may be accidental, cer

break

itself

area

foreign

distinctively

of separate culture centers.

Pueblo phenom

tares of the

tain

the

number

stated, thai it was a mere coincidence,

an accident due to nomadic invasion.
But some contemplation has led to the

conviction that

Briefly,

by traits ""lion-owed*" from

which may

regarding this

conclusion

and 6 would have remained

he same in our two diagrams.

less affected

clarity the general situai ion.

parallelism

1.

num-

/.ones

relative positions of

neighboring centers, and third, beyond

firsl

0,

The

5.

wherever we are able to distinguish a

culture center we are hound to have,
first, an inner area of pure development.
second, a surrounding zone more or

zone

ransitional

day have extended over the

bered 2 to

we encounter these styles in he

same order in which they lie zoned oul
geographically. Our diagram of course
does a certain amounl of iolence to the
facts, l>ut of that we may give accounl
later.
The aim at preseni i- merely to

Th

our refuse heaps in the surviving high

center of developmenl in order to discover the historical sequence of pottery

strange

No. 0), the

(Xo. 1), and the present high center

development
of pure
J'neblo
No.
which in that case might to6),

same phenomenon, to show the time order, we obtain a pyramidal >i rucl are as
shown in the Figure below. Obviously
the vertical and horizontal arrangements of the pottery series are idenl ical.
That is. in digging down through

styles,

135

study

the
of

culture

TRANSITION LEVEL
No.!

NOMADIC LEVEL
No.O
onal
phic

view

(along the A-B

distribution

and the

line)

of

historic

preceding diagram t<> show the relation between

order of development of the sis recognized Btyles of
the stratified debris levels, within the limits of the
the

Pueblo pottery.
By digging down through
Pueblo habitat, the various successive pottery styles were encountered in the same order
n
in which
were found in traveling radially from this place oul to the extreme limit of former
Pueblo influence.
Roughly Bpeaking, the older the pottery the deeper it is buried and the farther
1ms spread.
it
This diagram and the preceding illustrate cultural distribution within a single
limited area; but the order observed appears to hold true in a measure for all culture areas and
for culture as a whole in its distribution throughout the world.
This wider application is illustrated
by the diagrams on pages 138 and 139

modern

1 1

>-

NATURAL HISTORY

136
history.

By moans

we may be

of this principle

without turning a
spadeful of earth to throw considerable
light on a number of historical problems, great and small, which have not
yet been illuminated by the application
of thorough-going archa-ological methods.

able

Space limitations forbid elabora-

tion in this place but one or two applications

may

be at least suggestive.

Application, of Apparent Law of Distribution to the American Continent

First, let us shift our point of obser-

vation from the Southwest to Middle

America, that is, southern Mexico, CenAmerica, and northern South

America. Here we find ourselves, as it
were, on the summit of aboriginal New
World achievement. From this summit,
if we look northward over what is today tolerably well known terrain, we see
tral

a series of more or less distinctly

marked culture zones occupying successively lower and lower levels and if we
then look southward we perceive a
;

nearly corresponding series of zones in

that direction.

Thus matching the Pueblo culture

on the north we have the so-called
Calchaqui culture on the south, in
northwestern Argentina. On comparing
these two widely
separated centers

we

find not only a general similarity

in

fundamentals but actual identity

in the

case of several

Beyond

this zone

specific

we observe

traits.

a transi-

who have
adopted the rudiments of agriculture
but who still retain many features of
the hunting type of life. This belt in
the north would include all of the eastern two thirds of the United States.
Still farther out comes a broad belt
inhabited by non-agricultural tribes,
that is, nomads who have developed
a comparatively high type of hunting
culture and who, whether roaming or

tion belt inhabited by tribes

stationary,

are

in

possession

of

the

northwestern United States together

with most of Canada to the north and

most of the vast interior portion

south, in particular the

to the

Pampean

re-

Finally, on the

gions of Argentina.

extreme margin of the continent, along

the Arctic shore on the north and in
Tierra del Fuego on the south, we have
remnants of two somewhat unevenly
specialized
centers which,
however,
from the point of view of Middle America, we may properly group together
and classify as a low type of hunting
culture.

Complete justification of

all

the pre-

ceding assertions would require lengthy

discussion.
Still, the only point here
insisted upon is the general pyramidal
character of our continental phenomenon, and that no one can deny. In the
former case of the Southwest, we were
obliged to admit the Pueblo pyramid to
have been produced perhaps in part by
the accident of nomadic encroachment.
In the present case of America as a
whole, our pyramid is the result of exactly the opposite tendency: archaeo-

show the
higher continental cultures to have been
steadily encroaching on the lower.
Nevertheless, in both cases the pyrami-

logical investigations clearly

dal condition remains

son the writer

and for that

rea-

convinced that it is
not an accident but is instead an almost
axiomatic fact.
In attempting now to offer an explanation of the visibly corresponding culis

ture zones of North and South

ica,

we

Amer-

are not required to deny the

influence

either

of

and

environment

psychic unity on the one hand or of recent trait transmission by borrowing on

the

other.

We may

insist,

however,

that none of these explanations

is

en-

adequate; and that instead on

the basis of analogy with our demonstrated
Pueblo phenomenon
these
zones correspond for the much simpler
reason of being actually surviving parts
of one and the same culture center
which formerly extended over all the intervening area. Each pair of segments
in turn, beginning with the Eskimotirely

HUMAN CULTURE
obscured

archaeological

pothesis

higher culture.

graphical aspect of culture distribution

by .-imply laving down a series of con-

of

tesl

careful determination of

is

hy-

bhis

All that is

easily applied.

is

necessary

are no! so disposed thai we can give

an adequate demonstration of the geo-

the

by

posed developmenl of

The

and the
superim-

separated

Fuegian, has been

connection

the various culture strata to be found

beneath the topmosl layer of our -rent

pyramid.
pointed

the

If

zonal

for the

<nit

arrangement

continent at large

has any real historical significance, then

we should

find

corresponding

Middle America a

In

137

arrange-

stratigraphic

centric circles.

Still,

the idea to be

may perhaps

be made more
by such procedure,
even a1 the risk of doing absolute violence to -erne of the facts we are conThe best that can be done is
sidering.
to present a map of the inhabited world
On a Bering Strait projection and with
that point as a center describe our cir-

conveyed

directly intelligible

\nd. already, sufficient has been

ment.
accomplished in this direction to assure
us that the final result will conic out

cle- in a partly arbitrary fashion.

virtually as indicated.

variously named.

This should mean, briefly, that the

culture wave to sweep into
the New World was of the hunting
type and approximately on a level with
that of the Fuegian tribes of today.
In the course of time this culture
earliesl

came

characterize

to

but

tinent,

was

elopments

Middle

of

in

the

entire

by

displaced
the

America

tively early dale,

con-

higher

might be
Perhaps our ethnological terminology will serve besl and
we may begin on the extreme border
and repeat inward toward the Bering
higher hunters,

sedentary
trialists.

or, in ol

Fuego and Greenland.

On some

true in

merely that

all

is

it

of

scheme

details,

its

is

but

more true than false

it is fundamen-

The

lnn-t primil ive cultures

within the outer

fall

indus-

contended

her words, that

tally true.

do

not. of course,

is

oomads,

and

agriculturists,
It

lower hunt-

pastoral

this simple distribution

that

long before

presenl marginal positions in Tierra

indicated

Strait center, in succession

ers,

literally

possibly

(See

page 138.)

The zones thus

narrow confines
at a
compara-

the original primitive phase bad reached

it-

llln-trat ion,

as

the

it
seems possible also to recgood deal of conflicl Lag anthropological opinion regarding early man
in the New World.
For \\ hile all agree

complex fall within the inner

circle, and whether we approach this
inner circle from Tasmania or South
Africa or Tierra del Fuego, we do encounter the advanced culture- in ap-

as i" the generally primil ive character

proximately the order indicated.

del

such basis

oncile

of

mosi

We

Eskimo-Fuegian culture, some main-

have, lastly, to look at this hori-

zontal

phenomenon

new-

pect.

Each

spectable geologic ant iquity.

lire-. -ur\ i\ ing here and there on the

margins of the ^<\ as well as of the
New World, -how- such striking similarity to one phase or another of the

tain

thai

it

is

ao1

at

all

ancient.

If

we can show this type of culture to

lie at the bottom of Middle American
developments we shall probably at the
Bame time establish for it a very re-

to tin-

The pyramidal

World as

idea,

proved

Whole
for the

and indicated as probable

American continent, seems rue
a genera] way for the world at

Southwesl
for the

also in

Unfortunately, the earth's land

rmat ions and their climatic pro inces

large.
f<

it-

vertical

as-

ive cul-

<

ancient

Application

in

our mosi primil

oi

Europe
note
1

it

Palaeolithic culture of western

thai

he fact.
will

few students have failed to

And the notion of possi-

perhaps

be

pointed

oul

thai

should be plotted within

development, grading down
in reverse order toward the Arctic <i,-,;m.
Bui the
cir< unipolar phenomenon has been left oul purposely
in the presenl broad treatment, first, for the s ,u,.
n!' clearness,
and second, because it is, after all, a
feature due largelj to environmental conditions.
ling

our inner

series ut'
circle of

'.ones

ti

trli

Diagrammatic presentation of the general geographic distribution throughout the world of the composition ot the
monly recognized culture stages at the time of the discovery of America. The indicated
is not to be taken literally
given zones on any one of the three continental land masses crossed by them
America, for
South
In
fast.
and
hard
considered
throughout, nor is even the order of names to be
should not be indicated
example the "pastoral zone" is all but nonexistent. Accurately drawn, the zones
which would actually eliminate most of North
by true' circles but by something like isothermal lines
The idea to
constituted.
America and a good 'part of northern Asia from the central area as now
the world's most advanced cultures are
be conveved by the above rigid diagram is simply this, that
one of he
any
toward
center
this
from
travel
out
at home "within the central area and that, as we
a cultural pyramid; and, finally, that the
three land mass extremities, we find ourselves descending
cultures for the distantly separated land masses
farther out we go the cruder and more nearly alike the
tribes of Tasmania, South Africa, and
In other words, the cultural attainments of the native
become
same; whereas by contrast the culalthough very far apart in space, are almost the
Tierra del Fuego,
differentiated.
tures characterizing the central area are highly

ble historic connection thus

engendered

is greatly strengthened by a consideration of the archaeological data for the

world at large.

In the case of America, for example,

discover at once that the resemblance
was formerly closer than it
question
in
is today. Briefly stated, our Eskimo and
Fuegian cultures, especially the former,

we

Magdalenian 1

show strong
For the continent

at

large,

affinities.

however,

1 Various European culture levels of Paleolithic

time, determined by the character of the stone and
other implements used by early man, and thought
to range backward from a few thousand to 400,000 and more years, are in their order counting
backward from modern and Neolithic as follows

Magdalenian, Solutrean, Aurignacian, Mousterian,

Acheulian, Chellean, Strepyan,

138

etc.

the Solutrean flint technique is typical

and has been typical, it seems, through-

out nearly the whole known history of

Only here
American developments.
and there, for instance along the Arisle of Cuba, and
and Mammoth Cave rehave we obtained more or less

gentine coast, on the

in the Ozark
gions,

distinct traces of chipped

stone arti-

which in type and technique resemble the Aurignacian and Mousterian

Whether we shall ever be
products.
able to isolate definitely something corresponding to the Acheulian and Chellean phases remains to be seen; but
facts

when we

stop to consider the relatively

enormous time interval covered by the

HUMAN CULTURE
coup-de-poing typ<

when we bear

and

stated

at

nearly

oldesl

archaeological

of implemeiil

mind

in

also

its

complete distribution over the (Mil

World, it becomes obviously hazardous
to exclude its occurrence from the New
World.
Mosi Likely we shall some da
verse the balance of American opinion
againsl the genuine antiquity of the
scattered

finds

drift of the

But even

this should

irobable thai

made

already

telaware and

ome

in

the

>hio basins.

<

to pass,

it

the various phases of

Palaeolithic culture as

their besl in western

L39

we know them at
Europe can never

presenl

thai

is

data

found

hitherto been

\\

seemingly the
known have

ithin

the Limits

inner circle, which also marks

of our

our presenl center of high development.

>ur oldesl cultural remains have thus
(

been found in the vicinity of the

Mediterranean, bu1 for various reasons,
theorel ic and practical, it seems probable that -till older remains mighl be
far

round farther
ing

to the east,

roughly speak-

cent ral or southern Asia.

in

all other invenl ion-, even the

mosi primitive and fundamental, were

pose thai

brought out into sharp relief in

America. Thai is to say, we shall never
be able to obtain clear and detailed

made

stratifications, because the besl

history, condition- were probably

be

the

New World was

so

pari

of

away from

far

the center of origin thai the earliesl cul-

ture waves had spenl themselves

I"

they arrived here.

No attempl can

here be

made

to

!i\

tin- center of origin or even to suggesl

that

it

in that same place.

Throughout nearly all

a- they are today

locality.

All

thai

can

'The coup-de-poing type

be

of implement resembles
oade spear point and is the oldest

a larg

gnized

as

intentionally

mad

how

the zonal

there were

culture

particular

probably refined

it-elf

to

stagnation and ultimately

pre\
I

A possible explanation of
illustrated by a Bectional view

of

culture

much
num-

ber of culminating centers and the

dominant one may at time- have been
difficull to recognize; hut at any rate
no particular center retained permanent -way.
As within historic time-.

ever can be identified with any

particular

But,

wherever the firsl real invenl ions were

made, it would be preposterous to sup-

similarities

to

phenomenon
the point
fell

of

an easy

any vigorous barbarian group.

principle

here

i-

no difference be-

separate continents ram.' about is

preceding diagram.
The
view i- taken along tin- a B diameter but it should actually follow
line rui
gh western
n Europe a- well a- southern and eastern Asia.
The diagram is
atory
and i> a repetition of tin- ttrst two illustrations, with simply a change of text. The only real modifir- in the Bectional portion where th.- pyramid
inverted in order to indicate the
passage .if time while th.- normally associated groups of inventions and practices traveled from the
of origin out toward the margin
t
habited world.
Onlj the relativelj crude cultures
have arrived on this outer margin, where it i- said thej are not verj ancient; hot in th.' center of
high
these -am.' crude cultures In- stratigraphically very deep or. in other words, are
decidedly ancient.
For that reason it i- assumed a- likely that
of the world's great culture
n th.' central area an.
spread from there a- successive waves in all direct
for

the

alo

:i

NATURAL HISTORY

to

tween the decline of the Pueblo culture

and be fall of Eome.
Willi all these limitations and precautions in mind we may conclude our
i

semi-speculative survey
1

are with a

of

diagrammat

human

cul-

pivsentat ion

ic

seems to be the essenl Lai hisand geographic factors involved.

The elements of this diagram have alof

liai

\\

p\ ramid in the middle and then

up both of the outer ends. This in
effeel inverts our old pyramid and enables us at the same time to combine
the time and space diagrams into one.
The resull is indicated in the Figure on
page 39.

raced
raise

toric

been

ready

in

forth

set

connect inn

This paper

an attempt to present

is

the large and complex subject of

human

The
Pueblo phenomenon.
zonal schematization we may leave un-

culture in

modified, but the sectional presentation,

inspection of details would immediately

with

the

roared

the

in

form of

although

mid,

not
of

so

as

was

error

in

faulty,

actually

constructional

a steplike pyra-

apparently

however,

obvious,

correct,

stated.

The

question

was

in

the case

minor Pueblo pyramid

the

will be in the case of

pyramid.

is

as

it

our great world

Briefly stated, the difficulty

hinges on the fact that no single invention and

much

any whole cultural complex, wherever it originated,

could

spread

all

less

over

the

inhabited

world in the twinkling of an eye. If

we grant, for the sake of argument, that
density of population and consequent
specialization along various lines of activity first came to a head somewhere
near the meeting place of Europe, Asia,

and Africa,

it is obvious that it would

take a considerable period of time for

even the most adaptable sort of invention to reach, let us say,

Tasmania and

Tierra del Fuego.

As

is

plainly evident, very few of the

its

simplest possible terms.

The explanation

is

not finished. Actual

bring out numerous difficulties and

It
not, of course,
weaknesses.
is
argued, for instance, that the surviving
cultures as we view them today, from
the central to the extreme zone, will

give us an exact picture of

tural development.

human

cul-

All the while since

differentiation set in, these zones have

reacted on one another.

That

is,

few

have flowed perhaps both in and

out on horizontal lines in addition to the
many traits which welled up as it were
traits

from below. But in a general and at the

same time in the most profound way.
the outer zone has unquestionably preserved for us the really ancient culture.

We may

properly conclude with some-

thing in the nature of a prophecy. The

signs of the times are auspicious.
Events of the last few years have
brought it about that men, in planning
the future, have to think in world terms
or

fail.

same

is

There

is

a sense in which the

true also in connection with

advanced ideas concretely realized in

the central area of high development
ever reached the outermost zones; and,

reconstruction of the world's past.

regarding those which did arrive there,

we are constantly being told that they
occur only superficially, whereas, in the
inner area, the corresponding primitive
forms lie stratigraphically deep. This
signifies undoubtedly that millenniums
of time passed while the various successive adaptations in culture spread over

minutiae to the exclusion of everything

the world.

To

represent the fact dia-

grammatic-ally we have simply to break

the horizontal division lines of our ter-

after a century of exploratory

archaeology,

we

still

If,

work in

continue over local

we shall ultimately become so burdened with endlessly duplicated detail

facts that no man can master them and
the wasteful procedure will break down
of its own weight.
If, on the other
hand, we simply dare to see our problem whole, then surely many of our
else,

present

away

minor

difficulties

of themselves.

will

The time

is

for organized interpretative work.

fade
ripe

Nature Reflected in the Art of the

Ancient Chiriquians
By

R G E GR A N T

(i

a c C

U R

Assistant Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology and Curator of the Anthropological

Collection, Yale University

THE

age of the cave artist was

and in relief, of engraving, and painting were born and first flourished. This

man's zoologic environment ; they

man's attitude toward
this environment had changed somewhat, the change being measured by the
extent to which realism was replaced by
conventionalism, and the ex-voto by the

troglodyte art was remarkable for

totem.

the age preeminent of funda-

mentals in

art.

was then

It

that the arts of sculpture in the round

its

sively

also indicate that

realism, especially throughout its earlier

phases.

It dealt with

Life

forms, for

the most part those of animals useful

man.

During

the

earlier

as

man must

later Stone age,

well as the
have taken a

certain delight in the beauty of animal

beginnings and its realischaracter were due in a measure at

forms independent of their real or supposed influence upon his fortunes; his

least to the necessity of controlling the

ability to reproduce the chief features

food supply.

of the animal

to
tic

Its

With the

final retreat of the conti-

nental glaciers and the disappearance

of the reindeer and the

western

Europe, cave

eclipse.

The

followed

by

l'aheolithic
a

artistic age, the

men

of the

mammoth from
arl

more

an
period was

suffered

practical

Neolithic.

New Stone

if

less

While the

age contributed

was in
other direction-, notably through the
far-reaching discovery of the ceramic
in their turn to art progress,

ii

forms which interested

him most no doubt gave him added

sat-

isfaction.

come from a
namely
the province of Chiriqui on the Pacific
coast of Panama, and have been selected principally from the unrivaled

The examples chosen

single

restricted

all

culture area,

collection of Chiriquian

antiquities in

Peabody Museum of Yale University.

The specimen- belong to the late Stone

age, or, to be more exact, the transition
the Neolithic to the age of metals.

art.

fn

In any discussion therefore of Neolithic art, ceramic art plays an important role. This is true not only of pre-

They are almost wholly from the field

of ceramic art and date from a time
when the use of the potter's wheel was

historic

Europe

but

also of prehistoric

America.
Since many of the ornamental designs that have had such a
vogue in historic lime had already
taken shape before the dawn of history,
their origin is to be sought for in preSince the problem in
historic records.
Europe is more complex than that in
America. I have chosen some prehistoric American examples, which seem
to illustrate the principles that control

the origin and evolution of ornament in

art.

like

These prove that Neolithic art,

cave art, reflected almost exclu-

in

unknown in America.
The pottery of ancient Chiriqui is
divisible into a number of rather disstill

groups depending on the nature

tinct

of the paste
ish,

and

slip,

the form and fin-

the presence or absence of paint,

and above all the character of the ornament whether in the round, in relief,
incised, or in color; and if in color, the
method of producing the design.
;

An outstanding feature of ancient

Chiriquian pottery is the association of
a given animal with a given kind of
ceramic product. The next and chief
141

NATURAL HISTORY

142

phenomenon
whole

the proliferation of a

is

series

motives

decorative

of

grouped about a single animal form

and presumably derived from it. If
this be true, then Chiriqui affords some
striking proofs of the way ornamental
designs have arisen and of the preponderating influence of conventionalism
in their evolution.

knowledge of the folklore of the

ancient Chiriquians might throw light

on why the artist made so much of ceranimals while ignoring others.

This choice might well have been influenced by various considerations such as
totemism, tradition, comeliness, or even
tain

the mere coincidence of similarity between some artificial product and some
well-known animal form. The favorite
models were the animals common to the
region in question, those whose peculiarities of form and of habit were not
beyond the reach of common knowledge. While the artist often produced
figures with mixed attributes, their
component parts are always referable to
living local forms rather than to fabulous creatures.

The

largest group of ware

is

charac-

terized by a distinct kind of paste

and

the absence of paint, a remarkable

slip,

Only
comes to the arrangement, the

skillfully as well as realistically.

when

it

disposition of the series,

is

there a de-

parture from nature.

with the armadillo figure

whole the artist allowed himself
considerable latitude. At times he was
satisfied with nothing less than a faithful copy. At other times reduction and
simplification of parts were carried so
far as to render identification difficult.
Again, the artist indulged in the reduIn dealing

as a

plication, exaggeration, elimination, or

fusion of parts, at

all

times, however,

an unmistakable though indefinable stamp upon his work, a touch

that entitled him to rank as a student
of nature and, by virtue of this, as a
true artist; for the two go hand in
leaving

hand, are inseparable.

The reasons why

the Chiriquian argave special prominence to the armadillo are somewhat obscure, beyond
tist

its

local

occurrence,

peculiar

habit-.

an article of food. Its

mythological background is trifling in
comparison with that of some other
and

its utility as

animals: but this could be accounted

for in part at least by its limited range.

On

the other

hand the bird and the

serpent have a very wide geographic

enough

purity of form and finish, and orna-

distribution

mentation in the round or in relief.

The ornamentation dominant is taken
from the armadillo. A favorite adap-

these are. above all others, the mythoIt is therefore

logical world favorites.

tation

the use of a

is

istic figure of

more

or less real-

the armadillo as tripod

supports; another

the perching of

is

the figure on the shoulders of vases.

More remarkable

still

the isolation

is

of a single feature or part of the

dillo

and

its

arma-

use as a decorative motive

independent of and at the same time

representative of the whole
the foot, the

pace.

of a vase

tail,

the eye,

band of the cara-

pleasing pattern for the neck

is

a series of carapace motives

or tail motives, in zigzag, with a foot or

an

eye

space.
tail,

each

angular

Each carapace band,

or each

symbol

as the case

filling

may

be,

is

executed

and

curiously

not at all surprising to find the trail of

the serpent in ancient Chiriquian symIn fact it is the chief decorabolism.

one small group of ware

an impress on two other
Like the armadillo ware, the
groups.
serpent ware belongs in a class by itself
because of its distinctive (black) paste
and slip and the fact that the designs
are incised instead of being in the
round or in relief. Moreover, the effect
of the incised pattern is heightened
tive feature in

and has

left

through the filling in of the incisions

with a white substance.
The favorite theme is a long serpentine body with a head and protruding
forked tono-ue at each end. The whole

NATURE REFLECTED
forms

balanced and somewhat styliswliicli is repeated on the

;i

figure,

tic

opposite

of the

side

Willi

vase.

the

elimination of the heads, the breaking

up of the body into geomel ric patterns,

and the shifting of the bod] markings
from their original position, the symbolism some! Lines reaches

stage

A-

mosl complete disguise.

al-

<>f

how-

Long,

ever, a- the artist confined himself to

ware

the distinctive serpenl

ing

comparatively

i-

clear.

meanWhen, ami
In-

he attempted to carry tin- conven-

it',

symbolism over into

ware calling for a
change of medium ami technique, and
where other motives dominated, tin'
results became confused with designs
that started from wholly different origtionalized serpenl

other

groups

of

inals.

Like the bird and the snake, the

fish

ha- an all hut universal range, hut it

dor- not seem to have left such an indelible impress on the mind of primitive

man

have the former two.

a-

!hi-

waters abound in fish, which

must have been one of the chief sources
riquian

of food supply

than that

ural

deavor

to

among

the ancient

in-

Nothing could he more nat-

habitants.

the

potter should en-

reproduce

form

of

such

utilitarian a- well as artistic adaptabilIn fashioning the Ion-- tripod sup-

ity.

ports

for

urn-shaped

inadvertently

al

ing the out lines of

resemblance

,-i

could

he

vases

form suggest-

fish

he

would

the fortuitous

heightened

ad

libitum by emphasis upon such details

a- the uose, eyes, ami fins.
In some

examples the piscatorial

ributes arc

IN CHIRIQUIAN
The

lagarto).
revealed

is

in

ART

extent of

influence

thi.-

The prototype

art.

[:;

of

Chinese dragon is no doubt the

alligator,
with which the Yangtze
River teemed in prehistoric time and
the

which must have

heart

period

that

i.

rower of
Dr.

was probably the

It

crocodile

ian

pt

rice--

pointed out by

(as

Berthold hauler
Eg]

with terror the

filled

riparian

the

of

inspired

that

the

author of the book of Job to write:

'('an-t thou draw out leviathan with a
hook?"'
As was the case in China and
Eg] pt, so it was in Chiriqui, where the
record is none the less complete because
of

its

being pictorial instead of written.

Representations of the alligator not

only are confined almost wholly to two

groups of

related

'h

pottery

riquia n

but also are dominant in these groups.

Since both groups depend on color for
their ornamentation,

curs consistently

uever as

in

figure in

the alligator oc-

painted form- only.

he round, in relief.

or incised.

The
known

larger

of

as alligator

terized by

two groups is
ware and is charac-

the

paste of excellent qualitj

slip, and by red and

black delineating color., both being of
a

cream-colored

an enduring nature

The more

realis-

tic figures of the alligator are in profile

and

decorate

the

bodies

of

globular

vases, one being painted on each side.

The

emphasized certain features

by preference: jaws of
exaggerated length and recurved, especially the upper one. undue prominence
artist

of the annual

of the frontal region,

of the body line, and

synclinal sweep

suggested by the meresl touch, such as

scrupulous care
that the scales and -pine be uoi omit-

the Blighi flattening

ted.

cate the tail

single

nod.,

the dorsal

tin

on
tin.

at

att

the end

t<>

indi-

or the application of a
tin.

In

back

to

represent

the

others

details

are worked out with such care that one

i-

fields

alligator or crocodile

Spanish

el

that

ures of the alligator are encountered

is! ic

more potent

method of bringing the

them in

iew w as to -roup

Profile fig-

ranging

rose above the dorsal line.

Few animal- have

left

favorite

triangular or semicircular

able to idenl ify the exact species.

symbolic impress upon the culture of

various people, of the earth than has
thi

scales into

all

the

way from elaborate

real-

represental ions to a simple abbre-

viated

horizontal

single dot

in

body

curve

with

the hollow of the curve

to indicate the dorsal

body markings.

144

NATURAL HISTORY
SERPENT WARE
Representations of the
Chiriquian

on

serpent

pottery are almost wholly

confined

small

one

to

the

group,

ceramic

so-

called black incised ware.

Ou

this

tive

is

as

the serpent mo-

all-pervading

so

The deep
ware
this

serpent ware.
in

incisions

made

were

name

the

justify

to

the

before

and were

paste hardened

with a white substance that stands out in

filled

contrast

with

the

black ground.

The

geo-

bold

metric decorations of the

here
vessel
uppermost

shown are
the

survival of

serpent symbol.

In

figure

the

the

second

body of the serpent with

head at both ends passes
around the body of the
vase three times.

Opposite

the

of

sides

third vase are decorated

with a pattern evidently

intended to represent a
similar serpent with

head

and forked tongue

The body
end.

each

serpent

is

at

the

of

folded on

itself

such a manner as to
produce geometric outlines and thoroughly cover
the field to be decorated.
in

The handles of this veswhere they merge

sel,
are crossed

into the lip,

by an incised
the
sembling

re-

fillet

carapace

symbol so common in the

armadillo ware. A breaking

up

that

of

elements

the

enter into the realof

representation

istic

the serpent

is

sometimes

seen, a series of triangles

being formed by the body

motive

with

mark-

the

appearing

ings

only

the enclosed spaces.

results

omy

in

This

not only in econbut also in

of labor

more

cover-

thoroughly

ing the area to be decorated; hence convention-

has

ever

much the
omv as of

child

alism

ritual

been
of

as

econ-

NATURE REFLECTED

IN CHIRIQUIAN

ART

14.")

ALLIGATOR WARE
The

skill of the

Chiriquian

where
than

his

the alligator,

no

is

displayed

better

in

ancient

artist

treatment of
representa-

which charactertwo related ceramic

groups (the so-called alligator ware and the polychrome wan-) which, nn
tions of
ize

armadillo ware.

the

like

depend on color for ornaIn this proare combini d

the chief features of the
alligator, including scales
mentation.
figure

file

and spines

by no means cer
tin- ancient Chiriquians may not have
is

It

tain that

had m mind tin' crocodile

rather than the alligator
since

are found in
waters.
The

both

Chiriquian
length

jaw

of

times

at

depicted
the

by

artist

to
seems
indicate
former instead of

muzzled

tin-

the

alliga-

The stylistic figure

here shown lias a head at

tor.

A&

Of

the

T.i

n1

>

Dots

representing
and teeth are placed
pace in\ ites rather
than here thej b

What

at

first

meaningless

!%

arms

bundle of waving
portrayed nn this
a

of

com
the

alligator

head

turning

'l"in-

much

jaws extend

and

itment
with the

tail,

backward
exaggerated

balanced

by

long appendage on
neck. While the SP
low is ampl
i-

tail,

and

small

tin-

trunk,

1(1

NATURAL HISTORY
A

favorite

the

rep-

shows

resentation

alligator

absolute

Xote

in

profile.

open

the

mouth with

teeth,

upturned

the

dorsal

the

snout,

markings
head and

on

the

tail,

and

the long crest

at-

tached to the neck

Vessels

the

of

group

alligator

mounted

as

tri-

pods are comparatively

The

rare.

supports are usushort,

ally

solid,

pointed

cones

marked

by

hori-

zontal blackbands.

In this vase from

Banco the neck

El
is

and

quite short

the shoulder decoration

consists

of

three panels each

bearing

series

scale-group

of

symbols.

The

profile

view

of the alligator is

reduced

here

simplest

its

ments

and

curve

the

the

of

body line
in the

dot

hollow
curve

to
ele-

the

of

repre-

to

sent the scales on

back
animal

the

of

the

representa-

tion of the alligator similar to the

figure

at

the

top

page is
here shown, the
body markings being represented by
only one type of
scale-group
moof

the

tive,

repeated

three times on the

head

and

five

times

on the

tail

NATURE REFLECTED

IX C1IUUQUIAN ART
The reasons

man.

\:

would

Not content with his success in executing the profile view of the alii -.nor.

tive

the artisl also took specia] pain- to pic-

through the eyes of the Travailleurs de

la Mer, as Victor Hugo attempted to

aspect of the animal,

ture the dorsal

a difficult problem happily solved

through the aid of conventionalism.

mean-

I'>\

of

the rows of spines on

back were indicated

margins of the

eral

lines

series of parallel

\\

the
bile

alligator's

the lat-

to

were attached

series

spines or dotted triangles to represent

the scales.

To

these triangles

have

given the name scale-group motive,

while the figure as a whole
have called
I

The

the dorsal-view motive.

decoration

favorite

latter

arched

for

on the shoulders of vases.

The other group of ware
alligator motives prevail

importance.

special

is

It

is

panels

which

in

small hut of

is

known

as

polychrome ware, and is at once recizable througb the addition of purple as

delineating color, special

in the elaboration of designs,

tility in

skill

n this rare

man

figure

attributes

head on
attached

combined alligator

alligator

tail a

which

figure

The

called the alligator god.

are

an

have

alligator

god was a particular favorite with the

Over and
Chiriquian metal worker.
over again we find him anion-- the gold
figurines.
Bis human feet are usually
planted on the body of an alligator, to
each end of which is attached an alli
head and undifferentiated forewhile on his alligator head r
legs
:

double-headed

similar

alligator

in-

verted.

The octopus
both

sides

alligator
a

it

powerful

frequents the

wan

rs

on

I.i' e
[sthmus.
the
might be expected to casl

of the

spell

over the

[mi-

Fig-

occur

and

in the

art

of

Passing
to the New World, one readily encounter- two centers of the octopus cult.
elsewhere.

Peru and Chiriqui.

In Chiriqui we find the association
of the octopus with a single kind of
ceramic product, which for the sake of
convenience we may call octopus ware.
This ware differs from the alligator
group and both differ from the armadillo ware.
In point of numbers the
octopus group rani,- next to the armadillo group.

It

consists for the

most

part of -lender-necked globular vases of

i-

human body to which

human arms and legs and

Mediterranean region

conventionalized,
ancient Greece

size.

it

ures of the octopus, both realistic and

medium

ceramic group we find a

with alligator and hu-

for this

one could see

hears ahundant evidence of this.

the slip

alligator profile motives.

if

prehistoric as well as the his-

It is in

I'

The

do.

toric art of the

and versa-

the shaping process.

this group alone that we find the highly

ornamental branching scroll pattern
evolved from the multiple bodj lit
the alligator combined with a -cries of

painted

be clear enough

The prevailing

red.

On

color of

this the designs

were laid down in wax. The part to bedecorated was then treated with a uni-

form coal

of

hater the vessel

black,

was passed

through a hoi bath; this

melted the wax which carried with it

portions of the overlying black, leaving

the desired pattern in the color of the

The technique and

ground.

the nature

employed are thus wholly

from those in the ceramic

of the colors
different

groups
point

already

common

in

the

The only

that here again the

motives

center

zoomorphic original
and are presumably de-

single

octopus

rived from

There
in

is

decorative

prevailing

ahout

described.

is

it.

something peculiarly

fitting

the association of the octopus with

round-bodied vases that

ornamental ion upon a
By addsystem of negal ive paint ing.
in- eighl appendages the body and
mouth of the vase at once become the
small-necked

depend

for their

body and month of an octopus. This

iequally the case whether the arms
depend from the neck or rise from the

NATURAL HISTORY

148

tion.

Polychrome ware is remarkable for its rarity as well as for

It is more closely akin to the alligator ware than to any

its

refinement and beauty of ornamenta-

other, the delineating colors, black

and

The
character.
red, being the same, while the addition of purple in many cases gives a distinguishing
elaborate branching scroll decorating this vase is derived from the multiple body curve of the alligator,
to

which seven

alligator profile motives are attached

(compare with third

figure,

page 146)

of
The alligator god (at the left). This extraordinary design on the inside of a cup or chalice
with all
polychrome ware represents the human body and extremities surmounted by the alligator's head
The artistic red and purple spines are attached to the crests instead of to the
its characteristic traits.
of the
head proper. It has been observed that there is great resemblance in this decoration to that
earliest

known

period of Chinese art

attributes, as
The parrot god (at the right). The human body is sometimes combined with avian
Even here alligator symbolism is present in the foot rest, which is
seen in this figure cast in gold.
repeated in inverted position to form the headdress of the god

NATURE REFLECTED

IN CHIRIQUIAN

ART

14<)

Octopus wan-, showing realistic figure of an octopus.

One of the besl examples of the association
given animal with a certain ceramic product is exemplified in this so-called octopus ware, which
The method of producing ihe design and
like the alligator ware depends on color for its ornamentation.
the nature of the colors used are, however, very different in the two.
of a

It appears in
a curved
In this examph ol octopus ware the octopus appendage alone is used.
frondlike representation and also in the guise of a short-based triangle with a series of dots representing
the suckers, these motives alternating in a series below the neck of the vessel

150

NATURAL HISTORY
FURTHER
EXAMPLES OF

OCTOPUS
WARE
Outlined in black on a
ground, eight octopus arms (of the curved
light

frond type) depend from

the neck of this vase, the
neck and mouth of the
vase being in the position of body and mouth
of the octopus.

and

Triangular

curved frond octopus

appendages converging toward the center
of

On

circular

panel.

the vessel at the

right
sets

there
of

are

four

appendages,

namely, one descending from the neck,

one

from the
and two converging toward the
rising

base,

centers

of

opposite

circular panels

Here the triangular

(the
and frond type
fronds are straightened)
of octopus appendage alternate, filling an arched
The straightened
panel.
fronds bear two rows of
suckers each

vase

yellow
and
has a zonal

decoration.

The two broad

black

pale

black bands are broken

up by a succession of

diamond-shaped

figures

each representing an oc(Compare

topus body.
with figure at top of page
Appendages have
149.)
been eliminated and dots
indicating
suckers
the
have been placed within
the body areas

NATURE REFLECTED
maximum

vessel's

horizontal

circum-

ART

IN CHIRIQUIAN
mals

\\

hich appealed

15]

more or less to the

Annum- these are

ference.

fancy of the artist.

Again the globular shape of the body

makes it possible to describe a circular
panel on each side. This is sometimes

armadillo group, the monkey, raccoon,

filled

by

pus.

Again

small

toward

realistic

in

circle

figure of the octo-

the center of this panel

may

be

traced;

make-believe mouth

this

and
as

octopus appendages converge

from the periphery of the panel. Thus

center,

can a single vase be made

to represenl

two complete octopus figures. In some

examples the reduplication is repeated
about the neck and bottom of the vase
respectively, resulting in a quadruple
representation of the complete octopus
outstanding feature of the
octopus is the se1 of eight suckered appendages; to these the Chiriquian arThe more
tisi gave special attention.
<>nc

realistic

appendage representations are

frondlike and accompanied by

er dots along the

The

a row-

of

convex margin.

appendage

motive
form of a short-based triangle, with a row of suckers paralleling
From
one or both of the long sides.
both the frondlike and the triangular
appendage the suckers are often omitted, or they may appear by transposiion "ii the body of the octopus.
less

takes

realistic

tlic

In

pent,
of

\\

addition

to

the

armadillo,

ser-

and octopus, 1 each

dominanl in a distincl ce-

fish, alligator,

hich

is

ramic group, there are several other ani1

Mr. B. W. Merwin of the University Museum,
Philadelphia, has recentlj called attention to a
snake (CrotahtB durisaus) from Cliiriqui. the scale
a of which is not unlike Bome of the designs
to be found botli in the alligator and octopus
ceramic groups.
In other words, with such nn
exuberant proliferation of decorative motives derived from ;i Bingle zoomorphic original there is
ibility of the overlapping of
motiv.-. that started from wholly diffi
inals.
For example dote were employed not only
present the Bcales of the alligator but also
for thi
of the oetopus; they might al
made to Btand f<
on a Bnake's back,
The
rved as a convenient bj mbol for
groups of alligator Bcales.
On the other hand a
short-based triangle accompanied by dots along
one or both of its longer sides was without the

iguana,

squirrel,

tapir,

peccary,

deer,

The two

crab, owl, parrot, and jaguar.

named

lasl

arc me1 with not only in the

ware

alligator

especially

among

whistles

as

metal figurines.
Both are sometimes combined with
human attributes to form what I have
called the jaguar god ami the parrot
bin

also

the

god.

The development

of decorative and

not to be demonstrated
by means of mathematical formulas;
manifestations are however
that
its
symbolic art

subjeci

figure.

The

the frog occurring by preference in the

to

is

the

and of

laws of growth

decay, there can be

little

In the

doubt.

evolution of ornament in art, the hap-

hazard plays an insignificant

reasons

for each

step

may

The

role.

nol

always

be obvious, bul they exisl nevertheless.

The work of a given arti-t reflects alike
his spiritual make-up and his environment, cultural as well as natural. The

marks of kinship running through the

group of alligator or octopus motives,
for example, rest on a

more

than

convergence to-

mere

ward

fortuitous

common

either had in

of

solid basis

type.
Each artist
mind the common source

or

inspiration,

else

from

copied

someone who was drawing on

that orig-

inal source.
The source is always and
everywhere nature: and thai art
besl
which remains true to its source.
i.-

shadow
pendage,

of

doubt derived from the octopus ap

representation

realistic

rn "f a Chiriquian rattlesnake

i-

of

the body

satisfactorily

expressed b
rhombs, and perhaps even
by triangles.
The confusion arising from possible
convergences of this kind is. however, reduced to
a minimum by the
nimals
in question are each dominant in its own distinc
the ceramic group.
In the alligator ware, the
'
inflih
animal forms is negligible; the
^auie is true of the octopus and the serpen! w
The probabilities are therefore that a dotted triantrle is not a serpent motive when occurring on
'

alligati

group symbol

neither

is

it

scale-

motive if occurring within the ceramic group known as serpent ware.

This much can be s;ii,i without denyo)

ing the possibilil

exceptional

sucker

li.inir

true

in

Peace Conditions
Parallelism between the development

<>/

the high

animal organism and

that of the super-nation,

both in accordance with broad general principles of organization:

especially

By J

mutual dependence

AME

G.

anil cooperation

NEEDHAM

Professor of Entomology and Limnology, Cornell University

PEACE
much

KEEPING

so

principles of organization are involved.

matter of treaties signed

With increasing size both have developed media of exchange, channels of

transportation, lines of communication,
supporting structures, organs of outlook and centers of control.
Tasks
have been differentiated and division of

not

is

at the close of hostilities, as it

is

mind.

public

of

state

terms," so called,

may

"Peace

named

be

arbi-

by the authorized representaof warring states; but peace con-

trarily
tives

ditions are fixed in the psychic organi-

zation

of

our

species.

The

"terms''

must conform to the conditions;

there will be no lasting peace.

What

are the conditions

How

tegrated and their operations

them

we can

part to bear re-

sponsibility for the welfare of

all.

Parallelisms have always indicated

else

conditions set by nature; conditions to

shall

concord and organic health be assured

in the political organization of the
world ?
Much light is shed upon the problems of organization by the study of
nature's supreme model, the body composed of cells.
These are the units of
a lower order, that correspond to the
persons composing the body politic. In
our own bodies they are so highly inunified that

made each

labor has

are

so

scarcely think of

which
or

organisms, whether physical

all

must conform in order

social,

to

live.

In every organization, whatever its

components, mutual dependence is the
strong bond of union.
This is the
first condition of peaceful and permanent association. Unfortunately, it is
wholly at variance with what have heretofore been national ideals of self-sufficiency.
If each nation had to continue to raise, to mine, to manufacture
that

all

its

own

people require for sus-

tenance, and had to maintain defenses

which have been

able to get on together by reason of improvements in corporate organization.
Yet our life is at bottom cell life, and
all our activities of body and mind are

manent world peace would be forever

the result of the coordinated function-

opposite direction.

ing of the component

the earth

as distinct parts

cells.

Moreover,

these cells begin their existence in com-

and
and merge

independence,

parative
tiate,

specialize,

terest

and

differen-

their in-

find their several places

and

functions as the body grows.

The grades

of organization

adequate to meet

all

comers, then per-

impossible.

The road

to

world peace runs in the

Let the peoples of

make common

cause of their

needs of defense, as the parts of the

body have done; let them remove all
artificial

barriers

to

the

fullest

and

freest use of the world's diversified pro-

Let them organize an agency of

control to determine local conflicts of
ducts.

among

cells

and the resultant forms of animal

not more diverse than are the
forms of political organization which
have accompanied the social efforts of
mankind and the parallelism between
the two is so close and so detailed one

interest in accordance with the greater

life are

good then peace will be possible.

In union, strength is found. By

can scarcely doubt that broad general

as

152

operation, the

more

common

co-

tasks of life are

But increase
mass makes for better living only
the parts of the mass come to fune-

in the

easily performed.

PEACE CONDITIONS
together harmoniously, and

tion

bears

Mat mil

Is.

11

each

common

share in meeting the

its

responsiveness

is

the

Peace
1'
1

any organization

is

outsiders;

brotherhood

enmity without.

Federation,

whether of families,

made

to attain to a

high degree of efficiency its part- musi

be mutually dependent, having Deed of

tribes, or nation-,

peace and cooperation

for

ami

inside the group,

organic health.

is

toward

tude

within,
has

true measure of organic efficiency.

153

The

war and eon-

for

the neighboring groups and the stronger their

outside.

quesl

closer

internal organization, the

more intense

one another; mutually responsive, serving one another and there musl be also

ha- been their

-Mine organ of conl rol, capable of deter-

heroes, tradition-, folk way-, and looked

mining

down upon those of other groups as

inferior. Whoever we were, we were the

for the sake of the larger inter-

body that

ests of the

local

and private

chosen people.

quarrels shall cease.

The human

unorganIts elements are comized, inchoate.

bined in heterogeneous units of varied
size and composition that are not conrace at large

is

sistently either racial or geographic.

resembles

vertebrate, since the

vided and

It

slime mold rather than a

it-

parts

mass may be dibe recombined

may

arbitrarily.

And yet, out of the mass there have

emerged groups highly organized and
highly efficient.
The primal group is
the family, firmly founded upon the
one differentiation thai Mother Nature
has imposed upon us the differentiation between the sexes.
Combinations
of families into clans and tribes grow
nit

of the discovery of the advantages

of cooperation

daries are

at

in
first

large

Boun-

tasks.

determined largely

by kinship, or by advantages of trade.

With progress in agriculture ami handicraft

compounding

furthei

possible

ami

Always the
related

to

plexity

<d'

increase

in

nation-

arc

becomes

organized.

size of the group is directly

condition- of living: com-

organization
size.

follow-

upon

But, large or -mall.

every group that has attained to communal efficiency ha- followed the line-

down by nature for all the li\ ing.

From the dawn of history even to
hour the mosl marked
this present
laid

psychological

group has

Every

strife.

of

characteristic

all

groupings of mankind han the

behavior of group-members toward our
another a- contrasted with their attiI

proportion

in

exalted

Ithers

<

their

a-

its

own

were benighted
way- diverged

from our own. We have thought it our

mission to extend our own kind of culture throughout the earth.
This has
been the spirit of nationalism: and it
differs not a whit from the spirit of
wai ring ribes in savagery.
t

organized group is a
peace unit, within which comrade-hip.
law and order naturally develop.
And
Yet

every

with

knowledge esami the art-.

groups have grown larger and more inthe

pecially

progress

clusive.

of

agriculture

in

I.i\

ing has been

made

easier.

Substantia] benefits to vast populations

have

come through

war-,

if

more

federation;

severe, have

And now

and

become

less

has
brought the end- of the earth near together by mean- of rapid travel and
frequent.

instant

ripe

and

new peace pad that -hall include

mankind.
Such a pad

law

succeed

ill

are observed in the

the administering.
i-

science

communication, the conditions

for a world-wide federation,

are

all

that

if

my judgment,

in
it

of far less importance where national

boundaries are drawn than

a fterward maintained
it

are
a

nature's

making and

how

serious matter

if

"subjeel

they

will not

lie

pie-"'

he

included within those boundaries if

only these he given freedom, security,

and

responsibility

under

their

own

government.
I

human

society

efficiently organized,

iit

ever to become

musl develop an

NATURAL HISTORY

154
organ

War

of

Before the

control.

Greal

we had the beginnings of

started

a process of efficieni organization of the

world:

we

had

regulations,

international

postal

copyright,

international

and many international organizations,

mostly without authority although not
without influence. These had arisen as
naturally as did the scattered ganglia
of

the

ganglia

lower

animals,

and

they

exercised

separate

local control.

Now

thai the

like

war

is

these need only to be connected

the

and
over,

more

The

changes

necessary

are

not

greater than, nor different from, those

that have taken place in the organization

of tribes

into

nation.

larger union that shall include

all

The
man-

kind needs only what the successful

had in
past needs only what the successful animal body has had an organization of its units for mutual labor and
mutual benefit.
Mutual dependence,
mutual responsiveness, government for
tribe or the successful nation has

the

higher control
center.
Let the nations of the world
make common cause of all their common

governed: these are

by nature for the
making of an effective organic tmion
they are as inescapable as the law of

interests.

gravitation.

intimately by

means

,,f

the

sake

the

conditions

of

the

set

THE ALTAR OF LIBERTY

Dedicated not to honor, not

to vainglory,

nor to personal pride; dedicated to the one great thing

mark- the great man or the great nation, to the ideal of sacrifice. The Altar of Liberty in Madison Square was the great rallying point for New York City's mammoth celebration at the opening of
tin- Fourth Liberty Loan on September 28, 1918.
Vice President Marshall dedicated the Altar, which
upon subsequent days was visited and decorated by the representatives of all the Allied Nations, including Ambassador Ishii, of Japan, and Sir Henry Babington Smith. British High Commissioner,
who brought the message of "sacrifice" for a common cause
that

The Method and

the

Knowledge

of Science

KNOWLEDGE GAINED lV THE METHOD OF INTUITION IS UNSATISFACTORY; THE METHOD OP SCIENCE is THE ONLY SOURCE
OF TRUE KNOWLEDGE IX THE WORLD

By

N T E R

TON

C V R T

C.

Professor of Zoology, University of Missouri

When

the scientist discusses the philosophy of science he often

ridiculous to the philosopher,

the danger

not

is

still

being laughed

in

ns beyond oui immediate

continual neglect of discussion that take-,

at, l>ut in the

The

of thought ami investigation.

fields

makes himself

philosophers as often seem ridiculous to scientists, and

biological scientist is

keenly alive to the problems of philosophy, because thought appears to him a product of
evolution; and because, in his studies in embryology, he has long realized that one of his

ultimate problems

we

pher-,

-.hall,

mind and matter. Without apologies to the philosowe believe many biologists subscribe.
place of agreement, we shall be satisfied; for we desire

the relation of

is

therefore, set forth a creed to which

If this meets with criticism in

These are problems of human inmind whether or not he subscribes to the

rather discussion than enforcement of particular views.

ii

are in the back of every scientist's

The Author.

interpretations here presented.

The Method

ANY
\

when

scientisl

is

draws

conclusions

he

which

are

facts,

for

phrase

uses

tee

observed

the

refinements

only

as

siders

the

of

inductions and deductions practiced in

n day life. The method of science

what Huxley described as "trained
and organised common sense.'* 1
The
man of
or farm has a deal
in common with the scientist, although
the latter may seem to him both fool

is

common

docs

analyzed,

mean,

the

man

of
sense sees the whole situation

no1

common
or,

by

justified

When

people.

puts two and two together and

man

of persons, or the sense of the

of Science

mighl put

the scientist
all

the

thai

con-

it,

the data and draws his con-

We

clusion therefrom?

think

man's

judgment sound because he does what

another would do, if confronted with
the same situation and possessed of
like ability to think straight.
The

'

and dreamer.
that

osition

Le1 as consider this

method of

the

prop-

.science

is

theorist

the

fails

he does

if

workaday elements

man

ool

consider

of the ease,

and

he judges solely
by rule of thumb without the light of
heoretical consideral ions. A man with
the gifl of common sense should know
enough to consider both sides.
Now
science has gone forward in the past,
the

practical

if

an

but

extension

common

method

the

of

of

sei se.

As there may be some question regarding the meaning of the term, we

may agree
has

the

at

ion

<

outsel

man

when he deals

sense

with the

facts

The phrase

is

tionally

thai

of

his

ra-

not

the

solution

ence.

derision,

in

sometimes used

contrasl

to

sense

the

of

sense

problems; and
he methods of houghl w hich advance
science do not differ in kind from
hose of the mosl hard-headed man of
affairs, who creates from insignificanl
in

experi-

by any wizardry, hut by the appli-

cation of trained and organized

of

its

theorist

to

held

the

Again,

latter.

man

everyday

the

common

in

Huxley.
of

ii

the

Thomas
Natural

with

thai

of

the

disadvantage

of

the

suggests

by
It..

large

"On

Histor;
ation

something

number

the
Educational
Sciences," pp

beginnings

business of international

proportions.

For illustration, the ow ner of

uncovers

layer

of

rock

quarry

different

in

appearance from any before oifered for

155

NATURAL HISTORY

L56
sale

in

his

After

all rather limited, and because hope of

gain is his sole incentive.
The only
advantage the geologist has is his
broader knowledge and his desire to

tests,

establish the facts rather than to line

Lacking expert
and obview to determining

locality.

advice, he begins experiments

servations, with a
its utility

for building purposes.

subjecting the stone to different

can be put to certain

-.
It is good for crushing and
rough masonry, but not for sills and
lintels: good for road foundations, but
not for surfacing; and the like.
In
reaching these conclusions, he first establishes certain facts, then compares
these with facts previously known;
then classifies the stone as good or
bad for a given purpose; and finally
he concludes

it

arrives at the proposition that a stone

The point for us is the

between the mental processes of the two men, which are in
his

pocket.

parallelism

essence the inductive

The method

be a case in point,

you

method of science.
Holmes would
easy enough when

of Sherlock

the steps to the conclusions.

see

and valid in

so

far

the

as

original

unshakable and the inferences

Eventherefrom logical necessities.
one who reads of Holmes's exploits sees
that his mental processes are but an
extension of everyday observation and
inference, and so it is with science.
fait- are

may be put to such and

such a use.
He is now in a position
to convince would-be purchasers of the
Hence of his material.
Even an
Indian, selecting the flint for his arrow

to read classic detective stories, as

points in the same locality years before,

examples of the process of

might have gone through similar men-

induction.

of this nature

Indeed, some teachers advise students

The distinctive
method may

tal processes.

If

we compare the sense

with the foregoing, the case

lows:

rock

of science
is

as fol-

geologist examines the

layer,

because

of

same

peculiarities

which have attracted his attention. He

first makes a survey of the entire bed,
collecting the fossils and observing
structural features, comparing as he
does so the present bed with others
he has seen.
Eipple marks and mud
cracks

may
may

tell

of shallow water, the

tific

good

scientific

feature of the scien-

be characterized by

we use the
meaning "shared equally or
similarly by two or more individuals."
the adjective "common/"' if

word

as

Eor the common sense of science is

kind of sense which may be
"shared"'" by normal members of the

that

human

species.

It

is

whim

not the

of one individual, but the opinion held

all normal individuals when confronted by the same or a similar set
of facts.

by

fossils
indicate a marine origin,
the distorted bedding planes may give
evidence of lateral pressure.
At last.

recognize three possible objections to

he

the statement that the conclusions of

classifies it as

belonging in a partic-

Before developing

ular horizon and arrives at the proposition that stone of this nature belongs

science

to a certain period of the earth's his-

hold a belief

In such a case, the geologist

believes he has reached conclusions obvious to others and is ready to take
his colleagues over the ground, exhibiting facts and explaining inferences.

lidity.

tory.

The quarryman goes through similar

mental processes, did he but know it.
although he is likely to go astray because his knowledge of rocks is after

mon.

may

this,

be shared by

Eirst. the fact that

we

all

should

in

many

com-

people

is no evidence of its vano longer think what is

always, everywhere and by

We

'"believed

all" to be necessarily true, as did the

early

Fathers;

for

"all"'

may

labor

under similar delusions and hold the

same unwarranted belief. If common
belief were scientific evidence, then
prenatal impression and telegony are
facts
overwhelmingly established in

TEE METHOD AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE

man and

mammal-. Secwho are the

"normal" individuals? To which we
the familiar

ond, some one

may

can besl

with the old Quaker's

"All folks are queer

remark

reply

to his wife,

thee

but

ask,

and

think thee's

objection mn-t
length.

sometimes

queer."

be answered

may

It

and

me,
little

be asked,

at

in

third

greater

view of

opinion
amen-- scientific men. whether any such

the

differences

frequent
a-

thin--

common

phenomena

exists.

swer, there

i-

this

<>f

interpretation of

which we an-

'I'm

common

tion with respeel to certain

To

illustrate specifically,

miliar

fact

that

all

living

composed of unit- known

interpreta-

nor the assumption that we shall find

them as long a- we use microscopes,

any more than he disputes the universality of gravitation, because of which
we assume that -tones thrown from the
ground always come down whether in
California or Japan or on the planet
Mars.
There is then common ag]

is

fa-

bodies are

as cells.

The

regarding the existence of cells

agreement extends to many

nieiit

and

the

details of their structure

example that
chromatin or that
for

as

What
ance

is

that every one

the time and

pains

to

seen

he

raries tell

our own. There

is,

phrase

it

sume, a- we do
cell

as the coll

hypothetical only

theory,

in

hat

fm-l,

when we

as-

the erection of onr

all

living things are

constructed after this fashion whether

we have examined them or not.

We
have studied hundreds of thousands of
living things and found them all composed of cells, and we assume that we
.-hall always find cells a- new animals
and plants are examined. The phrase
"cell theory*"

i-

like the

phrase "theory

s ravitation,"
theoretical only when
we assume it will hold good elsewhere
or w hen we push our analysis further
and il
rize about underlying causes.

no disputes the existence of

cell-.

therefore,

among

without

The only way

from that of persons

understood.

i-

This working hypothesis

was for a time debatable. But the increasing number of cases in which cells
were observed soon led to it- acceptance a- an established generalization,
ho designated

who has taken

examine living

represented by the cell theory, in other

word-, a 'common" sense in which this
this sense differs

is

the

accept-

the competent, a consensus of opinion

organization of protoplasm
was proposed on a basis of limited ob-

it

say

common

that our contempous their experience is like

sal cellular

to

in

them: and

cells,

since

contain
take

with the microscope, has obwe ourselves have

tissues

served the cells: that

now

activities,

cells

mean when we

we

of protoplasm, such a- multinucleated

servation.

and
cells

all

theory meets with

cell

exceptions to this cellular organization

plasmodia, syncytia, etc., can all

brought into alignment with the
general theory of nuclear and cytoThere was a time
plasmic material-;.
in the history of biology when nothing
the sort was known, and later, a
time when a hypothesis of the univer-

all

oxygen.

phenomena.
it

L51

biological

experience

is

that

upon wider observation and

therefore, the more reliable.
It

rests

is.

happens

that

these conclusions regard-

may

be

drawn only by persons

trained to the use of microscopes; and
ing cells

only after special preparation of the

materials examined, which is an illus-

what Huxley meant by

and organised" sense.
It
inot that the observations ami conclusions of science are fundamentally different from those of everyday life, but
tration

of

"trained

that

they

made

are

scientisl

and

refinements

of

these,

the training of the

by

possible

organization of his

the

no necromancy in
method- by which science has advanced are the methods
which normal individuals regularly
material.

science,

use.

There

is

for the

Science

ha-

often

made

initial

through the work of investigators who perceived the unifying fea-

stride-

'

X A TUBAL HIST OB Y

158

tures in large series of phenomena,

and whose daring hypotheses were like

be adduced at any time; or we

the flight of the poetic imagination or

undertake

the vision of some genius of the commercial world. But what finally counts

vestigation,

is

conflicting data

data,

new

entirely

tain results.

which

lines

of

may
may
in-

at first yield uncer-

Having

satisfied ourselves

the confirmation of each such hy-

as to the general epigenetic course of

it becomes
by anyone
first hand.

development and having a common

agreement regarding this, we press on
to something new, like the problem of

pothesis step by step, until

of certain

commonplace,

who

verifiable

reviews the facts at

This refinement of the technique is

the essential difference between the scientific and the popular method of
In fixing the
drawing conclusions.
ice cream freezer or the furnace, one
may be exercising a very common kind
of sense.
But it is a sense which differs from that exhibited by the scieninvestigator, only in so far as the

tific

examined by the investigator are

more complicated and can be ap-

facts

the

proached only after extended preparation.

The man who

builds a concrete

sidewalk in his yard learns by experience and experiment, and by thinking

things out as he goes.

The man

in an

engineering experiment station, who is

trying to advance our knowledge regarding the chemistry of cement, does

same thing.
Only he
begins far ahead of the untrained man
and, having a broader knowledge, recthe

essentially

ognizes possibilities of error the other

does not comprehend.

By
it is

these

and similar

seen that there

in science or in the
Scientists

are

who apply

not

is

illustrations,

nothing unique

methods of
wizards,

to natural

science.

but

men

phenomena the

methods of analysis used by logical

minds in the affairs of daily life. The
facts of science are shared

by

all

who

possess the training necessary for their

apprehension.
that

any

We

believe,

moreover,

normal person who trains

himself to examine the facts will subscribe to our

there

is

common

agreement.

If

debatable ground and differ-

ence of opinion,

it

is

because science

no sooner gets a fact tolerably well established than it goes after other facts.
While we agree upon the interpretation

fertilization or of differentiation.

we

here
are

poorly established

so

find a

And

are on ground where the facts

common

we do not

sense in which to for-

mulate a theory.

There are divergent

views in science, only because the essence of science is progress, and because we are interested in the things
In be done rather than in those already

Apparently divergent
accomplished.
opinion may eventually result in agreement once the facts are adequately

known.

The

differences

between the main

branches of science further illustrate

Physico-chemical science
our point.
deals with comparatively simple phenomena, and has, therefore, reached

an advanced position. The biological

sciences, having all of chemistry and
physics, and in addition the complexities of living matter, have developed
slowly and today present relatively less
common ground than physical science;
while in the social sciences the complexities are further increased by the
most unpredictable element of all
the intelligence of rational human beings.
Hence there is not much "common" sense in sociology and none in
religion

deed,

Some, inand philosophy.

whether within these

question

fields we can ever reach common agreement except in their simpler categories
We can at least try, and keep
of fact.
trying.
For of one thing we are sure,
human progress has not come by intui-

but by intelligent analysis, which

nothing less than saying by the accumulation of facts and by their in-

tion,
is

terpretation in the
science.

common

sense of

TEE METHOD AND TEE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE

The Knowledge

recurring

progress

with

guise

every
_-

in

thai

age,

new

we

can

in

some occult

in

fashion

from the evidence of our senses

aside

process

the

,-inil

born

belief,

scientific

to

obstacle

the

is

While the

of Science

reasoning.

of

this efficacy of divination

appears

arts

and kinthe

at

beginning of history, and the success

ortune tellers and quack physicians
and spiritualists attests it- survival to
Even the educated
the presenl day.
incline toward mysticism and intuition,

upon slight provocal ion while among

the uneducated the influence of such
As a race.
beliefs is a potent factor.
we arc ia>t ye1 convinced that we live
in a universe where things do not happen by accident hut through adequate
:

causation.

Among our forefather-, these beliefs

were even more widely held, and
of the -dent victories of science has
the

been

liberation

of

man

civilized

from superstitions that once held him

in bondage, restricting alike his spiritual and material progress.
Glimpses
of the past may be caught in nations
- advanced than those of western
Europe, 'rim-, one cannot read a book
Professor Ross's The Changing
without being convinced that
the Chinese of today are in the mental
condition id' European man in tin'
like

Chinese

Middle

Ages,

with

the

burdens

witchcraft, of sorcery, and of belief

ghosts,
that

heavy upon them

and
medieval man emerged
slavery of soul so the Chinese

Lying

from this

doubtless,

<>nly

the
the

1mm

emerge

western
that

in

the

future.

progress seems likely to be

more rapid because

selves

he

those

affect

nation-.

of contact with

We

we have gained

pride
so

our-

much

to

seeks

influence

through teaching, he need-, mi his own

account, to consider other mental prosses,

\\

hich, despite their refinement,

arc imposed

advance of science.

to the

For example it has been often insisted

by philosophers and other- thai scientific
knowledge is only secondhand

knowledge, that there

i.-

method of

reaching valid conclusions other than

that of science, that intuit ive processes

more certain truth than do

methods of science. The word intuition ha- had a variety of meanings,
yield even

the

hut

general

in

is

applied to a

faculty

understanding things quickly with-

for

out

<\{\f
to a
process of reasoning,
kind of royal road toward the solution
of ;in\
Without venturing
problem.
within the mazes of philosophy, we
may consider the intuitive process as
it
iparaded in everyday life.
Here.
as with the philosophers, intuition is

regarded as a mysterious short cut by

which one arrive- at conclusions, without the labor of drawing logical inices.

When we
e\ ident

consider the intuitive pro-

following

the

Intuit ion-

within the

propositions

are

are effective only

complex phenomena
emphasized by persons

of

field

they arc most

not in the habit of careful

they were formerly applied

phenomena

since

of science.

sp

n- to

brought

that

ble to the proposition

we reason
and.

hen

analysis,

of

tin'

out
fore,

we

-an

lucky

the

uot

'dm-lie--'*

to

many

within

the

of

What

and what

settle

analysis:

which Leads
the matter i< reduciAll

a-

ju.-t

will,

in

must consider

biologist

these cruder thought-survivals, as they

Belief

rooted

well

159

is

is

simple

complex

suscept ible of exact

by

mental process

a- the "hunch"'
i.f

century ago, even

or

the plain citizen.

a

general ion ago,

and even boast in the strength of

supposedly superior race and yet our

an appalling amount of medical

honeycombed with superstitions, which hamper the best of n<

and which are a grievous burden upon
the less fortunate members of society.

upon an intuitive foundation.

Today, an increasing amount
upon a scientific knowledge of
organisms and specific substances with-

civilization

is

rested

NATURAL HISTORY

160
in the body.

The

history of science

is

with such examples of the unknown and supposedly unknowable of

one age becoming the known and the
controlled of the next.
This being so,
filled

is it

not a fair presumption that what

we decide today by

intuition may, at

may have

his decision unconsciously in-

fluenced by the stimuli

from the

coming

him

to

flicker of a muscle, a twisted

phrase, or a look in the eyes, as well

from grosser matters like the man's

reputation or the principles of safe

as

In

investment.

word, I can well con-

ken

ceive of the analysis of thought pro-

of science,

and thus the realm of the

become a lessening one, its
name synonymous with the unknown
or incompletely known, not with the
unknowable? Is it not that we have
intuitions regarding what we do not
as yet understand, and that intuitions
fade where scientific analysis estab-

cesses,

intuitive

day reaching a point where many things

now vague and incapable of analysis
will be reduced to scientific statement
of fact.
It may never be well for a
hanker to put his customer through a
machine test. A good judge of character can perhaps do the work more

later day, be brought within the

lishes a

foothold?

banker does not decide whether a

company is fairly capitalized, nor does
he keep his books, by an intuitive proHe does these things by painseess.
taking arithmetic.
But he may loan
money to one man rather than to another, because of an intuitive feeling
that the one will meet his obligations
while the other will not.

Intuition,

which in such an instance is probably

nothing but "subconscious experience,'*'
probably tells the banker that one man
"couldn't lie if you paid him," while
another deliberately misrepresents the

Without

facts.

believing

that

psy-

chology will shortly relieve bankers and

administrators of their need for intuitions,

we may nevertheless regard such

susceptible of formulation in
terms of heredity, environment, and in
the vasomotor responses which psychologists are today postulating for all liars
however calm to outward appearance.
Even with our present knowledge, we
can conceive of the banker's decision
cases a-

upon a complex of understandable phenomena of which he is unconscious at the time.

For just as we

resting

judge distances by imperceptible or unrecognized changes of the eye muscles,

or hit a billiard ball by motor responses
of almost unbelievable delicacy, so the
banker, who gives his answer as soon
as his customer has finished speaking,

physically

as

expressed,

some

expeditiously, and well enough for

banking purposes. But in war we are
coining to select certain mental types
for certain duties under the advice of
our psychologists. And I see no reason why chauffeurs, and engine drivers,
and even honest men may not be so
chosen at some time in the future.
What this means is that mental behavior, once regarded as beyond the

domain

of science,

is

being shown to

follow a causal sequence in a few cases.

see no reason why these few
should not be extended to in-

But we
cases

number

of mental
happens we
can set no limit to the banishment of
intuition as a source of knowledge regarding human behavior.
Other examples might he given. An
investigator does not draw the conclumous his experiments justify by in-

clude an increasing

phenomena

and

processes,

tuitive

lation

may

comes

to a

by

its

lie

this

if

although his specu-

of this nature.

teacher

mastery of his subject only

methodical organization.
But

the vague state of our knowledge

in

concerning effective methods in education,

for

may

he

say he has an intuition

presentation

the

which makes

lecture acceptable to his students.

a

man

is

in the habit of speaking to

the dogs he passes

calling

If

them from

sometimes pleased

on the
a
at

street,

distance,
his

even
he

success

is

in

THE METHOD AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE

Ee
psychology.
dog
manipulating
might call it intuition as to how dogs
u

Bui

react.

ill

possible thai

is

it

the

up" his dog, much as we

unconsciously mca-ure distances wiili
our eye muscles, and ries the stimulus
The dog's reaction is
likdy in work.
li
depends upon
very complicated,
his pasl experience with strangers, upon
his training at home, upon his experience with tin- man. upon his hereditary make-up: ami yet it i< by no
mean- certain there are elements involved which can never he analyzed by

man

"e

man knew all these facts

particular dog, he mighl he able
1'

ice.
a

;i

what response would follow

And if the dog could
he as well informed, he might know
from the man.
what
The biologist neither affirms nor de-

tit

predict

given stimulus.

nies

such

that

series

phenomena

of

day ho
afs
lie does net know. He
thus analyzed,
i- making some headway in explaining
animal behavior in these term-, ami so
long as lie can make headway, he hesi-

as

reactions will

tates t"

set

limit- to hinol

in

the near

We

upon

predictable

it

ceptible

may

of

in

scientific

take- boldness to assert

a

remainder not sus-

scientific

treatment.

We

whether intuitions
arc in any sense a method of acquiring
knowledge, whether they are know-,
at
all.
and whether intuition means
well

question

anything but ignorance of complex

it"
phenomena,
however
effectively
-

to fulfil] it-

function- in a given

instance.

Another
i-

\\e,-i

their individual bias.

our intuitions

They

duct of a single mind, not

lective

have

with

exhibit

persons,

different

to

degree the personal equation, ami

have all the "ear mark-" of proa
which are not and never can be reliable
as

method- of thought.

The

scientist,

method
factory

When

therefore, believes the

unsatis-

knowledge.
he says he "knows" a thing he

normal

any

that

of

source

individual,

puts himself under similar condireceive

will

tions,

The

dition.

know

intuitions

claim
claim

does uot
doe-

scientist

He

everything.

the

that

im-

sense

-iniilar

draw the same con-

pressions and will

to

wholly

intuition

a-

mean-

who

of

of

daily

are

life

not knowledge, in the scientific sense,

for they presumably represent either

mind

or

unorganized
knowledge.

to

the vagaries of the individual

thought processes too

he used a-

Neither
of

ha-i- for

the "intuitive knowledge"

i-

or philosophy

religion

to

be placed

like tin-

-tale

things

all

time without exhausting the residuum.

Only, -o Ion-- a- we '-an see a receding
vista ahead,

Moreover, they work differently

udice.

future prog-

shall

the existence of

suspicion

become

continue our inroads

intuitive process for a long

'In-

the

to

of being influenced by delusion or prej-

same category with the ''common"' knowledge of science.

For this,

future because

become

have
term-.

likely to

are open

they

such,

n;i

are the

the col-

agreement of individual- who

Aexamined the same data.

in

the

intuitions of daily

life,

rests

foundation

than the
If a
caprice of the individual mind.
field of mental a<-ti\ itv doe- not permit
a beginning of organization in terms
no

upon

of

safer

common

assent

it

not

is

subject

and i-. therefor,-,

not a matter of which we can have
knowledge in the scientific sense. The

matter

scientist

for

science,

dignifying

against

protests

individual opinion by the term "knowl-

which

."

sions
It

i-

re-i in-

reserves

In-

upon

for

collect ive

conclu-

judgment.

the contention of science that

its

method of "common" sense i- the only

method which has yielded knowledge
of permanent value, that the only thing
we can designate as knowledge is
>ther brands
reached in this fashion.
<

are

the

whim-

of

individual

and can uever be

one kind of knowledge which
substituted

knowledge of

science.

mind-.
for

the

i-

the

Courtesy of Paul G.

Bowes and

the X>

w York

Zoological Society

FEAR DOES NOT QUICKLY OVERCOME HER BROODING INSTINCT

Hoactzins look more or less like pheasants.
They are very quarrelsome among themselves, however, and
when pugnacious lose all resemblance to any other living bird. They erect the plumed crest, spread
wide the flapping wings, and with strange flouncings and contortions, hiss, grunt, and croak in
The utterances of an excited colony blend into an indescribable confusion of
a high key.
sound, sometimes as doleful as though the birds were mourning for all the extinct of their
race.
That this species has endured so long may be owing, at least in small measure.
Hoactzins have feeble wing muscles
to the strong fetid odor of the adult bird.
and fly only short distances, across the stream or from point to point along
banks.
They wander little, therefore, and unlike most birds can
its
always be found in the same locality every month of the year

162

The Hoactzin

Only

Survivor of an Ancient

Order of Four-footed Birds*

Discovery of

quadrupedal character

thi

ED W

By

Schools

blic

embryos

Amazon, I discovered that the

young of the Opisthocomus hoazin iToward the
distinctly quadrupedal. 1
end of incubation two toes "ii
of the

Eorefool

win--

were

so

completely pro-

was confidenl they would

be functional in some manner after
duced that

the birds were hatched.

later

little

-aw the birds actually using the toes,

and using them in a highly significant
I

known

adult bird has long beer

'l'ln

to scienci

/"/.

known on

[t is

Amazon

by

the lower

name,

Portuguese

its

ha- also

long li>t <>t' local

names a- each tribe of Indian- in the
It

Amazon Basin has a distinct language.

is generally
The
known as the
f<

hoactzin."
habitat

it-

It

of

is

such

traveling far along the

tli'-

young

observed.

The

adult hoactzin, in size

pheasant although

it

vivii

i-

of the order

<

i!,i<

Of

1884
full at that
1

With

Mr

pheasant-like

as

i'.

time

III.'

has no

it

with a

shades

streaked

with

..

article,

in

in thi

'

Ocl

in
I

and

buff

hull'

gregarious. Its habi-

Amazon

single species of plant

limited by

i-

Caladium

ar-

borescens, called b}r the natives aninga.

plant

is

amphibious

tall

aroid, related to the jack-in-the-pulpit

ami the

calla.

Id

has large heart-shaped

and fruit

leaves, calla-like flowers,

re-

motely resembling a pineapple.

The
plant often grows to a heighl of fifteen
feet, hut averages perhaps eight feet
when fully grown. It forms in dense
masses on

tin- low-,

muddy margins

flat,

of the islands and borders of the water

frequently

courses,

yards out in the

Imagine

stemmed aningas, with

of

-hallows.

broad hedge of

hoactzins

many

standing

muddy

tall

stout-

a score or

more

the

top.

over

scattered

seated on the loaf-talk- ami feeding on

the leaves of the plants, or

way with flounces ami

bird

in

and you

another,

to

it-

making

hisses

Amazon

lower

aligb.1

their

from one
will have

like a picture of tin-

paper

Clip
-'.,

is

on the lower

never -aw the bird

The paper was published

brown

reddish

of

dirty

The hoactzin
tal

plant

lit'.'.

aspect

below.

something

functionally

briefly

and

size

very dull coloration above of

varying

Ipisthocomi,
i~

in

(about 21-25 inches from tip to tip),

the sole sur-

The discover] thai tin' hoactzin

quadrupedal during a part of it'

noun.

no near

bears

In fact

near relative- living ii

--

represental ives.

The hoactzin may be described

character

bird had hit herto nol been

relation to that bird.

But

general appearance, reminds one of

aii'l

could

ii

Amazon.

the remarkable quadrupedal

of

ami

size

exposed thai

so

i>

have escaped the notice of anyone

nol

an order of which geologists have found

Thi-

way.

Creek, Michigan

Bstttle

month

the island of Marajo, at the

RIGB

M.

interior of

the

in

oj the species

Museum,

L881, while collecting ver-

April.

INtebrate

A R D

young, and first-hand observations

oj tin

and horm

on habits

-t

range

habitat.

on the ground.

Although the aninga leaf i- a frail

and yielding perch, tin hoactzin seems
to prefer it to any other.
The bird

illustrations from Tropical WQd Life in British Guiana, through th

William Beebe, and of th.- New York Zoologcal So

the Author,

[63

NATURAL HISTORY

1G4

In-cast

on the bent leaf stem and

awkwardly with
wings and tail until

hisses, tottering

outsl retched

The

the aninga ceases swinging.

habit of steadying itself on

its

perch by squatting on its breast

has caused a thickening of the
skin, a piling up of epidermal

which
bone
that a strong knife is needed to
separate it when removing the

tissue into a hard callosity

is

so firmly fastened to the

skin.

The hoactzin is so accussquatting on the aninga

even when on other perches

tomed
that
it

to

rarely seen erect.

is

never seen
across

it

fly

have

farther than

narrow stream, from

one aninga hedge to another.

The hoactzin
nacity
like

is

a very quar-

is

When

relsome bird.

manifest,

its

pug-

pheasant-

its

appearance vanishes, and

then looks like no other bird.

erects its sparsely

and awkwardly

plumed

flaps

while trying to keep

the unsteady perch.
its

it

It

crest

wings
balance on
It throws
its

neck into contortions as

if it

were really choking, and in a

awkward

ludicrously

menaces

its

fellow,

manner

which

is

hav-

ing equal difficulty in retaining

its

Courtesy of Paul G.

Howes and

th(

New

Yoi

Zoological Soci> ty

typical

haunt

of the hoactzin,

Canje Creek, British

Guiana.
In this locality the species is now protected
by the British Government, a special fine of five pounds
sterling being imposed for killing one of the birds

builds

its

nest of twigs

and other coarse

vegetable matter in the aninga tops and

overhanging branches of trees or

matted vines.
It does not leave the
water margins. Only on rare occasions,
as when one is tormented beyond endurance by its fellows, does it venture
into the forest and then not so far
but that a few flaps of its wings will
place its feet on the yielding, swinging
aninga leaf again. There it rests its
in

perch while retaliating from

the swinging leaf of a neighboring a a in no. While the birds are

thus strangely gesticulating, the
noise of their flapping wings is

accompanied by hissing, gruntroaring,

and shrieking.
ing,

There are times of general uprising

the mingled utterances of the
colony make a confusion unearthly and
indescribable.
Sometimes they join in
most doleful sounds as if suddenly

when

moved

to

mourning

for all the extinct

Opisthocomi.
Periods of general and
extreme demonstration usually occur

Such is the resemblance

some of their cries on these occasions to some of those of the jaguar,

in the night.

of

EOACTZIN

ONLY SURVIVOR OF FOUR-FOOTED BIRDS

that upon being awakened by them

have reached for my rifle and held it

in

readiness until other and characteristic

sounds

which

followed

cries to the

the

assigned

medley of the hoactzin.

One day in June, on a Later expedition, when paddling along the margiu
of

lower

the

Rio

Negro,

pushed our canoe into

the

a strip of

ginal igapo or tlooded forest.

ter
t

was

rees.

well

Datives

mar-

The wa-

up into the tops of the

[ard-featured alligators gurgled,

Euge

branches at a Height of from ten

twenty feet above us, started suddenly from their perches and plunged
headlong through the branches into the
-t

to

igapo.
esl

in

to

ty,

a knife

i-

:.//////

the
t

the birds'

me

anatomy the scene

impressive and significant.

and

arborescens) characteristic of the

pulpit and the calla.
It forms den e hedges
averaging
banks of streams, often growing many yards out in the Bhallow
i.r
more hoactzins perched in the <<>!>- of the onwi
to another.
1 he curved stem of the large leaf i* the favorite
"

interin

Wi
Th<

more

uteresl

nat ion

was

tops.

was greatly heightened by be

presence among the topmosl branches
of the flouncing and hissing hoactzins.
was aware of the reptilian suggesAs
sit

among

tree

nevci' wit nessed a

ing reptilian scene.

tions

half-submerged

iguanas, which were basking and

feeding in unusual numbers on the top-

grunted, and roared as they slunk away

the

it;:,

Vi

t)

hoactzin's haunt,
eight

water.

feet

In

in
a

Fork
is

Zt 51

-"

related to the jack

height along the muddy

scene like tlii^ there might

; awkwardly from one

perch of the bird, where, however, it
The bird's breast where it presses against the plant lias a hard
thick cushion of epidermal tissue, v <> firmly grown ti> the bone that in skinning a dead bird
Deeded to Beparate the skin from the bone at
ipoint
t

y ATI UAL HISTORY

166

felt that I was witnessing the nearest

approach possible in this age of the
world, to a t) pical Mesozoic scene.
r

Wliile intent

upon these

incidents,

attention was suddenly diverted

my

from

the upper to the lower branches by

plunge different from that of the iguana

as if some animal had toppled off the
Lower branches into the water. In the
near vicinity of the plunge I saw a
young hoactzin seated on a low branch.
Then my natives said it was a young

cigana that had toppled over into the

I told them to shoot the remainThey shot, but the bird
ing bird.

river

taries of that

My

and the

Orinoco."'

observations however show a vastly

I shot the hoactzin in

widex range.
Peru, 2100 miles up the Amazon, and
I saw it still farther up the river, probably to Avithin 350 miles of the Pacific.
It certainly has an east and west range

more than 2000

of

miles.

Its

Amazo-

nian range appears to be coextensive

with the flood areas of the great river

and

its tributaries.

Although the flood

season varies greatly between different

parts

of

the

hoactzin's

Amazonian

found that throughout the

length of the vast region in which I

Mater.

range,

plunged and we did not see it again.

Soon, however, we saw the first bird
emerge and climb from the water on to
a dipping branch on the farther side
of the tree top, and it climbed on to the
An Indian shot
branch on nil fours.
the bird and I preserved its skin. With
the bird in hand I showed the natives

its breeding period

was coincident with that of the floods.
The broods invariably develop through
the functionally quadrupedal stage before the water becomes too low to af-

the front feet.

They expressed

aston-

observed the bird,

ford the young a retreat from danger.

Hence

it is

young birds
upon the wa-

clear that the

are absolutely dependent

beneath their perches for safety.

ter

The

ishment, and after some reflection an

old man said, "The young ciganas

relatively inflexible conditions of

reproduction restrict the species to its

climb out of the water with those feet."

marginal habitat during the flood season its breeding season.

The conditions appear to be even more restrictive

Evidently the presence of the toes on

the fore limbs explained a performance
with which he was familiar although
the modus had hitherto been a mystery.
As the anterior limbs are functionally scansorial during a considerable
part of their post-oval growth, we
should expect them to attain only the
low degree of volery power which they
possess.
The wings of the adult bird
are exceedingly feeble. The sternum is
without a keel. It does not seem possible that the young birds could raise
themselves from the water in any other
way than by climbing. If the wings
had sufficient power it seems certain,
in view of the fact that the feet are
webless. that the young bird would use
its wings to enable it to escape from
its enemies, rather than to attain safety

by plunging into the water.

The geographical range of the species
has been given as the "estuaries of the
Amazon and mouths of the lower tribu-

my

for,

from

and

inquiries, the bird does not leave

all

personal observations

margin during the time of low waIt may be found along the margins of the main river and its tributaries, along the margins of the innumerable side channels and the confluent
the

ter.

lagoons, or places where there are lagoons in the flood season.

I cannot
find that it has ever been seen away

from the borders of streams, or some

opening in the forest which is occupied
by water during the whole or part of
the year, and which directly or indirectly opens to the river. The hoactzin
are not known to wander.

The

from the mouth

which I found the
hoactzin was nearly dry.
There was
too little water for the young birds to
dive in. It was a mucky swale a stone's
throw in length and hardly half that in
of the

place farthest

Amazon

in

<

The hoactzin invariably

ourteay

its

aest

New York

the

red

<

out over the

water, <-itlur

Zoological Society

the aninga tops or in the

in

trees or vines.
The breeding season is coincident with the rains and high
The nesl is mad.' of twigs and often rests on the foundation of an older
has Bcarcely any depression and would seem to be a place of uncertain safety for the e^s

overhanging branches
water in the streams.
nest.

builds

It

of

saw this place early in the

Later the little
low water.
-wa'e may have been quite dry.
But
the broods of the season had matured
ami there was evidently no need of
breadth.

if

lesy of

more water
i

lie

next

There

flood season,

until the next

breeding season of the hird.

were

several

nests

among

the

branches, always overhanging the swale.

There were no young or eggs to restrain

Paul Q

Howes and

the

New York Z

ciety

shows tun toes w< U

Before tie' young hoactzin hatches from tie- egg, the wing (or forefoot
the bird i- disn;d within twent) four hours after tie' bird i< hatched the two toes are functional
tinctly four-footed and proceeds like a reptile or mammal and unlike any other living bird. The long
I

of the young bird's instinct when

America
danger to clamber on .all four- to the edge of it- flat nest and dive into the water
Thus becomes evident tie- value to the species of the coincidence in the development of the
below.
tine- of high water in tie- stream above which the nests
through this four-foe
,

..

threatened bj

are built

1G7

T
Courtesy

of C.

THE YOUNG HOACTZIN

Willia,,,

IS

li,,l>e

and

the

FOUR-FOOTED

New York

Zoo]

aal

Society

LIKE A LIZARD

Studies of a young hoactzin to illustrate its ability to climb

by means of feet and neck
especially through use of the two toes developed
on the wing.
After a Young
hoactzin has dropped into the water under its nest and the
danger is past it proves its
four-footed character by climbing out of the water on some
branch, using the two toes of
the front feet (wings) as vigorously in the performance as
it does the four toes of the

and

hind feet

168


ONLY SURVIVOR OF FOUR-FOOTED BIRDS

HOACTZIN

although 1 shot into

and from nil si
they would not Leave the marginal vegethe

but,

birds,

them

repeatedly

tation.

see

It

muddy

the

r\ idenl

'1

to

me

that

swale marked the place of

irmer lagoon which was connected

by an open channel, or igarpe, w Lth the

and

river,

the

in

that,

and

ceaseless

rapid shifting of lines of water, land,

and trees of the Amazon Basin, the lagoon had been landlocked and thru diminished in area by each succeeding

The

flood deposit.

whether

the

quest ion arose as to

could

bird

whether, as the opening

the

d.

wadd

not

away,

gel

the

in

exhibits

little

any variation

if

Amazonian

vast

range

doubl

is

The

range.

Less

continuity, and

169

due

in

its

great

to the simplicity,

extent

of

the general

conditions of the habitat, together with

the frequenl accidental transportation
of the birds by drifting marginal vegi

from one

tation

to

another of

more or

widely separated point-, a process

which musl have endured through a

less

period df

Uso,
i-

not

inic.

very slow migration upstream

Doubtless the fluc-

impossible.

tuation- of the river bring aboul top

foresi

little group of hoactzins

dwindle with it and become

graphic
genial

i-

changes destroying the conmarginal conditions of the es-

tablished

Location

of

,-i

colony.

The

hoaetzin rendered

extinct.

this position the gradational

homeless by such a
catastrophe would doubtless clumsily
flop its way to another favorable place
on the river margin, and this might, of

river is of a

course, he upstream.

even

to

The Amazon

ih.w

sun and according as the sun

tlie

in

tropic,

the

northern

tributaries

are

swollen

either

southern
their

it.

work of the
magnitude disproportionate
The rains
itrelative >ize.

to

follow
is

near the equator

On account of

and subparallel with

respective

arc,,-

flood

The immense volumes

from

one

side

>hove the current strongly againsl the

at times even force

opposite hank, and

the water- of the sluggish

upstream an
annual

tributaries

estuary action of these

"tide-.""

luring the flood

son long strips of foresl are cut

by

the

againsl

in a linear

the

of

force
it-

stream

tation

plldled

hundreds of acres

so

filled

resulting
i-

times the
with floating

At

current.
is

that navigation

dangerous

current

down

body are often cut away by

resistless

greal

the

borders

front

this

ha

impeded and becomes

to li-ht craft.

Occasionally

greal masses of matted vegetation sup-

porting erect tree- of

may

he seen.

md

ci

'

lefnhle size

There can he no doubi

that

these floating islands detached

from the river borders ransporl hoactzins from upper to lower positions
along the river. Such mingling of stock
might explain the faci that til
t

breeding season.

The Lowering

covered.

of water poured

main stream

the

into

or

ami

There is nothing
prompt the bird to wander or to induce regular migrations its food is
always ready and the rainy season is its

more or

less

of the wafer Leaves a

extensive

of

tract

mud

outside the marginal vegetation so that

the water is separated during the dry
season from the habital of the hoaetzin.
Bui

have never seen the adult bird

ground or approach the wa-

reach

tin'

It i- a remarkable fact that such

weak-winged, defenseless bird, in such
an exposed habitat, ha- escaped extinction in a region abounding in powerful
Raptores ami other carnivorous ene-

ter.

A means

of preservation i- sughowever, by the marked fetid

mies.
id,

odor of the adult bird. The young arc

protected by immersion, and later, as
the bird approaches maturity, it acquires

his offensive odor.

The hoaetzin

represents

one

of

group of vertebrate types of vasi geological

antiquity which constitute a
marked characteristic of the fauna of
Smith America.
A long isolation of
the continenl has been inferred from
the persistence of these old typ

NOTES BY A COLLECTOR IN THE COLORADO

ROCKIES
BY ALBERT
With

a series of illustrations

E.

BUTLER

from photographs by the Author

LONGS PEAK AND THE CONTINENTAL DIVIDE AS SEEN FROM ESTES PARK
The Front Range

snow stands as the most eastern outpost of

From the point where this picture was taken Longs Peak appears as a rather smoothly rounded
mountain, but from the top of the Divide it is seen as a great square block of granite.
Its crevices are filled with
snow where the wind has not blown this away, and down its side flows a small glacier, the last remnant of an ice
sheet which piled the huge moraine in the valley
of the Colorado Rockies with its crest of perpetual

the Great Divide.

Of the many natural parks of Colorado. Estes Park has been the one most frequented as a resort. The magcanon of the Big Thompson River admits the autoist or tramper entering from the east, but the way to the
is barred by the precipitous rise of the Great Divide, at this point a veritable wall rather than a range.
The valley of Grand Lake, whose waters flow into the Colorado River, lies only thirty-five miles westward.
In 1915 the Longs Peak region, about 229,000 acres including part of Estes Park, was established by the
Federal Government as the Rocky Mountain National Park and forms, with Mesa Verde Park in the southwestern
part of the state, one of Colorado's two large national preserves.
It is fairly accessible by a number of railroads,
1

nificent

south and west

but

170

sufficiently

remote always to insure

its

beautiful wildness

SYMMETRY OF THE ISOLATED YELLOW

PINE

,,..,. tli. Bockv Mountain yellow pine {Pinna scopu_trees

,,.,,.
Perhaps the most picturesque * Colorado
Ii
isolated.
brum). It occurs on tin- plains southeast
{
reache
hut
.1
te
fou>
gr
is
sl
it
m0
A. times
taking on a
?
, mor e diversitj ol form than
,,,,.
. ,..> , the landscape,
f>
but alwa>s ntung
,, mil n
appearance and again exhibiting a perfect symmetry ''"'
L
,

,.

'

..

..

is

evidenced
al

bj

its

frequent

,.,,

quahtj

";

'

Lumber than anj othei

!,.;
trei

.,.

-i.-,l

state

lil

A WILD
One

of the

FLOWER OF THE COLORADO ROCKIES

is the abundance of wild flowers.

Sixteen hundred varieties are accredited to the Estes Park region alone.
The showy yellow,
purple, or variegated gaillardia is well known in the florists' shops of New York and other eastern cities.
In season one may gather an armful of it along the Colorado roadway in a very
few minutes, and it is a sad fact that this is too often done, for the enthusiasm of the visitor at
seeing the conservatory door open and the sign of welcome out overcomes his better judgment and
he picks until there is not a flower left in sight. Much propaganda for the protection of the wild
flowers, however, is being spread, and it is hoped that no species will be entirely destroyed.

delights of travel in the Rockies of Colorado

Some of the most delightful spots in all Colorado for wild flowers are found on the slopes of
Lookout Mountain immediately back of the town of Golden. It is a commendable tribute to the
population of this little mountain community that wild flowers are still to be found in abundance
right at their back door.
As Golden is now a gateway to Denver's wonderful system of mountain
parks, these wild flowers add much to the charm of the seventy-mile trip that tourists enjoy
172

*k

.#>

foiM ps

r:>

IT

in

t),

CLOTHES THE MOUNTAIN MEADOWS

roadways or

'"/"*

in
)

?S: B

the

is a

no -t

veritable fairyland

ol

beautj

E ouuftL

hand-

^w^^^'ss^
sa

^kisses: " :^r^

j te

PURPLE

2S ES^S^tow^K

sari's fft'^irs
;,H

IN

<

..

ALTITUDE
ROADWAY. AND LODGEPOLE PINES AT HIGH
^

^^J^^
^^J^^epe^
'^^^t^^^ "^^^

_, P olepine (Pft*. murrayana)

a
forests ot the Rocky
cabin,
It forms the most dense
material for the woodsman s
feet altitude.
t
on foot. The beautiful tall^slende
traveler
Xow'u'serves for telegraph poles, radto the
nucu
i
?
j :_ t ar t th 1ree was used bv the inaians in eit-Liiii
Mgh
wherever long straight timber u'desirable
WaJ ^es fence posts-and
o-do easily accessible
h ills wiU take .his pack
Mountain roads make the Rockies of Cowho
sh es to see ^'1 e, o
traveler
al]
ffflr
the
d
but
localities
some
in
altitudes
nature lover
so full of interest for the
:

m
S

174

dis^onK EiTSfi;

";

K- f o-

f^.^^eat

airland

^^^^

A WELL-FRUITED
n,i exhibition in th<

The lodgepole

pi

SPRAY OF THE LODGEPOLE PINE

forestry hall of the American

Museum

of Naturdl History

rms mountain won. Hand- which seem unending, and the

estify to the density of its growth

man who

has ventured

off

the

imens in th
surprise that await- the collector of tree s]
The wooded hills apparently have no bounds and there are vast
them.
ies.
tract- of dense timber, but a tract miles in extent may afford only one or two s]
A trail breaks from the
mad.' an earl) -tart from Estes Park, about 7500 feet elevation.
I
si
a
roadway a short ride beyond tin- village. It soon leaves behind the scattered western yellow pines, and at about :. the densi
Bere the trail be<
p and rugged, rising 2500 feet in
lodgepole pine.
tack and forth over the ro ky wooded slopes, sometimes following for some distai
three miles, and
interrupt,
d
the
sight of a deer or the flushii
often
bj
of the trip was
1
wild, rushing, snow-fed stream.
m\ attention continually wandered with delight over tin unexpected gardens of wild flowers.
c manner al
ded in the -am.- cl
The lodgepole forest which began
abruptlj
the trail breaks into the spruce and Mr belt, reaching to timber line which in Colorado i- about
fruited
Well
specimens of these were
n but the two species of pine, the yellow and th
had
Lbject the branches to the least po
but were not collected until we were homeward hound.
er part of the climb was made difficult and uncomfortable bj a rain .loud which enveloped us sd that
This made it hazardous to wander into the wood- far from the bi
gee but a few yards ahead.
distance, we were unii
was lined with Douglas fir and Engelmam
iiy well-fruited Bprays.
en of the alpine fir was taken, however, and. once out of the
A goi
'rail, where the
hill-, we were in sunshine again and in no time Were back on the picturesq
greatest

must travel

Rockii

to find

'

Ij

tin.'

hurri.
trip to

branch Bhown above was collected.

gain the region of th.' Rockj Mountain yellow pine, we picked up our previouslj located branch and
b
king for the
vaj in order to pack for shipment the specimens
in getting th.- specimens to the village ex
N.u York required care, hut a- little time v. is lo
with satisfaction a few days later that this package had arrived at the American Museum in
ibition in the Jesup collection of
,(,,.,. i,.
20i
Mi America.
Tin. Author.

17."

THE MOUNTAIN FOREST

IS

HOME TO THE

^.J^Z^^
vm m

he has
pine and spruce cones on which
or
unwelcome
and bird folk that there is an
for a pme squxrrel
lector who may be looking
Uttta fellows

chipmunk

is

^
J
heir forest

not dear, but

^%
ma
*

do not readily become accustomed

or so the pack
very friendly after the first day

do

ox

"

PINE SQUIRRELS

it

is

certain that the eol-

^ .^

i'sSSSSiSSaSsS^-"'-'
176

Th

The
birds.
oth er small animals and
^ notoriously famili ar, and the
e is ple ntiful and
La

"

THE WARDENS OF THE LOST LAKES

mann Bprace

act

as

wardens

of the

Lost

Lakes which

lie

hidden among them.

on of Rio Blanco County.

"Lost" the lakes

remote from roads, or from trail- except of deer, elk and mountain sheep, so that even old
The height of the distant range can be appreciated
e difficulty in searching them out.
than a mile from the far .-age of the forest to the fool of the ran-.' and that
fn
3
feet, entirely too precipitous to permit of scaling it from this side,
Thi
wii
the foreground i- Been the Bcrubby willow on the tender buds of which the ptarmigan feeds in
fir-t heavy -now usually falls in late October
Flat

Top Range

in

the Wild

~~

i-

-.

10 pjf.
.Z

^z

_ M ,-

:l

'?

Z Z

~Z.

*a

lht=v-A iWWXu. Ml;fPJ itu\tUi\Ulh

i

~Z

~ > - =

>:

- * -

Russian Explorations of the Siberian Ocean

in 1918*
By A. W. G R E
Major General. United

is

ITthe

a special satisfaction to learn that

War

Great

has not entirely absorbed

the activities of the world along- scien-

and adventurous

tific

In recent veins

lines.

the hydrographic surveys of the Russian

pire, largely

Em-

conducted along lines of opera-

devised by Lieutenant General J. C.

tions

Sehokalsky, of the Russian navy, have been

and important in
Summaries of such surveys
their results.
have been correlated and published by
Sehokalsky both in Russian and in Engextended

their

in

fields

.States

ELY

Army, Retired

oavy,

now on duty

at the

embassy

Wash-

in

Later explorations of Nicholas II

ington.

archipelago showed that one island was one

hundred miles across from east to west, and

its
it

geological structure indicates clearly that

was, in earlier ages, a northerly extension

of the continent of Asia.

General Sehokalsky reports a renewal of

work

the survey

ing 1918, and

now

tions are

in the Siberian

ocean dur-

understood that expedi-

is

it

in the field, although

it is

more

may

than possible that recent war operations

that these surveys have been continued in

The plans
for these surveys were drawn by the Hydro-

1918.

graphic

journals.

lish

It

will

It

is

encouraging to learn

1914-15

be remembered that in

Captain Vilkitsky, commanding the ice-break-

have interfered with the work.

Administration,

most

the

active

members being the Chief of the Administration and Hydrographer E. L. Bialekos. The

"Taimyr" and "Vaigateh," made the first

voyage of any kind from Bering Strait west-

western section of the expedition, working

ward

Chelyuskin, remains under

ers

veying

the

ocean, he

new

Besides sur-

to the Atlantic Ocean.i

coast

waters

of

had already added

islands to the

New

the

Siberian

in

1913 two

Siberian archipelago,

from

White

the

Sea

eastward

Cape

to

command

of Cap-

The eastern expedition,

tain B. A. Vilkitsky.

surveying from Cape Chelyuskin to Bering

Strait, is

commanded by Captain
Sea

surveys

P. A. Novo-

which discoveries he now supplemented by a

pashhennij.

new island in the Bennett group, discovered

by De Long in the "Jeannette" expedition,

mented by shore stations, where tidal, meteorological and other hydrographic observations will be made continuously for two or
more years. The expeditions will be kept in
connection with each other by radio shore

1880-81.
Vilkitsky's great discovery

was the

archi-

pelago of Nicholas II, directly north of Cape

Chelyuskin.

This archipelago extends about

stations, of

been explored as far as 82 degrees north

In
latitude, and 93 degrees east longitude.

Strait

surveying

sailed

voyage

from Vladivostok

of

when

1914

Vilkitsky

ored to rescue the shipwrecked

men

he

endeavof the

"Karluk," then in great distress on Wrangell

Land.

The island was

heavy

ice that it could not

With him

so

surrounded by
then be reached.

at that time were Lieutenants N.

Evgenoff and A. Nikolsky, of the Russian

1

See

American Museum Journal,

pp. 347-49.

and Dickson
radio

supple-

Jugor-shij, Karskia
Cape Mare-sale, Jamal Peninsula

tion for several years:

his

be

which three have been in opera-

two hundred miles to the northwest, having

will

Inlet.

stations

As soon

will

be

as possible other

installed

mouths of the Lena and Kolima,

and at other less important points.
The scientific labors of the expeditions
will be supplemented by such studies by exGulf, the

perts

as

resources

may

serve

of

Siberia

to

develop

from

the

great

and

economic

Vol. XIII,

commercial standpoints.

* This summary of exploratory work in the Siberian ocean was received by General Greely in
vate letter from Petrograd.

182

east

in

Matochkin Shar, Obdorsk, at the mouths of

the Enissei and Petchora, Nakhodke, Obi

pri-

Recollections of Travel in Peru

OL LO

Bv K

A KM ED with letters of introduction,

\ started out the morning after my
I

arrival

\.

JL

Lima, early

in

January,

in

the hope of obtaining a govern-

L913, with

ment permit to colled a dozen or so of the

innumerable shags or cormorants thai had
formed one of the sights of the day before
we sailed southward along the shores of
As the Peruvian government derives
Peru.
a yearlj
revenue of many thousands of dollars from the sale of guano, the birds are
how
carefully
carefully
protected,
pro
tected
did not learn for more than five
as

months,

the end of which time permission

at

collect
the birds was finally refused.
was introduced to the GovernAlthough
ment Minister bj a leading official of the
Peruvian corporation which had the con-

to

cession

gathering the guano,

for

and alPeru
to

B E C K

II.

The tameness of
along

ticularly

birds was

the

railway

the

shown

par-

embankment
between Lima

when the half-hourly trains

Of a dozen birds sitting
on the sloping ground from three to fifteen
below the rails, two thirds perhaps
feet
and Callao passed.

would fly off a few yards, but the others

would remain while the train passed practi
just above their heads.

cally
rillos,

where

often

Out at Chor-

collected,

the

trail

followed passed the city dump, and one could

always see several black vultures walking
gingerly about the burning piles of garbage,
vying with dogs and pigs and sometimes a
burr
two in picking out bits of food

from the smoking heaps.

The country roads about Lima were often

deep rivers of dust and
soon learned to
follow the custom of the country in climbing
up and walking on top of the wide adobe
I

the
American Minister
added the weight of Ids office to my plea, the
weeks and months of waiting were in vain
so far as government sanction was con
Between my semiweekly, weekly,
cerned.
Kiweekly, and finally monthly visits to the

when, in

government

learn the progress of

growing com.

my

along apparently on the top of one of the

farthest corn rows.
lie jogged along unconcernedly and it was not until he passed

though

my

offices

petition,

to

spent

efforts

collecting

birds which were not government protected.

By far

the most

me

interesting birds to

walls which are used both as fences

paths

many

places.

my amazement

been

my

in

first

into

trip

and footremember what had

late

the

looking across
saw

one afternoon of
of Lima.

outskirts

small

field

of

large dog trotting

and about Lima were the black vultures.

was accustomed to t lie wariIn California

top of an adobe fence.

the turkey vulture, which seldom

approach within shooting distance;
therefore these tame scavenging birds in

Several
times
the
magnificent
South
American condor- were seen between Lima
and Callao, slowly circling high above their

in

of

allows

then-

relation

to the sanitation

of the city

and country afforded constant surprises as

At one of
well as considerable amusement.
the
Sat

the

slaughterhouses

around On the
do/.en-.

city

trees, root's,

waiting

for

animal that the health

as unfit for

the

of

human

the
officer

food.

birds

the

and fences

|,\

killing

of an

would

reject

The diseased

car-

would be hauled out into the street

le-s than a block from the entrance to the
yard, and the birds did the rest.
One large
es

hog disappeared completely in two hours,

while a rather skinny cow lasted over night.
fat

era, visited by
year collecting trip to
now deposited in the
Beck's experiences are

beyond the cornfield that

saw he was on

smaller relatives, the black and turkey vultures.

By the end of February, no action

having been taken on my permit,

decided
to go up to Lake Junin for a month.
Lake
Junin is situated nearly thirteen thousand
1

feet high and. in addition to being frequented by man\ of the high Andean watei

birds,

is

the

peculiar to

home

itself.

of two or three species

Through the kindness of

the president of the (Vrro do Pasco Knilvvav

Company we were
ing

mile

lodge

dose

from the

given the use of his shoot-

to
lake,

the

railway

and

this

line

half

proved to be

Mr. ami Mr-. Heck in the early pari of I'M.;, was the ftrsi station on their fiveSouth America for marine birds, The specimens obtained on tin- expedition are
ether accounts of Mr.
Brewster-Sanford collections at the American Mm
m.
given in the Joi enal for November, L917, and for January ami February, L918.

183

NATURAL HISTORY

184

cabin was fitted up with all the necessary

which lies a few miles beyond the lake. We

wcie greatly astonished as well as immediately appreciative when we were ushered into

keeping house with the excepThere had been a stove,

a steam-heated, electric-lighted room, with

running hot and cold water and a porcelain

much more convenient than quarters

would have

Junin

of

village

articles for

in the

The

been.

tion of the stove.

but some enterprising railway section boss

had carried it off

where up the line.

warm

to

his tent some-

Mrs. Beck therefore did

In walking
cooking in the fireplace.
down to tin' lake shore during the first week

the

of our stay

we saw many golden

plover on

the open tundra, getting in shape for the

long flight to Alaska, where

kind the summer before.

of North American

common about
winged

teal,

had met their

Three other species

shore birds were also

the lake, as well as the blue-

one

of

North American

the

ducks.

The most striking birds of the district

were the flamingos. Standing in the door-

way

the early

in

morning we could

see

pink line along the edge of the shallow water

morning meal,
lit up the

as the birds gathered their

and a

little later,

when

the sun

low, rough, snow-capped peaks of the Cordil-

we could
wing and fly on to
some safer resting ground far beyond our

lera a

few miles

to the westward,

see the flamingos take

vision.

Changes of temperature were very sudden

We might be rowing along,

about the lake.

coats off

in

the bright

sunshine,

when a

come drifting over

from the eastward. A chill wind would rise
and in a few minutes a snow or hail squall
would strike us and raincoats would be
donned in a hurry, to be discarded probably
a few minutes later when the sun appeared
again.
It is said locally that Lake Junin
lazy looking cloud would

the

is

home of

world. 1

largest

the

saw but one

only for a

moment

as

frogs

in

the

and then
came up for a

in the lake
it

breath of air and dived on seeing the boat

but

later, at

Cerro de Pasco, we saw a num-

ber hanging in the market place for

and

I judged a single leg

sale,

might be ample

for a meal.

One Saturday afternoon we flagged the

up to Cerro de Pasco,

freight train and went

1
These frogs, Bactrachophrynits microthalmus
Werner, although larger than our North American

bullfrogs,

frog

Rana

are

not

goliath

Balrachophrynus

nearly as large as the giant

Boulenger, of Gabun, Africa.

related to the West Indian

"bullfrog" but because of its aquatic habits has
developed the general form of aglossal frogs and
has lost all but the slightest trace of a tongue.
is

bathtub.

We

found

later that the railroad

company maintains this building for its employees, and it certainly makes their lot
much more bearable at that high altitude.
One of the officials showed us about the immense smelter, with

all

its

powerful, up-to-

date American equipment, and, later,

we had

a chance, on the outskirts of the town, to

watch the native miners bringing out in

from

leather sacks on their backs silver ore

their

small mine, as did their progenitors

hundreds of years ago. Close by were other

shafts equipped with modern machinery
which made the contrasts more emphatic.
Another remarkable feature of this barren,
treeless, mountain top more than fourteen
thousand feet high was the excellence and
variety of fruits and vegetables for sale in

them brought up
from the eastern slopes of the Andes on
burro and llama back or on the heads of the
Indians. The oranges were sweeter than any
we had eaten in Lima, the capital, and the
variety of vegetables was fully as great.
We walked out over the hill for a mile or
so and looked far down a canon to the eastward, through which a winding trail was visible, and we stood aside from the trail while
the public market, all of

a herd of llamas passed loaded with green

fodder grown in the warmer canons miles
us.
The next day, after buying some
bread and vegetables, we returned to our
work again. When our diet of wild ducks or
snipe palled on us, our Indian helper would

below

go to some Indian village near by and purchase half a sheep, paying therefor seventyfive cents or

a dollar, the price depending on

We often bought
which were very reasonable in
were especially interested in one

the size of the animal.

eggs

also

price.

We

boy about ten years old who used to

come over frequently with his spindle and
ball of wool which he industriously wound
while watching us skin birds.
He never
made a sound, and each night when the sun
went down returned home with a piece of
bread and jam.
At the end of a month we packed up our
village

birds and, hailing the freight train one after-

noon, left for lower levels.

About ten miles

above Oroya, our destination for the day,

o
-=

"-

CO

>

2 ^

'/

MSd
-

j2

a
S

2
d

NATURAL HISTORY

186

down

the train and I

and only experience with the rare spur-winged 'lurk-. These
birds live in swift, tumbling mountainous
the conductor slowed

jumped

off to

have

my

first

tude more than twelve thousand feet above

sea level.

The journey from Oroya

to

Lima was

Being now accustomed

and can proceed upstream, under

upward

trip.

water, at a rate perfectly astounding to one

thin air

we were

unacquainted with them. I managed to secure a couple of specimens but lust several
thai were swept under the banks or through

at Ticlio, the highest point, lo.iinn feet,

streams

rapids where the eye could not follow them.

I

walked down the canon which became con-

en-

joyed even more than we had enjoyed the

to the

aide to get out of the train

stroll aliout the station

and

during the half -hour

wait.
Here, as at most other station-, a
crowd of Indians had gathered to see the
It was surprising
train arrive ami depart.

each station to see the number of the

tinually wider, with small patches of ripen-

at

ing barley and of thrifty potato vines along

poorest natives that evidently had business

both sides of the railroad track. Occasionally a patch only forty or fifty feet square
would be seen fenced ou all sides by a stone

at

wall; one enclosure contained only five rows

of ten potato plants each or a total of fifty

saw other patches with even

Rotation of crops was followed evidently by at least some of the
farmers, and the well-filled heads of barley

plants,

and

fewer plants.

were especially surprising at that high

line.

The

we

neared Lima, the first-class became

crowded also. In dropping down the hundred miles from Ticlio to sea level more than
sixty tunnels are gone through and more
than sixty bridges crossed. In the same distance more than a dozen switchbacks are
used to negotiate the steep canon sides along
which the railwav runs. When one tires of

entrances to the principal market of Lima. Peru, it is often possible to buy freshly
from small boys who carry some dozens of slices about on large plates. Each piece
sprinkled with sugar before being delivered to the purchaser

At one

of the

sliced pineapple
is

alti-

some station farther along the

second-class coaches were always full and. as

A.I
Cerro de Pasco a few miles beyond Lake Junin, situated nearlj 16,
feet above sea level
on the barren, treeless mountain tops, we found a wonderful display of fresh fruits and vegetables
in the market place.
All of these are brought up on the backs of burros and llamas and oi
beads of the natives, from the warm eastern slope of the And.'- thousands of feet below.
was
It
.- hanging in the market place, m> large that we judged a single leg would
here that we sav e
mple for a meal. We remained a month in tin- high altitude of the vicinity of Lake Junin and
studied and collected many species of mountain birds, especially ducks, snipe, plover, and other high
was at a somewhat lower altitude, when we were on our waj hark to I.
And. an waterfowl.
It
bad my first and only experience with the ran- spur-winged duck, a bird that ran swim upthat
stream in the swift turbulent mountain current at an astounding speed
I

In the small

farmer or
appears

his

wife,

Andean villages it
who brings
in
it

is

to

often

town

possible
anil

-its

t<>

get

patiently

whole sheep for

down

likel)

dollar from some

spot until a buyer

1ST

-.4 '-

everywhere
found burro loads of green alfalfa for sale at Salaverry, Peru. Alfalfa is grown
forage
an altitude of 11.000 or 12.000 feet, above which the traveler has to depend on dried
fodder have been brought up to the
or mountain pasture, unless, perchance, llama loads of green
Both the
higher markets from warmer canons below, as we found was the case at Cerro de Pasco.
burros and the alfalfa are Spanish importations into Peru, and are well adapted to the country

We

up

to

In walking toward the old cathedral from the hotel in Puno one will nearly always find a herd
This photograph was
occupying a station in front of some one of the business houses.
Puno lies on the edge of Lake Titii
taken in front of the American bakery of Mariano Barrasa.
and many water birds, such as mud hens and grebes, are brought to the Puno market by the nam es.
We never tired of strolling about this market place on Sunday mornings when the llamas came in
purchases
loaded with varied produce and the natives haggled and bargained over their small
of llamas

1-

RECOLLECTIONS OF TRAVEL IN PERU

and counting the
the canon

looking across the canon

number

of stone

top and

tli"

or

trying to

in

tlot-k

fences between

roaring torrenl

count
as

in

the bottom,

number of llamaclimb some precipi-

the

they

homeward, he can turn his eyes

heavenward and watch the wonderful sailing of the greal American condors as they

tous

trail

L89

which arc several islands where many sea

Hero I obtained a fine lot of
sea birds other than those government pro-

off

birds nest.

There were three species of small

tected.

petrels quite

common

live

and

miles offshore

one of these species was nesting on one of

the

islands.

was interested to

find,

in

collecting several dozen birds near the island,

or more balsas tied up near this wharf at

mornings there is usually b
Sui
Early in the afternoon the owners begin to straggle down from the town and by sunset
nearly all are gone, either poling along thi shallow water or, if the wind is fair, using the crude sail
inters
made of dried tulea which is hoisted only when the wind is abaft the beam. Thesi
''"' clumps of tule at the margin of the lake and display
cks and other wati
them in the Sunday market of Puno. The birds are picked clean of feathers to the bill and some
gold each
ts
times partly cooked; thej sell for about five

On

Puno.

ii

circle

about the canon.

foothills green orchards

passed

and,

as

Lima

Lower down

in

the

and plantations are

neared,

is

fields

cane and herds of feeding cattle

of

h;i- gTeatly surprised, the da\

return, mi inquiring at the

to find thai

oo action had

after our
art offices,

taken on

my

for the collecting permit.

after working a week around Lima, we went

application

up the coast some twenty odd miles

to

ing there.

The

s]

ies not

nest-

nesting birds probably went

to Bea to feed, as they were

two hundred miles from land.
ies was
The commonest bird of the three sj
Wilson's petrel, which nests hundreds of

farther

found

ye.

tl

that nearly all were of two

oul

later

miles south of

Cape Mom. During the Antcome north on both

arctic winter these birds

Smith America, on the Pacific side

seemingly seldom above the equator, imt on
-hies of

the Atlantic they are

common

visitants to at

XATCIIAL IflSTOHV

190

New

least

are seen

England, and occasionally they

New York Harbor.
was formerly thickly populated

in

Ancon

with Indians, ami

in

the sand hills a mile

After the government powers had had

my

application before them for half a year they

derided finally that permission could uot be

me

granted

collect

to

specimens of their

or

guano producers, although

for

were at my disposal. As I had. while awaiting this unexpected answer, obtained series of
nearly all the other water birds in the vicin-

Two back from the presenl town is a large

cemetery which has been pretty well rifled
treasures

may have

it

We

contained.

happened to discover the spot one hot Sunday afternoon while out for a walk, ami our
recollections of Ancon always bring back the

all

other

birds

we took steamer for A Iollendo. southern

Peru, and went by rail up to Lake Titicaca
ity,

memory of dozens of whitening human skulls,

with a solitary, lonesome-looking Englishman
ruthlessly knocking a golf ball over the

where several desired species of birds were

known to live. Before beginning our work
at the lake we spent a couple of days at

sacred ground.

Our return to Lima was again characterized by a futile attempt to get a derision on
our modest request, so a schooner was chartered for a month and we went out to sea
to collect on the ocean. Fifty miles out and

Our ride up to
the Inca capital.
Guzco from Juliaca, the junction point, happened to take place during the festival season, and at several of the stations along the
way groups of Indians were dancing and
Oftentimes
marching about the villages.

beyond, we encountered several species of

ocean birds which usually do not come much
nearer land except in the nesting season.

with heavy children bobbing up and down

At
in the shawls swung over their backs.

One day I was out in the rowboat some distance from the schooner ami just in the act

one stop, a few roils from that station, we

saw a pair of oxen tramping out a stack of

of picking up a rare bird from the water

when I was thrown backward by some object

grain quite in the fashion of a couple or

Cuzco,

Looking besaw a large shark making a dash

striking the boat underneath.

hind me, I

for the boat.

strong jab with the oar

him a little but he rubbed himI

a number of times on the bottom.

disconcerted
self

over

reached

even

and

scratched

his

tin.

after I had observed that there were several

These

small remoras bothering him.

sucker

fish

hang very tenaciously

to

little

then-

about the Galapagos Islands in other

host
years we had often hauled sharks and turtles
:

with

aboard

several

the cruise

quiet

the

mingos

in

Parading along the shore

bay were forty or more fla-

company with

their

gulls,

great

flock

of

pelicans,

northern

immense rock piles.

One or two of the
have far

finer

than

pews

and

old cathedrals in Cuzco

hand-worked
are

summer homes.

The surf

stones along some

immense

of the

hand-worked

of

the

chairs.

many

streets

rocks

quested her to doff her hat, in the manner of

the men on the sidewalk, when the pro-

all

Holy Image passed on

The women of that counchurch bareheaded or wear only

cession carrying the

its

way

to church.

birds especially seemed out of place along

try go to

warm, calm waters of a protected shore.

I associated them with dashing breakers and
strong cold winds from the open ocean, for
such had been their chosen spots when I had
previously met them.

mantillas over their heads.

the

figures,

those

and the
forming the
walls of the old Inca fort above the town
are worth traveling many long miles to see.
Mrs. Beck will always remember Cuzco as
the place where she obeyed the demand of
a devout barefooted Indian who sternly re-

distance

and shore birds of

several species. It was surprising enough to
see the flamingos in such company, but it
was more surprising to see four species of
Alaskan birds back already on dune 30 from
shags,

where the portion of the ground that had

fit for use by the removal of the
rocks was smaller than that covered with

been made

we anchored

Bay some

south of Callao.
of

more thousand years ago.

The astounding amount of work that has
been done to enlarge and protect the cultivable area amazed us continually. One field
of several acres I remember particularly,

churches we entered in the other countries

of South America. The beautifully mortis id

clinging

them.

Near the end of

circling about,

to

remoras

one night below Pisco

women would be prancing and

Titicaca, 1-..""" feet above sea level,

Lake
bears on
sels

its

bosom

as well as the

native Indians.

several steam-driven ves-

numerous balsas of the

On Saturdays ami Sundays

HEl'OLLEl'TIOXS OF TRAVEL IX PERU

there was quite a

of the latter craft

fleet

up near the steamer which carries passengers and supplies to the Bolivian side of
the lake, and the passing tourists had great
opportunities to step across the wharf and
tied

snapahot

unwieldy

the

looking

canoes.

the kindness of the Superintendent

Through

the open street

in

r.M

with wares spread out in

front of them.

At

the end of a

month we had

birds and,

desired

curely for shipment to

New

downward toward Mollendo.

crescent shaped

collected the

having packed them

sand heaps

se-

York, headed

The

traveling,

which

are

on

Railways and Strainers I was furnished

with a boat from a steamer in port to do
my collecting, as the balsas were slow going,

both sides of the railway for several miles

in one desert section of this journey are

against the wind. The native huntthese balsas, however, obtain many

and grebes by poling

around the clumps and patches of tule close
to shore, ami we saw many birds of these

Dozens of the sand dunes are

all of them traveling slowly with the
wind, the particles of sand from the windward side blowing up over the pile to be
buried on the lee side, later to reappear and

species in the market, picked clean of feath-

go n\ er the top again.

of

ially

es]

in

mud

dinks,

hens,

ers clear to the

for about

five

saw more than

fifty in a pile

cooked

partly

which were being sold

cents gold each.

One day I

ready for Sun-

them having been

keep them from spoil"

must

market,

bill,

to

of

big.

During our stay

at

Puno. which

lies

on

the edge of Lake Titicaca, the Independence

Pay

of

excellent

Peru was celebrated, and the very

procession and cleverly arranged

Gloats which were a part of the celebration

would have been a credit to towns many

times larger than this up-in-the-air

nity.

We

the fortitude of

on

children

commu-

were particularly impressed with

some of the

the

floats,

as

likely-to-be-remembered

sights

to

the traveler.
.

The Harvard Observatory, near the famous Mt. MUti, with its very hospitable and
courteous staff of American observers will
be remembered by all Americans who take
the pleasant ride out to it from Arequipa.
Arequipa, at more than 7500 feet elevation,
is the trading center for a large mountain
One may see herds of llama-,
population.
laden with dried mutton and other mountain
products, traveling the same narrow streets
on which the electric railway runs; and in
the evening one may visit the ice cream
parlor, where

all

procession

we

men are

the principal custom-

buy the finest pastry to be found in

Peru. Leaving Arequipa in the morning,

ers, an.

lightly dressed

the

most

the

arrived

at

Mollendo at noon and. after

evening air at various

dining, were rowed to the steamer anchored

ound the plaza to allow the orators

We rarely tired of strolling about the busy

market place on Sunday mornings watching
the llamas coming in with their varied loads
of produce, and the haggling and bargaining

some distance out from the rocky coast on

At dark the
which the town is perched.
anchor was weighed and we started southward to begin our work in Chilean waters.
Tin- \ery pleasant reception and kindly
treatment we received from all the English-

of the poorer natives as they bought a cup-

speaking people, whether Peruvians, English,

halted

in

the

cool

time for their declamations.

ful of grain or beans,

it

might

sibly a hat or a pair of sandals

one of the dozei

be, or pos-

from somi

of verniers squatted

down

ot Americans, with
in

whom we came in contact

among our most

Peru, will always remain

vivid recollectioi sof that wonderful country.

'

Some Vanishing

Scenic Features of the

Southeastern United States

By

OL AND

Botanist on the Geologii

Formerlj

A - civilization spreads over the face of

/\

more and more of natare's handiwork is necessarily dis

The primeval forests
id or destroyed.
at down to make room for farms and
settlements, or are used up faster than they
grow for fuel and building material, or in
earth

the

localities are

converted

are

and

mining,

dammed up
As

in

stone

or

road

the process of

and rapids are

power or navigation, or both.

the prevailing ideal, the con-

natural

irreplaceable

of

into wealth

away

is

resources

almost universally looked upon

only inevitable but highly commendby these who do not look

especially

able,

And

very far ahead.

of course

it'

no trees

had ever been cut or rivers dammed or mines

and q
d this country would have
onlj a sparse population living mostly on
fish ami game, as the aborigines did, and
much of the scenery thai we now admire and
enjoy would
the

be

"wasting

it-

sweetness on

The imme

omic

effect

of the de-

of natural scenery

structive exploitation

is

usually to increase the wealth of the indior

corporations

and sometimes

to

the vicinit

pace

with

ciple

of

tunities

tant

at

some necessil

the

still

is

animals

wild

more obvious
and plants.)

for one

of

congested

who

farther

live

when people were not so

crowded and there was more opportunity for
the development of individuality.
Somewhere between the primitive condition of a "howling wilderness" and that of
areas almosl completely occupied by farms or
buildings, like Iowa, the blue-grass region of

Kentucky, Manhattan [sland, Prince Edward

[sland, Flanders, and the lowlands of China
and Japan, there should We a happy mean,

minimum

with a certain
net

less

county and

live

of natural scenery,
per

one

enjoy

it

now

cent

features

in
is

of population,

of

every

per cent of every state, left

for the benefit of all

intact
to

than

who may wish

or hereafter.

There

per-

is

and luxu

are within easy reach of every one oughl to

ies

in

depriving

all

future

rations of the opportunity to enjoy or

the ultimate effecl

all

sincerely lamented the passing of

who

those

nated by commercialistic moti\

study the

at

the good old days,

iie

for

and

apart,

cheaper for a time; but that, to a

true lover of nature at least, hardly seems
reason

are

than

efficienl

considerable dis-

it,

little

flficienl

citj

ov o

stages of the world's history then- have been

Buch as Lumber, farm produce, or electricity,

a

's

districts

any happier or freer or more

those

human

is

It

has not been proved that

it

inhabitants

the case of

in

rapid growth ami

in

population figures
or country, bul

prin-

numbers by oppo]

of

nature to take pride

the

(This

wealth.

total

limitation

haps no purer pleasure than that derived

from the contemplation of nature's masterpieces, and a world in which some of them

responsible for

enable persons living

en

and the total population of

else,

the world or any part thereof tends to keep

say

d<

viduals

anything

E R

Alabama, and Florida

rgis

smoke, or

waterfalls

for

prof

on

fire,

building

into

or blasted

rial,

by

killed

Picturesque rock formations

fumes.

ter

ARP

M.

question.
Moreover,
merely to allow an infor that

Beems to de-

pend on economic opportunities as much as

It

is

happier world than one wholly domii-

-aid that

modern concept, which

anywhere a century or two
travelers -aw nothing but
alpine scenery, ami in prime-

a comparatively

hardly existed

ago;

lieval

hideousness
val

es.

the appreciation of nature

forests

in

they

wild Least- and

were

in

unknown

constant
perils.

fear

Bui

of

now

'All tln> illustrations are from photographs by the Author except those of Tallulata Falls and Mountain, for which lie is indebted to Prof. S. W. McOallie, state Geologist at Georgia.
In the few months that have elapsed since tin- article was put in type the termination of the great
war ha- altered Borne of the situations described, but it seemed better to publish it in it- present form and
ask readers to bear tin- circum tance in mind than to undertake extensive alteration- at this tunc.
recent development worthy of mention i< the organization a fev
mo
Georgia, of an "Okefinokee Society," who-.- object i- to preserve from destruction the great swamp

described herein.

193

View near the southern end of the Everglades, looking south.

on the saw-grass stubble. Photographed March 29, 1909

when a particularly charming bit of scenery

that has been enjoyed by thousands and is
capable of giving pleasure to millions more
if let

by

alone, is threatened with destruction

selfish

a vigorous

interests,

often made, and sometimes

although

many

protest

is

And

is effective.

people even yet seem about

as indifferent to the beauties of nature as

animals are, there

that the

is

reason for believing

number of appreciative ones

is in-

creasing in spite of the vast development of

Most New Yorkers probably are familiar

with the long-continued fight to save Niagara Falls from spoliation by power syndicates, and can easily recall how the Palisades

of the

Hudson were saved

for

the

public about ten years ago, after qaarrymen

had already done considerable damage. In
the West quite a number of scenic features
on government land have been set aside in

ilcareous

incrustation

individuals, as in the case of a part of

Mount

Desert Island, Maine, and Letchworth Park,

and Wyoming Counties,

in Livingston

And

York.

New York

of the land area,

gin forest,

though

it

New

even in such a supposedly mer-

cenary city as
is

some of

about ten per cent

practically vir-

it

reserved for park purposes,

would be worth

al-

at least $100,000,-

000 now for business or residential purposes,

costs a large sum annually for main-

and

tenance.

Among

industrialism.

Xot

est

in

places of scenic or scientific inter-

the northeastern

states

which have

been partly destroyed by the march of

civi-

Hempstead Plains of Long

lization are the

some of the beaches of southern

Kankakee marshes of Indiana, the prairies of Illinois, and the Dalles
The presor Dells of the Wisconsin Eiver.

Island,

New

ent

Jersey, the

article

places

in

deals

the

with a number of such

southeastern

states,

equally

recent years as national forests, parks, or

attractive or interesting but not so widely

"monuments," and the public is being invited

and even urged to go and enjoy them. In
California a few years ago there was a prolonged fight successful in the one case and
not in the other to save the groves of Big
Trees from exploitation by lumbermen and
the beautiful Hetch-Hetchy Valley from
being flooded to form a reservoir.
In the East, where there is hardly any
more federal government land, beautiful
tracts have been reserved by the states, like
the Adirondacks in New York, Mackinac
Island in Michigan, and Starved Eock in
Illinois, or donated to the public by private

known, that are about to meet a similar fate,

or have already been partly or wholly ruined.
Some of them have been written about at
considerable length in publications of wide

194

circulation, while others are

botanists, zoologists,

known

chiefly to

and persons living

in

the vicinity. 1

Okefinokee

hundred

Swamp, covering about seven

square

miles

in

southeastern

Descriptions of the Everglades have appeared

in several encyclopaedias, and notices of the Hempstead Plains, Okefinokee Swamp, and Stone Mountain, with references to some previous literature
for each, can be found in the latest edition of the
New International Encyclopaedia (191416).
1

VAN SUING SCENIC FEATURES OF THE SOUTHEAST

195

it,

be very fertile. But the death of the president of the company in 1895 caused a cessation of operations before the swamp forests
had been greatly disfigured, and the canal
was put to good use in the next few years by

Indian legends, was published as

hunters and occasional scientific explorers.

Georgia, partly wooded and partly open

marsh or wet prairie, has been visited more
by hunters than by sight-seers, but it has
charms all its own for those who appreciate

the wilderness.

based on

fanciful account of

long ago as 1791 by William Bartram, but

After a dozen years or so had elapsed the

most of the literature relating to

successors of the original lumber

than ten years

The

first

val solitude

old.

it

is

less

built

serious disturbance of this prime-

had

its

inception in 1890,

when

corporation organized for the purpose

bought the greater part of the swamp from
A canal
the state for 26% cents an acre.
was soon dredged from the eastern margin
to near the center, for the purpose of floating out the cypress timber to a sawmill on
It was planned to
the edge of the swamp.
drain the ana later, and convert it into farm
land, which the promoters imagined would

city,

company

a railroad from Waycross, the nearest

into

the

northwestern

part

of

the

swamp, and began taking the timber out

that way.

This invasion seems to be

progress, but perhaps

to
est

it is

make at least a part

and game preserve,

still in

not yet too late

swamp a

of the

for-

if sufficient interest

can be aroused in such a project.

The Everglades is a vast saw-grass marsh,
averaging about fifteen feet above sea level,
and covering about five thousand square
miles, in the southern part of Florida.

It

contains almost no timber or other useful

A good description, with illustrations, published too late to be cited in the encyclopaedia arti'

cle,

Must

is
'i

that by Francis Harper

n,

in

Quarterly for April, 1915.

the

Brooklyn

vegetation,

except

small trees near

its

clumps of

which flourishes evervwhere

is

Virgin forest ,f Blast) pine (Pimu EUiottii) with undergrowth ol saw palmetto
Photographed August 7, 1902
shrubs, on Bugaboo Island in Okefinokee Swamp.
(

and
saw grass

bushes

edges, and the

a formidable

and

other

low

West

side of Paradise Key, or Royal

other trees.

Palm Hammock,

obstacle to navigation in the wet season as

well as to walking in the dry season.

Pre-

vious to 1890 there was no railroad anywhere near it, and the area was a terra incognita to all but the Seminole Indians who
dwelt on its edges and to a few adventurous
hunters and explorers who had penetrated

The extenEailway to
Miami in 1896 (and later to the Keys) made
the Everglades much more accessible, and
brought increasing numbers of sportsmen,
tourists, nature lovers, and speculators and
the

palms towering above the

Photographed March 28, 1909

marsh for short

distances.

sion of the Florida East Coast

other small craft.

Considerable work has
been done on other canals, and the water has
been lowered a little, enough to allow some
agricultural developments and real estate
booms on the northern and eastern edges.

At

the

same time a number of lawsuits and

scandals have resulted from the attempts of

enterprising speculators to sell land in the

middle of the 'Glades (that cannot be drained

for many years, if at all) at fancy prices to
gullible

persons

living

hundreds of miles

away.

about 1905 the output of literature

about it, both scientific and popular, has
been considerable.!
since

Even before the railroad came near this

had been looked upon as a potential farm
area, on account of its mild climate and supposedly rich muck soil, and after many preliminary investigations and discussions, and
a few heated political campaigns, the state
began in 1906 the dredging of a series of
canals to connect Lake Okeechobee, at the
north end of the 'Glades, with the coast, and
thus ultimately to drain the marsh.
One
canal from the lake to New Elver back of
Fort Lauderdale was cut through a few
years later, and has been used ever since,
except in the driest seasons, by launches and
1
Some of the best popular descriptions of the
Everglades are in books and magazine articles by
A. W. Dimock. An eloquent plea for the Seminoles
has been made by Mrs. Minnie Moore Willson in
her book about them, published in 1896 and later

editions.

196

Chase

Prairie,

Swamp, on August

near
7,

the

1902

center

of

Okefinokee

Much
as

it

land

appears

after the

is

not as inexhaustibly fertile

however, and

to the uninitiated,

first

lized heavily to

few years Deeds to be ferti

produce crops; and tin' pres

war situation has made the supply of

some fertilizing materials very uncertain,
and thus
lelay the exploitation of
the Everglades, which would be a large undertaking at best. To drain this vast marsh
would not only destroy a scenic feature that
ha> do counterpart anywhere else in the
world, but would also Dearly exterminate
birds and other interesting wild
ires, as well a~ the Seminole Indians,
ent

formerly warlike but now very peaceful

But the Indians have no Status either as

tribe.

wards of the nation, and gel do

more consideration frCm the average Everglades promoter than the birds and alligacitizens or

tors

lo.

So

been

lias

85
Oct.
16,
Dec. 12,

91.

28:525.
67:890.

written

in

recent

years

1908; Scu

.inly.

1908;

and

Lit.

rani

run

1.

Digest

shrubberj dotting the marsh are known

sometimes camp in them
I

that hunters

much

the supposed advantages of draining swamps

and marshes thai some readers may be interested
in the arguments on the oilier -id.- of the question
in
the
Popular
Monthly 29:282 283.

ably fn

Royal Palm Hammock, or Paradise Key,

locally

at

prob-

19<

L98

NATURAL HISTORY
it into truck farms;
but before such a scheme was made possible
by the building of a road over the miles of

a sort of island about half a mile in

diameter, at the extreme south end of the
Everglades, in Dade County, Florida. It is

thoughts of converting

covered with a dense tropical forest, and is

one of the few places in the United States
where the royal palm (Roystonea regia)
grows wild. There are at least one hundred
of these graceful palms on the island, and
the older ones tower above all the other
vegetation, a picture worth going far to see.

jagged limestone and strips of marsh between there and the railroad, the Florida
Federation of Women 's Clubs became interested, and in 1915 secured the passage of a

is

Several of the other trees, too, are rarely

found outside of the tropics.

Until about ten years ago this beautiful
hammock was inaccessible and almost unknown; but when the Florida East Coast
Railway was extended to the Keys it passed
within about ten miles of the spot, and settlers began to push out in that direction.
As the soil of the island appeared to be
quite fertile, some greedy vandals had

bill

by the

legislature placing the tract in

their care.

This, however, was perhaps not an unmixed blessing, for the first step in making
it more accessible was to build an automobile road right through the hammock, with
Cape Sable as its contemplated destination.
Then a custodian was installed and a clubhouse built to accommodate visitors, and the
traffic has already brought in several weeds
and of course will bring more and more, to

say nothing of
hazard.

Worse

increasing
still,

the

forest

seems to be the

it

fire

in-

Looking up the gorge of Tallulah River shortly before the dam was built
Tempesta Falls in
L'Eau d'Or Falls beyond. Photographed
by A. M. Turner in 1913
;

the foreground, Hawthorne's Pool just above, and the foot of

vaxisiiixg scexic

ii;.\rri:i:>

tention

of -nine of the patronesses to "im-

prove"

the

through

trails

by

tract

cutting

and

forest

the

number of
installing

and other plants that nature

never Intended to grow there, thus further

exotic orchids

altering

natural appearance.'

its

Passing now to the subject of river scenery, it may be observed that on any stream
the most picturesque places are usually its
tails and rapids, and it is just these which
Buffer most from the encroachments of civilization, for every water-power development,

dam

or

for slack-water navigation, disfigures

Some

or obliterates one of them.

of

the

examples of such scenen have escaped

until quite recently, however, either on acfinest

count of the large amount

of

capital

re-

quired to "develop" them, or their remoteness from cities, or possibly because public
opinion

was

too

adverse

their

to

deface-

ment.

One of the grandest manifestations of unharnessed power in the South was Tallulah
on the headwaters of the Savannah
The
in the mountains of Georgia.
river there dashed through a narrow rocky
Tails,

River

The most comprehensive description of Royal

Palm Hammock, and one easily accessible to many
readers of this Journal, is by Dr. J. K. Small in
iiitrnal of the New York Botanical Garden,

of the sottheast

199

gorge about five hundred feet deep, descending six hundred and sixty feet in three

The village of Tallulah

was a favorite summer resort
for people from the Piedmont region and
coastal plain, and had hotel accommodations
for about nine hundred persons. Up to 1911

and a half

miles.

Falls, close by,

the

rugged scenery

remained virtually as

nature made it, but about that time the

temptation to harness the falls proved irre-

and one of the large hydroelectric

power syndicates secured possession. Local
nature lovers protested vehemently at the
time, and sought to prevent the destruction
by lethal means, but the prospect of getting
cheaper electricity for Atlanta (nearly one
hundred miles away) seemed to outweigh all
other considerations. The scenery of course
has not been totally destroyed, but it is said
sistible,

that Tallulah Falls

is

much

less

popular as

a summer resort than it was.

Squaw Shoals, on the Black Warrior River
in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, has always

been comparatively inaccessible and unknown, but it was a beautiful place, and

was of considerable botanical interest as

being one of the few known localities for

for

October,

Joi

i;n

1916,

u. for

Dam

of

graphed by

See also

February

the Georgia
S.

\V.

American Museum

1918, p

32.

lily, Hymenocallis coron aria

(which grows only on rocky rapids from
South Carolina to Alabama, and has already
been exterminated from some rivers in the

the rare spider

Railway and Power Company

McCallie

;it

Tallnlab Palls, completed

in

L914.

Photo

NATURAL HISTORY

200

same maimer as here), the recently

ered

discov-

umbelliferous plant Harperella

fluvi-

which seems to be confined to Alabama, and a few other species of more than
atilis,

ordinary interest. 1

ago there was begun the

dam and lock
at the foot of these shoals, as a part of a
plan for extending navigable water up
through the coal fields to Birmingham. The

About

six years

construction of a sixty-foot

from photographs taken in the summer of 1913, when

the construction of the dam was well adaccompanying

illustrations are

vanced, but the vegetation and scenery above

were

it

still

The completion of the

intact.

structure was celebrated on

May

13,

1915,

with much rejoicing and speech-making by

the citizens of Tuscaloosa (who apparently

have

little to

gain by

it,

however), and

it

is

partly forests and partly farms. This place

had no particular reputation for scenery,
being several miles from any railroad or
settlement, but the ponding of the river
flooded one of the few localities outside of
the coastal plain for the small palm, Sabal

glabra, and some splendid collecting ground

mussels,

for

and

is

said

Little Eiver Falls, a very picturesque spot

on Lookout Mountain in Alabama, where

some extremely interesting plants grow.- In
August, 1911, numerous surveyors' stakes
were in evidence there, but the contemplated
destruction apparently has not yet been carried

out.

Perhaps

it

not too late yet to

is

save this place, which would not be worth

much

small size of the stream.

the Coosa Eiver between Chilton and

Coosa counties, Alabama, backing up the
water to the vicinity of Talladega Springs,
and submerging several square miles of land,
For an account

of the botanical features of this

place see Torretja, September, 1914.

The genus
Harperella, discovered by the writer in Georgia in
1902, and now comprising three species, is one of
the only two or three genera of flowering plants
discovered in the eastern United States in the last
three quarters of a century.

Lower part
of spider lilies

of

Squaw

Shoals,

showing lock

for power purposes, on account of the

Mussel

(commonly

misspelled

Muscle)

Shoals, on the Tennessee River just above

Alabama,

where the river falls

about fifteen miles, is
an obstacle to navigation long ago circumvented by a canal, which did little damage

Florence,

eighty-five

to
1

almost

The same power company that harnessed

Coosa River also has had designs on

mourn the passing of the natural scenery.

At about the same time a seventy-foot
dam for electric power purposes was built
on

have

the

not recorded that there was any one present

to

to

ruined Talladega Springs as a resort.

feet

in

the scenery, flora,

or

fauna.

But

this

spot has recently been selected as the site of

proposed government nitrate plant,

which will mean a large water-power develthe

- Its botanical peculiarities

have been discussed
in Torreija 6:114. 1906; 14:154. 1914.

foreground and beds

Photographed June 4, 1913

in process of construction in the

(Hymenocallis coronaria) in the middle distance.

VANISHING SCENIC FEATURES OF THE SOUTHEAST

opment

which

to

there,

sters"

"1

the South could

l"'

eited, but

will suf-

it

fice to mention only one more, which is a

Mammoth
from the rest.
little
differenl

lounty, Arkai sas, aboul a

quarter of a mile from the Missouri

the

line,

near view of the spider

lilies
lily

semblance of

One

tions.

the South,
ot

its

may

Lastly

Florida,

at

interesting
least,

is

in

a group

ery

1"'.

i-

It

cons], i, -nous
I

rare fern-,

confined

:1

latitude 28

to

the

from a scenic standworthy a- a locality for

some of which are

tropics,

eNrwhere north of the

this

well-known

place

has been

botanists,

or

are

might

it

some way.

not

<

<

1 1

>"

known

complete

nol

he

still

possible

ects tin' most striking natural

,,

ire in all

Mountain,

in

Unlike nearly all

enable it to sur-

to

the southeastern states

is

Stone

DeKalb County, Georgia, aboul

sixteen miles from Atlanta by

in

point, bul

l^s|

all

near the Withlac

the southeastern corner of Citrus

in

al

most

a botanisl

limestone grotto.

County,

destroy

original appearance.

tin'

in

it

probably

is

on Squaw Shoals, in water about a foot deep.

lias a bulb, tin- function of which is doubtless
ods of low, water

he described two rock formaof

may

which

contemplated

destruction

however, and

to check

a flour mill, ami further encroachments nave

been

in

Mill in its pristine glory,

yet,

other aquatic plain-, the spider

vi\c desiccation during proli

explored by the writer

was

about to he opened on the spot. Some protests were made, hut with little Or nO effect.

The

pari

it

and there was no sign of any contemplated

disturbance; bul a lew months later came
news that a limestone quarry was
the -a.

and perhaps the largest in the world outside

of Florida, was dammed up at its very
source some years ago to furnish power for

that

in

and even exciting experi-

When

March, L915,

of the country,

spring

-i

interesting

very

ences there.

other recent water-power enterprises

Many
in

local

with pride.

will doubtless point

201

conspicuous landmark

for

fail.

miles

It

is

around:

a
a

huge dome of granite rising abo

hundred feel above a comparatively level
in-about two square

The

miles.

about half
with

its

north

side

height,

is

precipitous

for

and fantastically deco-

vertical stripes made by water

down, while the other shies slope
more gently, ami have a -parse growth of
ami shrubs in crevice- and hollows. On

trickling

Everglades.
visited

some of

bj

summary
s<

whom had

this

sec

.1/,

of

all

available

unique and more or

information

L<

Journal, Sept., 1916.

NATURAL HISTORY

202

and around the mountain are quite a number

of plants not known outside of Middle
Georgia,

including

among

others

the

rare

sioned to carve on the smooth north face of

the mountain, with an expenditure of sev-

and several million

eral years' time

Georgia oak (Quercus Georgiana).

Although the sight of Stone Mountain

some gigantic
the Civil War.

must have amazed the earliest settlers, who

came to that part of the state about 1820, it

whom

seems to have been unknown to scientists

until near the middle of the century, when it
was already quite a resort for sight-seers
from near by and even had a rude observation tower on its summit. It is said that the
village of Stone Mountain at its base (at
first called New Gibraltar, doubtless on ac-

for cherishing the

count of the resemblance of the mountain to

the rock of Gibraltar) had three hundred

from other

states,

may

bring

The
inhabitants and four hotels in 1849.
Hon. Amelia M. Murray, an English lady of
scientific

proclivities,

visited

the mountain

during a tour of the Lnited States in May,

1S55; but on mentioning it to northern scientists a few weeks later she found none

who had heard

of

it. 1

dollars,

figures representing scenes in

Although the Georgians (of

was one during the best

the writer

years of his youth)

are to be

memory

commended

of the Lost Cause,

in this case they are taking a very extrava-

gant way of showing

it. 2

As Stone Mountain has stood

centuries,

and

will for

many

for countless

more,

it

does

not seem particularly appropriate to deface

it irrevocably with nineteenth century scenes

when some future century

forth something equally

worthy of commemoration and more directly
connected with that locality, and perhaps
may produce also a native sculptor to do the
There are indeed some prominent
work.
people in Georgia opposed to the present
well

project, but of course they cannot say

much

against

it

half billion

having their sectional

patriotism impugned.
Outside of Georgia
there does not seem to be much interest one
way or the other, but there was a thoughtful note of protest in the Nation editorial
referred to (which appeared first in the
New York Evening Post of August 4). The

that the stone taken out so far is scarcely

present

war

In 1900 there was little evidence

that anyone had ever set foot on the mountain, notwithstanding its reputed ante-belBut since then a boys'
lum popularity.

collection of the

For many

years, particularly since 1882,

granite has been quarried from the northeastern base of Stone Mountain, out of sight
of the village and railroad, but so enormous

mass (estimated at about seven and a

cubic feet above the ground)

is its

missed.

preparatory school has been established in

the village of Stone Mountain, and a trolley
line and automobile boulevard built out

from Atlanta; and by 1913 a well-worn

path from base to summit could be seen
from a passing train, and two or three persons had lost their lives by slipping down
the precipitous north side.

About three years ago plans were matured

without

situation bids fair to hinder the

funds necessary for carry-

ing out this bold project, all of which naturally could not be raised in advance; and
perhaps the patriotic citizens who have been

promoting

way

will find

it

some

of expressing themselves.

less

expensive

At the

pres-

seems that considerable preliminary work has been done, but no actual
carving; so there is still a chance for staying the proceedings. It seems a pity that

ent writing

it

the whole mountain has not been

state

park,

to

be

protected

made a

forever

from

for disfiguring this massive monolith in a

quarrymen, sculptors, and others who may

seek to exploit it for the sake of wealth or

manner almost unprecedented, the object of

notoriety.

not wholly mercenary, as in the

cases previously described, but sentimental.
Whether the idea originated with the artist
or with the local Daughters of the Confed\Uiieh

eracy

is

is

not clear, but at any rate a well-

known New York

sculptor has been commis-

1
See her very interesting book. Letters from the
United States, Cuba and Canada (1857), pp. 312

313, 333.

At

least

two

botanists, T. C. Porter, of

Pennsylvania, and H. W. Ravenel, of South Carolina, had been on Stone Mountain a few years before Miss Murray, and made known to science

some

of its peculiar plants.

In the foregoing pages the aesthetic reafor preserving natural scenery have

sons

been put foremost, but another and

still

higher motive has been touched upon.

An

park or flower garden might be

just as pleasing to the eye, to most persons
at least, as any natural landscape; but from
artificial

2
For additional details about this project, in
magazines and weeklies of wide circulation, see
Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, April, 1917;
World's Work, Aug., 1917; The Nation, Aug. 9,
1917; Literary Digest, Aug. 18, 1917.

NATURAL HISTORY

204
a scientific standpoint there
1,

beautified
.

Any

them.

(>tween

the owner's

to

is

sort of

no comparison
place can be

(or the public's)

and money,
when natural scenery is destroyed all
money in the world cannot restore it.

taste by the expenditure of time

I

mt

the

get as

sighted utilitarian might claim that

much

natural laws have no possible economic application, no

future
those

can say just what the near

bring forth, and it behooves

who have

making corfrom observed facts to

the rare gift of

rect generalizations

embrace every possible opportunity to learn

nature 's ways. The loss of scientific opportunity through commercial exploitation is
perhaps least noticeable
lifeless
and motionless

which may be worth

for

scenic

more

in the case of the

rock

formations,

less for scientific

purposes.

many

counting and measuring

years in
all

the

trees every year or so,

experiment.

Let us hope that in the not distant future

man

may

and study them with-

out interference for several or

woodcutters in such a way as to spoil the

we do not

should.

they could select a number of

tracts of virgin forest

succession,

now

valuable principles that are

if

many

of the laws of nature; and without a know-

we

unknown

Although a short-

the opportunities for studying the working

out of life as

Plant sociologists and ecologists could

many

and calculating the

percentage and rate of growth of each speBut any tract selected for such a purcies.
pose, unless preserved from private exploitation, is likely at any time to be damaged by

Every interference with nature diminishes

ledge of such laws

cies.

learn

Dams on

rivers

than
are

to be deplored, for a river is a thing of

public sentiment will be sufficiently enlight-

ened

oppose the

to

common

laissez-faire pol-

few individuals for their

temporary advantage to deprive all future
icy of allowing a

generations of part of their share of nature's

Fortunately we already have

wonders.

sev-

working toward this end

in one way or another. The American Scenic,
and Historic Preservation Society, incorporated in New York in 1895, was one of the
pioneers in this movement, and has been instrumental in preserving Letchworth Park
and the Palisades, as well as many spots of
eral organizations

and a dam not only internormal regimen (making subsequent discharge measurements of little
value, as has been pointed out in numerous
government reports on stream gauging), but
also drowns out the vegetation and fauna
characteristic of swift water and not found
in the quieter reaches, and restricts the mi-

Wild Flower Preservation Society, organized

at the New York Botanical Garden in 1902,2

grations of

other to a considerable extent.

life,

so to speak,

feres with its

Forests

fish. 1

among

The

historic rather than scientific interest.

interested in particular species of plants

is

rather than in vegetation in general, but the

preservation of the one of course involves the

The Ecologi-

cal Society of America, organized in 1916,

most easily destroyed of natural features, and their loss is

most disastrous to science, for many types

has

that occupied our most fertile soils have dis-

ecological interest in the United States and

are

the

still

and

is

more nearly the right point of view,

now gathering data about

appeared entirely, and can never be restored

Canada that ought

exactly by letting the land grow up in trees

again, or even by re-planting the same spe-

tific

and published in some form before

The nation-wide conservation move-

piled

For a comprehensive discussion of the infhience

of the new Keokuk dam on the fishes and mussels
of the Mississippi River see a paper by Dr. R. E.
Coker in Appendix 8 of the Report of the U. S.

ment of the

Fish Commission for 1913. The effect of the same

dam on scenery and sport is described and illustrated by Orin Crooker in Forest and Stream for
May, 1915.
(The same number contains the first
instalment of an interesting article on Okefinokee
Swamp by Will H. Thompson, brother of the late

realization

Maurice Thompson.)

to be preserved for scien-

study, which data will probably be com-

long.
1

places of

object

is

years,

although

its

economic rather than

scientific,

has

doubtless

last

ten

awakened
that

many

persons

our natural

to

the

resources

are

not an inexhaustible reservoir from which

everyone who can

limit
=

may

help himself without

and without regard for

See this

Journal

for

his fellow

men.

May, 1917, pp. 350-352.

Nature's Mobilization

VICTO

By

E.

NATURE
Instead

remarkable

is

of

mobilizer.

animals

and

plants

all

reaching the adull stage

time, their time of maturity is

same

the

al

distril

Each
throughout the best growing season.
plant matures at a time when it performs its
th<>

time they require food.

produces seeds, which insure

It

once,

for

plants which an' to

iln'

their turn

brief period hold

I'm-

of the stage.

tin'

imagine

least,

in

meadow

blossoming during a few days in mi Isummer,

ami all the animals particularly insects and
i

reaching

spiders)

same

.t

stage

the

at

Such a state of affairs would

grand carnage, an indescribable

time.

produce

adult

the

of

it'ii

ing things,

li\

veritable

os

Such few living things a-- were

-ft after the terrific struggle for egg laying
places for instance, a few wrecked blossoms

mic
I.

<

a-

used

hosts

food

laying individuals,

year

battle

for existence,

wreckage

Wo

as

of

might

appear an-

feed

tin'

the

of

survivors

shattered

operations of primitive agriculture.

the work.

The

analysis of the physiological causes of the

,,f

many

merely to formulate

laws of biology

the

the outline, or even a portion, of a life his-

tion
at

to the ques-

answer

why apple worms pupate

in

the spring

moths

certain time and transform into

which deposit eggs only on apple trees or

their near relat ives.

has

It

in

the

seasonal

plants and animal-

few

ami

assumed

been

often

"error-"

moisture.

Tin'

each unit takes

place

its

food-producing unit just

time

in

i-

At the same time

water supply

soil

there

is

not

over-

no drastic "coal order."

orderlj sequence of nature's mobiliza-

the

time of

till

ii..~t

f
ii

flowering

of

plants,

u Of birds, the time

long been matter-

The

of

undisturbed nature are

in

Under agricultural
and are

unimportant.

conditions, they are more frequent,

In the
accompanied by disastrous results.
l'.<>7 it was very warm in the

late winter of

part

southern

of

the

wheat

belt

of

the

The grain aphis of greenUnited state-.

bug which reproduces at temperatures at or
near freezing and

up

unusual characteristic

to

100

for

interruption

without

(a very
animal

P.

land

during

feed upon them were unable to do so.

precious

the

that

mobilization

spring

the soil

each bisect pest begins

tion.

in

1830

on

taxed

tion,

modem

is

in

in

bugs, aphis lions, and parasitic insects which

spiders, birds, or rodents.

The

that

earlj

long period, while the more orthodox lady-

may

picture

provide for each great army of insects,

the

was an

the foundation

laid

far-reaching significance, namely, the

in time, the

to

much

renowned

be

this

that

this confusion

all

who

-rim

The

botanist, de Candolle,

vestigator
for

long

also.

investigated

Another aspect of the matter

realize

crowding
of plants alone would cause marked unde
ile
effects.
Nature ordinarily avoids

drain

ha-

Seasonal succession
tifically

multiplied

life.

overdrawn.
i-

to

insect

innumerable egg

scattered

till

the

these

other

writhing

the

foi

by

pierced

or

many

of appearances are general guides to

tory, a- for instance, the

only

lias

plants of a given

all tin'

appear and disappear in sucthe other throughout a

after

usual seasonal mobilization draws on

.-.

animals also of anj area

'I'll.'

appear and disappear, as adults at

a similar manner.
To realize what this means one
to

often

one

growing season, needed no statement even to

The usual succession
the savage huntsman.

exist

it

and thus makes way

follow and in

into insignificance

t'ulls

own

its

afterward

immediatelj

but

[llino

insects

ripen,

cession

duties of feeding the animals which must be

nourished at just

RD

E L V

II

(Department of Zoology, University of

fact

..f

that

its

;it

the

which

depredations have

curiosity and observa-

plants

flower,

fruits

further

temperatures

Low

retarded

the

was
It
development of these latter forms.
a mobilization of the green bugs without a
f
the enemies to check them.
mobilizati

When

the

green-bug enemies arrived with

warmer weather, green-bugs

the coming of

were so numerous that little impression was

made toward reducing their numbers, and
the southwestern wheat crop was ruined.
There

was

heavy

trading

in

the

Chicago

board of trade; advance in prices of grain

echoed over the entire country and perhaps
the world.

could

due to

What

have brought
a

litt le

disaster such an outbreak

to

the Allied cuil-e.

;|||

unusual weather!
205

SAT URAL HISTORY

206
The writer

recalls a visit

from a member

of the board of trade who, when crossing the

plains sixteen years before, had seen myriads

of grasshoppers, migratory locusts so called,

damage

later with

to

he had bought heavily.

His chief inquiry

regular and certain are such appearances of pests? He had seen the effects

How

was,

track.

swarmed over fields and railroad

He had these confused with the sev-

enteen

year

of an irregularly large

which

"locusts"

or

cicadas

and

ex-

pected the condition to be repeated one year

He

the wheat crop.

offered half of his "killing" if a timely prediction could be made to raise prices after

uals

and

number of

individ-

question was exactly to the

his

point.

Under what conditions does each species

When and why does time of mobilization vary from the usual time? Under
what conditions does it take place? When is
it slow and when is it rapid?
Millions in
food and money are often at stake on such
mobilize?

questions as these.

The problem of the beginning of activity

or of development

one that has attracted

is

much

attention of late on account of the

importance of ability to predict the time

when various

insect pests will

emerge from

hibernation or will reach a stage of develop-

ment at which
if

*&&W

necessary to spray trees

it is

such treatment

prove effective.
In this connection attention has been
is to

di-

rected to the effect of various factors such

and light, on the

Temperature has
for many decades received an undue share
of attention. A principle stated by de Can-

as temperature, moisture,

development of organisms.

dolle emphasizes the fact that there is a

temperature below which development does
not take place in plants, and various au-

thors, including C.

Hart Merriam, of Wash-

mapping life
now called the
De Candolle
development.

ington, have used this fact in

This temperature

zones.

"threshold"

of

is

also laid the foundation for the idea of the

"sum of temperatures" above

this

minimum,

necessary for a plant to complete a definite

process, such as the ripening of seeds.

mean temperatures above

limit

of growth, expressed in degrees, are

added for
called

all

were to appear at the same

great carnage would result with total destruction of spider food
cies of, say, spiders

time,

or

If the temperature

number of days
views of the same stream in May and in
August, showing the extreme conditions which
have to be met by the plants and animals which
are its annual residents.
The seasonal rotation
of adult animals corresponds with the climatic
changes, so that each species normally reaches
its adult stage during optimum conditions for its
feeding and propagation. If all the various spe-

the

lowest

the days, giving a large so-

total "degree-days"

peratures.

Two

The

daily

is less,

sum
is

of tem-

higher the

but the total "degree-

days," according to de Candolle's theory,

is

the same.

The

life

histories

of plants are so long

that the theory could not be experimentally

remained for
by botanists.
It
Krogh, the careful Danish animal physiologist, to demonstrate the limitations of the
theory after several other animal experimenters had paved the way but missed the
verified

NATURE'S MOBILIZATION
point.

studied the development of

'

meal worm which are commonly raised to

caged canary birds, and he found that
f
the "sum of temperatures" law holds for
1

Hence

only a limited range of temperature.*

law of "sum of temperatures" is only a

_li guide in dealing with the conditions
of our latitude, but still a valuable one when
which are still
irrections
used with
tin-

tn

1> worked <>ut by scientific investigators.

There are marked variations in rate of

brought

development

by conditions
The temperature at

about

other than temperature.

which development begins, a* well as the rate

at which it proceeds, is modified by light.
moisture, wind movement, and other ca
Meal worms will live for a long time in air

from which

moisture has been removed

all

moisture, but they lose weight.

knew a school teacher who felt sorry

for them for having to live in the ordinary
air-dry meal in which she had them in the
broom, so she added a

-.1

them

killed

moisture such as occurs

ami in air-dry grain

air

owth.

requ

little

water

anil

A moderate amount

all.

in
is

of

what they

In other words there

is

an optimum moisture. 2
1'

is

of

of animals.-

ove the temperature at which

development 'Iocs not take place, multiplied by the
and
fixed
time unit, give a
sum only
54
-'J
P., while development takes place between 55
c
M" F. At temperatures between 55 and
development is far too rapid and gives a
smaller sum. while between 82 and 93 it is too
-low
_
larger sum.
In the fisum of temperatures is too small, and in the second

'That

is.

it

too

i-

limits

for

a- the

common

"sum

insect

tempera-

of

like

the

meal

exceeded in an ordinary
>
r
^r
day a- the temperature falls below 64' and
84
rises above
F.
One or both, the upper and
lower limits, would be passed in nearly every day
of the growing season for land plant- and animals.
is may even be different for different temperLight, like moisture, may have important
on the rati' of development, but we know
still less about it.
It is known that absence of light
i- unfavorable to growth of insects which normally
op in liirlit.
Light i- further known to Btimugrowtb of some kind- of animals.
'The larva of the common museum pes!
i.e maintained at
definite
by insufficient food, but may be reduced
from half-grown to hatching size Beveral times by
This ] articular
fei 'liiiL'.
especially flexible, as all lower animals
usually are to a
if
peculiarly ad
tu its precarious life.
Tim- it seems that
variations in food have effects similar to those prodnced bj variations in temperature.
1

In the

ing due to the loss of power to grow on the

part

of

Disproportionate

skeleton.

the

growth occurs in underfed

underfed

chil-

war starvation on innu-

of

Effects

dren.

Similar

cattle.

results are to be expected in

merable European children will probably be

detectable in adults a few years hence, al-

may be

though careful measurement

sary to establish

neces-

it.

One phenomenon which has been noted

repeatedly

with

connection

in

of

studies

nature'- seasonal mobilization, a matter of

common

observation,

the variation in

is

of individuals in different years.

length of life of individuals

nounced

may have

It has been

of species on a given area.

due

a pro-

population and succes-

effect mi the

number

Stated that the great

in the

numThe

of individuals

plankton of the polar seas in summer

tu the longer life

of the individual at

Unless the low tempera-

low temperature.

ture slews the different processes unequally

For example,

hardly follow.

this can

if

female green-bug normally lives a week and

produces one thousand offspring, and then
the temperature

lowered so a- to prolong

is

the life to three weeks, unless the different

were unequally

functions

change,

tin-re

would be

by the

affected

at

the end

of the

la

The temperatures shown

worm,

thousand days.

is

case of dogs such treatment results in dwarf-

is

much importance to all kinds

With a minimum quantity of

which

species,

ordinary indoor
just

young mammals may he maintained at the

-a iiio weight without growth.
White rats
have been maintained at practically the same
They retain their
weight for long periods.
power tu grow long beyond the age at which
growth normally ceases (335 days) and for
periods equal to half the normal life of the

and, at the same time, on fooil which connii

food nr with an insufficient variety of foods

se\

common

animals including pupae of the

era!

20

would both

be

:>

three weeks hut a thousand, while at the nor-

mal rate there would have been a

billion

On

the other hand, if

the rate of reproduction

remains the same

possible individuals.

and the length of

life

of the individual after

the reproductive period

sult-

of

Actual

different.
line are
scale,

the

is

tew.

In

however,

it

observations

i-.

to

ho

t.>

condition

ool

i-

very
this

San Jose
has long been shown that

individuals breeding

the tendency

lie

along

the case of the

number of offspring

There

increased, the re-

lower temperature would

in

-lire,

is

greatest

the

in

the warmest weather.

much evidence

pass the winter

in a

that

dormant

very firmly established in

seme species and that under the stimulation

iif

indoor temperatures such animals

may

be

X AT URAL HISTORY

208

induced to reproduce nearly continuously, at

Least for a number of generations.
Cessation

of development or dormancy 1 in any

given case

is

as

much

attributable to some

factor falling below the threshold of devel-

opment as

The environment is extremely complex, and the

number of factors already found which may
to hereditary tendencies.

as large as a man's head, are filled with air

cells

which cause them to

of the water.

float at the surface

They are formed

tumn but do not germinate

in the au-

until spring after

they have been frozen.

The walking-stick drops its eggs from the

ground in the autumn

tree trunks on to the

but they do not hatch until the following

May

the

at

may

or they

earliest,

not hatch

one year from

until

the following

yorable.

of

May

if

are

unfa-

The

cause

conditions

delays

these

or

dormancies are often

The decay or

simple.

rupture

an outer
most com-

of

covering

monly

produces

de-

velopment.

The

seasonal

suc-

cession of animals

well illustrated

Chicago

is

on a

vacant

lot.

The area chosen for

study
was covered
with water in spring

and with grass and

weeds in summer. In
a small part of it the
water was permanent
in

all

but the driest

The

seasons.

parts

which did not dry up

afforded

place

in

which the larva? of the

tiger salamander could

A Chicago

appears in April and in August.

it
A small
pond does not ordinarily completely dry up, and,
breeding place for the tiger salamander. The seasonal

vacant

lot

as

section of this temporary

therefore, affords a

succession in animal

life is

well illustrated in such a spot as this with

develop

The

to

tiger

comes out of the

as soon as the frost

gone,

sometimes

early as

ous, including temperature, moisture, light,

oxygen, evaporation, quantity of food, or absence of any one of

many

necessary food

constituents.

The reproductive bodies of the large gelabryozoan which grows to be

tin-secreting
1

When

all

conditions are favorable for develop-

ment some animals

fail to develop.
Their life histories appear to be adjusted to the annual rhythm
of conditions.
The state in which an animal is

when development does not take place although

conditions are favorable for it, is called dormancy.

soil

its

marked differences in temperature, vegetation, and moisture. For the order

in which some of the animals appear in this lot see the following chart
cause cessation of development are numer-

maturity.

salamander

February or the

the

is

as

end of

The eggs
are laid in March and early April and the
adults burrow into the mud by the middle
of April and are not seen again until the
frost leaves the ground the following spring.
The eggs hatch and such larva? as find water which is permanent until the end of summer probably reach maturity. By that time
the young are sometimes able to lead a terfirst

of March.

restrial life.

The spring pond eyelops (Cyclops viridis

americanus) occurs only in ponds or parts

X. 177 7/ /:>

M OBI LIZ A TIOS

>U\)

ession of five of the species salamander, cyclops, fairy shrimp, red copepod, and flatwormin
temporary pond on a vacant Chicago lot, from early March to -Tune. The length of the animal 'a bodj
indicates the dates between which adults of the given species may be
ie arrow where present)
found.
The appearance of the grasshopper, a dry land form, is synchronous with the pond's drying up.
Disorders in mobilization arc not so likely to occur under such natural conditions as under the condio be found cm agricultural land where great disorders frequently arise, especially among insect
on the agricultural crops

The
ponds which dry up in summer.
shrimp (Eubranchipus) is a wellknown example of an animal with eggs show-

most of those that had hatched

c^s, and for several

of

after and

fairy

died l.efore depositing

ing "dormancy."
the

shrimp

fairy

spring.

It

is

is

local

likely

distribution of
to

each

differ

modified by the rainfall of the

preceding seasons.
preceding

The

summer

When
lias

the rainfall of the

been great, this ami

some other temporary pond species are found

only in the smallest and highest (al
Following dry 3ea
bej a re found in ponds which do uot
usually dry, bul which were dry the preced-

ground water)

ponds.

immcr.

Their eggs must be dried anil

frozen before they will hatch.

bution,
rainfall,

following

the

Beasons

Their
of

distri-

different

suggests that Bome definite

d<

of drying must be attained to insure hatchbig, aNo that the eggs may be blown about
by the wind. One autumn, about L900, there
was early freezing and cold weather followed
l>y warm weather of a very springlike chai

December. It was observed that the

fairy Bhrimps batched during this period of
warm weather. Cold weather came on soon
acter

in

years thereafter the species was very scarce

the

in

shrimp

vicinity
is

The

Chicago.

of

found most commonly

in

fairy

grassy

ponds, possibly because the forested ponds

do not dry sufficiently

The minute
appears

in

summer.

red copepod of spring

to require a less definite

ponds

amount of

drying than the fairy shrimp, although it is

found with it as a rule. It is found also

where the fairy shrimp does not occur, and

becomes adult a little later and disappears
soon afterward.
The temporary pond planarian, or flatM. Child 1 ),
worm a- observed by Prof.
<

'.

shows very special adjustments to the peculiar seasonal rhythm of temporary ponds.
When the animal- first appear, soon after the
ice

melts, they are mostly only 2

length and

commonly

light

in

"

color.

mm.

in

They

rapidly and s,in the dorsal Burface be-

comes very deeply pigmented, so thai they

appear almost Mack. They are very active
Bulletin,

vol.

XXV.

NATURAL HISTORY

210

The buffalo

and move more rapidly than most fresh-water

planarians. During this period they will eat
meat and will gather in large numbers on

laid in the fall

In about four
pieces placed in the water.
weeks they attain a length of 12-15 mm.,
their movements gradually become slower,

These examples illustrate some of the various

uliarities of life histories adjusted to the
same climatic rhythm.

they cease to take food, become light gray

in color, and the food-taking organs disap-

tire

pear.

Within a few days after these changes

they begin to divide.

As

the

worms creep

about, the extreme posterior end adheres to

and the

the substratum

away and

pulls

leaves

rest of the

it

animal

behind as a small

fragment which becomes more or less spherical and within a few moments is covered
with a slime which adheres to the underlying
surface and hardens into a cyst. This proof division

cess

is

repeated, often several

hoppers hatch from eggs

tree

and are found

in the adult

stage throughout the rest of the summer.

The collection ami arrangement of the enfauna of this Chicago vacant lot showed
the same thing i as the animals just discussed,

but proved much

satisfactory

less

than was expected, owing to a lack of knowledge of life histories and an inability to
identity

young stages of

Disorders

insects.

seasonal mobilization on such a vacant

in

lot are far

fewer than the disorders among

insects under agricultural conditions where

nature's usual sequence of plants

is

replaced

by corn or wheat.
Disorders of mobilization

may

occur under

times within a few moments, so that as the

the stimulus of peculiar weather conditions,

animal moves across a containing vessel it

may leave behind it a series of such pieces.

most easily in the closely

Under natural conditions the encysted pieces

remain quiescent during the summer and the
following

emerge

winter;

from

the

in

early

cysts

as

This

is

for the "green-bug" in the

only one type of disorder

observable in agriculture.

minute,

very

sult

worms which begin to feed. Comdrying under ordinary outdoor conditions is fatal to them; they survive among

set fields of agri-

results are such as

they

active

Others

may

re-

from failures to spray at the right time,

which mean greatly decreased production,

wormy

apples,

bread, and

spotted

wormy

beans.

expensive

pears,

As

yet

we know

pond

so little in this complicated field, that ade-

the time the planarians have disap-

quate prediction of insect pests can hardly

be accomplished.
But its importance is
such that we can well afford to struggle

moist vegetation

of

not-too-dry

bottoms.

By

we have noted
wheat.

and

spring

plete

the

cultural conditions

peared, grasshoppers and spiders have begun

At the same time other land animals begin to move about the pond margin.
The tarnished plant-bugs, which emerge from
to appear.

hibernation

and lay eggs

in

early

April,

reach the adult stage in June and are to be

found all summer. Adult sawflies emerge

from pupae that have passed the winter and
their larvae are on the young grasses in June.
1
Adult and juvenile spiders are among the best
animals for such study. In the seasonal order, we
start with the spring running spiders (Pardosa
modica) in April, and we end the season with
striped garden spiders (Argiope trifasciata), which
appear as adults late in the season only.
Where our collections proved at all complete it

was shown

that the juvenile individuals follow the

adults of the early spring species and both precede
and follow the species which mature late in the
season.
Nearly all species are adjusted to the
seasonal rhythm of the habitat in which they live.
Thus Dictyna sublata appears as adult in May and
June when eggs are laid, and juvenile forms characterize the late summer and autumn.
The striped
garden spider deposits eggs in October and passes
the winter in the juvenile form.
The large jumping spider (Phidippus podagrosus) reaches maturity in July, when eggs are deposited, and young
occur in both fall and spring.
These differences
usually represent an innate adjustment of the life

through

its

complications into the light of

a knowledge which will

make reasonably

ac-

curate prediction of the rise of pests far

surer than now.
This means a careful experimental study of the conditions of such
factors as temperature, moisture,

and

light,

under which development can begin, and the

rate at which it can continue.
cycle to seasonal rhythm, not readily broken up.
It is to be expected that Dictyna will deposit eggs
to better advantage, and that the young hatch better in May than in November, which is the breeding time of the common funnel-web spider (Agelena
ncevia)
It is further to be expected that the
young stages of some spiders will not go on with
development until cooled for a considerable period.
Perhaps one of the most interesting questions concerning the whole matter of succession of spiders
is to be found in the fact that all these spider life
histories involve about the same periods of activity
and rest. The rest period falls in different stages
of the life history in different species.
(For a
detailed discussion of this matter, with table showing seasonal succession of adult spiders, see the
Author's paper, "Physiological Problems in the
Life-Histories of Animals, with Particular Reference to Their Seasonal Appearance," in American Naturalist, Vol. lii, pp. 129 to 154.)
.

Yachting

Seven Seas

in the

STRANGE SAILING CRAFT, EVOLVED IN DAYS OF PIRACY AND SLAVERY

FASTER THAN THE SPEEDIEST YACHTS OF OUR MODERN BUILDERS
By

F.

PAPE,

A. a.

Illustrations

from original drawings by the Author

the dawn of time, man has gazed

SINCE
upon the mystic deep from shore and

not meant to convey the notion that odd

pieces of

an unconquerable longing
to master the vastnesses beyond that elusive
horizon which forever beckons like a Fata
hilltop with

wood

or the like were not used in

early times for this purpose, but the paddle

as

we know

light

There is but a single exception to

marine Wanderlust and that is
found in some far southern parts where the
dull-witted aborigines never have gone be-

Morgana.

today, of graceful line and

it

workman-like build, was slow to come

into vogue, as was also the discovery that

more than one would add greatly to the
speed attainable. The use of a number of

this universal

paddles involved the construction of an elon-

yond the occasional construction of boats of

gated oval boat instead of a round one, and

was not really feasible until man had

reeds or bark with which to cross the smaller

streams.

F.R.H.S., F.R.G.S.

this

This lack of enterprise might be

and sharp-edged tools,

and hollow out large
art of wood-shaping craft the

learned the use of

attributed to scarcity of suitable building

enabling him to

material, the forests of Oceania being pre-

trees.

ponderately of hard woods, were

Burmese

it

not for

excel all others.

One need only
contemplate the keel of one of their enor-

the example set by the people of the North.

The inhabitants of the

hand, were the

first to

tropics, on the other

overcome the difficul-

In this

fire

fell

mous but graceful boats

to learn this fact.

It requires skill of the very highest sort to

on the water, and from this

take a tree trunk, often more than seventy

to go on to the construction of vessels de-

feet in length, trim it, and fashion it into a

thing of beautiful outline, with a proper

ties of floating

signed to ride swiftly over the waves in

all

of weather.
The northerners were
handicapped by their inhospitable coasts and
sorts

"sheer" to

it,

the

bow and

stern rising pro-

above the "waist," while the

portionately

had to be sacrificed to the unwieldiness and roundness of form which

center itself is artificially pressed and flattened out to accommodate the broad-bilge
frame timbers which go to make the stability

make for safety.

The first purely

and carrying capacity of every well-constructed vessel.

The full-powered paddle

rigorous climate, so that

all fine lines in

boat

building

floating structure,

made

maximum

of reeds or hide or similar handy substance,

capacity at

determined by the locality in which it occurred, was generally a one-man affair, propelled by paddling with the hands.
This

evolved only in localities where suitable tim-

form of boat

is

best represented today by

its

of course could be

ber of great bulk and straight growth could

be obtained, as on the Pacific slope of North

America, in some of the larger islands of the

the Irish coble or the bladder boats of India

Pacific, in certain parts of

and Mesopotamia, kindred rudimentary contrivances still being used in the enormous
estuaries of Indian, Burmese, Siamese, and

and along the larger

Indo-Chinese rivers.

made of a

Boats of this character

wood about eight

feet long, slightly bent upward and hollowed out to a certain degree. They serve
are

piece of soft

not only to float upon the water, but they

slide readily
flat

oozy

and without much

mud banks where

effort over the

to gain a footing

viking ships, the galleys of the Mediterranean, and the great clumsy

pulsion.

The deterrent

waist or farther.

wind's power

seems quite extraordi-

nary that it took many generations before

propulsion by paddle became common. It is

craft

of the

Middle Kingdom.
An immense stride forward in ocean intercommunication was made when man first
learned to utilize the wind as a means of pronot so

reflection it

We

brought to greatest perfection

in the northern part of the Old World, in the
find the oar

would be impossible without sinking to the

Upon

South America,

rivers of Africa.

much

factor,

it

seems,

was

the lack of knowledge of the

for that must have been unias of the

versally evident at an early date

proper means by which to apply and control

it.
A tricky and uncertain wind volume is
211

NATURAL HISTORY

212

a bad master even now. A proper study of

the wind element has not been completed
today, when, owing to modern methods of
propulsion by steam and electricity, wind
power has been virtually discarded. But man
still indulges, fortunately, in that most fascinating of all sports, yachting, which will
ever hold its own among prime pastimes. It
is the poetry of motion, calling at the same
time for endurance, tenacity, and pluck of
the highest sort. There is hardly an emotion
in the human breast approaching the thrill
which the evolutions of a well-found sailing
craft can produce in the intrepid soul in
tune with nature in its restless mood at sea.
It may be assumed with perfect justifica-

shrouds on each side, which can be unhooked when the vessel goes in stays. The
lateen-shaped sail, if well cut and made, can
be trimmed up to about five points off the
wind. In the slavery days, the squadron of
jahassys which patrolled the East Coast and
the Gulf had many a tale to tell of their
speed and agility in escaping from justice.

Nowadays

these

follow

vessels

the

useful

avocation of tenders to the big ocean liners,

bringing small lots of produce from out of

the innumerable estuaries

and creeks of the

coast where a steamer cannot well enter.

case in point within the knowledge of the

writer was the pitting of a fine centerboard

sloop of

European build against these native

tion that the tropics furnished the first in-

racers

stances of the application of sails to ships.

windward work the sloop could leave the

In the warm latitudes we find almost universally a long season of balmy winds, which
only at rare intervals assume the force of
gales.
It is true that the most violent at-

jahassys out of sight in a couple of hours,

would beat the sloop hand over hand.

It seems that the Indo-Arab sea rovers,

mospheric disturbances are within the torrid

who very

zones, but these occurrences are confined to

Moluccas, left their sailing

and seafarers
almost always can guard against them. For

to the regions they visited, for

certain seasons of the year,

that reason the craft of those latitudes are

mostly of frail construction and made in

such fashion that they can be removed readily

from the water, out of harm's way.

It is

a lamentable fact that speed seems first of

all to have been sought for felonious purIn war, in piracy, in slavery, speed
poses.
soon became the decisive factor.

Whoever

possessed the speediest vessel for pursuing

an enemy or eluding superior forces was soon

recognized as having mastery on the sea.
As a matter Of fact, certain types of sailing craft used in the Indian Ocean today
are, under given conditions, faster and more
easily handled than the speediest yachts
which our best builders put in the water.
The smaller type of Arab "dhow," called
usually "jahassy," is remarkable for its speed
before the wind or with the wind over the
quarter.

This vessel

is

from

thirty-five to

It has a very fine entrance,

without much of a keel, and the stern is
fifty feet long.

full and usually square.

The jahassy sits
low in the water, and the single mast, with
a big rake forward, is stepped well ahead of
the waistline. The sail is hoisted on an immensely long yard. The standing part of

the halyards

taken quite aft, where the

lower triple block is fastened also to the
afterthwart.

is

The mast

is

stayed by two

on the

Zanzibar

littoral.

In hard

but as soon as they got a fair slant they

early penetrated as far east as the

skill as

we

a legacy
find that

the craft in use there today are built along

much the same lines as the Arabian ships.

The prows, or prahus, of the Malays and
Alfuros are similar in shape to those in the
western part of the Indian Ocean, with a
high poop and a low finely modeled bow.

The

construction, however,

is

not quite as

and staunch as in the latter. A lot of

makeshift matting, bamboo, and other contrivances fulfill the local requirements. The
poop and the stem are often carved and ornamented most elaborately, as are also the
These
high rudder heads and tiller poles.
swift Moluccan sailboats played their most
solid

prominent role when big, clumsy, squarerigged vessels from Europe traversed these
waters laden with the riches of the far East.
Old records contain many a thrilling tale of
these elusive wasps of the sea tackling well-

armed and well-manned merchantmen and not

seldom overcoming by sheer numbers all
resistance to their fierce assault.
peril

And

this

from sea raiders kept up well into our

own days

in

spite

of

the

vigilant

naval

patrol of the nations.

In the Straits of Malacca and adjacent

regions the Malays have evolved a racing
craft which

is

indeed like unto the wind

it-

moderate size,
often not much more than a canoe, but seaworthy withal, and met with on big open
self.

It is a vessel of very

YACHTING

IN

THE SEVEN SEAS

^-*-

nut larger than

canoe, Malay racers are found on big open stretches in the .Straits of
Malacca and adjacent regions, where on a breezy day they may be seen speeding across the blue waters
:i

like a (lock of

white pulls

Remarkable
count of

its

slavery days.

for

agilitj

speed before
wind
escaping when pursued,

it-

in

1 1

i-

the

In olden times the large single sail

"jahassy,"

small type of

Arab dhow.

On

ac-

earned an unenviable reputation in

was woven of palmlraf m

this

type

'>'"

vessel

214

NATURAL

III

STORY

In a latitude where flat calms are suddenly followed by fierce squalls, many sails are a distinct adbeing quickly furled as a storm approaches and soon spread aloft when it is over.
The
"country wallah," constructed by the natives of Malabar and Coromandel, as well as by the islanders
of the Maldive and Laccadive groups, appears to be smothered in a cloud of canvas
vantage.,

Another type of speedy vessel known as the "hleh" meets the exigencies of wind and tide to a remarkable degree in the Burmese waters of the Mergui Archipelago. The keel is a tree trunk artificially
widened, and the Chinese form of sail having bamboo slats across at intervals of eighteen inches or so
is used.
The "hleh" has two and sometimes three masts, and a cabin is built in the after part

YACHTING IN THE SEVEN SEAS

stretches of water.

pendicular and

The mast

third of the boat.

pointed

lateen

Bail

is

nearly per-

there

The tack of the high-

wind.

the bow,

there

in

fastened

is

the

aboul

in

When the
and the sluvt reaches well aft.
wind is abeam, one of the crew seizes a rope
pendent from the mast top. Swinging himself outward, lie stands on the weather
gunwale, thus preventing the boat from
ening too
i-

far.

On

one of the prettiest

Malay

of these

suited to conditions in those latitudes, where

first

stepped

a brisk breezy

watch

si-lii- to

day

i'

racers speed across the blue

215

"either a feast or a famine" with the

is

when

1'rotracted periods of flat calms

scarcely a breath are suddenly fol-

is

lowed by tierce outbursts of squalls.

can

It

he seen that in the doldrums the

readily

enormous spread of canvas is of distinct necessity. The "country wallah" appears to be

a cloud of

in

may

it.

The lower

sails

be hanging flat but in the upper air the

wind current tills the topgallant sails, royals,

and skysails, ami the old hooker sneaks along

On

the other

waters like a flock of white gulls.

at quite

farther up the peninsula, in the Burmese

waters of the Mergui Archipelago, the lusty
coast folk have produced another type of

hand, the appearance of the sky invariably

speedy vessel.
Its keel is a tree trunk,
widened out artificially. The Burmese have
borrowed the Chinese style of sail with bam-

boo slats across at intervals of eighteen

inches or so. While this is very convenient
for reducing sail, it produces too flat a surface for getting the maximum of power
from the wind. These vessels have always
two and sometimes three masts. The mainstepped perpendicularly; the foreWhen
tends to rake over the bow.

masl
mast

is

conforms
Out in the
ne set of the mainmast.
open these "blebs" attain a wonderful degree
"i speed.
When going through one of the

there

is

a third or jigger mast, this

countless channels between the islands

:ies,

often

and

where the high-growing mangroves

intercept

the wind, these vessels are

respectable gait.

warning of the coming squall.

"woolpacks," or heavy hanging
cloud masses with a dark fringe underneath,
begin to gather and to rise to the zenith,
then it is time for all good and well-condue

When

the

ducted "country wallahs" to gather in their

In a

"linen."

jiffy the

than a blanket, and

It

is

does not last long, and when

The

true lover of the sea conjures

of doughty deeds of old.

of the

lino,

Least of

sewed

graceful models.

They have

adopted the rig in vogue in northern

At first sight this appeals to be a
dubious advantage, but when investigated it
seems reasonable enough. For the European
also

latitudes.

sail

fashion

allows of manifold division.

which are locally called "coun-

Bay of Bengal.

sand

feel

t,,

hut

it

is

besl

immense

high and almost inaccessible.

-nail shells

ridiculous,

The Selungs live in these

They subsist chiefly

entirely.

out-

crops of granite, which are nearly one thou-

cessii

looks

Sellings, in the

the precipitous sides of the

tower of masts and canvas. <>ne can often

see sky -ails on the-.' diminutive vessels. All
canvas

ribs

very long bamboo ladders they endeavor to

procure salangan or edible bird's-nests from

try wallahs," are mostly brig-rigged with a

this

but not in interest, are

on sea food, which is probably the reason

they are afflicted with leprosy. By means of

lioats,

The

intrepid rovers.
at stake.

archipelagoes bordering the eastern fringe of

also gather

is

moribund race of people, the

imitation of European style with

vistas

"full ten

with coir fiber, used by a

together

boats almost

less

up

made of palm-leaf

hoats

the

in

Here are

and a score frigates" conning

Duplets

all in size,

'piaint

the

dive and Laccadive groups, construct a swift

I

it

looks exactly like a squadron

it
war ships or a convoy of "John
Company's" famous [ndiamen. The disparity
The illusion is complete.
in si/,, disappears.

mandel, as well as the islanders of the Mal-

more or

over

Prom afar

mastery of the Easl

The natives of lower Malabar and Coro-

is

of ancient

them, somewhat after the manner of Yeuetian gondoliers. The "hleh" has a cabin built

or similar mediaeval vessels.

it

of these vessels

the offing for

poops we used to see in pictures of galleons

ready to

Sometimes one sees a whole fleet

making for a certain point.

aloft again.

sail

resembles the high

is

hut a few minutes before all the canvas is

the crew standing on the deck to manipulate

It

the \essel

take the fury of the squall, end on as a rule.

propelled by means of "sweeps" or long oars,

into the afterpart.

crew swarm aloft and

furl the multitude of sails, often no bigger

They

few mother-of-pearl and green

trade for cloth
e

and other

ne-

people are shunned by the

Burmese and Malays, who look upon them

with aversion.

The Myth
By

Monkey Chain
G UDGE R

of the
E.

W.

Professor of Biology, State Normal College, Greensboro. North Carolina

who were
THOSE
study geography

so unfortunate as to

days" before

in the "prehistoric

Maury and Frye had

a river, making me much

They leape where they list,
winding their tailes about a braunch to
shake it and when they will leape further

other

to

side

of

wonder.
:

revolutionized

the

will recall the

ject,

teaching

of

that

sub-

wonderful picture and

account of how, in

the equally wonderful

than they can at once, they use a pretty devise, tying themselves by the tailes one of
another, and by this meanes

make

as

it

were

South

northern

America, monkeys

by

intertwining

and

tails

made
b

legs

living

d g e

across

crocodile -infested

This

streams, i

had as

story

its

author the Jesuit

Padre Jose

priest

de Acosta, whose

book

was puban Eng-

lished in

lish translation at

London

1604,

in

original

the

having

edi-

Latin,

in

tion,

been

is-

sued at Salamanca
in 1589.

Acosta's

account

(page

315,

English

translation) reads

as follows:

from

"Going

Nombre de Bios
to Panama, I did
see in Capira one

of these monkies
leape from one
tree to an other,
which was on the
1

Such

figure

forme part of the

headpiece to South
America, on page 58
of

Mitchell's

New

Primary Geography,
published in Philadelphia in 1878.
- Acosta,
Joseph,
Natural! and Morall
Historie of the East

and

West

Indies.

Translated by E.
rimston ],
London, 1604.
(

'

216

In days not so long gone by our schoolboys were regaled in their South
American geography lessons by illustrations of a monkey bridge such as is
shown in this cut which is taken from Holmes's Fourth Reader (1897). The
myth of the way monkeys crossed alligator-infested streams started with the
report of a Spanish explorer in the sixteenth century.
Clinging to one another's tails so as to form a long chain it was said they would swing pendulum
fashion until the end "athlete" could grasp a tree on the other side of the
stream, after which all the mothers and babies would scamper across on the
heads and backs of their accommodating relatives.
Needless to say, this feat
presupposes an amount of intelligence in the monkey family that it has never
been known otherwise to exhibit, while aside from that, it is palpably impossible
because nowhere in a tropical jungle could space be found in which to swing
The famous naturalist, Humboldt,
such a long chain as the story requires.
was the first to deny the myth (1814), but it continued to live in schoolbooks
and in the tales of travelers for many years

THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN

chaine of many: then doe they launch
themselves forth, and the first, holpen by
the force of the rest, takes holde where hee
list, and so hangs to a bough, and so helpes
all the rest, till they be gotten up."
a

This tale has been handed down from one

author to another. And there is little doubl
thai a careful search through the literature pertaining to northern South America, (luring

one hundred and

the

fifty

years

following

the publication of Acosta's book and

its

vari-

ous translations into Italian. French, hutch,

German, and English, would show many repetitions ami variations of the marvelous story.
Wafer, a
Li
companion of the

made

whence they

their

As Ulloa and

(,>uito. 2

>\",

his

way overland to
companion made

the trip across the isthmus, they described as

though they saw that which Acosta thought

he beheld one hundred and seventy-live years
At any rate I'lloa says:

before.

different species of monkeys, skipping

troops from tree to tree, hanging from the
branches and in other places six. eight, or
more, of them linked together, in order to
pass a river, and the dams with their young
on their shoulders, throwing themselves into
odd postures, making a thousand grimaces,
will, perhaps, appear fictitious to those who
have not actually seen it."

"The

in

-1

na\ Lga

celebrated
tor,

Dam-

laptain

<

Bays 1

pier,

ring

that

in

isth-

th<'

mus they saw and

killed a number of
and

monkeys,
tinues

con-

"They are a very

kin.
of
waggish
Monkey, and plaid a
antick
thousand
Trickwe
as
march'd at any time
I-.
through the W
skipping from tough
to Bough, with the
young ones hanging
I

tl
Id
ones
Back, making Paces
at us.
To pass
from top to top <>f
Trees,
whose
high
Branches arc a little

at

too far asunder for

their Leaping, they
will

Tails

I'lloa, who crossed the [sthmue of Panama in l~:;.">. was

explorer to give a picture showing monkeys accomplishing the feat
el" bridging a stream.
He remarks that the tale sounds fictitious to one who
has not seen it, but whether he himself saw it or not, he does not say

Antonio de

the

tirst

sometimes hang down by one anothers

in a Chain; and swinging in that man-

catches hold of a Bough

Of the Other Tree, and draws up the rest of

TTloa does not explicitly say that he si

this

the inference

but

sight,

"fictitious"

is

ner, the lowermosl

them."
Neither Acosta nor Wafer gives any figure
illustrate his account, but this

tit

us

by

I'lloa.

another
In

is

supplied

American traveler,
.lorge Juan y Santacilia

South

17."..".

and Antonio de

I'lloa

were sent out as the

Tlie two nun divided the labor of writing up

The scientific work was .1.
their expedition.
scribed bj Jorge Juan y Santacilia and published
at Madrid in 17 is.
The historical and narrative
account of the voyage was written by Antonio de
singular
although
to Bay, the original ediUlloa,
(1760)
tion as well a- the English translation
Abbreviated somename
of
both men.
bears the
what a- to the title, n i- ;is follows: Belacion
lli.ti,
iage a la
America Meridional
1"'
.limn
n
/,,,,
Don
Don Jorgt
2

Spanish members of a joint commission to

measure an arc of the earth's meridian on

IT l~
This obscure title has
the conclusion that the tir-t author v\ a
t,.
have
Jorge Juan I'lloa. whereas his name, abeen informed bj the Library u{ Congress, is
onnm.nly
The book, however, i\
Santacilia.
i>," he
referred t.. under the heading "I'lloa.
being the real author.

Madrid.

hd

-,

of Ecuador.
Coming by ship
Europe to Porto Bello, they crossed
over the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific
side, when- they took ship t'or Guayaquil,
the

plateau

from

Page 10s

of the

isti, a,

us

,,!'

Sew Voyage

"./

London,

L699

gether

London,

'

with

/'.

760;

ami A nton
A uf rica
toEistory. .... vols.

Ba ntacilia

Juai

leorge
i

Vaturai
vol.

I.

p.

South
.

109.

NATURAL HISTORY

218

that he did, especially as he gives a picture

of

it.

After this the marvelous tale seems to

have gone unchallenged for nearly one hundred years, or until about 1814, when

Hum-

name

boldt gave the weight of his great

in

Speaking of howling mon-

controversion. 1
keys, he writes

"Whenever the branches of neighbouring

male who
leads the party, suspends himself by the
callous and prehensile part of his tail and,
trees do not touch each other, the

letting fall the rest of his body, swings himself till in one of his oscillations he reaches
the neighboring branch. The whole file performs the same movements on the same spot.
It is almost superfluous to add how dubious
is the assertion of Ulloa, and so many otherwise well-informed travellers, according to

whom, the marimondos [Simia beelsebub],

the araguatos, and other moukeys with a
prehensile tail, form a sort of chain, in order

We

to reach the opposite side of a river.

five years, of ob-

had opportunities, during

serving thousands of these animals and for

we place no confidence in
statements possibly invented by the Europeans themselves, though repeated by the
Indians of the Missions, as if they had been
transmitted to them by their fathers [the
Fathers?]. Man the most remote from civilization, enjoys the astonishment he excites in
recounting the marvels of his country. He
says he has seen what he imagines may have
Every savage is a
been seen by others.
hunter, and the stories of hunters borrow
from the imagination in proportion as the
animals, of which they boast the artifices,
are endowed with a high degree of intelliHence arise the fictions of which
gence.
foxes, monkeys, crows, and the condor of the
Andes, have been the subjects in both hemispheres."
;

this very reason

Apparently Humboldt did not know that

with Acosta. There is
doubt also whether Ulloa knew of his reverIn any case neither of
end predecessor.
them refers to Padre Acosta.
The story is found repeated ten years after
the publication of the Eoss translation of
Humboldt, and strange to say in this particular account are to be found the details of
how the chain is made and how it works 2
this story originated

"No

less

remarkable

is

their

ingenious

method of crossing torrents and other minor

I quote from the Personal Narrative of Travels
to the Equinoctial Regions of America during the
1

1799-1804, by Alexander von Humboldt

and Aime Bonpland, translated and edited by
Thomasina Ross, London, 1852.
2
Page 261 of Don Ramon Paez* Wild Scenes
in South America; or, Life in the Llanos of
years

Venezuela,

New

York, 1862.

streams which they often encounter in their

ceaseless perambulations through the forest.
As among men, all cannot swim with equal
facility, so it is also with monkeys; accordingly the leaders of the troop, generally the
strongest of the party, climb to the spreading branches of some tree projecting over
the stream; one of them then twists his tail
firmly around a branch, and letting his body
hang, seizes upon the tail of the nearest
comrade, who in his turn performs the same
operation with the next, and so on until a
sort of chain or living pendulum is formed,
which in obedience to the laws of equilibrium
oscillates slowly but constantly from their
combined efforts to reach the opposite bank.
This finally achieved, the last monkey secures himself to the most convenient tree.
The others of the chain, now disengaged
from the tree at the opposite side of the
stream, wade through the water, each helped
by his neighbor assisted likewise by the current.
Some are, however, occasionally
drowned, the last one in the chain especially,
which circumstance has probably given rise
to the popular proverb, el ultimo moro
siempre se alio g
the last monkey is sure

to

be drowned."

This account

is

very circumstantial and

if

one reads Paez's book and sees how accurate

in the

main are

tions,

one feels inclined to lend credence.

his natural history observa-

Then, too, how natural

is

the proverb about

At first
was inclined to think this a slip, for why
was not the end of the chain on the other
the drowning of the last monkey.
I

side of the river after the crossing as high

above the water as the originating end?

little

thought, however, cleared up this point.

The lowest monkey of the oscillating chain

would lay hold of the first bush or tree or
branch with which he would come in contact,
and would complete the living bridge, but
would be unable to climb any higher because
of the great weight of the monkeys pulling
on him.

Hence when the monkey who origilet go, he would fall into the

nated the chain

water.

This

is all

very plausible, exceedingly

so,

but as one reads Paez's fascinating narrative, it is seen that our author loves to tell a

good

story.

Moreover, one finds that he

Humboldt to demolish any

up any matters of which he

quotes

fictions or

clear

finds him-

on the opposite side, thus showing that

he was well acquainted with Humboldt's
writings, but he carefully refrains from
self

quoting him on the monkey chain.

journey was made over this very region

THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN

of northern South America in 1867-68

1 by
M. and P. V. N. Myers.
They, too, saw hundreds of monkeys swing
from tree to tree, and refer to "the oftrepeated story, familiar to every boy, and
which often finds credence among so many,

two

travelers,

II.

monkeys

of

crossing

streams

on

aerial

bridges constructed from their own bodies,"

but declare that these bridges exist only in

fancy

The

account which has come to the

is found in Holmes's

last

attention of the writer

Fourth Beader,2 bearing date of publication

The
1897, just twenty one years ago.
series of leaders to which this book belongs

of

was much

vogue two decades ago.

in

The

reading Lessons, eighty-live in number, are

made up of extracts from the writings of
authors of America and Eu-

foremosl

the

The

rope.

incident

referred to

detailed and circumstantial that

is

so very-

it is

quoted

A Living Bridge

at once I gave these queer bridge-makers

closes! attention.

mi.

The air was t'ull of strange sounds, made

by strange birds and inserts, which kept me
awake until just before dawn, when I fell
in

my

chair on deck.

felt a rough blow on my face.

Suddenly
r saw hanging
and became wide awake,
a tree, and swinging away into the
gloom, something that looked like a huge
The end of it had struck me.
black rope.
!!
a moment back it came, swinging this
1

time behind the \ essel.

The rope gave forth a chattering noise;
was alive, A liniment more, and it was
it
(dear

me

to

that

here

was

company of

1
The narrative appeared under the title Life
ami Naturt "nil- r the Tropica (N'\v York, 1--71V
Fourth Reader, by Prof. George P. Holmes
(of the University of Virginia) and Prof. Frank
A. II. ill (Head master Knclish IIij;h s
i

bridge,

M
i

1397.

i
.

New

edition,

my

They were hanging from a tall palm-tree

Three or
that leaned out over the water.
four of the strongest had grasped the
branches of this palm with their hands, feet,
and tails, and were holding on as if the fate
of the monkey race depended on them.
Other monkeys had taken hold of these,
and let themselves hang down as far as they
Then

others,

and

still

others,

until

there was a line thirty feet long and three or

four monkeys deep. The last monkey of all
did not cling to those above him, but was so
held by them as to leave his arms and legs
He was the gymnast of the troop, and
free.
the hero of the present exploit.
The dangling line hung so near the trunk
of the palm that the lowest had been able to
push against it, and thus cause a little motion.
Successive pushes had set the rope
swinging toward the opposite side of the
stream. It was on one of these swings, when
the end of the rope had reached as far out
as the middle of the stream, that I was
struck in the face.
Little by little the breathing, clinging
Pretty soon it
pendulum kepi gaining.
swung out so far that the leader caught a
branch of a tree on the opposite bank, when,
At once
lo! there was a bridge in mid-air!
there rose from all the line a chattering that

must have been monkey

cheers.
\s soon as the leader had made good his
hold, two or three monkeys ran across to help
This finished the bridge; so, without
him.
further ado, it was opened to the monkey
public.

was once Bailing down the Amazon, and

making short trips np the rivers that flow
One night we had ascended a little
into it.
far that the trees on the banks
nearly met overhead, and our boat could
prudent to go
It was not
go mi farther.
back in the dark. So we anchored in mid"I

asleep

monkeys trying to cross the stream. The

sight was so novel, the plan so daring, that

could.

"In the course of our travels in the tropics, during which we saw multitudes of these
creatures, our observations convinced us that
there was no foundation for the truth of the
tale of the bridge-building monkeys; and in
this belief we were, moreover, further continned by the statement of natives, who testified to their having never witnessed such a
novel performance."

copyrighted

L887,

Then there came out of the palm-tree a

They ran across
noi-y crowd of all ages.
the bridge as besl they could, some on all
fours, some upright, some with young monkeys on their backs, ami all waving thentails and briskly jabbering, as if they were
shouting to those ahead, 'Make haste, or the

"
bridge will break
A \erv old monkey was the last to go over.
Perhaps he
Perhaps his limbs were stiff.
could not see very well, it was certain thai
he had lost the fearlessness of his youth, for
he picked his way along so slowly and nercould not help laughing outvously, that
I

right.

so unusual a noise, the monkeys

(dinging to the palm did not wait
for him, but lei go and swung over to the
other side. The old fellow narrowly escaped

Hearing

who were

a ducking.

Then followed a curious scene. Xo sooner

had the bridge cleared the water, than the
monkeys loosened their grip upon one anime than it takes to tell the
bridge dropped to pieces, and
whal never happens with a common bridge
the pieces betook themselves to the tops ,,f
the trees, and were soon out of hearing in
the depths ei' the fori st."

other.
story,

the

less

220

.V.

To doubting Thomases

this is staggering,

because of the perfection of

which

it

agrees with Paez.

17V AM L HISTORY

its

detail,

The name signed

to this short article is that of Charles

erick Holder, a naturalist

standing!

search

ful

Holder, in

in

Fred-

and man of high

I have personally

made a

care-

through all the works of Dr.

the hope that the original account

Dr. Charles Frederick Holder was the writer

books and a member of many distinguished scientific societies.
He died in Pasadena,
California, on October 11, 1915.
1

many

of

might be found. The search proved futile,

it unexpectedly brought to light a con-

but

firmatory account.

This latter, wilh a figure

accompanying it, bears date of publication

in New York just twelve years ago.
Let us examine Holder's account more
closely.
First, it was not yet dawn, things
could not be seen clearly; second, the stream

was

so small that the trees almost

met

over-

head; third, the monkeys might easily have

been hanging to limbs and making swinging

leaps across the narrow stream

fourth, in

these tropical countries the vegetation along

the streams forms such a dense interwoven

jungle that there

is

no space on the land-

ward side for such a chain to swing back

from the bank to get oscillation enough to
carry it across the stream; and finally, this
account attributes more collective intelligence to monkeys than they have ever been
known to show. 3
2

Half Hours

erick Holder.
3

G.

with Mammals.
York, 1907.

Charles

Fred-

New

This is said notwithstanding the fact that S.

Goodrich in his Illustrated Natural History

of the Animal Kingdom (Vol. I, page 103, New

York, 1859) says: "This account [of the monkey
chain] has been doubted by some naturalists, but
we are told by Mrs. Loudon that a similar feat
is often performed by these monkeys in the Menagerie of the Zoological Gardens at London." If
this is true, then it is strange that, so far as the
present writer knows, no published statement of
such action has come from the eminent men who
have for so long reported in the Proceedings of
the Zoological Society of London the happenings

in its Zoological

Garden.

Now

Mrs. Loudon before her marriage was Jane

Webb, and as Jane Webb she was a very prolific
writer of popular natural history books.
The
British Museum catalogue lists some dozen or
more of these works, but unfortunately neither
the library of the American Museum of Natural
History nor the great New York Public Library
possesses any of them, so I have not been able to
run down this statement. However, another quotation from Goodrich casts discredit on his whole
account.
On the same page, he quotes Dampier, the navi-

possible source of the bridge

myth

lies in

the

interpretation which a not-over-accurate traveler

might give to the sight of monkeys swinging in
troops from the hanging vines so numerous in
tropical forests.
The above illustration, from
Henri Mouhot's Travels in the Central Parts of
Indo-China (Siarn), Cambodia, and Laos (1864),
purports to be drawn from a sketch by that naturalist showing the way in which Old World apes
torment their greatest enemy, the imperturbable
crocodile, by swinging about his head and tapping
him now and again until some one of the frolickers more foolhardy or less agile than the rest gets
his paw caught in the trap and vanishes into the

crocodilian interior.
The truth of this report is
to doubt, and at any rate the drawing has
received additions from the artist's imagination
inasmuch as Old World apes do not have prehensile tails

open

gator, in detail as to the formation of the bridge

on the "Isthmus of America." Now the standard
edition of Dampier's Voyages is that of 1729, the
sixth I believe, which has recently (1906) been
published in fine form under the editorship of
John Masefield. In this copy there is no account
whatever of the monkey chain or of any activities
of monkeys in that part dealing with Dampier's
crossing of the Isthmus of Panama.
Indeed the
only place where their antics are referred to
is in Dampier's "Second Voyage to Campeachy,"
and here there is no word of the formation of a
chain or bridge.
Now Sabin quotes Stevens that the sixth edition
(the standard one) of Dampier's Voyages Around
the World is a page for page reprint of the earlier
editions, but to make sure I consulted the 1698

or "3d edition corrected" and the 1697, the first,

edition of the Voyages and found the account
therein of the Second Voyage to Campeachy to
agree exactly with Masefield's reprint of the sixth

THE MYTH OF THE MONKEY CHAIN

It seems to me that the possible explanation is to be found in the third point just

monkeys

Individual

indicated.

certainly

of swinging branches and of great

palm leaves to enable them to bridge over
the space from one tree to another. Using

make use

such a swinging fulcrum for a "take-off,"

they have been known to leap thirty feet,
alighting of course at a lower level than the

of monkeys
making such leaps from the same point in
succession, especially if some were females

starting point.

carrying young,

procession

might look

like

a "living

chain."

had the pleasure of discussing the

Messrs. Leo E. Miller and
George K. Cherrie, of the American Museum
of Natural History, and few men in the
United States have done more exploring
work in northern South America. FurtherI have

with

matter

more, they are not the ordinary type of travelers but are collectors with highly trained

powers
there

They think that

"monkey bridge
has come about in a per-

observation.

of
is

nothing

story" but that

fectly natural

it

in

the

way through observation of a

221

when, hanging by one paw, and with the

dexterity peculiar to these animals he advances and retires, now giving his enemy a
blow with his paw, at another time only pretending to do so. The other apes, enjoying
the fun, evidently wish to take a part in it;
but the other branches being too high they
form a sort of chain by laying hold of each
other's paws, and thus swing backwards and
forwards, while any one of them who comes
within reach of the crocodile torments him to

Sometimes the terjaws suddenly close, but not upon the

audacious ape, who just escapes: then there
the best of his ability.
rible

are cries of exultation from the tormentors,

Occasionally.
joyfully.
however, the claw is entrapped, and the victim dragged with the rapidity of lightning
beneath the water, when the whole troop disThe misadperses, groaning and shrieking.
venture does not, however, prevent their
recommencing the game a few days afterwards."

who gambol about

When opportunity came

to

compare

found that the account originated with an

and naturalist named Mouhot, 2
who died of swamp fever somewhere in the
upper part of Indo-China, but whose journals, letters, and scientific memoranda were
explorer

procession of monkeys crossing a ravine or

used by his brother to build up a book.

stream on a pendent liana.

original picture in this book

Professor
called

my

W.

P. Hay, of Washington, has

attention to an account of Old

World monkeys
"Tt is amusing, however for one is interested in observing the habits of animals all
over the world to see the manner in which
these creatures [crocodiles] catch the apes,
which sometimes take a fancy to play with
them. Close to the bank lies the crocodile,
his body in the water, and only his capacious
mouth above the surface, ready to seize anything that may come within reach.
troop
of apes catch sight of him, seem to consult
together, approach little by little, and commence their frolics, by turns actors and spectators.
One of the most active or most
impudent jumps from branch to branch, till
within a respectful distance of the crocodile,

[Continued from page 220

1729.
So it seems that Goodrich has
made Dampier say what he did not say, and if
Dampier, why not Mrs. Loudon ? As a matter of
fact Goodrich has attributed to Dampier an account possibly taken from "Wafer, quoted earlier
in this article.
Dampier was a keen and critical
observer of natural history phenomena and anyone who has carefully read his Voyages must conclude that had monkey bridges abounded, as
Wafer indicates, he would certainly have given us
a careful description, as was his wont when anything new or unusual came within his ken. And
even had he not seen it, he would in all probability
have made mention of it as seen by others, had
talk of it been current.

I'm.

Bay's transcript with the original, I

fessor

is

The

of a scene

Paknam-Ven, on the Chantaboun River.

Siam, and bears the legend: "Drawn by M.
Bocourt from a sketch by M. Mouhot," so it
at

may

be considered authentic.

In his text Mouhot speaks of the apes

hoi, ling on to each other by their paws, but
nowhere does he speak of them as using their
The figure, however, does show at
tails.
least three of them using their tails to hold
on to the swinging "bush-ropes." This led
me to think, until the figure was finally run
down, that it was from some book of travel
on South America, where the monkeys do
have prehensile tails.
Mouhot, of course,
knew that while the Old World does have
long-tailed monkeys, none of them have this
organ prehensile, so we must conclude that
his artist "improved" on his original sketch.

edition of

by

This account and figure are taken from Siam.

Land of the White Elephant, as It Was, and as
compiled by George B. Bacon and published
Charles Scribner's Sons (New York. 1873),

as

one of the volumes in Illustrated Library of

the

It Is,

Travel, Exploration, and Adventure, edited by

Bayard Tavlor.
- Henri Mouhot was a Frenchman, but the title
of his

China

book is Travels in the Central Parts of Indo(Siam), Cambodia, and Laos, during the

it was published in
Mouhot, who
two volumes at London in 1864.
lived in England for some years, seems to have
had encouragement and possibly some backing
from the Zoological and Geographical Societies of

years 1858, 1859. 1860, and

London

in

his explorations.

The Remaking

of a

Museum

Collection

KEl'KESEXTATIYES OF THE OKDER OF PRIMATES PROM THE BUGE

GORILLA TO THE TINY MARMOSET

By

WAS in 1SS2, that

ITat the suggestion of
Ward,

decidei

can Museum, of

A.

both possible and desirable to

provements as would bring this hall up to

the high standard set by other exhibits.
It

York, the most com-

could be brought together, and as steps were

promptly taken to put this plan into execution, the collection rapidly grew to goodly

has been said that some of the greatest

ing

ever,

was

collecting

much more
and

difficult

collectors

were

scarcer

than

re-

the

old

speci-

mens but by utilizing them to better

advantage, and while

years ago, how-

five

im-

forms have been brought about not by making new laws but by repealing or amending
old ones; in the Primates' hall reform lias
largely been brought about not by discard-

Thirty-

proportions.

make such

Mr. Robert Colgate,

present to the Ameri-

to

New

LUC

Professor Henry A.

of apes and monkeys that

collection

plete

F.

today, so that after

have been a
few discards, these
have been in the way

a time the supply of

of bright cherry ped-

monkeys that could

estals

much

readily

there

be obtained

was exhausted, and

the growth of the

and

slower

Nevertheless,

an

it

ports.

Important
have

was
ex-

tions

occupying the

made

lost

some of

pressiveness,

others

it

in-

in other halls, with-

out corresponding increase of the build-

of this

brought into the

exhibit a

Colobus

or

of the

same monkey is seen in the

group on the opposite page

appearance; also the ever-

increasing amount of scientific work by the

Museum

staff led to the abstraction of

many

Quite recently the publication of Elliots

work,

Review

of

the

Primates,

caused renewed interest in this particular

collection, while collections

Museum

expeditions

in

made by various

Africa and South

by

fig-

ures of the black. yellow,

and white

races.

(See page 235.)

The skeletons forscattered

merly

the

cases

have been brought together, so that the

visi-

compare the
structural resemblances between himself and
his more or less distant relatives, or see the
tor

so

minded

can

readily

general characteristics of the various groups

into which the Order of Primates

of the skeletons for study and comparison.

great

illustration

been

has

represented

through

mam-

mals, so that the hall of Primates lost some

its distinctive

Man

and

for

hand

in

is

its

number of

intruders in the shape of the smaller

of

monkey with

horse-tail

newly born young whose white head may be

seen in front of the mother's shoulder.
Most
monkeys carry their young in this manner, the
infant clinging to the parent's fur of its own
accord and with its own strength. A side view

crease of collections

ing,

material

while

this im-

as

in the

have been completed

Museum.
however,

Later,

addi-

been
way of

groups, four of which

of the central halls

the

the

attract-

is

by the animals
and not by the sup-

greater part of one

of

shelves,

now

ed

slower.

impressive

hibit,

visitor

became

collection

and of

that

so

The object of the

is

divided.

some
and
and form, which

exhibit

is

to give

idea of the principal species in the Order

their great variety in size

ranges from the huge gorilla to the tiny

marmoset, while the habitat groups show

America, coupled with improved methods in

characteristic or interesting species in their

mounting and displaying specimens, made

own haunts.

222

it

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM'S GROUP OF

COLOBUS MONKEYS
thumbless monkeys (Coldbus abyasinicua roosi
perhaps the most beautiful of their race, and
for this they have paid the inevitable penalty of being
hunted by African natives and by Europeans for the sake of
The Ahyssinians employ the skins as ornaments
Then- fur*.
for their large rawhide shields and have trailed at times
Golobus monkeys dwell in the tallest
extensively in the pelts.
trees among the remote forests of East Africa where they
in large
find their main sustenance in leaves wfcicl
For digesting this unusual diet they are proquantities.
They are relatively
vided with large sacculated stomachs.
-low travelers for arboreal monkeys, even when swinging
from branch to branch in their forest homes; but they can
make Ions flying leaps (thirty feet or more) and the white
'manes" and tails float out on the air a- the creatures proceed from tree to tree or plunge headlong to the ground.
oung in
When horn these monkeys are pure whiti
monkej at the right and front view of same on
opposite page), but they rapidly take on the black and white

These

velti)

are

coloration of the adult.

ting up this group at the American Museum, reproductions were made of leaves and air plants brought from
their African habitat by the Congo Expedition
i

CROWNED
LEMURS
FROM
MADAGASCAR

Among
unique

the

fauna

of

island

the

of

Madagascar
found

are
only

the

extant

species

of

true lemurs. The

lemurs, which are
the lowest of the

ape

resem-

tribe,

ble monkej s chiefly

hands
having

their

iii

and

feet,

an opposing thumb
most manlike

like

"Lemur"

apes.

Latin

is

ghost
and these animals
for

were so called because of their nocturnal and seminocturnal habits.

They
the

during

sleep

heat

the

of

day and come out

in
the
evening
and early morning to feed on
fruits and romp
in

the

trees

in

small bands of six

This
eight.
or

MuAmerican
seum group, of
which but a corshown,
ner
is
contains two species

(Propiti

vi /v. fiiixi

diadema

and P.
set in a

reproduction

Madagascar

of
foli-

age with a backpainted

ground
from a scene out
of Milne Edwards'
ereat work on that
island

224

A SPIDER

MONKEY FROM MEXICO

from their unusually long arms and legs, are a thumbless genus
from the New World. They are very timid and rather stupid animals and live on such fruits as are found
Their most notable character is the prehensile tail which
in the tropical forests of the two Americas.
This tail, the
serves them so remarkably well that the Indians of Brazil claim they catch fish with it.
under side of which is smooth-skinned at the tip, is always moving here and there grasping branches or
The
body.
monkey's
the
of
weight
objects otherwise out of reach, and is sufficiently strong to suspend the
number of things a monkey of this type can do at one time is quite astounding.

The spider monkeys

(Ateles),

so called

Notes
The
a

Charles Seymour, Professor of History

geographical and historical basis for

permanent world peace

lias

Yale

the sub-

American organization known as the

an

This organization

"Inquiry."

der the direction of Col.

lias

maintained

ing

ut'

M.

E.

American Geographical Society

the

\.w York

the build-

at

c.

in

City, receiving cordial cooperation

L50

sailed

effects,

the story

time

first

the
L918.

t,

so confidential a

detail

told

is

aa

for the

Review for

Geographical

the

in

on

December

in

at

Columbia Univer-

mi Colonial History

Jefferson,

Professor of Geography

Michigan

State

Normal

College,

Cartographer
Roland
ogy

at

B.
I

Dixon, Professor of Anthropol-

[an ard

fniversity

pro-

all

Prance

for

"George Washington"
The work has been of
ture that

them

with

Tii

Beer, formerly of

L.

Mark

of aboul

personnel

carrying

persons,

lan-.

complete

Ets

si nil

sity, Specialist

from every scientific bureau of the United

States Government, and being visited in person
by President Wilson and Secretary
Lansing.

Westermann, Professor of Historj

1..

at the University of Wisconsin, Special

and

[ouse,

headquarters

its

W.

been un-

lias

at

Austria

on

Hungary

jecl of research since the latter part of li'17

bj

University, Specialist

Pour

from the Military [ntelligence Division wen- also attached for special
officers

of

study

problems on

strategy,

economics,

Major I'. W. Johnson,

Columbia University, Major Lawrence Mar
tin. University of Wisconsin, Captain W.
Farabee, The University Museum, PhiladelK. Hornbeek,
phia, and Captain Stanlej
ami

ethnography:

<

January,

'.

The

1919.

Enquiry

broadly

ha-,

speaking, investigated the political and

lomatic

history,

.lip

ami economic

political

the

raphy,

way

of

the

all

nationalities

in

any

rniversity of Wisconsin.
In connection with the research carried on

coming treaty of peace,

affected by the

together with the bearings of international

law
i

ni'

upon

work

This

questions.

these

has

accomplished through close cooperation

specialists an.

consultation with similar

in

Europe and with representatives ut' every important nationality of Eu

Among the mem
rope ami Western Asia.

commissions

the

s.

in

nquiry are

Mezes,

E.

the

'it

<,t'

New

Bowman,

[saiah

President

the College of

ut'

Fork, Dirt ctor

<'ln<

Territorial

Spt cialisi

cartographers

the

of

the

American Geographical Society, together

with a Government staff, began a great map
making program, showing the distribution
of peoples and of natural resources, and
The Society
location of strategic points.
prepared a series of base and block maps
showing drainage, railways, and relief, of
Europe, Asia, and Africa. These maps were
later furnished to each unit of the

Army Training

Director of the American

graphical Society,

Enquiry,

the

l.\

also has been prime.

by tic

map

in

-tu. lent- in
t

A small

Corps.
I.

Students

scale edition

available for desk use

conjunction with the wall

he hands of the instructor.

Allyn A. SToung, Head of the Department

Economics

of

at

Cornell

University,

Economic Resources
Charles II. Ilaskins, Dean of the Graduate
School of Harvard University, Specialist
mi Alsace-Lorraim <n><l Belgium
''live
Day, Men.
of the Department of
Specialist

<>"

Economics
Hll

W.

E.

fur.

I,

at
I'tUll

iint.

US

Professor of History, Haver

College,

Yale University, Special

ll

Northern

on

Specialist

I toll!

JOHN BURROI onMuseum on .lanuan

the American
was entertained
by moving pictures in which he had acted
the leading role.
Mr. Burroughs was pictured with several of his family, and with
friends, including Mr. Henry Pord and Mr.
Thomas \. Edison. The groups had Keen
"filmed" in West Park at "Riverby," "slab
In connecsides," ami "Woodchuck Lodge."
tion with thi- reel, about one hundred col
ore. slides were also displayed. Ainone them
\

i'l

LSited

an.

I.'.

II.

vard
/

Lord, Professor of
University,

Poland

istorj

Specialist

on

at

Hat

Russia

were several of

hi- birthplace in the

western

manj were from photographs, by

Clyde Fisher of the American Mu-

CatskiUs,
Dr.

<!.

227

X A TUBAL

228
seum, of Mr. Burroughs

West Park

his

in

home, and a considerable scries showed him

with John Muir in California and with Theodore Roosevelt

in

After

Yellowstone Park.

STORY

Til

l'n ion

the

of

Smithsonian

the

occupies

visited and the white marble bust of

Burroughs, executed by the late C. S. Pietro,

He

Mr. Burroughs also examined a

Museum, including

est

was viewed.

number

of exhibits in the

the Florida

Group

and birds

reptiles

a group showing Florida

set

swamp and

in

reproduction of a

vice presidents.

Mr. Ridgway lately

has completed his fiftieth year on the staff

the slides had been shown, the local bird hall

was

that of Robert Ridgway, one of

is

first

is

where he

Institution,

position

the

of curator of birds.

accounted one of the leading systeHis inter-

matic ornithologists of America.

in

birds began at an early age.

When

but fourteen he sent a life-size drawing of

a pair of purple finches to the Smithsonian
institution

and

received

from

Professor

E.

Baird, then secretary of the Institution, a

Akeley's studio where African elephants and

his skill in drawing and

him assistance in identifying any
of his specimens a service similar to that
which Audubon had performed for Professor
Baird tw enty-five years previously.
Systematic ornithology was in its infancy when
in 1867 Mr. Ridgway was called to Washington to assist Professor Baird, and its
rapid growth may be attributed in large
measure to his efforts.

cypress

visited

Carl

Mr.

were in process
mounted. He manifested especial
the clay model of an African lion
Akeley is making as a memorial

being

of

rhinoceroses

interest in

which Mr.
to Roose-

was a great pleasure to Mr. Burroughs' friends to welcome him to the Museum and to find him in such vigorous health
at fourscore years and two.
It

velt.

The

awarded

to

minion entomologist, and to Dr.

W.

New York

T.

Horn-

Zoological

Park, "in recognition of their indefatigable

services

securing

in

the

treaty

between

Canada and the United States for the

pro-

tection of migratory birds."

the annual meeting of the trustees of

American Museum on February 3, Mr.

Herbert L. Bridgman, journalist, explorer,
and geographer, manager and editor of the
Brooklyn Standard Union, and secretary of
the Peary Arctic Club, was elected an Hon-

the

orary Fellow of the institution, pursuant to

a resolution expressing "appreciation of the

valuable assistance rendered to the Museum
by Mr. Herbert L. Bridgman through his
service on its committees on exploration, es-

pecially in connection with the expeditions of

Admiral

Peary,

the

Stefansson- Anderson

Expedition, the Congo Expedition and, more

recently,

the Crocker

Land Expedition

of the Museum" and also acknowledging his "contribution to the advancement of science and education through
his editorials and other writings in the pubdisposal

Professor Joji Sakurai, director of the

and Chemical Research

Institute of Physical
in

Tokyo, Japan, has been visiting

scientific

The

institutions in the United States.

Insti-

was founded in 1917 by private subscription and government subvention, largely

as a result of the effect of the great war in
giving government officials, business men,
and in fact the whole Japanese nation a new
tute

interest

in

science,

relative

such

to

daily

needs as dyestuffs and drugs formerly imported from Germany.

In order to supply

the lack of capable researchers the Institute

established a
to university

number of scholarships open

graduates and tenable for two

and a few of its associate fellows will

be annually sent to study abroad. At present the Institute's work is being carried on
years,

in the buildings of the universities of Tokyo,

Kyoto, and Sendai, but the projected laboratories will be built in northern

Tokyo where

a site has already been purchased.

in

of which his wide experience and organiz-

ing ability have been placed freely at the

lic

(Canada) has been

Professor Gordon Hewitt, Do-

aday, director of the

all

commending

offering

gold medal of the Royal Society for

the Protection of Birds

At

letter

In 1908 foreigners in Peking founded the

China Monuments Society for securing "complete suppression of vandalism in China by
foreigners, or due to foreign influence or
agencies,
tiquities,

and the protection of China's anmonuments and all cultural objects,

for the benefit of mankind.

press."

..."

Since

that date the attention of the Chinese govern-

Among
founders

the

of

names of the officers and

American Ornithologists'

the

ment has been called to the matter at one

time and another and considerable interest

NOTES

229

has been manifested in America toward eo

and formerly Minister of the

work of preservation. Priceless objects of art and historic monuments

arc still, however, in Deed of protection from
both foreign and domestic vandalism, but,

nii'si

operation

owing

the

in

the preseni

to

state of political tur-

moil throughout China,

it

is

difficult

to

ob-

any organized effort.

Andrews, leader of the AmeriMr. Boy

tain

recently

Asiatic

Second

Mr.

with

discussed

officially

Manchu

is

spite

of

the

difficulties

the

in

summer residences
at Mukden and

deserted

emperors

of the
Jehol.

tin

lias

already been paid.

nt llu dost of iK-fin fighting in thi

Mr.

the

of Art at Peking, and

dollars (silver) were appropurchasing this material from

Manchu dynasty and half of this sum

Four

million

priated

following photographs depict seems in

In/

in

left in the

King, a

77/,

was

of

way of effective action. The Peking Museum

was founded with the wonderful collections

T.

King ways and means of cooperation. Mr.

member of the Chinese Parliament

Interior,

establishment

the

again taking up the question of protection

Expedition,

Kungpah

in

Museum

National

'.

Museum's

can

active

for

Peking on th signing of

World War.

lh<

armistict

They wen taken

Chapman Andrews, representativi

American Museum of Natural History
/t''>i/

of

fh<

Photograph by Roy

REMOVAL OF THE VON KETTELER MONUMENT

IN

C.

rn

PEKING

the late Emperor over the s "' where Baron

bj
The news of
by a Chinese soldier.
of the
armistice in the World War \\:i^ received in Peking on the morning of November L2,
During that afternoon
gave permission to have the monument removed, and several hundred foreigners attempted to
null the arch down with cables.
Tliis attempt was unsuccessful but that night the German inscription was
badly defaced and the pillars were chipped and cracked.
Later the Chinese government decided u< i;ik>down the arch, :c shown in the photograph, and to use the materials in the erection of a "Victorj Arch" in

This

Mm

memorial arch on

Ketteler,

Park,

German

Pi

Ha-ta-men Street was erected

Minister

to

China,

w.-i~

shol

GATEWAY TO THE PURPLE CITY

The upper picture shows the massive gateway to the Tung Hua Men courtyard of the Imperial Palace in Peking.
The two lower pictures are taken within the court and show the lancers, part of the President's bodyguard, and
the President's hand.
The gateway is one of the most impressive of the series of entrances through which one
must pass in entering the Forbidden City.
Its base is red and the roof is tiled with the imperial yellow, as are
all the imperial dwellings of the city,
while before the gate runs a winding canal spanned by beautiful marble
bridges.
The photographs of the lancers and band were taken just after the President, Hsu Shin-Chang, had
passed through to attend the Allied and Chinese review, held to celebrate the signing of the armistice
230

!
f^rtr^^^^.is^i.'Mi;

Photographs by Roy C

Lndrews

REVIEW OF CHINESE AND ALLIED TROOPS

The President

of

China

i-itli

the

before the

Allied

Ministers

reviewed

Supreme Concord

parade

of

Ho

Allied

and Chinese troops

in

the great

enough to
was indescribable; in thi
ound the yellow tiles of the
Tai llo Tien (one of
superb examples of Chinese architecture) gleamed in the sunlight like molten gold
o
:i'il in the court
and on the terraces were thousands of Bags and uniforms of everj color.
In the picture at the
bottom of the page the President i- shown reai
m the terrace of the Throne Room (politically
or

The
I

"i'l

almost

military

of

(Tai

Tien).

This

courl

is

large

the scene

the center of

geogi

attachi

brilliance

Hall of

Tuan

Peking).

On

Chi-jui, ex-Premier,

the

left

with

are the foreign ministers; on the right, the foreign

members

of his staff

231

Photographs by Roy C. Andrews

AFTER THE REVIEW

The upper photograph shows General Tuan Chi-jui, ex-Premier of China, with the Allied military attaches: readleft to right are two members of General Tuan Chi-jui's staff, the Russian
and the French attaches,
General Tuan Chi-jui, the British, the American, and the Japanese attaches.
General Tuan Chi-jui is one of the most influential generals in China.
It was he who dispersed General
Chang Hsu's troops in 1917 when the latter attempted to restore the Manchu Emperor.
General Tuan Chi-jui
is a stanch militarist and will oppose any attempt to limit the powers of the military governors who practically
govern China today.
ing from

In

the

Men and
232

lower picture Chinese troops, preceded by their colors, are seen

about to cross one of the beautiful marble bridges

leaving the court

of the

Tung Hua

XOTES
R

De Booy,

died

February

Theoj
plorer,

archaeologist and es
19,

home

his

:ii

in

in

233

return

Mr. De B003 had

n in charge of
West [ndian archaeological work of the
Museu
the American [ndian, Eeye FounLast year
dation, New York City, since 1911.
he was in charge of an expedition senl oul
by tln> Universitj of Pennsylvania Museum,

years.

which penetrated unknown regions in Venezuela and Colombia. Few men knew the West
India [slands and their archaeology as Mr.

i.e

Yonkers.

the

De Booy knew them.

and

skillful

Antic

the

or

Lee or in

transatlantic

circle.

miles

twenty-four hours.

in

awakening

greal

raphy

wherever he went, he proved a most successEe was the author of several

ful collector.

go tar beyond what

and

liis

death
Paris,

the book

time before

short

;i

Our N( w Pos-

Virgin Islands,

Tin

British Islands.

tin

,1

M.

ney

Paris, a

the

North

Atlantic

an.

many

irches

bit

below

tin-

ropean

fjords

break loose on
however, will
currents

of

tin-

fall

they

to bo the world, so

northern

are

finally

Eu-

swept

Those which

I.., ..nil

the elements, for virtually no courses

geography

in

higher

nished.

these

mine-

ope an.

will

travel

of northern

Atlantic

Stream)

Sargasso

down

the colleges.

in

if

All

should

learning

America recognized it.

Each of the large
in France has a department of
is

a staff of eight

special-

geography at the University of Paris.

Great English ami German universities also
are equipped; .ami similar progress ha- been
ists in

in

other countries, a- Austria. Switzer-

Denmark, and the Netherlands.

The time has come when full consideration

Sea,
t

tho coast

of

universities

Italy.

geography

the

given

There are many students who would

field of work a- a profession

should

whirl,

.are

institutions

take up this

Barring accident on tho Canary [slands or

Atlantic

is

wo must study the world's

in

the Antilles, or protracted circulation in tho

al

the

will

either po-

ha- never been taught to any

America beyond the primary
schools.
Even the teachers of geography are
not trained in any phases of the subject

made

Gulf

again

isolation,

Geography

land.

tho

in

geography.

Atlantic coasi of Europe,

by

by the par-

or commercial, ami. as our market

litical

into the general

dominated

Never

peace.

jraphy; there

the

Norway.

of

United state- stand

tho North S

in

along

until

coasts

tho

into

sown

wan. lor

will

5,

surface and escaped action by

Mini".

tho wind.

to a greater extent

the world, contingent upon the

nt'

open departments of geography as fast as

adequately trained instructors can be fur-

ping objects -" constructed thai they floated

jusl

must

Prince

years

course of the Atlantic currents by drop-

tin-

ProfeSSOI

the Geographical Review

in

the

made extensive
eanography an. mapped

for

teaching of

writes

during ami after the war."

has

si

the

in
is

to

four

been strongly broughl to our attention by the

war ami even

extent

Prince of Monaco, has

Academie des Sciences, 1
paper on the "Route of floating

S.

\.

of

professor

University of Michigan.

tin'

contributed

mines

formerly

Spalding,

botany at

i,t'

is

al

when teaching must

grown people remember a- geography." The importance of
both physical and economic geography has

celing up

announced of two of the

country's distinguished botanists, George P.
Atkinson, professor and head of the botany
department at Cornell University, and Voldeath

A complete
Channel ami

1919, "ami

for January,

-i^ninc.

The

tin'

tho

in

America."

in

W. W. Atwood,

[slands,

calcu-

has arrived when there should

"The time

worker, with the faculty of making friends

he brought out, jointly with John T.

Albert

would accordingly require

tireless

papers on the archaeology of the Wesl [ndian

Prince

voyage from the vicinity of

fjords,

average speed a- somewhere around

late- the
five

Norwegian

the

time over the previous

second

be

given

ami

to

the

the

relations

expansion

between

of

civiliza-

the blind

founder

ion-.

"1

Africa, across the

Sib

West In. he- and back by way

lie
Gulf Stream current.
After their
return to European waters, the mines will

and

either go by the \\,m

American Museum on February 5. sir Arthur -puke of the marvelous work accomplished at the hostel ami of the new dopar-

<

to the

.'..:i-i

el'

break

re 1,-ii el to
hi.'

'
1

N.i.

director

of

St.

Dunstan's

for

Eostel

blinded soldiers, London, addressed

audience of blind and their friends

Large
at

the

X ATT UAL

234
inaugurated

tures

blindness,''

hostel impresses upon

an

not

is

it

over

there.
"Victory
Dunstan's motto.

St.

is

its

institution

The

new arrivals that

for

the

helpless,

but a school where "normal people who canIt is for the blind

not see" are reeducated.

themselves, said sir Arthur, to disabuse the

public of the belief that blindness

is

II I

STORY

and erection of a national memorial to the

late Theodore Roosevelt, consists of the
following

persons,

literary, and social

and including all of Roosevelt's former
cabinet members:
Chairman
life,

William Boyce Thompson

asso-

ciated with helplessness, and accordingly he

coming of the blinded soldiers in the prime of life from stirring scenes
has been the blind's best asset. Play is taken
very seriously at the hostel and is considered
of equal importance with work; all forms of
amusement are encouraged, from boxing to
Dancing is popular with the men.
checkers.
St. Dunstan's Dramatic Club has developed
believes that the

London

into a regular

institution.

Honorary Chairnn

W.

II.

Vice

re-

newed control over their muscles. As they

have access to the large lake in Regents
Park, rowing is one of the favorite sports,
and expert crews are sent to race on the
Thames at Putney, while those who have had
previous experience in boxing take up this

which
motes

competitive

the

fosters

Any

activity

spirit

pro-

development and raises the

morale of the men.
The average stay at St. Dunstan's is nine
months, during which the men must acquire
rapid

an occupation, or relearn an old one. They

must also learn to read. This last is of the
utmost importance, for the mere ability to
read continually widens the blinded person's
mental horizon and gives him added confiIn learning an occupation, St. Dundence.
stan's insists that its blind be as capable and
stand as thorough examinations as mure
fortunate competitors in the same field who
can

Among

see.

thought of

in

occupations

not

hitherto

connection with the blind, Sir

Arthur Pearson has introduced massage with

much
sion

success.

and

blind

is

who

Many more

This

is

a well-paying profes-

readily learned

are

inclined

by those of the

toward the work.

trades and professions are suit-

able for the blind than

is

generally assumed.

The government of the United Kingdom now

appropriates an annual sum of two million
dollars

to

be expended

in

work with the

blind.

The

(liii'i

nm

E.

Hughes

Senator Hiram

Senator H. C. Lodge
John Mitchell
John T. King

Johnson
Hert

A. T.

Tn sun r
Albert II. Wiggin
ii

Sir Ar-

importance in giving the blind

exercise with successful results.

Charles

Taft

Mi

thur considers outdoor athletics as of particular

representative of indus-

trial, political, scientific,

Roosevelt Permanent National Com-

mittee, appointed for the purpose of choice

nihi rs

of

Lyman Abbott
Carl
Gov.

E.

Akeley
Allen

II. J.

Jacob L. Babler
Gov. R. L.

Beeckman

Bonaparte
Seth Bullock
John Burroughs
Gov. T. C. Campbell
Russell coles
Willis C. Cook
G. B. Cortelyou
Walter Damrosch
Coleman du Poxt
Rep. Simeon D. Fess
Lyman J. Gage
James R. Garfield
C. J.

Cnm in H
Vi< tor

t<

II.

Metcalf

Robert R. Moton
Senator T. H.

Xewberry
John I. Nolan
John M. Parker
Admiral R. E. Peary
George W. Perkins

Rep.

Gifford Pinchot
Senator Miles
Poindexter
Rep. C. F. Reavis
Mrs. Whitelaw Reid
II. L. Remmel
Raymond Robins

Elihu Root

John Sargent

Cardinal Gibbons
Charles Scribner
Mrs. Mary A. Gibson W. W. Sewell
Gov. J. P. Goodrich Leslie M. Shaw
John C. Greenway H.F.Sinclair
Col. George Harvey Philip B. Stewart
William D. Howells Oscar S. Straus
Patrick Sullivan
Harold L. Ickes
William 1'. Jackson J. O. Thompson
Senator F.B. Kellogg Miss H. F. Vittun
Senator W.S. Kenyon Augustus H. Vogel
Earle S. Kinsley
Henry C. Wallace
Irvin R.

Kirkwood

Rep.

Wallace

Senator P. C. Knox
Albert D. Lasker

David Warfield

William Loeb, Jr.

Pres. A. L. Lowell
Rep. C. N. M< Arthur
H. F. McGregor
Rev. W. T. Manning

Henry

Thomas

A.

Marlow

Charles

Warren
Which am

B.

J.

James Wilson
Gen. Leonard Wood
Luke E. Wright
William Wrioi.ev
Robert

J.

Wynne

NOTES
That

mail should not be omitted in the con-

Bideration of the Primates

motive

the underlying

is

the installation in the hall of Pri-

in

Museum (see page

Natural Bistory) of

mates of the American

222 of

issue of

this

models of the Norwegian, Chinese, and AfriWhile there is some diversity of

can races.
opinion :i- to whether their is more than one
of

es

marked
in

man. there are undeniable

o the

ra

Of

ZOOlOgy.

Mark

these the white, yellow, and

shown

races

well-

subspecies

in

the principal types.

the present exhibil are

The

figures

235

war this child' often carries five or si\ spears,

and when these are exhausted his supply is replenished with others carried by men running
behind him. The Azande make also peculiar

many

iron throwing knives which have

points

somewhat as a boomerang when

The dress worn by this figure is
thrown.
made from strips of fig bark beaten with
hammers, soaked in water until very Flexible,
and then woven into cloth. The designs are
stamped on with a die such a die often consisting of the dried section of some fruit.
and

act

were made
Tin: complete die-- costume of an

by the Washington sculptor, Mr. U. S. J. Dunbar, who has been very successful in repro-

chief,

ducing the races of man; the coloring is the

work of Mr. Frederick II. Stoll, of the prepa-

casins, pipe bag,

comprising
fringed

net,

ha-

ard,

Indian

war bon-

feather

large

and leggings, with

and feather-trimmed stand-

shirt

presented

been

American

the

to

American Museum;
"t' ap
pare! collected in the field. The white race is
represented by a Hardanger peasant of Norway in the costume of a young married
woman. This type is found in its purest
form in Scandinavia, where fifty per cent of

to the

the population are

White-eagle passed under the name of

ration department of the

the garments worn are actual articles

an.

long headed.

tall,

blue-eyed, fair-haired,

The yellow

type, depicted

by the Cantonese farm laborer, has straight

hail', yellowish or copper brown skin.

black

oblique eyes, high cheek

b<

ami project-

s,

model tor the coloring

ami hair

or'

this

figure

difficulty in finding a

stoll

much

hail

Chinaman with

queue,

form of headdress being no longer popu

this
lar

.Mi',

with the Chinese,

an old

<

Ibinese

lie

chem

a- a study for this figure.

e

exhibit,

however,

finally discovered

aerously served

The farm
lias

darker than the Chinaman seen

New York.

;i

in

laboret

much

skin
the

Anna Sargeant of Jersey

The costume was the property of

Museum by
City.

White-eagle, a Cheyenne Indian of

mixed blood, who had Left a request with
Mrs. Sargeant that this costume he prevented

Chief

Museum

had

for

been

case of his death.

in

Barnum and

and offered his services in the

Mixes, having at one time
Loan

patriotism

Liberty
a

of

front

in

tipi

New York

the

Library where he appeared

Public

the eostume

in

Museum, and addressed

just presented to the

passers-by on their duty with respect to the

These appeals were

loan.

mi successful that

he visited other parts of the country on a

mis-inn.

Stamp campaigns,

Army

Statee

Pri

in

he

Later,

Perhaps the most interesting figure of the

p i- the African, inasmuch as it is an
actual portrait of Manziga, chief of the
The Azande are famous warriors
Azande.

way

When America

entered the war he was moved with intense

equal success

Africa, having pushed their

years connected with

several

Bailey's Circus.

of

of Centra]

Chief

Don
Army he

Before entering the

White-eagle.

similar

-t

Mrs.

nf pneumonia,

<

part

with

War Savings

entered

lie
.luly,

in

took

Cross and

lied

the

and

1918,

>ctober 21,

United
died

in

L918, but

not until after he had received special commendation by the general of his division for

iirniv from the Sudan down into

Congo where they are firmly established.
They are also known as Niam Niam (meat-

bravery of ad

meal

because of former cannibalistic tenNow. however, they are an agriculdencies.

tural

Association and editor of American Forestry,

by force of

ion at the front.

the

people, living chiefly on

millet, durra
manioc, sweel potatoes, and plantain.
Prom the grains thej also make intoxicating
.

drinks.
tually
ziga

is

The women of the tribe are kept ir

in slavery. The shield carried by Man\

covered with rattan fiber and

i-

both

beautifully designed and carefully made.

In

As

a small help in the

Hand areas

in

visiting

him

-eed-

"a

cabling
gOI

ei

dered

large

-mall

after

nment

country

thai
a

package with

his

Percival S.

recently,

number of
arrival

accepted

by the

Mr.

of the American Lore-try

ale, secretary

with

work of reforesting

Prance,

in

the

Association.

carried

Douglas
a

that
oiler

fir

big

value,"

the

French

of

aid

ten

XATL'IiAL

236

We note with satisfaction the great step

forward taken by Governor Sleeper of Michigan, in urging the foundation of a system
of connected public parks through the state.
In Indian days the northern part of Michigan was closely covered with the heavy coniferous forest which extended across the
Lake Region as far as Minnesota, and the
southern section by the edge of the hard-

wood growth of the Ohio River Valley.

Even today a large part of the state is
wooned with a rich and varied forest, representing about a hundred native species. Sectors of woodland along many of the quiet
streams and hidden lakes are ideal locations
Heretofore, Michigan has
for forest parks.
given no attention to this form of conservation, so that her fields and woodlands have
been rapidly restricted by private ownership.
Governor Sleeper's project will involve not
only the setting aside of ground, but also
extensive work in forest preservation and reforestation.

HISTORY
travel

the late Oric Bates, famous

and explorer of the Near East,
tells how to ride and how not to ride a
dromedary; and Langdon Warner, director
of the proposed American School of Archaeology in Peking, describes the food and disposition of a two-humped camel, and of its
Mongol owner. A very fascinating chapter
on "Hunting Dangerous Game" is contributed
by Dr. William Lord Smith. Dr. Smith's
archaeologist

danger

order

leopard,

and Historic Preservation SoNew York has bought, at

one time and another, about thirty-five pubThese are for the
lic parks and monuments.
most part historical sites, associated with
events and persons of importance in American history.
Twenty-two of these monuments have been purchased since 1900.
Among them is Stark's Knob near Sehuylerville

where, during the Revolution, Captain

Stark built a redoubt to oppose General Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga. Temple
Hill

Monument

at

New Windsor was

sented to the state in 1917.

site

of

the

famous

"Temple

It

is

of

pre-

on the
Virtue"

erected in 1783 in honor of the anniversary

of the French Alliance.

Here Washington

publicly spurned the suggestion that he be-

come king of the Thirteen Colonies. New

Windsor is also interesting to us today as
the former site of a large military canton-

ment

the

last of the

Revolutionary War.

Handbook of Travel has been prepared

by members of the Harvard Travellers Club,
under the editorship of Mr. Glover M. Allen,
secretary of the Boston Society of Natural
History.
tains

The

practical

first

part

of the book

suggestions on

con-

methods of

lion,

buffalo,

Not the

gaur, banteng, other bear."

least

by members of
Harvard Faculty, on hygiene, astronom-

chapters, for the most part

the

route surveying, photog-

observations,

ical

tory

meteorology,

geology,

collecting,

number, we note the progress made in the

state of New York as reported by the AmeriSince 1849

tiger,

rhinoceros,

bear,

valuable sections of the handbook are nine

America."

Scenic

"elephant,

is

grizzly

on

ciety.

is

instance,

for

conservation by Dr. R. M. Harper in this

can

Each heading

Eskimo dogs to camels.

contributed by an expert in the given field;

raphy,

In connection with the discussion of scenic

various climates, of observations

in

on camp cooking, firearms, equipment, and

of notes on different beasts of burden from

Traverse

natural

his-

and "Notes
Tropical South

anthropology,

Surveys

in

The expert here describes for

the nonexpert the kinds of observations that

may

be made by the latter and gives direc-

how to take and record the facts.

The chapter on "Hygiene, Medicine, and
Surgery" is particularly complete, embody-

tions

ing not only a treatment of ordinary hygiene

but also the diagnosis of

diseases

peculiar

tropics,

surgical

to

the

common
Arctic

practice,

and

diseases,

and

the

medical

methods and equipment. In discussing geology and geography Professor William M.

Davis gives considerable advice as to how
to record interesting and valuable facts,
writing on the assumption that "the traveller
proposes eventually to publish an article
or a book concerning his travels."

Edward Charles Pickering, Paine

fessor of practical astronomy

pro-

and director

of the observatory at Harvard, died on the

third

of February at the age of seventy-

his selection by President

Harvard Observatory, Professor Pickering was instructor in mathematics
and subsequently professor of physics in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology where
three.

Before

Eliot for the

he inaugurated the

first

physical laboratory

in the United States for purposes of instruction.

At the Harvard

Observatory

Professor

65

g C

7"

>
:_

a?

<m E>

- "S
-

G - = - x | s
~ - -M

Hiss
a

3
E.

--

='

""

'-3

'3

<B

si

a)

s 2 g >

e,

oc

^ -

"-"--

~-

^-

~ _ S

'-

S
2

'B

-a

J2
r
-

'=

T3

"

1B 1Z 1

o
*

-.-

^5 si

=
-

I-

-6

NATURAL HISTORY

238

Pickering was noted for his pioneer work in

(the '"new

of astrophysics

field

tiif

Great

omy").

technique were

advances

photographic

in

made during

astron-

the early years

incumbency and he quickly approphotographic methods for his astronomical studies, founding the great Harhis

dt'

priated

vard photographic library,

lie also

devised

methods of measuring the brilliancy ol

of classifying stellar spectra.
stars and
Professor Pickering was especially known
for the great personal interest and assistance he was so anxious to extend to any astronomical enterprise, and in the Harvard
Observatory many of our contemporary asnew

tronomers received the inspiration for their

scientific labors.

Two

small monographs

on mahogany

list

woods that are commercially sold as mahogany and even attempt To redefine the name so as to include
many other red timbers. True "mahogany"
is the wood of two closely related species
(Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. and S. macrophylla King) the distribution of which is
the various species of

Mr. Mell, au-

limited to tropical America.

American volume, gives a list

of sixty-one other "mahoganies" from all
parts of the world, and Professor Dixon,
thor of the

describes

author of the British book,

the

of

intensive

years.

It

is

cutting

during

the

last

four

said that fustic has been bring-

Xew York, whereas

formerly ranged from $20 to $25 a ton.

ing $45 and $50 a ton in

it

The wood

is

imported as logs from Mexico,

Central and South America, and the

and after grinding,

Indies,

form of

water

infusion

West

used in the

is

for

producing

various shades of yellow, brown, olive, and

green,

for use particularly upon

woolens.

It

silks

and

can also be compounded with

other dyes for drabs, fawns, and olives, and

logwood for black. The fustic tree

grows best near the coast and well drained
banks of rivers, but, of course, the most accessible localities have already been cut off.
One or two trees to the acre of forest is
the average growth, a fact which makes getting out the fustic wood anything but profitable, and this is particularly true where
it is necessary to employ land transportation
with

through roadless country.

An important series of descriptive works

on the flora of the state of Florida has been
issued during the last few years by Dr. John
Kunkel Small, head curator of the Museums
and Herbarium of the Xew York Botanical
Dr. Small wrote in the Journal
Garden.
of the American Museum for December of
one of his several collecting trips to

little

microscopical character of forty-five species

explored sections of the Everglades and the

with 138 reproductions of microphotographs.

islands

Mahogany was

the chief

wood used

in

Eng-

land and Spain for shipbuilding during the

eighteenth

century,

but

with

the

gradual

diminution of accessible supplies and the introduction of substitutes it has gradually

survey

disappeared from the trade except for use

Shrubs

in

the

framework of small

sailing vessels

and the outer planking of yachts. The great

mahogany-framed ships have been sold for
enormous sums to be cut up for the manu-

off

the

Florida

coast.

The hand-

books are based for the most part on material which he has collected on such expeditions and are much more complete than any
Florida

hitherto

published.

They

include

Flora of the Florida Keys,

Florida. Flora of Miami (all

Trees,

of
1913), Ferns of Boyal Faint Hammock and
Ferns of Tropical Florida (1918). The last

two are extensively illustrated with drawings of the ferns and photographs of their

Today mahogany is
facture of furniture.
a very high-priced lumber employed almost
exclusively in joinery and cabinetmaking.

Southern Florida constitutes a

habitats.
unique province in the United States, being
the only point touched by a strictly tropical

Mr. Mell gives the selling price of the best

Xew York in 1917 as from $175

vegetation, so that these extensive studies

grades in
to

$200 a thousand board

feet.

extremely valuable

Fustic wood
wood with which our khaki and

(Chlorophora tinctoria), the

olive drab
uniforms are dyed, has experienced a period
1
H. H. Dixon. Scientific Proceedings of the
Royal Dublin Society, vol. xv.. p. 431, and C. D.

Mell,

S.

Department

474. February. 1917.

of

Agriculture,

Bulletin

by

a distinguished botanist form not only an

addition

to

systematic

botany but also practical guides to the identification of the trees, flowers, and ferns of
Florida by the interested sojourner there.

Guatemala, with every confidence in her

field, forest, and pasture,

natural wealth of

has traveled far on the route to recovery

NOTES
earthquake

the jjreat

.it'iiT

the selection of these works the Library

of

-at;ist r<|>hoa

New

December, L917, and January, 1918.1

who

and

improve the school

February

\ r

\V.

institution

Within

after the destruction of the city

had been contributed by

a million dollars

zens and

toward

months
mure than

bad

already

Benefactor

ciate

The

of books on

section

folklore

Museum

the

in

Mr.

an A--"
of

their

interest

in

sistant

History, which lias hitherto Keen somewhat

undeveloped, has acquired by purchase 1034

sistant

volumes dealing mainly with European and

Lc
folklore and related subjects.
In
earthquake bj an
witness, "The Guatemala Earthquake."
By Sylvanus G-riswold Morley, American Museum Journ \i.. Vol. XVII I. March, li't description

Since the

of

the

Natural History
memAmerican Museum:
last

issue of

the following persons have been elected

bers of the

Assoi

Georgi

/: nefactor,

F.

!'

\kkk.

Fellow,

the

"Honorary Fellow, Herbert L. Bridgman.

Noel Bleeckek Fox,

Dr. E. W. Gudger, Messrs. Charles
Curtis, Gano Dunn, Horace F. Hutchinm.!>
Bk
B. Ki
Huston Wyi a,
Mi mb<

-.

\i

ljob

I'..

ii

i.i.

Members,

ami Mr.

S.

I>.

Bliss

W. M \xx.

'ii ".

Annual Members, Mesdames Frederick

nghuysen, albert edward hurst,
William Loeb, Jr., Walteb Willson Met-

Wheeler II. Peckham, Alict B.

Tweedy, John Colin Vaughan, Miss m. R.
John King Re< eford, The
B
M. .1. Lavelle, Doctors
Mg
it Abrahams, Mao Hellmai
\
i.i i"
v. George
wt M icCurdi Ed
ward ll. Messrs. Frederic W.
Allen, Frank I.. Babbott, Adolph D. Bencalf,

i.'i

:.

<'>.:

I.',

Nathan

I.

Bijur, Cecil Billington,

France with
Engineering

Corps, ha- been appointed research associate

forestrv.

in

Charles M. Breder, Jr., Frederick G.

Clapp, George W. Davison, Joseph P. Day,
William .1. Downer, John W. Everitt,
Frank S. Hackett, Frank Morton Jones,
Klaas,

I'.

Samuel

Howell

Knight,

Judson
MALLET - PREVOST, Ro
Wm. M. McBrdje, Tompkins

G. Liddle, Daniei

LiOUNSBERY,

M. Lord,

S.

Marshall,

McIlvaine, Wm. Melzer, Hakvky Mi

K.
W. Nichols, William <'. Pate, Joseph
i;

c.

Ri

dterson, Lionello Perera,

Howard

Rounds,

<

a.

Arthur

Scholle, ll. s.
Eli S. Wolbarst,

John Tatlock,
ami All Hallows [nstitute.
issociaU Mi mints. Tin; Reverend Walter F. TUNKS, Tin; HON. WALLACE McCAMant, Doctors J. M. Armstrong, James
s.
Gilfillan, Oscar Owre, M. Robert
Stiles,

Miss

Srhmi.lt as-

I'.

and forestry, who has been in

the forestry branch of the

'.

Bus

as-

Ameri-

tin-

Barrington
Moore, formerly associate curator of w
Is

<

ami Geo. A. Zabriskie.

in

Mr.

herpetology.

in

Joseph

Potter.

curator of herpetology

Museum ami Mr. Karl

can

<;.

M AV ERELL HARRIMAN.

Noble has been appointed

K.

<;.

of Natural

hkim.

linker,

|-\

Museum's work.

Library of the American

ren-

llarriinan,

recognition

generous contributions ami

taken.

/.

in

E.

of the

services

Averell

Patron, ami Mr. (ienrev

eiti-

William

members
of

F.

Dr.

Potter was elected

Frederick

Mr.

Fellow,

friends and the preliminary steps

reconstruction

Mr.

dered.

six

life

recognition

in

and

Kelly,

B.

Gudger were elected

faculty, under a superior council, will govern

of Guatemala.

meeting of the trustees

Museum, Messrs. Eorace

Richard

Hutchinson,

thf curriculum of the primary and secondary

schools

special study of this branch

of the American

system

National University, whose

to establish a

made a

lias

of literature.

the schools, and President fain-era seized the

to

has

ably assisted by Dr. W. L. Hildburgh,

and earthquake-proof structures are being

raised of reenforced concrete and galvanized
iron.
Quick reconstruction was planned for
opportunity

239

Pro

[dner,

Messrs.

C.

F.

W.

tSE,

A.

.1.

MIN,
II.

<

ll

K'.

Shim

S.
C.
Schmi ckj b,
Adams, .1. l>. Armstrong,
A. CR \NK. G LYLORD
CUM<

\Ml
FARRINGTON,
was I.i
E :m ST

I.

.1

P.

A.

'.

LiENIH \N.

William Colhoun
Noyes, Roger
H.

T.

B.

Motter, Winthrop <;.

Shepard, A. T. Simpson,

W. on, Ralph Whelan, Philip

White, and William 0. Winston.

The American Museum

of Natural History

Work, Membership, and Publications

Its

The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incorporated

L869

for the

purpose of establishing a

Museum and

in

library of Natural History;

of encouraging and developing the study of Natural Science; of advancing the

general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular
insl ruction.

The Museum budding

is

erected and largely maintained by

New York

City,

funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of sections from time to time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation is made

and

for beating, lighting, the repair of the building

its

general care and super-

vision.

open free to the public every day in the year; on week days
on Sundays from 1 to 5 p.m.
from
maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history,
not
only
Museum
The
groups, designed especially to interest and instruct
famous
habitat
including the

The Museum
9 a.m. to

">

is

P.M.,

the public, but also

and

travel

is

its

library of 70,000 volumes on natural history, ethnology

used by the public as a reference library.

The educational work

of the

Museum

is

carried on also by

numerous

to children, special series of lectures to the blind, provided for

Memorial Fund, and

the issue to public schools of collections

by the

lectures

Thome

and lantern

slides

illustrating various branches of nature study. There are in addition special series
of evening lectures for Members in the fall and spring of each year, and on Saturday mornings lectures for the children of Members. Among those who have

appeared in these lecture courses are Admiral Peary, Dean Worcester, Sir John

Murray, Yilbjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Roosevelt.

are the statistics for the year 1918

The following

Attendance in Exhibition Halls

Attendance at Lectures
Lantern Slides Sent out for Use in Schools
School Children Reached by Nature Study Collections

627,302
04,036
72,287
.

SI 7,610

Membership
For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research,
and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endowment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership
Fund is of particular importance from the fact that it may be devoted to such
purposes as the Trustees may deem most important, including the publication of
Natural History. There are now more than four thousand Members of the
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is
doing a useful service to science and to education, the Trustees invite you to lend
your support by becoming a Member.
publication,

NATURAL
1

THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY,

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP-

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

THROUGH THE MUSEUM

;--

- -

..

"'

rt

_%

I
!

SS"

if

[Sj

: mm*jfjgE
TWllT ^i
'.

'

MARCH,
Volume

xix,

-11

1919

Number

CONTENTS FOR MARCH

Volume XIX

Frontispiece, Total Eclipse of the Sun, June

From the painting by Howard Russell Butler, N. A.

8,

Number

1918

S. A. Mitchell
of 1018
Various American astronomical expeditions were dispatched to favorable localities for intensive study of the sun and its atmosphere during the few seconds of totality
With photographs of the corona by Lick, United States Naval, and Lowell observatories

245

Howard Russell Butler

261

The Total Solar Eclipse

Painting the Solar Corona

Mr. Butler is the first artist to make
tells how he overcame the difficulties

a
of

record of the solar corona on canvas.

The painter
transcribing his subject, which posed for only 112

seconds
With reproductions in color of two paintings
solar eclipse of

June

8,

made by H.

Russell Butler at the time of the

1918

of Northwest Greenland
W. Elmer Ekblaw
The perpetual northern snows, far from reigning supreme over Greenland, give place in
to flowers and grassy plots with Lilliputian forests of trees scarcely three inches tall
Illustrations from photographs of Arctic flora by members of the Crocker Land Expedition

273

W. Patrick

292

The Plant Life

summer

Our Centrifugal Society

Do we
tion,

G. T.

need to consider again the social importance of the ancient virtues of restraint, modera-

and

self-control

although marks of great

The dominant
vitality,

ideals

day, self-expression

of the

Herbert

American Indian Poetry

This cultural heritage of the New World appeals in
but to the modern poet as well

its

lyric

Spindex

J.

Towxsexd Whelen"

At the very doors of the Canal

lies

a virgin tropical jungle,

301

309

uncharted and unexplored

of Fishes

Recollections of English Naturalists

The stimulation

self-realization,

beauty not alone to the ethnologist,

Unknown Panama
The Senses

and

tend to become disruptive forces

of greater scientific interest calls for a greater

C.

Judson Herrick

322

T.

D. A. Cockerell

325

regard for the amateur natu-

ralist

Nelson's "Wild Animals of North America"

Review. Joel

Asaph Allex

331

Dr. Nelson has given a valuable account of North American mammals, large and small. The
book is illustrated in color from paintings by Louis Agassiz Puertes and in black and white
from drawings by Ernest Thompson Seton and photographs by various naturalists

"Our National Forests" A Review

Barrington Moore

brief survey of
national forests

Mr. Boerker's book on the purpose, administration, and protection

of

Mary

Greig
for a Family of Five
With the vast increase in the prices of foodstuffs it has become more imperative to select a
which will give maximum nutrition value for the money expended. We should market
less by the pound and more "by the calorie" and other food values

Food

331

our

337

diet

Scientific Zoological Publications of the

American Museum
Summary

A New

Frank

for 1918

of the technical publications

Director for the British

on invertebrates,

fishes,

E.

Lutz

311

amphibians, and birds

Museum

317

The Climbing Fish

R. D. 0.

Johnson

319
351

Notes

Mary Cynthia Dickekson,

Editor

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TJ

NATURAL HISTORY
MARCH,

Volume XIX

The

Wl

interested

eclipse

the

<>f

an eclipse ran never forgel

the clement- df qo

fewer than

eclipses, both of sun

and moon,

he slow

therefore, that

world's

in

history

ago,

wonderful

phe-

hi-

have

should

astn

ability

to

But

eclipses.

been

re-

demigod because of
predict the coming of

garded a- almost

the

with

increase

of

knowledge and the progress of science,

astronomer ha- gradually Itch
dragged from hi- lofty pinnacle of
tin

now

glance,

at

this great

in

the early days of the

these

nomena should have been looked upon

with great fascination ami dread, and
that the astronomer and more often
the

the end of the year 2

given
eclipse

13,000
part

ial

and total all the eclipses, in fact,

which have taken place since the year
12Q'< B.C. "i- which will he -ecu before

during the few short

It
is no wonder,

totality

Virginia

seen such

it;

of

in

gradual obscuration of the sun. the

darkness covering the face of the earth
even at noontime, and the glorious sight

minutes of

E L L

sun

Itnt

thai meets the rye

ITCH

Leander McCormick Observatory, Dniversity

the

not

A.

S.

who has once

!c

<>t'

is

total

Total Solar Eclipse of 1918

By

Director

Number

1919

tell

52

Map-

\.l>.

are

work which, almost

when and where an

was seen three thousand years

where an eclipse max- he ob-

"i-

served two hundred and

fifty

year- in

the future.

The

recorded eclipse

earliest

which was seen

in

'hina

in

that

is

the year

36 b.( i., or more than four thousand

year- ago!
An account of this eclipse
'.'

one of the ancient Chinese

This eclipse, which was net a
t"tal eclipse, had rather direful consequences I'm- the two royal astronomers
and [o, w ho Instead of staying in
given

i-

in

classics.

twent ieth cen-

the sober paths of science for this im-

tury the popular fancy pictures him as

portant occasion, went and got drunk.

fame, until
a

foolish

stay

up

at

a.t

a-

an

old

in

tin-

man who would

rather

In order that a terrible

night and do hi- work than

be

human

a-t

ordinary

civilized

given

follow-

Nol only d<> eclipses appeal to the

popular imagination by their spectacu-

chopped

beauty,

but

there

fascination to the lay

i-

also

mind

in

in

ordered

great
the al-

'Idie
la-t

uncanny power with which the

ronomer i- able t<> predict, years in
advance, the exact time at which an
eclipse will take place, where this eclipse
may ! -ecu. and how long tin- eclipse
will last.
A- a matter of fact. <>p-

id'

polzers "Canon dm- Finsternisse" gives

of

warning might

future generations of

all

ronomers, who might be tempted

being.

lar

to

their

footsteps,

both

that

have

t"

emperor

their

heads

oil'.

progress of science during the

years is now here better illus-

fifty

most

trated

a-t

omers toward observat ionof

the

than

in

the attitude of astron-

middle of the

last

total eclipse

made

were for

the

Op

century,

observat ions that were

a

at

total eclipse of the sun.

at

ime

to the
nl\

tl

the

ime

he purpose

perfecting the tables of motion of

XATCL'AL HISTORY

246

the moon, by noting the exacl times of

of

contact

the

limbs of the sun and

was
corona
beautiful

moon.
The
watched with awe and admiration, and
a U'\y sketches were made of its form,
but there the stud)' of an eclipse
ended. In fact, an eclipse was watched
only if the shadow happened to cross
80 little interest was
the observer.
taken in the phenomena, so few investigations were planned, that no expeditions were sent out.

How

different

is

the scientific atti-

In the
tude in the twentieth century
year 1901, the writer of this article
traveled halfway round the world to the
far-off Dutch East Indies in order to ob!

May 18 of that
In other words, he went as far

serve the total eclipse of

year.

from home

as

it

was possible

to go,

the purpose of this trip was to

and

make

observations which were concentrated

within the time of six short minutes.

The writer regards himself as very
fortunate in having been selected four
times to become a member of the party

United States Naval Observatory, and he has thus seen the eclipses
of 'l900, 1901, 1905, 1918, and alto-

of the

gether has traveled about 40,000 miles

for this purpose.

As

a matter of fact, an eclipse

is

not

of the rare occurrence that the fore-

going remarks might lead one to believe.

Each and every year there must

be two eclipses of the sun, and there

may

be even more.

Somewhere on the

About once every two years a total

may be seen somewhere on the
earth's surface, but as some of these
eclipse tracks lie almost wholly on the
eclipse

water surface of

tin-

three years that a total eclipse falls at

habitable spot on the earth, even

though that location, as in 1901, may

On

be so far away.

the average a total

eclipse lasts for about

two minutes,

or one short hour of time,

is

given to

the astronomer for his investigations.

Yet in

spite

of

the brevity

of

nual journey about the sun, traveling

more than
eighteen miles a second, and accomin the ecliptic at the speed of

journey in 3651/4 days. The

is on the average
of ninety-three millions of miles, but
the earth's orbit is not a circle but an
ellipse, so that the distance from sun
to earth may vary one and a half million miles on either side of the mean.
Once a month, the moon revolves about
the earth, but it likewise does not move
plishing

its

distance from the sun

in a circle so that the distance

usually

these

eclipses are partial eclipses, the sun

being only partly obscured. Since few
scientific facts can be learned at a partial eclipse, the astronomer takes little
interest in them.
It is only when the
sun's surface is wholly covered up that
the matchless corona may be seen; it is
only at the time of a total eclipse that
there is furnished the unusual oppor-

tunity of investigating the sun's sur-

from

varies considerably on

either side of the average of 239,000

moon's path

is

not

exactly in the plane of the ecliptic, but

is

inclined to the ecliptic by a small

amount,

more than

a little

An

of angle.

the

at

the

so that manifestly

the time of

five

degrees

eclipse of the sun can

take place only

moon,

time of new
it is only at

new moon, when

in addition
near the plane of the eclipthat an eclipse of the sun can take

moon

roundings when the brilliant glare of

tic,

place.

absent.

moon

miles. Moreover, the

the sun itself

is

time

some very startling results

have been accumulated
As is well known, an eclipse takes
place when the sun, earth, and moon
are in a straight line, an eclipse of the
sun occurring when the moon comes
between the sun and the earth, or when
the earth passes into the shadow cast
by the moon. The earth makes an anafforded,

earth to

but

so

that in a century, about sixty minutes,

may

observed,

it is

only on an average of about once in

earth each year two eclipses of the sun

be

upon

earth, or fall

inaccessible portions of the globe,

is

TEE
Although

tin'

moon have
known thai

SOLAR ECLIPSE

T<>TM.

average motions of the

some time been so well

the general time and loca-

for

may

tion- of eclipses

long range with

of accuracy,

still

be

predicted at

considerable

may

it

di

be truthfully

tin- moon ha- given the matheastronomer more work ami

worry than all the millions of stars

said that

matical

with the result that to

predicl
the time of coming of an
eclipse at any one locality exactly to
the

universe,

the fraction of a second taxes the ingenuity of tin' astronomer even today.
no wonder, therefore, that man
It
i>

moon

should always have regarded the

a- of tin- feminine gender

The distance and dimensions of the

sun and moon being known, it i- comparatively easy to find out the diameter
of the moon's shadow intercepted by the
The maximum width of the
earth.
shadow

is

ditions

are

nio-t

eclipse

may

last

than

168 mile-, and

the

on

region

the

total eclipse may ! observed

than one hundred mile- in width,
and the average duration of totality is
about two minutes of time. The chance

As

ited.

matter of

many

before the eclipse of

not

been

London

in

had

1751, there

eclipse of the

total

single

very lim-

i-

fact,

fascinating one, including as

week-

the earth's

visible,

The
the

re-nlt

is
j>

may

also

wherever

moon
he

i-

that cadi total eclipse of

visible over

more than half

hand the

arth. while on the other

tl

total
a

surface the

the eclipse

moon

then

solar eclipse

i-

visible

only over

narrow track.
Ordinarily

total

tract- astronomers

solar

from

all

eclipse

at-

quarters of

stay of eight

the primitive live- of the natives.

deed, ten miles due east of the

and

eclipsed,

the interior of the island was

in

g, for. belonging as it does to the

Dutch, who have peculiar ideas of their
owti regarding colonization, few foreign
influences had been allowed to disturb

earth

i-

the west coast of

nus of the government railroad. The

country was picturesque, the manners
ami customs of the people most inter-

trip,

the

to

necessary in preparation for the eclipse,

-He having been chosen at the termi-

passes

of

Sunda

moon

shadow

did a

it

journey aero-- the continent to San

Francisco; from the Golden Gate to
.Manila, stopping en route for three
days at Honolulu; and ten or a dozen
days' stay in Manila while waiting for
the United States gunboat which took
the party the remaining 2200 miles
along the coast of Palawan and Borneo,
aero-- the equator, and through the

camp

the

far-

Sumatra, in addition to a large

party from the Tinted State.-, there
were gathered astronomers from England, France, Germany, Holland, and
q.
For the eclipse of L905, which
place in Europe, there were conated in the eclipse track, hundreds
of astronomers, professional and amateur, from every civilized nation of the
world.
The trip in 190] was a most

distant

sun visible for more than -i\ centuries.

At any one location, an inhabitant
would see many more total eclipses of
the moon than of the sun.
When the
into

in

1901,

in

Strait of

--

total eclipses in his lifetime

making

Thus

the Island of Sumatra.

where the

247

the purpose of

con-

earth

that the stay-at-home might see

for

observations.

total

all

the

somewhat more
Under average

for

minutes.

seven

conditions,

when

favorable,

the globe

191S

'</'

that

so little
it

i-

is

-aid

known

In-

e<

of the country

cannibals are

>till

in

existence there.
In

1905 there was another attractive

when

voyage was made

the Atlantic aboard

8. S.

tl

a.

"Min-

neapolis" which was the flagship of

Rear Admiral Chester, then Superintendent of the United State- Naval
11
At Gibraltar, we had the
servatory.
pleasure of viewing the British Mediterranean fleet with Admiral
Lord

command.

Beresford

in

servations

were made

town of Daroca

Eclipse

ob-

from the

little

in the interior <A

Spain

PATH OF THE TOTAL

ECLIPSE OF THE
SUN, JUNE 8,
1918
The sun could be seen
eclipsed only

totally

area
close

the

in

bounded by the two

parallel lines, which

about sixty miles wide.

Outside of this area the

is

sun

was

partly

eclipsed.

sunrise the eclipse began in the Pacific Ocean

At

off the

coast of China

Japan.

The shadow

eled

across

and
trav-

Pacific

the

more than
thousand miles an hour
the

rate

that

it

of

so

reached the United

States well after noon.

is

at

notable

exception of
islands
the

touched

by

It

with the
few small
only
land

that
a

the

moon's

shadow was the American

Continent

248

FOOTHILLS OF THE ELKHORN RANGE BEHIND THE CITY OF BAKER (UPPER PICTURE)
its water supply from the melting snows of the Elkhorn Range (the pipe
On the day of the eclipse the citizens of
the point indicated by the arrow).
Baker repaired to these foothills, from which they could obtain a fine view of the range and the valley, to
watch for the shadow of the moon, which rushed across the landscape at the instant of totality with the
great speed of about thirty miles a minute

The

line

250

city of

Baker obtains

comes over the

hills

at

THE CITY OF BAKER, OREGON (LOWER PICTURE

observers of the United
situated at an altitude ox 3500 feet and promised to afford to the
is
slipse, with an abundance ol clear skj m
Naval Observatory an excellent opportunity to study th
The city is
the expedition.
as n turned out, however, cloudj weather Dearly prevented the work of
consideration in the selection oi
on the main line of the Union Pacific system to Portland, a fad taken into
nt of the aecessar] transportation of numerous instruments
251

Baker

XATURAL HISTORY
which had boasted a railroad for only
four years, bu1 where civilization had
existed for more than 2200 years as was

shown by an

Roman

old

fort

still

in a

A visit
good state of preservation.
from tlic New World to this old and
worn-out kingdom was not without its
I'ascinat ion.

The

of

eclipse

June

place on

moon

the

year

1918 took

The shadow

8.

of the

touched the earth's surface

Pacific Ocean. Ear south of

first

on the
Japan.

Due to the revolution of the

moon about the earth, and to the rotamoon's
shadow crossed the Pacific Ocean at a
speed well over a thousand miles an
was well after noon hefore
hour.
It
tion of the earth on

its

axis, the

shadow reached the American conand the eclipse began in the

Here the width
state of Washington.
of the shadow was only sixty miles so
that only those fortunate enough to lie
within tins narrow track were able to
the

tinent,

eclipse

the

see

in

its

totality.

The

passed southeasterly through

Washington. Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming,
In Coloand Colorado in succession.
rado the shadow had dwindled to forty
miles in width. After passing through
some of the central states, the shadow
Florida and
left the United States at

eclipse

left

off

the earth's surface in the Atlantic,

the coast of the Bahama Islands.

The

eclipse was seen almost exclufrom the United States, and so it

will he known as the American Eclipse
As more than half the civiof 1018.
lized world was in the grip of the tremendous war. it was necessary for the
American astronomers in the year 1916
and early in 191? to make their plans
sively

to see to

it

that this eclipse should be-

well observed.

Before our own coun-

become involved in the war.

Congress had been asked for and had

try had

made

special appropriation to defray

and travel
from the United States

the expense of equipment

for the party

Naval Observatory.

The

exact location of an eclipse site

is of the greatest importance, since the

utmost care must he exercised to choose
one where the chances of clear skies will

he as great

as

Think

possible.

of the

disappointment of finding only cloudy

Even
skies on the all-important day!
one small, dense cloud hanging over the
sun during totality would render useless all the active months of preparation, would make of no avail the delicate apparatus carefully adjusted after
arduous toil, and make of no account
the carefully prepared plans for scientific

The majority

work.

of the

mem-

bers of the Naval Observatory party to

Sumatra in 1901 had no results to

show for their long trip which conNot only
sumed about six months.
must a location lie chosen where good
weather is promised, but the location
should lie convenient to a railroad, and
at or near a town so that the observers
may he properly housed and fed without the necessity of forming a

camp

with extra arrangements for cooking,

etc.
In addition, most classes of eclipse
work require a location as near as possible to the central line of the moon's
shadow.
In order

astronomers
of an
eclipse site as possible, the Naval Observatory, in 1917, had prepared a large
scale map of the United States showing

make

to

help

the

intelligent

as

choice

among

other things, railroad lines, contour lines, and the location of towns,

The city of
within the eclipse track.
Baker, in eastern Oregon, seemed to be
spot for the government
the ideal
[tarty, since the weather of early June
promised an absence of rain, with an
abundance of clear skies. This city, of
about ten thousand inhabitants, is on

the

tem

main

line of the

to Portland,

Union

and

at

Pacific sys-

an altitude of

about 3500 feet.

In order to set up and adjust the apparatus, five of the party left the East
about April ?<>. The party consisted of

Mr.

J.

('.

Hammond, Astronomer

of

the Naval Observatory, in charge of the

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF

W.

expedition, Mr.
C.

C.

Wylie,

A.

Conrad and Mr.

assistants

Naval

the

at

Observatory, and Dr. L. G. Eoxton and

Dr. s. .\. Mitchell, of the University of
Virginia.
the
in

Antlers

After locating ourselves ai

Hotel, we viewed the citj

order to find the best

of

Engineer of

chief

the

system,

Pacific

site

the

for

the kindness

Through

eclipse location.

Union

the

who provided

us with

photographs and topographic

maps, we were not long in deciding
upon the Fair Grounds on the edge of
the city as the most convenient spot.
This was fairly near to the hotel where

excellent

we

grounds were surrounded

by a high board fence which would
serve t<> keep out the idly curious, and
the buildings in the grounds were adequate to house our valuable apparatus
We were in Baker
until put in place.
exactly sis week- before eclipse day.
and the time was none too long. The
apparatus was -em forward by through
freight, and although we greatly feared
delays, it arrived safely the second day
lived, the

after mil- ow

ii

To

arrival.

assist

in

the

these

afield,

1918

253
preparations

elaborate

which must run the risk of accomplishing nothing on account of the clouds?
Surely there must he something of
great importance to he learned in order
warrant such an expenditure of enPerhaps the best
ergy and money.
to

answer these questions would he

up in detail the scientific program of the party of the United States
Naval Observatory which was carried

way

to

to take

Baker, giving a brief account of

the apparatus necessary and the prob-

out at

lem attacked.

The

problem

first

government

for a

expedition to attempt must necessarily

he the determination of the precise

time- of contact of the limbs of the sun

and moon. The .1 ma-ion, Ephemeris

and

Nautical

each year

in

is

published

at

the Naval

hook

Tin-

Observatory.

the

gives

place of the .-mi. moon, planets,

exact

and

Almanac

Washington

stars

noon,

and every day

for each

at

the case of the sun. for each

in

ami every hour for the moon, and at

longer intervals for the planet- and

The

work of erecting the apparatus, the su-

>tar>.

perintendent of the Naval

Ibservatorj

or four years in advance, ami the por-

had requested the sen ices of five sailfrom the United States Naval
ors
Station ;it lire
rton, Washington, who
chief petty officer.
were in charge of
The sailors were carpenter- and ma-

tions determined are constantly checked

<

;i

who

chinists
in

assisted

the

astr

srs

splendid style so that ten days before

the eclipse,

when

the rest

<<\'

the party

apparatus was all

erected and partly adjusted, and there
remained only the perfecting of the adjustments in order to he ready for the
all-important day of the eclipse.
An idea of the scope and difficulty of
the work to he attempted may perhaps
began

to arrive, the

he besi

took

isualized by the realization that

astronomers and half a

do/en sailors sis weeks to have things
it

five

ready for the

final

adjust

But What, people ask.

at

which

at

Why

up by observations.
the

fact that

bor, itis

motion

he sun

ai

near neigh-

the

It

computed

those calculated.

ways of finding the ex-

position of the

account of the

make

agree with

times of contact of
of

such

very complicated.

is

>ne of the besi

act

is

very necessary to

positions
(

moon

the

moon
it-

is

to note the

limbs with those

ime of an

eclipse.

At

the eclipse of 1905, the programs of observation were somewhat disarranged

by the fact that total eclipse took place
ten seconds earlier than the calculated
In 1918, it was expected that the
time.
eclipse

in

Baker

would

begin

about

twelve seconds earlier than the time as

computed from the .1 merican Epft

To compute the phases of the
ris.
eclipse one must know with accuracy
the exact lat itude ami longitude of the
,

to he learned

i-

the time of an eclipse

expeditions

mem-.

positions are tabulated three

these

times go so

far

eclipse

location.

This

part

of

the

25

X AT (HAL

work in Baker was under the direction of Mr. J. C. Hammond of the

\;i\:i] Observatory, and in the observations he was assisted by Mr. Wylie, by
Mr. Conrad, and, to a lesser degree, by
eclipse

Chief Petty Officer Patrick Welsch. The

and longitude were determined
by observations on stars on a dozen or

latitude

more nights during the weeks of preparation for the

Since longi-

eclipse.

tude is measured by the difference in

time between any two places, it was
necessary to determine the exact time
at Baker,

and

at the

same instant find

the exact time at Washington.

Since

Washington with respect to Greenwich is known, this

would give the longitude of Baker with
the longitude at

In order to determine the difference in time between

Washington and Baker, it was necessary to connect the two places with a
On switching on
rect telegraph line.
respect to Greenwich.

(]

current, the beats of the clock

could be heard by the relay in Baker,
and a record of these could be made by

the

means

of the chronograph.

Similarly,

the beats of the chronometer used in

Baker could be recorded in WashingIn this manner signals were exchanged between the two places on four

ton.

different nights, with the result that

the exact location of the eclipse site on

surface of the earth is known
within an error that does not exceed
the

fifty feet.

There

a popular belief to the effect

is

that since a telescope

nify

objects,

and

to

used to magshow them in

is

greater detail, then of necessity a very

large

telescope

must greatly enhance

the beauties of all objects in the sky

and make the corona even more beauti-

appears to the naked eye.

This
is not the case.
splendid feature of the eclipse owes its
charm to its delicate shadings of pearly
light, stretching at times to two, three,
or more diameters of the sun from its
ful

than

it

This, however,

But increase of magnifying

surface.
power usually means decrease in the

III

STONY

size of the

area visible at one time, so

that while a great telescope shows

small

portion

magnified

and

of

the

in

corona

great

highly

detail,

the

beauty of the spectacle as a whole is

lost.
As a matter of fact, the most satisfactory view of the corona is obtained
with the naked eye, though a good pair
field glasses may aid in showing
some of the features in better detail.
The telescope used by Mr. Hammond
on June 8 for observing the times of
contacts was not a large telescope, but
one of the moderate size of five inches

of

in aperture.

During the weeks

of preparation, an

opportunity was afforded the citizens of

Baker to view the moon and some of
the planets and brighter stars through
this instrument, and many availed

themselves

"Man

of

the

chance to see the

Moon," often standing in

line for an hour or more, with the
thermometer near the freezing point,
in the

in order to get their turn for a "look

through."

The scientific program of the party

which was readily understandable to
the residents of Baker who came to the
Fair Grounds to see the apparatus
erected was the work of the cameras,
large and small.
These telescopes or
cameras were used on eclipse day to
photograph the corona and prominences with a greater or less

scale.

camera of short focal length gives only

a small sized picture, an ordinary kodak showing the sun about the size
The
of the head of an ordinary pin.
greater the focal length of the camera
employed, the larger the resulting photograph of the sun. The largest camera
used at Baker bad a focal length of no
less than sixty-five feet. We are all of us
familiar with the use of a kodak and the
methods by which snapshots are taken,
but how handle such a big camera?
There are but two methods. One is to
mount the huge instrument in such a
fashion that at eclipse time it will point
directly at the sun.
A simple calcula-

tion

serves

to

TOTAL SOLA/; ECLIPSE OF

A'

77/
orienl

camera

the

cor-

rectly, bul the satisfactory erection

more
given

difncull

the

to

communicated

is

matter, since any shake

camera
to

itself

the

lens

would be
and to the

photographic plate. Even a verj slight

disturbance of the camera would blur
the photographed image and make it
scientifically useless.

I>ut

how support

huge instrumeni without a

remor? Even a gentle wind would be
sullieieiit to shake it. and eastern Oregon promised an almosl certain high
wind at eclipse time.
This problem
was solved by Schaeberle of the Lick
twenty-five
ago,
Observatory
years
when it was found necessary to build
he inner one of which
a double tower,
supported the Lens while the miter one
such

acted as

\\

Another com-

ind screen.

plication arises due to the fact that

exposures accessary
rona

for

Last

to

obtain

many seconds

be

the coof

time,

sometimes totaling sixty or even one

hundred in Length. With a telescope of
sixty feet focal Length, the westerly motion

of the sun

in

the sky causes the

image of the sun to move on the photographic plate ahout one eighth of an
inch every minute.
Evidently some
mechanism must be used to ccranterad
this motion.
This is accomplished by
clock mechanism, the detail- being
a
boroughly understood.

in

<

will

the exact

affect

definition

photograph this being

back to tin-

pe of mounting.

t\

the sixty-five

to

dition

of the

the chief draw-

foot

In ad-

telescope,

the \a\al Observatory had two smaller

In

camera.-, of

inches and

On

respectively.

inches

.'Hi

eclipse day. the large

in the hands of Mr. W.

Conrad, of the Xaval Observatory
stall', and the successful completion of

instrument was
A.

program demanded

In-

thai

r.

<

!on-

remain closed inside hi- darkroom

during the whole of totality with never
a single chance to gain even a glimpse
rad

The other cameras were

of the corona.

Mr.

used by

(i.

Peter- and

II.

Mr. C.

Wvlie. al-o of the Naval Observatory

stall'.
Two -mailer cameras pointing
(

'.

were employed hv

the sun

directly at

Mr. Kemptoii Adam-.

Photographic work of a vastly di Hercharacter from that id' these camera-. Large ami small, was demanded
by the spectroscopic work.
At the
eclipse which took place just fifty years
ein

ago, in

ployed

L868, the spec! roscope was

By

time.

first

it

>

emuse,

India saw the brighl lines

the speet ra of the prominences which

Janssen
in

the

for

proved

in

lalifornia has been most as-

gas.

these outbursts from tli,.

masses of heated hydrogen
These flames from the solar fur-

uace

are

its

and more than

of

the

observations of eclipses,
a

been -cut out to

do/en expeditions have

all

parts of the globe.

This splendid scienl ific record lias been

made possible through the generosity
of Mr. William II. Crocker, of San
Francisco.

means of a plane mirror driven by

clockwork to counteract the westward
motion id' the sun. Needless to say, the
irregularities of the driving mechanism

sun

The Lick Observatory

versity of

255

Uni-

siduous

1918

The

hick parties have

al-

ways adopted the same method of photographing the corona that of pointing their camera directly at the sun.
>wing to tin- difficulty of ereel ing a
double tower, most other astronomers
(

follow the mechanically simpler plan of

laying the camera tube horizontally and

allow ing sunliehl to he fed into it bv

that

were

to

shol

enormous distances

from the surface of the sun, being senl

upward at imes with a velocity of one
t

hundred miledistances

a-

second

180,

Such colossal
from the

miles

surface of the sun have been reached.

How puny in comparison with such

outbursts on the sun are the explosions
of dynamite, or the deadly
on this
litt Le earth of ours

TXT

The sped
an eclipse
plementing

rosoopic work
is

such

gained dailj

The mosl

for

h\

at

the time of

the purpose of sup-

information
the

a-

is

same instrument.

famous observatory

in

the

NATURAL HISTORY

256

world devoted to solar research is the

Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mt.
Wilson in California.
There, under
the direction of Dr. George E. Hair.
many startling revelations regarding
the central luminary of our system
have been made The dark lines in the
spectrum of the sun are caused by the
absorption of light from the white-hot
body of the sun as it passes through
the cooler layers of atmosphere encircling the sun itself.
But these layers of atmosphere are cool only in contrast with the much hotter sun.
The
gases are in fact very hot. and would
give their spectra of bright lines
still

brighter

could be cut

if

the

background of the sun

off.

At eclipse time the

moon comes between us and the sun.

As long as there is only a small portion
of the sun visible,

its

light

is

so intense

accurate information as to the constitution id' the atmosphere of the sun

nearly ninety-three million miles

that the spectroscope gives the ordinary

Smith College

At the instant that

the moon entirely covers up the sur-

and

solar

spectrum.

face of the sun. the solar spectrum suddenly changes from a spectrum of dark
lines on a bright background to bright
lines on a dark background.
The

change

is

Princeton,
eclipse

of

so

sudden that Young, of

saw it at the
first

who

1870,

This

named

it

the

"flash

spectrum lasts
for the brief space of about three seconds of time at the beginning of the
total phase, and again at the end.
It
was not until 1893 that the first photograph was obtained of the flash spectrum. At each succeeding eclipse, the
photography of this spectrum has been,
perhaps, the most important problem
spectrum."

to

be attacked.

visible in Spain,

flash

The

eclipse of 1905,

gave the most perfect

photographs of this phenomenon yet

These photographs furnish
us with much information of value regarding the physical constitution of the
atmosphere of the sun, the height in
miles to which these various gases extend above the surface of the sun, and
obtained.

other details of similar character.

may

Tt

almost be said that we have more

away

than we have of our own terrestrial

atmosphere ten miles above our heads.
The spectroscopic work of the Xaval
Observatory party for 1918 was
planned in the hope of surpassing even
the excellence of the photographs of
L905, hut mainly with the intention of
extending our spectroscopic knowledge
much farther toward the red end of the
spectrum than had been accomplished
by other eclipse observers.
Three separate instruments were used, each consisting of a Roland concave grating.
The scientists engaged in the spectroscopic program were Dr. P. W. Merrill,
of the Bureau of Standards of Washington
Dr. Harriet W. Bigelow and
Dr. Mary Murray Hopkins, both of
Dr.

versity

S.

of

A.

and Dr. L. G. Hoxton

Mitchell,

of the

Uni-

Virginia.

Fortunately for the work of preparano rain fell during the entire
stay of the astronomical party in
Baker.
According to the "oldest inhabitant," the season was unusually
dry even for eastern Oregon. By some
mysterious force unknown to the astronomers, the eclipse seemed to exert
some potent influence over the weather.
At any rate, it was asserted by many
of the rural papers that no rain could
be expected until the eclipse was over.
But if there was an absence of rain,
there was no lack of clouds nor were
the clear skies we had been led to expect afforded us. As the time for the
eclipse drew nearer, the continued appearance of clouds began to cause
anxiety among us. Would they interfere with the eclipse, and. at the last,
make all the weeks of careful preparation of no account?
If this had happened, it would not have been the first
event of the kind.
Unfortunately for
the astronomer, his work is always at
tion,

the

mercy of the clouds and the

But to have the whole work

weather.

THE TOTAL

SOLA/; ECLIPSE OF 1918

fail

fore totality a dense cloud covered the

the time of the

sun, hut

through the presence of clouds a1

few precious minutes
of the total eclipse thai is indeed the
Some
keenest sort of disappointment
astronomers seem to be always unlucky
and always experience cloudy weather
on their eclipse expeditions, while, on
the other hand, others are always Lucky,
and sometimes, after all hope is aban!

doned,
its

appear

will

rift

mid the eclipse

Would we

glory.

the clouds

in

totality be seen in all

at

Baker be lucky

at

unlucky, would the clouds interfere

or not?
Nearly all the days spent in
in-

according

Baker,

the

to

Weather Bureau,

of the United Stales

were

Bui

clear.

there

noon, and

day

every

almost

an entire ab-

is

In fact, clouds gath-

sence of clouds.

ered

"clear" day docs not

mean one when

classification

was usually

condition

this

after

shortly

accompanied by \rvy high winds, that

at time- rose to the strength of a mild
The eclipse was to occur during
gale.
the middle of the afternoon, and at this
time of day the skies were usually overThese same conditions prevailed

cast.

over the whole of the western United

State- along the path where the as-

tronomers were located. It was well to

under such condition- of
sky, for the pessimist became more and
more wretch id as the day of the eclipse
drew near and his law of averages
showed him the almost certain chance
of a thinly clouded sky during the total
he an optimist

eclipse.

The writer of this art icle had so

among the lucky a-t ronomers.

far

been

1900,

at

the

weather was
in

traveled
<

ideal,

the whole sk\

member

of

single

190]

round

total of

in

Spain,

The
four.

many

spoiled the researches of

At Daroca

world.

witnessed

was one of the fortunate

w hich

hirteen -aw

nine

1905, there were

cloud

he was

the

eclipse eclipsed by cloud-.

in

her large part}

other

the

uot

In

halfwa}

>nlv four of

eclipse,

rat

In

eclipse observed, the

first

he

the

writer
Agairj

clouds which

many pan

\'c\v

tes.

minute- be-

cleared

it

important

lilt-,

away before the

and the

all-

phase was

total

seen through a brilliantly clear sky.

Three lucky chances out of three made
The hope was that
line average.
a
line S would make it four out of four.
By May .'!o. the whole party had asA full week was
sembled in Baker.
given up to the final adjustments, and
to the drills that wovr to play such an
essentia] part in the work on eclipse
day.
During the partial pluses of the
I

very few observations of importance were to he made all observa-

eclipse,

ions of value

came during

ami twelve brief seconds.

a

plate holder should

that

he period

which lasted for one hundred

of totality

st

If a slide of

ick

place so

in

could not he removed, or

it

were not uncapped

SO a- to let

in

the Light,

tile

Lens

the proper

at

ime
whole Workt

rument might come to oaught.

day of the week preceding
dune s, drills were gone through
several times in the morning and again
in the afternoon.
These drills were so
well carried out that on eclipse day
each and every one performed excellently the task allotted to him with the
id'

an

On

in-t

each

result

that everything passed off with-

out a single hitch.

A- the davs in June progressed toward the eighth, there was an air of excitement as each astronomer grew more
keyed up to the task before him.
Would the day he clear? But more
especially, would the two minutes from
:0
p.m. to 4:06 he clear on Saturday ? The skies were anxiously watched
during the last days, and almost every
day the skies were overcast. The optiI

mist reasoned that

the da\

day
he

if

before J une

perfect

it

8,

were cloudy all

then on eclipse

would

weather

forthcoming;

while

the

surely

pessimist

so many cloudy dayone more of lie same character, so there was no use trying to do
anything.

reasoned

meant

that

-till

Saturday, June

8,

dawned with

the

XATUEAL HISTORY

358
>k\

overcasl

The sun was

with

iliin.

filmy

clouds.

well visible through these

was possible to
it
examine again the focus that had been
obtained with the spectroscopes and
with a touch here and a touch there to
decide thai everything was in perfect

clouds, however, and

condition.

During the morning the

were again gone through with,

and these seemed to promise success.
The weather during the six weeks had
not held up the work, and everything
seemed now to have been done that
thought and work could do. The astronomers who had been on the ground for
the whole six weeks of preparation hail
drills

the pleasant consciousness that

all

of

had been completed,

that every little detail had been thought
of, and that perfect success would certainly crown their efforts if the clouds
their allotted tasks

would only clear away.

But during the

course of the morning the clouds grew

thicker instead of thinner,

seem

indeed

as

chance of clear

The

first

2 :36 p.m.

of

and
were

it

did

little

skies.

contact was to take place at

Shortly after noon the city

Baker took upon

a holiday.

there

if

Though

itself

the aspect of

the day was Satur-

were closed from three

the afternoon so that
everybody could have a chance to see
the phenomenon.
Naturally everyone
in Baker wished to go to the eclipse site
at the Fair Grounds to watch the astronomers at work. At the eclipse in
Spain, this had been permitted with
the result that the whole town was assembled, each inhabitant jostling his
neighbor to get as close as possible.
Unfortunately, each Spaniard seemed
day,

until

all

stores

five

in

second exposure at the Lick

Photograph of the solar eclipse taken by a 40-foot camera with
Observatory Station in Goldendale, Washington. The deep purplish blue shadow appearing over the
sky was equally as dark as the black surface of the moon and was sufficiently heavy to bring out the
brighter stars. The "Eagle Prominence" appears above and to the left

THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF WIS

to

tie

what

benl

such

thai

became
hear

telling

nil

friend

his

was being done, with the

a

total

the

din arose
thai

it

when the

jusl
resull

eclipse

was impossible

seconds counted

off

to

to

give

warning to the astronomers when to

change their plate holders.
'That this mighl uol happen again,
tin
residents of Baker were told thai
the gates of the Fair Grounds would
be closed, and absolutely no one would
the
admitted within
enclosure.
be
The mayor of the city senl a guard of
I!n\ Scouts to see thai these orders were
obeyed.
Mosl of the town repaired t<>
the

hills

to

southeasl

tin-

of

photographed
_>:..

Museum

in

the

Thi~

form

The ch
owing Bimplj

ol

left

hand page,

i-

Prom which there could be obtained a

ii-\\
of the valley and the Elkhorn
Range, and they were directed to look

fine

especially

for the

shadow of the

which would come across the Landscape

speed

the

ai

of

aboul

miles

thirty

minute or 1^ h miles an hour. This

shadow comes with the advenl of totaland all who have seen the phenomit}
enon say that it is an awe-inspiring
(

spectacle,

making one

of the world

is

surely

feel
at

thai the

V> appreciable improvemenl

skies

time
patch

was observed
id'

firsl

in

the

from

contact.

clouds,

end

hand.

Through
Mr.

in

the

to

the

a thin

Eammond,

the 65-foot camera al the

nited Stales Naval Obsei
photograph with manj others are now on exhibition at the
illuminated photographic transparencies.
The "Eagle Promini
this prominence compared with the photograph 01
the difference in position of plate holders in the t" cameras
bj

Bolar

the top.

the citv

259

SAT URAL HISTORY

260

using the five-inch visual telescope, observed the beginning of the eclipse and

made

record of

it.

The

clouds,

if

anything, became thicker after this so

that at three o'clock it was impossible
to sec even

thin

rifts

where the sun was.

appeared at times,

Little
so

thai

with the aid of smoked glass it was

possible to see the moon encroaching oil
At bree thirty, a
the face of the sun.
t

patch of brilliantly blue sky was seen

off to the northwest, and as the precious minute.- dragged along it became
evident that the clouds were moving in

way

was quite possible

that the blue patch would reach the sun
Fifteen minutes
in time for totality.
before the total phase, the clouds were
so dense that had totality occurred
then, the scientific results would have
such

that

it

This photograph was taken during the

been

hut

nothing;

coming nearer and

blue sky was

might arrive in

the
it

time.

Without

The

happening.

came

sky, one
at the
something unusual was

looking

that

realized

so

light of the sun

be-

feeble that even the birds felt

the unnatural aspect of things and sang

their songs as

if

they were going to rest.

The cocks crowed on the farm near by.

The wind which was ordinarily blowing
at this

hour was quiet.

Even

hushed.

the

All nature was

seasoned astrono-

mers who had seen two or three eclipses

felt the thrill of the unusual

before

spectacle.

And

still

the question was.

Would the clouds clear away in time?

At five minutes before totality the
warning
Pettv

was given by Chief

Welseh of the' United

signal

Officer

last seven seconds of totality by the Lowell Observatory

shows the detail of the prominences and the great solar storm which
was uncovered as the eclipse neared its end. A camera of 38 feet focal length was employed at this
station.
The "Eagle Prominence" i^ above and to the left

Station at Syracuse, Kansas.

It

THE ToTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF

Siat.- Navy who was to watch the
chronometer and counl the -rr.ni.l-.
This signal summoned each man to his
post. One last look was given to the apparatus to see thai everything was in
place, the plate holders were adjusted
and then we waited. "Two minutes"
before was called out, and then "one

minute,"

expected

the

before

The clouds by

tin-

seconds"

"thirty

again

-till

time of totality.
time had thinned

261

1918

proached the thin clouds became still

and two minutes after the
eclipse was .>\.t he -un had reached the
thinner

blue patch of sky.

the eclipse had

occurred only two minutes later, or if

tlir party had been only half a mile 1"
lit ions would
have been perfecl
tlir eclipse had
taken place fifteen minutes earlier, the
-rirnt tfic results would have been noth-

the northwest, the sky run.

I

ing

at

had won

optimists

'l'hr

all.

considerably, the patch of blue sky was

The plan
only a -h.'ft distance away.

..ut.

had been that after the signal of "thirty

nothing
should
be
there
seconds"

thr painstaking rare of thr astronomers

said until the

total eclipse

word "Go"

had begun.

the

told that
1

was to watch

pair of binoculars, be-

for this with a

which

fore one glass of

direct vision

But

been arranged.

troscope had

in

procuring thr precise focus with thr

that all of thr photographs show

iv-iilt

did nut interfere

thr

ing

-un.

sixty-five fool

where thr sun

was

ini|>.-iliir

Elammond who
No

telescop

to

see the

-.'iin. I-

disturbed

the

brief

time

call of

passed,

member

surround-

splendid
is

un

detail

the

thin, fleecy clouds cul

shift

of the

down

the fainter

ream- of coronal light. The smaller

cameras showed the same results a- the
-t

ones splendid

larger

detail

in the

Ten seconds after totality commenced, the

clouds, thin at tlir beginning, had still
further thinned, and at mid-totality the

ner corona, hut the corona no1

conditions were even further improved.

uf great beauty.

What

sunspol

party did

eye

wi>|>
-id.-.

hi.-

allotted

task.

gorgeous spectacle then met the

The sun was now in a very thin
uf cloud witli blue sky on either
Although ill' cloud would .1. 'tract
a

great

All

extent.

nnitr in showing

maximum

-t

corona could he seen stretching

exposure that

-till

larger one on the right

These shone with a

and made the
eclipse of 1918 memorable a- the eclipse
..)'
A- the end of totality apcolor.
edge of the -un.
brilliant

scarlel

light,

more

reamer- than were expected.

The spectroscopes procured photographs uf exquisite definition, hut these
polar

.-ut

edge, and

of the

type, hut with

suffered

from the sun's edge, hut

polar rays, and

The corona was

photographs

most remarkable of all were three great

tongues of flame, one immediately at
the top of thr -mi. nnr on the left-hand

in-

very

some plumed arches

they also exhibit

clouds which

foT a

>>\'

photographs

thr

many

from the scientific results,stil] it greatlj

The
enhanced the pictorial effect.
shorl distance

-.-air

more than seven inches

the

and the

words of command and the

of plate holders a- each

in

tla

Those taken with tincamera rxhil.it the prom-

in diameter,
'l'hr longer exposures for
procuring thr extensions of the corona
were nut quite so successful since the

was using the five-inch

work of the party except the

inences

thin clouds
with the details

all

at

of the prominences or

spectrum
line- with tlir spectroscope, and the
nal "<;..'* was actually given by Mr.
it

t<>

Thr

exquisite definition.

the thin clouds at the beginning,

..hi.-

photographs exhibit

developed

'l'hr

also

down

the

from

amount

the
<d'

none too great.

What was perhaps the most interesting piece "f scientific work accomplished ai thr 1918 eclipse owes its C onception

t..

at

Mr.

besi

is

Edward

>.

Adam-,

of

York, who ha- shown hi- greal

\e\\

interest

science by thr founding of

Evempton Adams fellowship
awarded each year by lolum-

in

thr Ernesl

which
bia

i-

University for researches

in

the do-

NATURAL HISTORY

262

main

of pure science.

Upon becoming

drawings, but they

factory

Naval

left

much

Observatory party, Mr. Adams Took

upon bimself the responsibility of trying, by some method, by photography,

fect

they

;i

member

of the United States

by a drawing, or by a painting, to pro-

cure

reproduction which would show

the beauties of the corona, and which

should be true not only as to form but

more especially

as to color.

Unfortu-

nately for science, it is impossible to obtain a satisfactory representation of the

corona and the sun's surroundings by

photography. The corona is very brilliant near the edge of the sun. but the
intensity fades very rapidly.

The

eye

to he desired.

still

have

However

may have been

they took no note of color.

per-

as drawings,

Mr.

Adams

took upon himself .the task of finding

the right man to draw and paint the

Color photography could not

corona.

help out in procuring the right color,

and there was

only the possibility

left

who would have the

spirit, and who could

of finding an artist

true

scientific

combine an accurate sense of form with

Mr.
refined perception of color.
a
Adam- was successful in finding Mr.

Howard

Russell

painter of note,

Butler,

portrait

who has developed

can take cognizance of the details in

shorthand method of noting both form

spite of the great changes in brilliance,

but not so the photographic plate. To
obtain the faint extensions of the

and color.
During the

corona which are readily visible to the

naked eye, a comparatively long expoThis long exposure
Mi iv is necessary.
causes

so

much

overexposure

in

the

brighter inner regions of the corona

that all detail there is lost by being
burnt out. Short exposures give us the
inner corona in exquisite detail, but the
outer corona is then lust through shortness of exposure. Many attempts have

eclipse, Mr. Butler sat on

perch overlooking the eclipse
instruments, and from which he could
The
obtain a fine view of the sun.
task he had taken to himself was no

lofty

small one.
ti

And moreover

this

was the

corona he had ever seen

Those who were privileged to see

rst

Mi'.

the relative ex-

American Museum of Natural History pronounced it

The astrona painting of rare beauty.
omers who saw the 1918 eclipse and
who have seen the picture look upon it

posure by means of mechanical devices

but none of these have been entirely
Heretofore, the only sucsuccessful.

form and color, a work of art which

has the added advantage of being sci-

been

made

to cut

down

cess in representing the

corona has been

obtained by taking photographs with

different times of exposure and with
different cameras in order to procure
photographs with detail both in the inner and brighter parts of the corona,
and in the fainter outlying portions.
After the eclipse is over, a composite
drawing is usually made from the examination of different photographs.
This method has given several satis-

Butler's picture at the

a- a

marvel of perfection, true both as

to

entifically accurate.

The

world owes a great

Mr. Butler for his
exquisite corona. but even a still greater
debt to Mr. Adams, through whose
conception, generosity, and enthusiasm
the painting of the corona became posdel

it

sible.

scientific

of gratitude to

One ventures

to predict that this

splendid painting will cause the recent

sun to be known as
"Color Eclipse of 1918."

total eclipse of the

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Painting the Solar Corona

By

W A ED RUSSELL

II

BU TLE

R,

X. A.

from drawings which give the artist's records made at the time of the eclipse and explain
method of work; also from the artist's paintings of the phenomena of the eclipse, color plate
opposite, and frontispiece in color "Total Eclipse of the Sun, June S, 1918,"
opposite page 245

[llustrations
his

May, 1018, I received an invitation

IN"from Mr. Edward J). Adams, well
known as a patron of science and
art. to accompany him to Baker, Oregon, where the United States Naval
Observatory had established its station
for observing the total solar eclipse of

1918. Professor S. A. Mitchell,

.In no 8,

Leander McCormick

the

of

director

Observatory of the University of Virginia, and Mr. Adams had agreed that
painting of the corona might be

which would have both

made

scientific

and

artistic interest.

Many drawings and

countless photo-

graphs (some colored by hand) have

been made of solar coronas, but I was
told that no record existed of any
painting

actually

observation.

The

made from

direct

invitation was there-

fore accepted as a unique opportunity.

As

a portrait

painter I have usually

asked for ten or twelve sittings of two

hours each now I was asked to render
my subject in 112 seconds. The method
:

of procedure therefore

became

all-im-

portant.

The

first

step

was

to study the re-

ruby colored, pink, and bloodIn addition to these, my picture

would have to show the dark surface of
the moon, and the sky with whatever
color value it chanced to have at the

as red.
red.

moment of observation.
As regards the shape and
that

varies inversely in size as the

it

combined area of sun spots, and this

seemed to be confirmed by about twenty
drawings of previous eclipses, which
I made from photographs and prints
and reduced to the same scale. Thus
the

in

esting

shapes,

known

as the

mum

is

diameter of the

every

eleven

corona were not to be looked for. We

expected about three fourths of a diameter on each side and this is about what
saw.

All reports of the so-called "inner

portion to the far less brilliant outer

moon

part

is

quite abrupt, but one of the

many diam-

questions on which there seems to be a

being described

difference of opinion concerns an abso-

to

and variously tinged an inner

corona, more brilliant than the former; and the prominences of incan;

descent hydrogen, variously described

2G4

about

num-

eters, the color usually

as pearly

reached

and as we were near a maximum

period, wide extensions of the outer

an outer con ma.

varying in extension from a fraction of

a

two of which became

"Angel Wing" and the

corona" agree that the part nearest to

is very brilliant and this inner
corona is usually described as whitish
in color. The transition from this inner

these attempts there are a great

describe

sun

years,

the sun

They

when

the corona

As the
"Herring Tail'' extensions.
number and size of sun spots seem to
vary quite regularly, so that the maxi-

form and color

Of
of the corona and prominences.
describe or record the

ber.

1900,

of

minimum,

exhibited wide extensions, having inter-

we

in

eclipse

spots were at a

astronomical and popular

works of previous eclipses and thus
familiarize myself with all attempts to

ports

the exten-

sion of the outer corona, a theory exi>ts

and
found none.
As regards the prominences while
often discernible with the naked eye, it

lute demarcation between the inner

the outer coronas.

The approaching shadow

of

tin-

Details of the hydrogen prominences,

[n outline ilns prominence looks

moon, Baker, Oregon, June

1918

'*
Eagle Prominence.
8, 1018, Including the
an eagle alighting on tlu top of a dill"

June
lik<-

3,

PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA

necessary to bave

is

;i

my

at

disposal

study the

to

The Naval

color rightly.

put

glass to gel

the details of shape and

<

Observatory

fine pair of Zeiss

binoculars, which proved of the greatesl

value.

realized

advance that my

in

hardesl task would be to portray

prominences

color

n<>t

bluish

ample

and

line;

study

and

these

lines

possibly

much

modified by the

slightly

to

spectrum,

the

in

lid

line

fainter

opportunity
spectro-

the

in

[ow besl to
ie
was given to me.
render this color in paint and to give it
its luminous character was the problem.
1

Realizing thai

would necessarily

this

be the brightesl tone in the picture and

that

would have

to

againsl

tone of the

it

liantly

the

corona, also bright,

inner

work

to

se1

bril-

the brightesl possible red

liter

one which stood

the

is,

-land ou1

highesl

in

which varnished ivory

black was zero and the besl lead white
mmercially knowi
r
white
was 100.
tried French pastels and
water colors, the hitter over Whatman
)

hut

paper,

ultimately

The

process

"I'

<>i]

found

that

obtaining this red de-

upon for the final picture, but

which take- mure time than
had at
Baker, was to prepare a hard surface
1

of silver white, well dried, to paint over

that a thin coating of zinc white tinged

with orange cadmium, and. when thai

was perfectly i\y\\ to glaze it richly with
rose

madder or garance

alas,

it.-

ton,,

with

it-

value

of

were varying opinion-.

there

eclipses,

moon

as black

againsl a sky represented by a

medium

Many drawings -how

This

rose dore.

the

-ray.
These
believed to be incorrect
ami found them so. The moon, having
a
less luminous quality than the sky
and surrounded by the brilliancy of the
corona, should appear slightly darker
by optical illusion. The sky value was
at any rate the safer note to work from

and. except for the slighl variation

luded to

the moon,

in

fiery quality, hut

value, while the highesl that

could get, was down to from 65 to 70 in

the black and white scale. The highesl
value obtained by mixing wel colors

at

al-

would surely

it

he the darkesl value in the picture.

Assuming then
and

sky value of say 25

prominence red value of say 60,

the total variation in values would thus
a

he limited to

range w

ith

point

:!.')

which

to

phenomenon.
The method of

urely a small

reproduce so

bril-

liant a

may

adopted
method.

he

working

called

finally

shorthand
sheel of white
a

It was to have a
cardboard on the easel with a series of
concentric circles and radii drawn upon

hie of these circle- was

advance.
have the same diameter as the photoon to ho taken in the
graphs of the
sixty-five-foot camera, namely, seven
in

it

<

to

and three-eighths

paint.

cided

gave the

moon?

the

to

that

scale of value- of

could do besl with

dark surface of
Regarding the color and
the clear sky during solar

this he the sky or the

their proper color

Profes
According to
was to exped them to have
unlike that of the hydrogen

brilliancy.

Mitchell,

in

2(35

There was

inches.

to

he an inner circle of half this diameter

and outer

circle-

respeel ively one

whose diameters were

and one half. two. ami

two and one half times that of the inner

expected to use the -even and
three-eighths inch diameter, and did
actually use it. hut
was thus prepared,
in case of an unexpectedly extended
corona, to reduce the -.ale to our half
and yet everything on the cardboard.
circle.

front

and beneath my cardboard was

-ample picture of a corona.

finished

painted in advance as
expected it
would appear, ami my plan was to indi|

note

at point- on my cardhoard the variation- of color from this

could have in my picture.

that
nexl
addressed mvself to the lowest. Would

picture thus b was to mean a variation

toward blue from the -ample picture,

r was aboul
Granting tin'.I

cate by initial-

60.
to be the highesl
1

XATURAL HISTORY

266

and y more toward

yellow.

I wrote out

the procedure as follows and tacked it

Practice enabled
alongside the easel.

me

to allot a certain

to each item.

Proa

<i

"

number

of seconds

PAINTING THE SOLAR CORONA

26",

T,o J
cri/ffX 3, 19/9, JBrf/fiT^,

SHOf(T- HAt//>

OKET-

METHOD or

SKYYA.LUE

J&kACK-

during the
combined, one illustrating the artist's shorthand method of recording
the other a method of noting the
of the eclipse the brightness of the colors in the corona,
One diagram consists of the two perpendicular
different areas of the moons disk.

Two diagrams
Ls

depth

on

brightness ...
and the curve B. The vertical axis represents a scale for measuring the
Distance on the horizontal axis
Qg vor3 black as zero and silver white as 100.
,!,,' sky
beyond the moon's edge measured in radii of the moon ("IB" equals
This horizontal axis
one radius or half the moon's diameter from the moon's edge).

or axes,

line-

distance of

the sky
drawn through 30 on the brightness scale, that being the estimated brightness value of
brightness of the corona
during the eclipse. A curve drawn between the axes shows the variation m
outward to the .lark skj
,t
any given point, beginning at the inner edge of the corona ami passing
on the scale (or in other word- th<
that is the color in the inner corona close to the moon is 60
From the curve drawn downas silver white).
of the inner corona is about three fifths as bright
had fall*
- edge)
ward from 60 we see that the corona at IR (one radius distanl from the moon
the length of 2K it disappears, blending with tin- sky.
a brightness of about 40. and slightly beyond
and
orthand to indicate that the prominences had a brightness value of 65
T1|1
These two axes
tinged with yellow."
a quick way of recording it if thej were "verj rosy,
is
in advance, on two sides ol the
were drawn on the cardboards on which the eclipse was to be drawn,
to the moon's circle (see right hand
of the moon (see Figure 2), being represented a- tangents
is

ij

ipper

during the

left

speed
hand of figure). Bj means of the curve- drawn in on these axe- with greal
the moon.
we can read off the brightness of the corona- colors at anj distance from
moon's disk at the left) i- a shorthand way of indicating
in the other diagi

eclipse,

line c
moon wa- lighter in the center than at theedf
The "Br." and "Gr.' indicate a tinge of brown and green

The

edges were darker than the

that the
sky.

that

tW

of

members

ighteen

tl

of

party expected any g

gloom more dense than the clond overhung tlir spirits of the camp. Bui at
half |'ii-t three the clouds had grown
decidedly thinner, ami a1 ten minutes
ili.'

large area

of

results.

blue sky ap-

four a
Then
peared to thr righl of the sun.
the sky cleared so rapidly that all hopes

of

were revived,

in

the belief thai

when

respectively

would take place at L03.52 the

would he found in an absolutely

totality
,1111

clear sky.

Standing with the sun back over my

shoulder H was al an elevation
lefl
of abOUl

!">

h'ukrd

;H

the dilllillidl-

ing crescenl on the face of the camera

obscura until the call "one minute" was
Then, turning my eve- to the
heard.

oorthwest,

gazed

at

the north en

NATURAL HISTORY

268

F/G.2
SOLAR EC1 IPSE
CUNE 8 ISIS. 'AKEK. ORE,

TOTAL

ORIGIN A-

This is a reproduction
board on which the radial

of the actual original sketch,

made

at the

1.

VgAH

time of the eclipse, on

card

and tangents had been prepared in advance.

This is
the artist's record, not only of the general outlines of clouds and corona, but also of the colors
which are indicated by initials or words (underscored when the color is intense), and of the
brightness of the various parts of the corona, indicated by numbers and by curves such as are exThe artist had painted previously a picture of the way in which
plained in the preceding figure.
he "expected" the eclipse to appear and no time was wasted putting in colors or tones which were
lines,

circles,

approximately correct in the prepared sketch

Elk Horn Bange and the interBoosters were crowing

loudly on the neighboring farm; a
the

The accompanying

vening valley.

the

greenish
scape

pallor

but

it

overspread the

was not very dark.

land-

To

northwest, however, the sky was

growing dark. The last half minute
seemed long. My eyes were fixed on the
sky line.
Suddenly the entire range
fell to a deep low-valued blue, and

approaching
posite page 26i)
painting

sky above the range turned to a rich

yellow inclining to orange streaked with

the next day, the time

ten seconds before totality.

the

simultaneously the lower part of the

made

color illustration of

moon shadow (opis from a "memory"

'I'n

ruing on

my

heel, I looked at the

corona, blazing steadily in the heavens

as

if it

had always been

there.

The

clear

space in the sky had not quite reached

the sun.

The thin intervening cloud

tended to right and

stood out with its

left of the
v(}'j;{^

ex-

sun and

illuminated

light

and sharply defined against a velvety

night sky of wonderful bluish violet.
Here was a new problem. I had not
expected the cloud. I began by draw-

and then the shadow

seemed to rush toward us and all was
engulfed as the call "Go" was shouted.

ing the outline of the cloud (slightly

nearer the sun than it actually was so
as to get both cloud and sky well on the

two horizontal blue-gray clouds. Above

me the sky darkened rapidly. For an
instant

green

the
color

valley

retained

its

PAIXTFXG THE >)LM! COL'OXA

269

F/C.3
TOTAL SOLAK ^.CL/fVEL.
JUHZ: ff. if/g SAKEf^. OPE.

XASFC ON

Z>/?AH>//VG-S,ATG4T/m

drawing as amended later bj reference to photographs made of the corona.

and of the prominences had been left for the cameras to record. Careful
drawings of these features and of the variations in shading of the corona resulted in this composite
pictur
which was based the painting of the corona (see plate opposite page 245). The line- nut
lining the corona in this figure maj be regarded as contours of luminosity, showing the range and
extent of certain degrees of brilliancy around the disk

The

The

artist's original

details of the polar rays

cardboard

then entered the value and

>,

color of the sky as 30 hv, and the cloud

edges

hich

\\

were higher and

silvery.

The cloud itself, of varying thicknesses,

was warmer in tone than the sky and
played,

esl

Lmated, between 30 and

10.

The moon was aboul the same value and

much grayer than the sky.
was not
I

conscious of any considerable varial ions

moon and failed to pul

The blackishness of
line.

of value in the
in the value

the
tli

ii

and the center Lighter

were undoubtedly op1 Leal

Nexl a quick outline of

Iges

corona

was"

made, mosl attenl

paid to the larger rays.

the

the bin-

top of the

recorded on the chart

firsl

as 50.
I

two

recorded

lines

outer corona.
separation of the
the

On

of

values

for

saw no distinct
Inner and outer
upper left extenI

and yellow ish tours w^re

recorded.
No time was wasted on
tones thoughl to be correel in the sam)n the whole the corona
ple picture.
was less blue than my sample and it

the

lower righl side of the limb, the value

of w hich was

coronas.

pearedone near

illn-

ion being

Then

thai]

which had been previously

adjusted and focused
were used. Two
splendid prominences, slightly pinker
and lighter than
had expected, apoculars

and Hie other on the left side below

In' horizontal.
gave these the highesl
value which
then thought could be
produced by mixing oil paints, viz., 60r.
A rose-colored glow stretched along the

sun

the

sion greenish

retained

brilliancy

Mad

expected.
blue

sky
tended s|

it

ill

it

farther ou1

probably would
farl

than

been seen againsl the

her and

its

have exdisappear-

NATURAL HISTORY

270

CLOUD
PROMINENCE RD

FIC.4

HYDROGEN

TOTAL ECLIPSE

OF SUN
JUNE 8 1918. BAKER., ORE.
VALUES AS NOTED BY

graphic representation of the scale of brightness values of the various colors found in the
Varnished ivory black is taken as zero and the best white lead (silver white)
as 100 for the points of reference.
The most brilliant shades were found in the prominences which
consist for the most part of incandescent hydrogen gas with a color approaching that of the red
hydrogen line of the spectrum. By careful painting the brightness of the reds used in portraying the
prominences was forced up to 67, and a very fiery quality given to them. The brightness of the sky
was pitched at 25, as was the moon, while it was estimated that the clouds ranged from 30 to 40, and
the corona from about 30 to 60

phenomena.

eclipse

ance might have been more gradual.

Two sections of the so-called inner
corona were very brilliant, although of
course not as high in value as the prominences.

These were next to the limb

nences. I intended to rely on the photo-

graphs.

apparent.

These rays were decidedlv

Suddenly I was blinded by

of the "Baily's Beads," or

glimpse of the solar crescent
broken by the rough limb of the moon.
It looked like a miniature sun radi-

the
the

first

first

and were very neutral as to color. I

outlined
them and marked them
"whitish," but got one of them in the
wrong place. This brought my eyes to
the picture for several seconds. About
the ninety-fifth second I looked up and
was surprised to see that the pink glow
had lengthened out and risen in value.
This change was due to the motion of
the moon, which had by that time un-

Thanks to the privacy of the grounds

and the consideration shown me I was

covered a magnificent solar eruption,

ing

but

had no time

to take

I outlined this glow, its

to 60,

which

ure 2

is

up the glasses.
value fully up

I entered afterward.

Fig-

a reproduction of the original

drawing.

Toward the end

corona,

indicating

well

as

the

polar

drawing of which,
for that of the promi-

rays, for the accurate

as

re-outlined the

rapidly

ating in

all

directions.

And

all

was

over.

able to proceed at once with

my

first

and for two hours worked

uninterruptedly. The next day. June 9,
oil

sketch,

I painted the picture of the approach-

moon shadow

Bange

as I

second

oil of

over the Elk

remembered

it

and

Horn
also a

the corona.

While disappointed in not seeing the

corona in a cloudless sky, the thin veil
had its advantage from the artist's
It added mystery and the
standpoint.
The brilliant
effect was picturesque.
corona burned through the thin veil as
Probably only the
if it were not there.

PAINTING THE SOLAR CORON

were af-

outside edges of the corona

On
tives

the tenth the photographic nega-

were shown

Those of the
camera were seven and

sixty-five-fool
ilir

to

me.

Lghths inches in diameter, the

others considerably smaller.

no\* saw,

in minute detail, the two prominences

had recorded and the mighty
which
cyclone which had been increasingly revealed as tli' eclipse neared its end, because of the direction of the moon's
motion. We are told thai this group of
prominences was forty-six thousand
miles high.
There were many other
minor prominences.
now made careful drawings of these
prominences from the negatives and of
the variations in shading of the surMany arches were
rounding corona.
found springing over the prominences,
and a few rifts or dark channels radiating from the limb bul never coming
I

very close to

it.

The

negatives showed

very clearly the hairy polar rays, not

always radial in direction, and the beginning of a wing springing from the
upper right-hand Limb of the sun.
process painting, as al-

areful

ready

25, thus obtaining a

instead of

fected.

described,

have

able

to

up the value of the prominence

reds, which appear in Figures 3 and 4
.it
aboul 67.
also concluded to reduce
the value of the clear sky from 30 to
force

-?*-

Qaf6uO^

271

of 7 to

5.

take

values

range of

t2 points

an increase in the ratio

In this new scale the other

3<).

their

proportional

places.

value of 35 (30 + 5) in Figure 1

becomes 32 (25
7) in Figure 3.

Thus

Figure 3 the corona lines, derived

from the drawing and many photograph-, may be regarded as a sort of
In

composite, suggesting contours of luminosity very

much

tion appeal' on a

as contours of eleva-

map.

Three paintings were made, the

first

immediately after the eclipse, the second on the succeeding day. and the third
after all data had been secured.
This
final painting is the one reproduced in
conjunct ion
let

ii

\\

iih thi> article.

ruing with

we stopped
and
had
I

at

Professor Mitchell,
Williams Hay. Wisconsin,

the greal

pleasure and ad-

vantage of discussing the problems

the final

picture with

Professor E.

E.

Barnard and Dr. E. B. Frost, of the

Yerkes Observatory. They also showed
me excellent photograph- taken at one
of the Yerkes stations and spectroscopic
photographs of the prominences taken
at the Yerkes Observatory (at the time
of totality at the Green River Station >.
apparently identical as to drawing with
those taken at the Baker Station.
I
wish to acknowledge my indebtedness
to these eminent astronomi
-

Photograph by Donald B. MacMillan

WILD FLOWERS "FROM GREENLAND'S ICY

MOUNTAIN"

^^^ ^^f ^

1
the Arctic-poppies with
lonely rocks and wild crag, grow the flower gardens of
There aie a ho ut l- spec sotno y,
of Arctic timothy.
the small white clustered Druba flowers, and green heads
the bm.th bound hskmos
and
where
ice-tree
the
discc-vered-m
be
waiting
to
species
ering P Ltf-and probably "new"
n
e

between Humboldt Glacier on t he north and Metal

live, along the northwestern coast of Greenland
n la
sound below Long months pass
south-a strip made narrow by the ice cap above and the iceberg-studded
a
le
.hand
is
at
midsummer
Not until the ice breaks out and
botanist has few specimens to work with, however.
curs, or rather there is only our spring and
many flowers in bloom. There is no spring in the Arctic like
fruitage as if to make the most of the fe*
no summer. All the plants awake together and hasten to their
end of summer the vegetation is^caught
the
at
suddenness
weeks of comparative warmth. With equal
half formed, or perhaps with buds, or open floweis
in full activity and stiffened as it stands, with seeds

Between

lea-es

^>

The

Plant Life of Northwest Greenland

By

Research Associate,
of

[llinois;

FEW

\V.

E L M E R

people of our pleasanl south-

dream thai under the

shadow of the North Pole, alland even

most
tic

thousand miles within the Are-

mor

circle,

than

one

dred

species

hunof

flowering plants

and
them-

flourish

maintain

selvesagainst the
frigid conditions

of

their

far

home.
the coun-

northern
Yet, in

Smith

try of the

Sound

Eskimo,
narrow belt of

ice-free land be-

tween
ing

gleamcap and

tin'

ice

iceberg-

th.'

studded sound,
from 'ape 5Tork
<

Humboldt

to

Glacier,

ready
I".'"

bota-

have

nists

al-

recorded

species,

the

li-t

and
do

i-

doubt yet incom-

No

plete.
t

tall

branchshrubs, no

rees or

ing

trailing

ines or

waist-high grasses give character to the

landscape,

bul

the

rocky

slopes

summer

ledges arc dotted in

and

with bril-

blossoms or carpeted w it h low, -"ft

growths of Lira or sedge.
When the explorer from the southland approaches the rock-bound, glacier-

liant

ribboned coasts
renness.

"i'

rreenland, his

first

one of bleakness and bar'I'hc frowning cliffs, -tern and

impression

is

E K

I!

L A

American Museum of Natural History; Research Fellow in Geology, Qniversitj

and Geologist and Botanist on the Crocker Land Expedition, L913 HUT

X AT URAL HISTORY

274

upon them, to survive the blanket of

snow if it last not too long. They are

plants of the region, for they seem to

the frontiersmen of the plant

Many

world,

hardy, inured to difficult condition-,

tenacious of

in the most desperate

life

be

of northwest Greenland

grow almost everywhere.

to

others occur all along the coast

and one expects

to see

them wherever

one lands.

struggles for existence.

The climate

able

But many plants are found widely

Of several species I found
single station or collecting place. An-

scattered.

insular in character, much milder

than most lands so far north, and than

many

conspicuous little flower, never before

recorded from Greenland, I found
growing on a little gravel slope just
west of Borup Lodge, our headquarters
In 1898 my good friend, Simhouse.
mons, the noted Swedish botanist, when
traveling along this coast with Sverdrup's expedition, visited the delta on
which, later (1913), our house was
built, and must have passed over the
very path beside which I found this

is

much

lands

farther south, he-

cause the strong tides and currents in

Smith Sound keep open water along

shore, or not far away, usually
throughout the year; and open water
means warmer, moister air. This milder,
moister climate of northwest Greenland

the

is

naturally the principal reason

the vegetation

is

why

relatively so luxuri-

but the reason the flowering plants

is because in addition,
during the short summer season, the
sun shines every day all of the twentyant

succeed so well

four hours, and gives them opportunity

to use every

hour of their active

drosace septentriondlis, a delicate, in-

little plant,

and

also a beautiful, luxu-

riantly growing fern,

Dryopteris fra-

That these two plants eluded

grans.

careful, critical search, illustrates

life.

Yet, even with this favorable milder

even

easily

specialist

may

his

how

fail

to

climate and the continuous sunlight,

notice sonic of the small plants of the

the vegetation could not survive

if

Far North.

were not

long

to

fitted

endure

the

it

frozen period, cold and dry, the destructive changes

most blighting

from warmth to
In response

cold.

al-

to

As

a further illustration of

how

may escape discovery, I like to

cite my own experience at North Star
Bay. Throughout the summer of 1914
plant

these conditions the plants are usually

low

there, studying carefully the vegetation

creeping

or

tufted

forms

with

tough, hard tissue, and are nearly

all

lived

at

the

little

mission station

of the large area of ice-free land that

Only
about Wolstenholm Sound.
from the front door of the

perennials, so that if fruiting cannot

lies

take place every year the species will

a few feet

are widely

which I coland helped my

good colleague, Dr. M. C. Tanquary, to
collect insects and plankton.
Through-

It

out the

not perish.

Some

station lies a small bog, in

of the plants that constitute,

the vegetation of northwest Greenland

and generally distributed.

would he hard to find a place where

lected

numerous

summer

plants,

thought

observed

grew in the

the purple saxifrage (Saxifraga opposi-

carefully every plant that

tifolia) does not grow or the Arctic

poppy (Papaver radicatum) does not

bog, yet in 1916, when I again spent the

flourish.

The

alpine chickweed of the

(Cerastium alpinum) and the

Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis)
are common.
The pretty little Arctic
heather (Cassiope tetragona) and the
mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia)
are perhaps the most numerous of the
north

summer

at North Star Bay, I found

growing in profusion, and in full
bloom, the little red-stemmed, redleaved Montia lamprospermum, which
I had eagerly sought in 1914 without

there,

success.

In passing,

may

state that

nowhere

in the region did I find so satisfactory

-_

<

z
<

.-

NATURAL HISTORY

>:<\

North
Within half a mile of the
found eighty plains: the habistation
tats are so varied, and the general con-

in this region

a place to study the plants as at

plant

Star Bay.

change in the quanit may be one

tity of some one factor,
of the primary components of the habitats, or mie of the secondary, produces
a change in the vegetation that is all
the more easily recognized because of

ditions so

place
of

favorable, that

paradise.

nist's

in

the

It

is

it

a bota-

is

also a

splendid

which to make a careful study

much-worked-over and much-

discussed

for

DrabcB,

think

almosl

every northern form of this genus

found there

abundance, and

is

in

con-

of plant association

and

in

fusing variation.

The study

societies

nating.

fasci-

is

slight

the simplicity of the association or the

The struggle for survival in
society.
the North

is

not one so

much

compe-

of

between the plants for light or

food, as it is one against the climatic
condition.-. Generally speaking, there is
tition

no crowding of individual

plants as there

in regions of

is

vegetation.

denser
Light and

room enough there are

for all that can with-

stand and survive the

condi-

climatic

stern
tions.

Among

the groups of

plants that

may

be read-

ily

distinguished

the

luxuriant

and
(

are

grasses
Alopt rurilsj'ml. etC. ).

scurvy

the

grass

'ochlearia officinalis)

association of the cliffs

and slopes where the

numerous Arctic birds
nesl

the sedge

'

'arex)

and the cotton grass

Eriophorum polystachium ). association of
(

seepage-water

Photograph by Donald B. MacHIHm,

The yellow flowers

like small

sunflowers

oi'

Greenland arnica

(Arnica al/iina) look

temperate climes, but they are lowly in stature

of

the

pina), arnica
alpina

like all other Arctic flowers.

In the lower right-hand corner of the photograph appear a few

ova! leaves of the Arctic willow (Salix arctica).
This most
common and tallest of the "trees" of Greenland never attains a height
of more than three inches,, although its branches may spread over
several square feet of ground.
Stems of Arctic willows more than
fifty years old. as proved by the number of their rings of wood, may
v
Another willow species
be no thicker than a man's thumb.
It grows one inch
herbuvea) must lie the smallest tree of the world.
The
tall and has two leaves and one tiny furry catkin each summer.
botanist in Greenland finds many interesting plant prob'.ems for his

grass

of

distribution

Many

{Arnica

and reed-bent

).
<

glossy,

consideration, especially that

swales

and the heathlike association, on warm. airy.

sunny slopes, of cat'spaw (Antennaria al-

'alamagrostis

).

other similar dis-

tinctive groups help to

form

as

interesting

vegetation as one hnds

anywhere.
even
although the number of
species

is

not so lame.

d
#

"

J?

itSS-****

*S

*^
t-

79 *

X*
Photograph by Donald H. MacMUlan

/'../. nulla
flowers measuring an inch wide
Vahliana), relatives of the roses, sometimes cover and beautify whole acres of dry Arctic slope.
To make so astonishing a Bhowing of flowers in the short two months of summer, even with perennial stems and the pro
the plants closely hugging the ground, there must be a minimum of interruption from
Bummer snowstorms and frosts
The Crocker Land Expedition found a half dozen species of cinquefoils
;it
the North, .-ill with yellow flowers.
The plant known in the North as "scurvy grass" (Cochlearia offici
familj
the cress
(a family represented bj sixteen species in northwestern Greenland).
It is used as a preventive for a disease which has brought death to the ranks of so many Antic expediThe Eskimos also sometimes eat the Cochlearia as a sort of salad, a pleasant variation from their
tions.

with

lils

red

saffi

meat

diet

and the interrelationships qoI so complex as in that of more favored lands.

Of northwest Greenland it can hardly
be said that one cannot see the forest

The

for the trees.

tallesl

tree does not

more than three inches from the

ground the view, then, is not apprerise

ciably obstructed by the forests.

tallest

tree

arctica

i.

though

it

is

This

the Arctic willow (Salix

and it
grows

i-

the

commonest.

so low,

it

Al-

often spreads

over about a square yard or more of

ground. Some of these rees, of w hich
the trunk is not thicker than one's
t

thumb, are more than fift\ years old,

determined by counting the rings

.1-

rowth.

these

trees

The
rise

soft,

fuzzy catkin- on

ground
themselves, and

above

the

farther than the trees

tempi the swiftly flying, nervous Arctic
bumblebees as few others of the flowers
can.
Another willow (Salix herbacea)
i- about as tiny a
ree as one can imagine.
It
rareh errows more than an
t

inch high, and has but two

and

tiny catkin each

little

No

am

sure.

smaller tree grows anywhere,

The dwarf

leaves

summer.
I

(Betula nana) has

from the neighborh
of our lodge, but
was unable to find
it. even after
the most careful search
where ii was supposed to grow.
To the lover of rhododendrons, the
little Lapland form which flourishes on
the warm, sunny, well watered slopes,
must interesting.
Its pretty little
is
been

birch

recorded

rose-purple,

plumelike

brown

basalt

palachian-.

Two

blossoms

star

North
Star Bay, firsl cousins to the gorgeous
forms that color the ledges of the Apthe

rocks

about

northern

species

oi

the cranberry family

(Myrtillus uligi-

nosa and

Vaccinium

Vitis-Idaa)

numerous

little

ers,

sweel

pink bell-shaped

and delicate

valley: but they rarely

bear
flow-

as lilies of the
set

fruit, except

on the warmesl -lope- where the sum-

mer snows melt

a-

fasl

a-

the\

fall.

Photograph by W. Elmer EJcblaw

Kearsen Steppe, North Star Bay. looking over Wolstenholm Sound. a typical heath slope of
the Arctic, grading to bog at the foot.
Such slopes are rarely bright green, for frequent summer
frosts continually nip the growing ends of the plants.
In late July and early August when the
killing frosts begin to come, such slopes may show for a few days stretches of warm autumn
coloring, the browns of mosses and the yellows of diminutive willows

The curlewberry (Em pet rum nigrum

grows in a few favored

where

spots,

pretty, purple, velvet flowers

conspicuous, but

The Eskimos

it

its

make

it

bears few berries.

like to use it

and the

fra-

grant branches of the heather (Cassiope

tetragona) to make outdoor fires over

which to

The

boil their tea or coffee.

siope tetragona

slopes.

Arctic heather

includes one or another of the other

is

sun-loving plants of the dry slopes, but

(Casone of the prettiest

flowers of the northland, and it grows
almost everywhere. Its dainty, creamwhite bells color some of the rocky
so-called

soms seemingly modeled from wax the

modest and lonely little bluebell (Campanula uniflora) rising blue and gentian-like on its fragile stem; and with
them a strikingly beautiful, dark purple grass
(Trisetum spicatum), of
which the plumed tufts are noticeable
rods away. This group of plants often

This, and Dryas integrifolia,

starry blossom of the

same hue, are

perhaps the most numerous of the conspicuous Arctic flowers.

These two
flowers begin blooming early, and continue until August comes with its

and freezes.
A group of pretty flowers usually
found on rocky ledges that the ptarmigan is wont to frequent, is that comfrosts

posed of the northern arnica

(Arnica

alpina). a smiling, bright, golden-face,

not unlike a diminutive Kansas sunflower; the woolly cat's-paw (Anten-

they are not so definitely confined to

the one habitat.

The lousewort, or beefsteak family,

numbers at least three representatives.
Of these Pedicularis Jiirsuta grows
everywhere along the

coast.

cousin, Pedicularis lanaia, a

Its first

much

pret-

tier rose-red cluster of flowers, is not

so

generally distributed, but at Life-

boat Cove, north of Etah,

blossoms

dot

the

moors.

its

At

bright

Etah

grows Pedicularis capitata, a plumelike,

golden cluster; it has been found nowhere else in Greenland.
Bluebells (Mertensia maritirria) I
found in profusion at but one place,
the little Eskimo village at Sonntag Bay,

moun-

naria alpina), smaller than its cousins

and there the delta of

but otherwise
quite like them; the dainty pink and
white shinleaf (Pyrola, rotundifolia

tain torrent was carpeted with them.

of

the

far

southland,

its

27S

thick, glossy leaves

and

fair blos-

small

On the same delta I found the most

abundant growth of Statice maritima,
a beautiful, dark pink globelet of florets.

THE PLANT LIFE OF NORTHWEST GREENLAND

<

!'

the cinquefoils

the rose family,

profuse-flowering

and

Vahl's

is

them

einquefoil
all.

for

it-

ntilla

found

I,

of

sis species, all

But

golden.
cheeriest

the

of

blossoms

inch-wide

with their saffron centers, shine from

every dry slope.

The

purple

early

(Saxi-

saxifrage

family too,
learia

279

scurvy grass

thai

belongs,

officinalis)

(Ooch-

that

far-

famed, reputed preventive of the dread

disease, scurvy, which has decimated so

many

Arctic

bitter,

like

expeditions.

Few

cress.

plants are eaten

by

It

tastes

of the

Arctic

Eskimo, but

the

they occasionally eat this scurvy

gr;

-;

oppositifolia)

ushers in

which none

sion of ten of the family, of

so

succes-

beautiful as the leader,

of Arctic flowers to burst

earliest

the

is

drifts.

Sixteen

species of

family

the cress

Nearly

them

of

all

are white-flowered, bui one notable ex-

ception

i>

the purple rocket

Hes

blossoms, the only

fragrant

flower in

The Drabce comprise

the sixteen cress species,

And

thai

is

round-leaved plant, sour like

sorrel.

Buttercups, waxy golden and bright,

oumerous and varied.

Most of
them are yellow, but one tiny white
form (Batrachium paucistamineum
grows in the ponds, its starlike little
are

flowers

on

floating

about two weeks of

favorite flower of

plum

with the odor of

pallasii), sweel

the North.

digyna,

our sheep

into

bloom: often purple pennants of its

geous blooms even border the snows

inhabit the region.

more often though, they gather Oxyria

ten of
to this

the

water during

many

explorers

was surprising

Tin-

to

.ir

the

in

dense clumps on gravelly slopes, but

could not help feeling that its hard

stems were too

stiff.

The Alpine

mushrooms grow abundantly

at

Btah.

The;

chick-

attain con-

dinner plate, and were delicious when cooked.

aorthweet Greenland is far milder than would be expected for the
g tides ami currents keep open water in Smith Sound not tar from the land
through.
This open water produces a moister air ami thus accounts in large
5 iund region
y luxuriant vegetation of the S

nearlj

as large as a
-t

latitu

edible

is

dainty pink Silene acdulis that grows

ir
It

The

midsummer.

cit'

Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw

the plants on southern slopes at North Star Bay were budded for
blossoming.
On land that is level the rays from the low Antic sun strike only obliquely, but they strike the
Therefore, if the slope be southern and thus protected from
slopes of course more nearly perpendicularly.
Under the influence of this warmth and of the
cut tms winds, the temperature of the soil may rise rapidly.
moisture of the fogs so frequent in summer, the low shallow-rooted plants of the Arctic flourish

Even

before the

snow melted away,

grows cheerfully everywhere,

weed
seemingly undaunted by the most unOne of its near
favorable conditions.

(Melandrium triflorum), an
Arctic catehfly, is found nowhere but

cousins

(Taraxacum arctogenum) with pink

border grows in profusion about Etah,

and grows nowhere else in the world, so

It would attract attenfar as known.
tion anywhere as a pretty flower.

the

It is to the sunny-faced Arctic poppy,

however, that the explorer is always

southland, merits more respect and conBesides

sideration in the northland.

To
ready to give the highest praise.
the farthest northland that man has yet

golden forms, closely resembling ours, a white-flowered form

attained, this fragile, but hardy little

in Greenland.

The

dandelion,

the bright,

so

despised

in

blossom,

has preceded

him.

On

the

Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw

in general view appears barren and monotonous, but reveals variety and beauty of detail
when studied close at hand. The most characteristic plant of the heath-forming association that grows on
warm sunny slopes is the andromeda (Gassiope tetragona) with white bell-shaped flowers. In places it
forms a continuous carpet (as shown in the background in the photograph). Rarely one finds the curlewberry {Empetrum nigrum) growing with it on the protected slopes of deep fiords

The tundra

280

Photograph by E. 0. Hovi

"

At Nurtli Star 1 4 > in the summer of 1914, the botanist of the Crocker Land Expedition found eighty
Every day he made long tramps over the rough interior
Bpecies of plants within a radius of one half mile.
scept
This year of 1914 was one of misfortui
country, or sledge journeys to points along the sound.
In March he had led one of the advance parties across Ellesmere Land ready for the Crocker
as to work.
Land search over the sea ice, bul had been obliged to return to Etata because of badly frozen feet. After
Misfortune followed him.
ward, in April, he proi
led to North Star Bay to engage in a botanical survey.
At another, he
At one time, he experienced for several days the agonizing pain of "snow blindness."
narrowh escaped drowning when the ice gave way under him, his sledge and dogs rescue being ef
weeks here at
And
for
several
white
king
dog.
his
big
struggle
Of
fected largely th]
ontinued
North star Bay he faced starvation, while only 130 miles away at Etah, but unobtainable, was food in
was
-hurt
and always
n
always
hungry,
rations,
extremely
plenty.
Throughout the summer the party
watch:
on the horizon where a relief ship mi<_ lit appear.
sea
level, and at the right aboul one mile from
The photograph shows Dundas Mountain. 700 feet above
(See Ameeii \s Mi SEi m Journal
it- base, the building- of Thule Station, a base for Danish exploration
for Ma\. 1918, page 391
;

'

>

mosl lonely and desolate coasts

him

all

summer

travels there.

it

greets

whenever

long

Along the icebound

be

upoD the bleakesl plateaus, in

every lonely valley, wherever a crevice
the

gives
itself.

pockel

rocks or a

it

foothold,

Greal

it

is

in

the cliffs

sure to establish

fields of

it

flamed aboul

Etah, and about our headquarters house

it

grew abundantly.

No
carpel

great, green

any

pari

meadows

of the

Ear

slope, therefore,

or pasl iires

northland,

some of
numerous Arctic birds have formed
rich guano soil, the turf becomes
a
thick and soft.
The Erequenl frosts
thai come through the summer, sear

bui <m the sunny slopes w here

the

the delicate tips of the grasses so thai

is

he

green

a real

rarity in the

The mosl lush-growing

misnamed Arcl ic imothy

North.

sea-

shores,

in

they never appear verdanl

Far

grass
(

.1

is

lope-

which the Eskimos

\\\
padding to place between
and boot-soles and
stockings

cur lis alpinus)

depend
their

for

under the skins of their bed platforms,

and for dishcloths or towels with which
to u ipe dry their few pots and pans.
M,-in\ blue grasses grow in Greenland,
bul aboul the Eskimo villages, Hentuck} blue grass {Poa pratensis), tall
and thick, is the mosl common form.
In a few of the shallower ponds along
the coasl grow - the beautiful little Pleuropogon sabinii, unique in it- genus.
Pretl

plumy

rnii.ni

grasses

<

Erio281

NATURAL HISTORY

>*>

phorum polystachiwm and E. Scheuchwave their white tassels along the

banks of the streams and pools and in

zeri)

The we1

-wales; graceful

little

rushes

Rather unexpected, but none the less

welcome, four diminutive ferns that
grow on the rock ledges carry one backin

memory

to the southland.

Ci/stop-

and reeds (J uncus and Luzula) grow

with the numerous sedges (Carex) to
form mats of turf where no grass

commonest fern of
the North, grows abundant and luxu-

grows; harsh scouring rushes (Equisehiiu arvense and E. variegatum) form

mats on some of the natter stream beds,
and a yellow-green club moss {Lyco podium selago) dots the upland swales;

cliffs.

all of

these help to create variety in the

Arctic vegetation.

teris

fragilis,

riant

in

the

moist crevices on the steep

Aspidium fragrans, rigid but

beautiful bronze-green,

is a sweet smelling fern found on sunny shelves. Two

little woodsias, Woodsia glabella, a Lil-

form scarce an inch high, and

Woodsia silvensis, not much larger,
complete the list of ferns.
To end the account of the vegetation
of the northland without mentioning
liputian

the large, edible

would be

They

are

mushrooms

at

Etah

to leave the list incomplete.

of

hitherto known.

species

probably not

Some

them grow

of

as

dinner plates.
They could
stand for days, unspoiled and untouched
by insects, and still be almost as good
to eat as when fresh.
Dr. Hunt and I
gathered many, cooked them, and ate
them.
We considered them excellent.
The plants and flowers of northwest
Greenland have hardly'' two months in
which to grow. As soon as the snow
large

as

melts, the first flowers begin to appear,

usually only a few days before June

first.

'*t&i

is

At that time the midnight sun

month and a half high and gives

almost as much heat at midnight as at

noonday.
Even so, frequent summer
snows and cloudy weather often retard
the development of the plants so that
they cannot blossom before the killing
frosts begin to come in early August
while yet the midnight sun graces the
In mid-July even, the
northern sky.
little willow leaves begin to turn yellow,
Photograph by W. Elmer Ekblaw
Mats of mountain avens on crescent-shaped
areas of earth resulting from the disintegration
This disintegration has been acof the rock.
complished through the action of overlying snow,
drifted by fierce blasts of wind down the fiords.
The hardy little Dry as (its flowers are shown
on the opposite page) is probably the most common plant in Greenland. It is absent from few
places where there is any vegetation at all, maintaining a foothold even on plains of bare rock
debris.
It flowers by the middle of June and
continues to blossom throughout the short

summer

and a week or two

later the

autum-

nal golds, and tans, and browns indicate that the season of growth

is

ended.

The flora of Greenland is a mixture

of European and American forms.

Many interesting problems present

themselves in the occurrence and distribution of many of these forms, and
much work has been done toward their

-~

Photograph by W. Elmi
At the time
early,

when

Among

pyrolas,

and

warm,

dry, Arctic slopes

always be certain of finding a particular association of small, low, sun-loving

were th>> yellow arnica, white woolly heads of "everlasting" or "cat's-paw," waxen
solitary bluebells (see page 278
I

Photograph

mountain avei
Di
plateaus and moraines which otherwise would be quite bleak and
t'amih Beems to be able to maintain itself everywhere and
r
to the whole mountain-side

solution.

-t:irl u.
i

As

yet,

flowers

it

is

to be

of

the

is

nol available,

hoped thai the collections

'<</

Donald B. Macilillan

found on the inland

This small representative of the
multitudes of flowers often give color
ire

little

however, the evidence

for definite conclusions

but

Ekblaw

these

fragile,

white

where the snow had melted

could

the. botanist

plants.

the ptarmigan were courting on

desolate.
its

and data obtained by the Crocker Land

Expedition will make a considerable
contribution to the knowledge needed.
283

=:,-i.

OS

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as

A BARE

AND BLEAK LAND, EVEN WHEN

ICE

FREE

Along a narrow stream at North Star Bay (picture above), the heath and moor are finely
peted with the pretty Polar rhododendron, with creeping cranberry, and with Arctic willow
At

this

walrus

hunting

camp on Sonntag Bay

car-

photograph) the botanist collected thre

Many plants
whole North Greenland Coast.

(middle

species of plants which he found nowhere else along the

of the North are thus restricted in distribution

On Arctic slopes soil -flow streams move slowly, like veritable "glaciers" of rock and soil (photograph
at bottom of page).
They present conspicuous scalloped fronts, covered in this case with cranberry, and
the very edge of the advancing soil is outlined in northern heather
288

Photograph by E. >. Sovi y

orange lichens, brilliant as flown--, adorn the rocks
Lichens and mosses largely make up the flora oi the cold s(
'

In

many

places at

North Star Bay,

in

July, bright

jive the dominant tone to the landscape.

tundra, tending to ! distributed in different local areas. The crevice in the rocks indicated in the photograph by the pocketknife opens below into the nest of a snow bunting, which each summer comes From southern regions to make its home in this far northern spot

(Harelda hyena

by

often

W. Elmi r
from wafer,
I

miles

ami dry heath plants

-

Photograph by Donald ]:. MacMillan

Like the crimson poppies of Flanders Fields, these yellow poppies grew where have been wrought
The golden Arctic poppy (Papaver radieatum) for a few
heroic deeds which live in history.
He has known
weeks in summer greets the botanist with good cheer wherever lie may wander.
Greenland during the long Arctic night as a -tern land of bleakness and desolation. But some
day in summer when he enters one of the forbidding fiords, shutting out a view of the ice cap
above and the icebergs on the sound outside, he concludes that Greenland after all is not a grim.
For every little crevice in the rocks is foothold for some fern or glowing flower.
barren spot.
every little pocket of soil refuge for a bit of verdant turf, and every little slope or ledge shelter for
willow, heather, or smiling poppy

Photograph by E. O. Hovey
There were about seventy-five poppies in this gleamini mat of yellow on the bare shingle
Xorth Star Bay).
In favorable localities they are so abundant that it is no exaggeration
These northern pioneers in no way lack in beauty of hue or of
to speak of "fields of poppies."
Many Arctic species bloom profusely.
texture when compared with the golden poppies of California.
Draba plants may be rounded out into spheres wholly yellow or white with the multitudes of flowers
flat-

290

Photograph by Donald

/'.

ttacMiUan

How

bleak and drear and lonely is the general landscape of the coast lands!
This is al the head of Port
Foulke, two milfs southwest of Etah, where the ground is made up of the barren rock of an ancient seabeach.

The Hayes Expedition of 1H60-61 had it- winter quarters here.

i< that
of August Sonntag, an explorer-scientist who lust Ins life
while a member of
on his expedition of

the

The grave

photograph)
Smith Sound in December, L860,
II>this expedition.
had also served as astronomer with Kane, the first American explorer,
1853 55. The chiseled slali :it the head of the grave, bearing the inscription, still stands
(see the center of the

in the ice of

weather

Photograph by Donald
Helping

to

gather

ountry,

but

poppies

.it

are on the

Etah
wholi

in

June.

The

Eskimos delight

in

the

observant of plant

brilliant

life

than

flowers
of birds

I:

MacMillan

of

their

pie-

and animals
29]

Our

Centrifugal Society

mir current expansivi philosophy of life, based upon liberty, equality, and self-expression, a saf
and sufficient guidi for tin development of a high social order f Should it not be balanced
by tin unifying and integrating forces which conn from self-restraint and

7s

and

control, moderation,

may

By

lead

(I.

tin

afar

t<>

T.

Tins,

limitation of desires f

higher self-realization

W.

PATRICK

Professor of Philosophy. State University of Iowa

OUB

presenl

reconstruction

pe-

The Spark

of Divinity

fundamentally
from other such periods fol-

riod

differs

lowing other great

quite sa

IV.

It

wars.

It

is

assurance that in a few years all will be

well, since a period of painful recon-

must follow every great war.

becoming evident now to all of us
that we are confronted, not merely with
a political and economic reconstruction,
struction

It is

but with a radical social reconstruction.

Long before the war it bad come to
be believed that society was on the sick

needing drastic treatment,

list,

major operation.

painfully

conscious

We
of

if

social

and our attention was fixed

more and more upon certain loudly ad"evils,"

vertised "cures" for these evils.

Among

political

and economic

privileges,

crime. and the falling birth rate.

Among

the proposed "cures*" were the further

extension

of

democracy,

socialism,

I'm- women, national

and cooperation.
Tin mi came the war. ami at once our
attention was focused upon this as the
worst evil of all. That such an awful

syndicalism, votes

prohibition,

is

in a
is

by Al-

fred Eussel Wallace shortly before his

death, in which he bewailed the degeneracy of the times, dwelling upon

the prevalence of poverty and crime.

and frightful

social diseases,

and

social

injustice, in a note almost of despair.

Certainly

have become

it

is

hopeful sign that we

so sensitive to injustice, so

intolerant of

conscious of social

evils, so

wrong doing,

repelled by the hor-

so

own era, which is

and wholesome and peaceand righteous as compared with

ror- of war. that our

really clean

past periods in

from

This

evils.

illustrated in the book written

wealth and opportunity, the

constant clashes between labor and
capital, the unjust exclusion of women
the alcohol evil, social diseases, poverty,

its

way and needs redemption

very bad

ful

of

Human

sickening feeling that the world

these evils were the unequal distribu-

tion

flic

characteristic of our age to be

peculiarly sensitive to

not

bad become

certain

is

nol

therefore, to rest in any easy

in

Mind

human

history,

seems

There is thus at
any rate this element of hope in the
situation that there must be some spark
of divinity in the human mind, since
we compare the present, not with the
to us so

imperfect.

real past,

but always with the ideal fu-

ture.

Conscious Control of Man's FutureWill it be Intelligent and Beneficial?

The
is

special characteristic of our time

therefore not the presence of evil-, of

trust in our whole social system,

to be sure there are quite enough,

but the peculiar consciousness of them
and the resolute will to cure them,

began

will

calamity could
world increased

suddenly
still

of peoples.
292

further our dis-

and we
some cure
and hoped to find

League of Xations. international

eements, and the self-determination

in a
g

the

at once to search for

for this further evil,

it

befall

which

that

so
it is

persistent

and

so

determined

certain that the twentieth cen-

tury will see profound changes in our

But it docs not follow
social order.
necessarily that these changes will ba

OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY

They

beneficial.

This

is

the

will be experimental.

time

first

history that

in

man has consciously and with determined purpose entered upon the task
of directing

own

his

struggle

existence,

for

the

industrial

by mechanical in-

intelligence and

universal

Present

77//'

self-con-

overlooked.

rol, i-

Philosophical

Basis

of

Social Reconstruction

hands

evolution, climate, the

revolution wrought

Hith-

fortunes.

erto he has been a puppet in the

of cosmic forces

of

293

my

lint

purpose

this article is to

in

attention to the philosophical basis

of the reconstruction
vements of the
call

Underlying

day.

all

these

movements
and

the philosophy of the full, free

ventions and the discovery of coal, iron

i-

and petroleum, and

abundant life; of self-expression; of

self-determination; of self-realization;

finally,

active influences of the

Now

frontiers.

Pacific

the retro-

American and
period of

the

conscious control has come.

But

is

this conscious control to be in-

telligent control, or

which the newly

we can

see at

control

intelligent
ture,

kind

to be the

ii

rich suddenly acquire

over their material

far a>

is

surroundings?

So

present, the era of

lies

far

and the control which

the

in

to

is

fu-

mark

the twentieth century will spring from

an impulsive idealism characterized by
a keen sensitiveness to our present social evils rather than by a comprehengrasp of the whole social situation.
We arc to enter upon the deliberate attempt at social reconstruction but with
a kind of adolescent impetuousness and
a fatuous,

almost fanatical faith in the

magic of certain social symbols to cure

This is, no doubt, a neces-

but it is not without it- dangers.

have gained the power to remodel
our social order. Have we gained the
trol,

We

necessary poise, the scientific, historical,

and psychological knowledge that will

make our meddling safe?
There is, in all the discussion of evils
and the cures for them, a singular disregard of the psychological and historical
factors of the situation, and a
strange

forgetfulness of the

however important
readjustments
not he

made

material, the

may

social
he.

fact

and

that

political

the world can-

over a- long as the

mind- and bodies

human
of

men.

remain- the same. The relatively greater

importance of education, of physical
and mental health, of racial integrity,

>-\<-vy

kind of autoc-

racy or class rule or oppression or

pression of equality of opportunity
:

freedom
ture

re;

of

and cul-

for self-developmenl

of c

'-

plete liberty to realiz

and one's own personality; of escape from all old and

cramping conventions and institutions
of naturalness, initiative, power, will,
inner

o\\ n

I-

and efficiency.
These are our

ideals

and

to

most of

us they are so obvious that they seem

need no discussion.
They have
found expression in our current drama
and fiction, in our moving pictures, in
our
ks and magazines, and in all our
to

plan-

toi-

/-

social

reform.

them quite

to take

Si

social evils.

sary stage in the progress of social con-

from

of freedom

We

have come

for granted.

'f-expression <m Obsession?

Perhaps it may he worth while to examine these idea- with a little care. Athey are obviously good.

ideals

may

pass unchallenged.

Hut

it

T
is

not

that they are the highest

nor is it self-evident that they
are alone sufficient as a foundation for

self-evident
ideals,

social welfare.

age

present
these

seems rather that the

merely obsessed with

It
i>

idea.-, ju-t

a- other epochs of his-

tory like that of the ancient

Hebrews,

or that of Greece and llonie. or that of

the Middle Aye-, were obsessed with a

wholly dilfcrent

set

of idea-.

the Middle
\_ -.
and obedience were
the monastic virtues, and every am\\ e
bitious hoy aspired to he a monk.

For

instance,

poverty,

in

chastity,

look in vain

now

for

many

ardent devo-

29

\.\rr/:.\L

tees of poverty, chastity, or obedience.

Our

attitude

toward

medieval

these

idea- is one of humorous superiority,

not perhaps fully justified by the rela-

uisronr
symmetry,
propori ion.
moderation.
measure, and limitation of desires. Is
it safe to enter so passionately upon the
remodeling of our social institutions

as

with our eyes fixed so exclusively upon

any one circle of idea- ?

poetry.

is
perhaps the best
term defining our present day
philosophy of life or. possibly, self-

two civilizations
measured by such standards as social
stability or the development of the fine
arts, such as architecture, painting, and

tive differences in the

Self-expression

single

another set of ideas ruled in the

best period of Grecian civilization, likewise wholly different from ours. These
were temperance in the sense of balance and moderation, measure, limitaStill

harmony, symmetry,
and beauty. Francis Galton perhaps
spoke with some exaggeration when he

tion, order, form,

said thai the average intelligence of the

least two grades
But while we may
the ideals of the monks. Ave

realization,

or

The keynote

of

energy.

or

initiative,

modern painting, music,

and that of
In our
educational systems our aim is to develop all the latent energies and possibilities of the child.
He must express
and poetry

is

expression,

modern sculpture

is

energy.

himself, bring out the full richness of

his personality, give full scope to his in-

Athenian race was at

dividuality, develop to the utmost his

above our own.

genius and Ins talent.

smile at

and Avomanhood are attained, old social

conventions must not stand in the way

seriously those of the

must take very

Greeks as long as we are still using as

models so many of their masterpieces of
political philosophy, poetry, sculpture,

and

architecture, eloquence,
It is all a
tive.

our

literature.

matter of historical perspec-

Some

future period

may

smile at

to

liberty,

devotion

child-like

equality and fraternity, or self-expression, or the full, free

to the neglect

of

and abundant

many

life,

other equally

of

this

inner need of self-realization

and self-expression. Our laws must be

remade and our social institutions reconstructed so that each individual may
enjoy his full rights and come into posM'->ion of his full share of the world's
It Avould be a

goods.

had

superfluous

shame

Avealth

if

others

any

Avhile

lacked the means of self-development

and

self-culture.

This

important idea-.

When manhood

is

the expansive philosophy of

the age. the centrifugal motive in so-

Expansion
Philosophy of Life

Is the Philosophy of

In

all

our discussion

cial reconstruction

der, is

ideas

not a

Safe

about

new

so-

social or-

peculiar that the

so

hard

in this neAv social order.

equality,

self-expression,

are

little

iioav

which we are trying

realize
erty,

it

and

efficiency,

to

lib-

inward poise and harmony.

This

is

the

centripetal motive in society, the unify-

ing and integrating tendency.

opportunity,

and self-determination.

just the ones that already

mark

when compared with

other

this period

ciety, moving from within outward.

But the ancient Greeks thought it better to draw from without inward, to
observe limits and measure, to strive for

Germany's Experiment

in

Self-expres-

sion
It

would be interesting

to

attempt an
"When

past periods and past civilizations ? We

may be deficient in these virtues, but

evaluation of these tAvo methods.

have them in profuse abundance as

compared with other times, and we have
them in excess as compared with other
virtues, such as love of beauty and of

of justice in the case of the individual.

Ave

Plato was unable to find the definition

he solved the difficulty by examining
tin'

So
we have had an instructive

idea a- magnified in the state.

just recently

OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY

example of the

trial of this

philosophy

of self-expression in the case of a great

Germany

state.

five

years ago had a

295

spontaneity, of self-expression, does not

work well
musl he

the case of nation-, there

in

we imagim

so

deep longing for self-expression.

She
that she must expand, bring out
fell

the analogy,

for

a-

vidual

the

very

the full richness of her personality, de-

modern

velop to the utmosl

genius and her

In!-

culture, give full scope i" her peculiar

Old

individuality.

and

ventions

con-

international

between

treaties

states

must nut stand in the way of her inner

need of self-realization ami self-expresOld laws must he reinterpreted
sion.
might have her full share of
It would It a shame
other nations had superfluous colo-

so that -lif

world's goods.

tin-

if

i-

it

era.

ome

error in

regards the indi-

If there

evangel of our
is any one idea

now n is thai there is something intrinsically sound ami helpful in

prevalent

renouncing of old authorities ami

in favor of our primal in-

this

traditions
-t

inets.

dampen
sion,

impulse, nat ure, the

n-t im-t.

dampen

life to

ritual

to

these,

this inner need of self-expres-

demand

this

for joy,

i-

the only

sin.

This modern gospel of self-exprestakes innumerable forms.

With

nies while -he larked the sphere of self-

sion

development.
lint
rermany made the unhappy disry that there were other peoples

Nietzsche it is the will to power, gained

through tragic suffering and pain.
In
Christianity it is the triumphant realization of an essentially divine and

who

desired

also

had
"mission"

who

self-expression,

personality to conserve,

to

Five

fulfill.

years

spiritual individual life revealing it-elf

ago

in tin- typical modern expansive virtuesfaith, hope, and charity.

In
Bergson it appear- as the exaltation of
instinct and primal creative impulse.
In Goethe it i- pictured a- salvation
through successive forms of objei tive

was within Germany's

-:>.
She had valuable radii ions "I'
education and science, of art and phiphy. She hail great wealth, vast industries, and a fruitful commerce, and
-In- had the friendship and the resped
self-realization

world.

the

Self-realization

in

the

larger sense she could have had through

the practice of

minding

the

tin-

of her

Greek virtues and

own

In Browning it i> seen in

the wild joy of living, in buoyant faith.

experience.

optimism, and
ern mystic
ing

business.

It

i-

important

meaning and value

the

we

full
all

to

understand

recognize.

haps we do not

new

of tin-

and exuberant
It-

life.

the

idea of

value

It-

limitation- perr

realize.

I'u

many

in

tin- presenl day it seems like tin- very

word of promise. It emancipates us
so we think from all the narrow and
cramping and dwarfing ami galling reel rictions of the pasl ami sets uto
\'\-<->'

to live, t"

breathe deeply, to de-

Even

love.
is

with the madness and

tin-

it

am!

fuller life through the conflict of

motives and through rich subjective ex-

perience.

n the

modern drama, some-

times nothing hut the experience of -in

it-elf will

In

all

bring

the

common

mot

ive,

nt.

ii!'

it

to

complete fruition.

these form- of self-expression,

motive

marked by
impat ience

is

the centrifugal

craving for excitewith rest raint, a

longing for freedom and expansion, for

fication of consciousness.

It

will

new gospel

of energy, of affirmation, of

rest-

fury of living.

the

It emancipated our
emancipating our women.
emancipate our laborers.
f this

mod-

modern psychological novel

is
coming into -ome mysterious larger

In the

slaves.

i-

the

God's encompassing arms, but,

Jean Christophe, an intoxication

velop a- we please.
It

in

no longer passive

in

as in

Limitations mnl Dangers of the Centrifugal Motive

it

enhancement of

With
ern

life

this

and

life, fur

muc dominant
literature,

it

the intensi-

in
is

our modfoolish to

NATURAL HISTORY

296

speak of social or racial or national decadence. Clearly, the world is not -\\\It has
fering from age and decadence.

will soon be a limit to economic and

commercial expansion.
In fact perhaps the virtues of the future will be

enthusiasm of youth, but with

an almost
childish impetuosity and imprudence, a
tendency toward no remoter end than

not expansion, not self-expression, but

the

it

irile

also the defects of youth,

the mere intensification of the momentary mood of joy and strength.

And

and limitation.

self-control

be sure that these latter

avc

may

the surer road to peace and happiness?

is a higher kind of selfthan that found through

Possibly there
realization

self-expression. Self-realization

What

is

Chech"

of the "Inner

Need

lacking in

self-expression

is

all

these forms of

"inner

the

check."

the motive of restraint and reserve, the

discipline of the wise man who looks

beyond
phrase,

the
it

is

present. 1

In

Platonic

'-justice," the justice

which

young man owes to his coming

years, the justice which each generation
the

which each
Every
the full and

to the next, the justice

owes

individual

owes

to

society.

young man is free to live

abundant life up to the point of not infringing upon the strength and integrity of his coming manhood. Eve regeneration is free to live the full and
abundant life up to the point of not infringing upon the health and happiness
Every indiof the next generation.
the
full and
live
to
free
vidual is
abundant life up to the point of not
infringing upon the full and abundant
the others in the group.
the limitations come quickly and

life of all

But

Therefore, restraint

fast.

is

necessary;

and will be increasingly necessary.

There is no error here in the analogy between the nation and the individual.

Germany complained

war that she was

before

by a
surrounding iron ring. To be fettered
by an iron ring is painful. She longed
for expansion. But the world has had
a wholesome lesson from the war.
Hereafter expansive nations will understand that they must do their expandThe
ing within their own borders.
days of territorial expansion are gone
the

And

by.
1

it is

fettered

to be feared that there

Compare Paul Elmer More, Platonism, Chap-

ter V.

can

not be

may

in-

deed be the highest goal of human endeavor, but the self to be realized may
be the larger self of our collective being, including succeeding generations.
This is nothing, of course, save the
age-old antagonism between liberty and
justice.
It is merely the habit of our
modern thought that we have become
so enraptured with the first of these
that we have overlooked the vital importance of the second. Of course, we
hear a great deal now about justice, but
it is social justice that we have in mind,
that glorious social state in which each
class shall enjoy all the fullness and
richness of life that any other class enIt is not at all that

joys.
tice

which Plato taught

kind of jus-

us. consisting

not in having, but in doing one's

share.

Plato understood,

as

all

full

the

older teachers did, that the centripetal

forces in society

must balance the cenwe expect stability in

With Plato justice was

trifugal forces, if

our social
the

life.

centripetal

integrating

principle.

was realized when every class, and

every individual, performed its function in the state in plain terms, did
It was a socialistic state, but
its duty.
evidently the fundamental purpose was
different from that of our modern socialistic state, in winch the attention is
focused more upon our rights than
upon our duties.
It

Socialism as it exists in theory today

unfortunately,
no radical

involves,

change in our current spiritual ideals.

It accepts without much question the
philosophy of the full and abundant
life, and proposes usually a series of administrative

and industrial

changes,

OUR
which

it

tain r\

ils

is

wraith

of

hoped

of

iht"

will

ENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY

do away with cer-

time, sucb as inequality

and opportunity, and

exploitation

-h

the

of

The emphasis in all tl

modern movements i- put upon getl

classes.

one's

full

ing

share of the good things

world food,

the

leisure,

the

Laboring

clothing,

wealth,

and opportunity to the end

al-

ways of comfort, happiness, self-expression,

self -development.

self-realization,

The ancient

on the
which the atten-

socialistic state,

other hand, was one

in

abolished,

:<:

nature in

assisting

by

uot

providing powers of resistance to disbut

ease,

devices

by

men

protect

to

from the causes of disease. Inequality

between the sexes is to be removed. qoI
by fostering respeel for womanhood and
motherhood, hut by votes for women
and political privili
would not he understood as belittling the absolute value of democracy,
and socialism, and feminism, ami prohibition, and a League of Nation-: but
we over-emphasize their total relative
I

benefits to be enjoyed, but on the Loyal

value for social welfare, even if we

consider only the welfare of the presenl

part in the whole undertaking which

generation.

No

each was to play to the end of having a

And
healthy and permanent society.

without

the

integrating

presence

of

they well understood that in the long

run the individual found his greatesl
happiness, his highest good, when he
fixed his attention on the permanence,
stability and health of the social group.
A social group in which the human

sense.

tion was focused, ooi on the individual

units focus their attention

each his

full

upon getting

share will not bring to

its

justice

The world

forces.

wheel,

will

held

is

fly

together
force-.

centripetal

fect

state

is

one

in

which

certain

Like

into piece- unless

it

by equally powerful
These integrating

forces are measure, self-control, obedi-

ence,

for

respect

law

and authority.

restraint, limitation of desires, the feel-

As one writer has

superabundance of vital
what we need is vital control.

ing of obligation.

conception of the per-

today by

stirred

said,

fur modci-n

Platonic

i-

it

the

the

centrifugal

in

survive

motive

powerful

members

as full and abundant a lifi

group in which the attention is fixed
upon doing each his full part.

will

society

we have

energy

'The finishing touch has finally

n
given to our philosophy of expansion

who has shown

"evils," such as poverty, inequality, in-

by

temperance, clashes between classes,

and war- between states, are to be ab-

repression of our in-t incts and desires

sent.

Poverty

is

to be abolished,

uoi

Freud,

Why.

dangerous.

is

now and then

singularly wholesome

through efficiency, scientific management and new mechanical inventions,

and by new laws regulating the production and distribution of wealth.
War between nation- is to be aholished, not by curbing our instincts
of pugnacity, not by education in re-

ahotit

uew political contrivance such as

a League of Nation-,
[ntemperam
to be done away with, not by making

men strong to resisl temptation, but by

an ad of Legislation removing the occasion of temptation.
Disease i- to be

uaiive,

danger

the

natural

impulses.

read in

for

society!

this

hut
It

discussion

inhibiting our
Freud might have
id'

certain ancient

certain wise teacher

who

writing of a
-aid. "If

any

come after me. Id him denj

himself and take up his cross and fol-

man
low

will

me."

The

straining our expansive desires, but by

e

very

really

dangerous

for the individual,

by self-denial and a limitation of desires, hut by the increase of wealth

is

yes.

us that the

now i- for equality of

But opportunity for
pressed for an answer, we

great cry

opportunity.

what

1 f

opportunity for self-development.

Really it i- opportunity for advancement, for wealth, for power. We seem
say

to

be

blind

to

the existence of other

NATURAL HISTORY

298

higher and more enduring values. The

society which we picture for the future

always built on the Chautauqua plan.

think we want is physical
comfort, leisure for self-improvement,
peace and quid in which we may work.
is

What we

freedom from interference and escape

from fear; but actually life is something very different. Our socialistic society of the future pictures man as surrounded by comforts, working' six

day and "enjoying" ten hours

of leisure which he is supposed to spend
hours
in

self-development; and

when

all

this

happens it is assumed that he will he

happy and contented and peaceful.
A very little knowledge of human
psychology ought to dispel this dream.
Life is anything hut a Chautauqua

and must
There are
have the zest of struggle.
values higher than comfort and leisure
and material goods, and other virtues
which we need to emphasize more than
In an age of
faith, hope, and charity.
despair and depression for the masses

gathering.

Life

is

a struggle

of people such as the beginning of the

Christian era, the expansive, outward

and upward-looking Christian virtues
were like a great light from Heaven. In
a vital, expansive, centrifugal period like

the present

it

may

be necessary for us

and harmonizing virtues of the Greeks, wisdom, temperance, moderation, and restraint; and it may be necessary for us
to revise our list of highest values and
in place of w ealth, leisure, liberty.
equality, and opportunity, write for a
to return to the integrating

while conservation, limitation, integra-

we have a great and abundant

What we are trying to do in
all these modern forms of social reconstruction is to hit upon some social
or political device by which we may live
the full and exuberant life and allow
these

measure.

There
our neighbor to do the same.
never was so much world-wide sympathy
for the neighbor who does not live the
full and exuberant life as there is now.

We

love

pressed

We

man.
bor,

and sympathize with every opand every down-trodden

class

are taught to love our neigh-

and we have learned

him

to love

with such intensity that we allow no

one to exploit him but ourselves
As
Professor Babbitt says. "Our twentieth
century civilization is a singular mixture of altruism and high explosives."

We

love our neighbor

every joy.

and we wish him

In his need

with charitable

gifts.

Ave

shower him

If others abuse

him, we are ready to fight for him but

our conception of love does not quite
extend to the notion of limiting our
own desires for our neighbor's good.
It does not quite suffice to check the
megalomania of our capitalistic classes,
nor persuade them voluntarily to bear
their just proportion of public taxes,
:

nor teach them willingly to share their

It does not
profits with their workers.
quite suffice to lead our laboring classes,
when once they find power in their
hands, to use this power in accordance
with reason and moderation.
It is

owing

to accidental reasons that

the necessity for restraint and limitation has not been laid upon us in recent
times.

The discovery

of America, the

wisdom

industrial revolution, the Pacific fron-

and art and literature and heroes, have

sprung from periods of storm and
It is such periods that have
stress.
given birth to opportunitij : but it was

tierall these have opened to us a new

world which has allowed the human

tion.

The great things

of

life,

spirit

an indefinite expansion foreign

There has been for

to its long history.

human

history

not opportunity for self-development,

a short period

but opportunity for self-control, yes,

need of the "inner check," and it has

been almost forgotten.
To be sure, this wild display of centrifugal forces has brought no essentially valuable human product, no great

even for heroism and for love.

To be sure, we hear much about love,
but it has come to take the forms of
Of both of
sympathy and charity.

in

little

OUR CENTRIFUGAL SOCIETY

do Grecian temples,

literature or art,

qo Gothic cathedrals, do Shakespearian

drama Dor has ii brought peace among
;

men, Dor phj sical stamina of race, dot

freedom from ice and misery and crime,
\

nor justice, dot reverence.

plenty,

of

nor graft, Dor

have been

strife.

o the midsl

lately

Inly

one"-

first

of

writer-

drama regard our

many

that

recent

it-

and

ancient

first

The whole world

senses and recorded
protest

instinctive

the

We

from the theory of limitless ex-

get

injustice

We

ihurch.

always think of our

law- a- being "handed down.'* and we

resent having our laws handed down.

which

ultimate

that

pansion in the case of nations hut it has

not thought of applying this to the in-

it

want
i-

to

that

make them. But what we forwe have made them and that

ha- taken centuries ages, to do

'Idle critical

wars

nation-,

between

tions

world is getting tilled up

and the nerd for the practice of restraint and the limitation of our de-

equitable distribution of wealth

>ur little

growth

in

the

The

yearly.

increases

sires

population

rapid

Europe

of

more rapid increase in the

America-, makes -elf-control and selfit-

-i ill

order
.1

necessary

increasingly

denial
i-

way

not to give

to

if

social

anarchy.

Whole Civilization Might Collapsi

mi Attempted Readjustment tn
New Moral Values
Xietz-che

u,-i-

well

in

revalue

represent

ence of long
ciety,

the

aire- of

residual

human

life

women, intemperance, has blinded us

to other

problems which

affect

the very

existence of society, namely, social or-o.ial stability, and physical

and racial health. And since the whole
world at present is in a very radical
and iconoclastic mood, halting at no
thorough-going change in political and
social institutions, it has become vital
that we shall turn our thoughts to these

der and

What
the

are to be the element- of order,

centripetal

The

ciety?

forces
forces

in

the

and anarchy
newspaper page reveal- them.

chaos
tense

individualism

modern thought,

new

so-

working toward
are many.
Any
inherent

The

in-

in

all

the disintegration of

experi-

and of old established political

programs, the constantly growing lack
of respect and reverence for old in-t i-

and

tutions,

during which mankind ha-

covered that there are certain

portunity, political justice

the

and optoward our

other problems.

aware that the

life
which he

and exuberant
preached involved a "trans-valuation of
all values."
But the trans-valuation of
moral value- i- a hazardous business.
life itself which has determined
It
ithese values, and they cannot ho revoked by the mere will id' heralds of
The value- which they would
olt.
full

a-

it.

importance of such ques-

dividual.

ain!

and

old rules of conduct.

thority, <e>d. or the king, or parent-, or

against

of our

fiction

has been spoken to this cult of

has awakened to

flows

would think

>ne

hasty

our moral code-, as the arbitrary pronouncement- of some external au-

the

universal expansion.

it-

they

emphatic

Germany,

of

"No"

posterity but

or

society

affect

signs ap-

the crushing de-

In

escaped.

lie

feat

may he deferred for many year-.

may light upon one's mother,
family, one'- children. They may

happen.

peared to teach us that limitation belongs i" the nature of things and cannot

line-

meanwhile

have the

many

and always something unpleasant

happened.
These unpleasant happen-

Bui these defects

a

of these old

values has been attempted

racial

in--

there ha- been stirred within us only

desire for still more rapid expansion.

The trans-valuation

curity.

They

noticed, and

little

conduct which are ueeessary if men will

live in social relation- in peace and se-

abolished greed,

has not

it

299

pull

so-

dis-

-tate-

in

fact

the suspicion of any-

thing that is old and established, the

powerful influence of modem fiction

.V.I

300

TUBAL HISTORY

and the modern drama, the Loss of the

religious faith with which our moral
sanctions have been closely associated,
and the pragmatic philosophies of all

group

tlie

unit,

the

community

the

spirit,

keep-

group

itself a

members

of

group

the

all

eagerly performing

willingly,

loyally,

spirit,

healthy organic-

Then

kinds that

severally their proper functions.

are

justice prevails within the group, laws

rule in the present these

some of the forces working against

are obeyed

HH-ial integration.

This

not to say that any

is

old ideas or these old

of the

institutions are

perfect^ or holy, or even good.

only

It i-

that the obedience to laws, the restraint

and

self-control

social

which are necessary for

order, have been in the

human

brain associated with these things. A

wholly new set of motives for social or-

perhaps conceivable, resting upon

none of these old institutions, hut the
human brain changes -lowly, and an
der

i>

and order

is

preserved.

League of Nations, to prevent that

form of social suicide which a modern
war has become, seem-, a- it truly i-. a
great step forward in human progress,
but in the long history of human development social integration and social
order within a state have depended to
a large extent on the menace of danger
to the state

menace

from

shall

lie

withoitt.

When

withdrawn,

that

social in-

tegration within each state will be in-

entire civilization

creasingly difficult.

process of

The spirit of nationalism at the moment, to be sure, burns brightly, but

the whole trend of the time is toward
internationalism, due to the community
of world interests in international labor
movements, international commerce,

at

might collapse in the

crude and reckless attempt

readjustment.
The disintegrating forces in society

many, and apparently increasing.

are

It

our civilization is to he
saved, to turn our attention very seri-

is

necessary,

ously,

if

at once, to the integrating

and

which look to social

stability, to law and order.
In the past there have been three
great institutions which have acted as
powerful forces of integration the
State, the Church, and the Family
the integrating power of these institutions depending not merely on external
sanctions, but on the powerful motive
and allegiance.
of personal loyalty
Since in the new society we have probably to look forward to the constantly

hanking, science and education.

The trend

forces, to the forces

decreasing authority of these three institutions,

it

is

of the gravest impor-

tance to inquire what

is

to take their

is

state,

nor to the church, nor to the

is going to be a powerful in-

family,

tegrating force in the

vital

things

now

new

are

society.

labor

clubs,

manufacturers'

replaced by loyalty to these countless

social groups; but unfortunately there

no promise that loyalty to these

is going to be in any sense a

groups

to take the place of nationalism in

principle of social integration.

new

and

its

order.

When

the state

is

emblems are ever present

senses, or

when

it is

small
to the

unified by art

and

unions,

and combinations, and countless

other self-protective organizations and
The old
combinations of every sort.
loyalty to the state and the church and
the family has been in large measure
trusts,

In particular we must inquire what

the

The

unions,

workingmen's councils, women's federated

is

place.

of events, therefore, forces

us to believe that loyalty neither to the

contrary,

it

On

the

appears often to be a source

of social strife.

The

discussion of this problem in

its

when

positive aspects does not lie within the

very existence of the state is

threatened by rival states, as in the recent war, then social integration within

purpose of this article. Possibly a solution is not to be found in any political.

economic, or social readjustments, hut
onlv in a change in human ideals.

religion, as in ancient Athens, or

the

the state

is

relatively perfect.

Then

the

American Indian Poetry

Bv

II

E R B E R T

E myths and songs

American [ndians are

Tl

of

pari

he

Bu1

o1

told that: this

our aational heritage along with

the hills and plains thai were wrested
These pieces of
from their creators.
unwritten literature, first transcribed
into strange hooks and symbols by
ethnologists and then translated into
direct and unvarnished English, are
sources of inspiration for our poets as
potential

as

Mabinogion

the

in

the

pealing to

literature

same

relation

to

from the [roquois, the incidents of his

from the myths of the Ojibwa,
and he casl these materials into the
poetic mold of the Norse saga of the
ohl World.
Bui writers of today are
keep closer to the sources

consull native pieces in transla :

n a recently published hook

we
an interesting anthology of American Indian poel ry and a presentation

tiun.

of "interpretations" in the -pint of this

am
When

>r

i-

think

him.

(if

!oas1

child says

waves,

at the

me

funis

["hen she

with unripe salmon-berries.

Kiowa

from the

thi<

where

spaces

nighl

at

of the open

winds

the

loosened rein

And
And

And what

tipi,

-,,
sinesings a song for me.
,-,

striking phrase

is

contained

Navaho song

the following

in

with

ride

That wind, that wind

Shakes my tipi, shakes my

to

the

magpie

new

he

pleasanl

fields

known

to

i>

Cronyn. Editor.

Thi

York,

North
I

America

matter con-

greal

difficulties

Even more sustained

in

transla-

efforts like

the following passage from the Iroquois

may
lat

2 can
of Rites

and

he

rendered

straightforward

in

manner.

he seen

ion

at

glance.

run- exacl

The

trans-

across from lin

line

Path " the

I

of

direel

although the construction of English

varies widely from that of [roquois, as

their wounded men

voice iU' their weeping
conies back to us.

New

dawns!

ll

offer

natural

Sioux women
pass to and fro wailing
hej gal her up

'uli;!!!-

Bere underneath

ings are the footsteps

The simple ami

Booh

\\

tained in the poem- quoted above does

For instance there

something we understand in this one
poems.

V.

Id-

ef morning.

mil

'I'lic

hite of

dawns!

It

tion.

Tlir

\\

this

to

many

The Magpie! TheMagpie!

There are tender or tremendous pictures drawn in the simple word- of many

Liveright,

with longing

filled

Look around

special seekers.

it

the Northwesl

hi- fr

My

book presents much

the public, it leaves un-

While

poetry.

visited

said

lie

'

find

thai

psychology is this
comes from the

that

ribe

story

t<>

lompas-

More ap-

still

Or

wrote Hiawatha he
took the oame and character of his hero

and

it-

of

lair.

environ-

that

When Longfellow

t<>

in

ii-

of

ment.

prepared

Although

Wales and England. They are products

em ironmenl thai we have made
our nun and they express deep human
in

1\

Song

not a

i-

of love-hurl

of the

feelings

I, iii

of a shock to be

'thin--

the

or

E X

is

it

-ion.

Merlin

of

tales

SPIND

J.

Boni

.illlt-i

and

Horatio

Hale.

Thi

Iroqui

ton's Library of Aboriginal American Litera\ in ber

1,
153.
p.
Philadelphia,
B83.
1

301

NATURAL HISTORY

302
I

.1

1\

Woe woe
Hearken ye

[aihhaih

athontek

Niyonkha
Haihhaih

We

Tejoskawayenton.
Haihhaih
Skahentakenyon.
Hai!
Shatyherarta
[otyiwisahongwe
Hai!
Kayaneengoha.
Netikenen honen
Nene kenyoiwatatye

The

Kayaneengowane.
Hai!
Wakaiwakayonnheha.
Hai!
Netho watyongwententhe.

The great League.

Woe! woe!
The

is

a class of

become a

thicket.

clear places are deserted.

Woe
They are in their graves
They who established it

Woe!
The great League.
Yet they declared
endure

It should

Woe!

'

There

cleared land has

Woe! woe!

tions

are diminished!

Their work has grown oM.

Woe
Thus we are become miserable.

Indian composithe emotional

midway between

outburst of the short songs and the long

In truth, thou wast nearly upset;

And hadst to keep hold of my boat strings,

And give me part of thy load.
O yes, Savdlat and I are old acquaintances.

ceremonial pieces that are blocks in a

Among

great philosophical structure.

Very

different in feeling but of equal

sustained

merit as

loquial

poem

the

ter

Mexico. 2

the Eskimo, for instance,

we

find col-

poems full of excellent characdrawing and understandable humor.

It would be difficult to improve upon
the matter of these verses in which
Savdlat and Pulangit-Sissok pay their
respects

to

each

other

in

terms

of

raillery. 1

Savdlat speaks:

The South shore,

yes, the South shore I
know it
Once T lived there and met Pulan git-Si ssok,
A fat fellow who lived on halibut, O yes, I
know him.
Those South-shore folks can't talk
They don't know how to pronounce our
language
;

Truly they are dull fellows;

They don't even talk alike:
Some have one accent, some another;
Nobody can understand them:
Tlir\ ,-an scarcely understand each other.

PULANGIT-SlSSOK SPEAKS

My
And

effort

Tewa Indians

is

of

love

New

breath, under the willows by the

water side we used to sit
there the yellow Cottonwood bird came

little

and sang.
That I remember and therefore I weep.
Under the growing corn we used to sit.
And there the little leaf bird came and sang.
That I remember ami therefore I weep.
There on the meadow of yellow flowers we
used to walk
Oh. my little heart!
little breath!
There on the meadow of blue flowers we used
to walk.
Alas! how long ago that we two walked in
that pleasant way.
Then everything was happy, but, alas! how
long ago.
There on the meadow of crimson flowers we
used to walk.
Oh, my little breath, now 1 go there alone in
sorrow.

Oh,

my

The

Savdlat and I are old acquaintances;

He wished me extremely well at times
Once I know he wished I was the best boatman on the shore;
It was a rough day and I in mercy took his
boat in tow
Ha! ha! Savdlat, thou didst cry most pitiful;
Thou wast awfully af eared
yes,

of

religious

especially

well

poems that are found

developed

among

the

Pawnee, the Xavaho. and the Pueblo

tribes of the Southwest may have been
inspired, in part at least, by the ancient
literary products of

America.

Mexico and Central

Unfortunately the anthologv

1
American Aboriginal Poetry
D. Gr. Brinton.
(Proceedings, Numismatic and A.ntiquarian Socirtfi of Philadelphia, 1SS7-1SS9). pp. 21-22.

- H.
J. Spinden, Home Songs of the Tewa Indians (American Museum Journal, Vol. XV,
February, 1915), p. 78.

AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY

Nailed on a branch,
o Tuyallay,

before as gives no examples of Aztecan

or Mayan poetry and only one piece

Where

from Peru.

these re-

She

where something close to the

drama was developed in connection
with spectacular ceremonies and where
specially composed verses were recited

best

Literature in

products of

are

names

or

rejoicing

great

of

occasions

solemnity.

To

begin with Peru, there

for

four different

plays

among

range

from

the

of

covering the

[ncas,

tragedy

sorts

Sir

farce.

to

Clements Markham has given us the

[nca drama of .1/"/ Ollantay in two
But this
states. Literal and Literary.

is

More ponderous and impress^

hymns to Qira-cocha, the unknowable,
and ever-benevolent Suquote 2
1
preme Being of the Eneas.

all-powerful

hut a portion of one of tin-,'

Uira-COCha!

Whether hou
Whether thou
I

drama

in

"U

its

cast

much

so

is

Europe

drama

the

like

of

I, or,

form thai doubts have been

authenticity.

Tuyallayof

my

small

little

tuya is
and

finch,

in

of Hie universe,

of reproduction,

1',

perhaps around

)r

<

Thy splendid throne and

)h hear me
From the sky above,
(

name

the

.'

the play.

Nusta

or,

Whore art thou

Thou mayest be above,
Thou mayesl lie below,

lifted sometains native material.

In one
what by European influences.
scene the chorus sings the following
harvest song that has an allegorical

reference to the Love plot

I.

art male.
art female,

Whatsoever thou mayest

O Lord of divination,

surely con-

It

her plumes,

Tuyallay?

cut up,
Tuyallay,
For stealing grain,
O Tuyallay.
See the tat,'.
O Tuyallay,
Of robber birds,
O Tuyallay.

gions

,,n

her heart,

is

Tuyallay?

Where

the

briefly

sketch

therefore

will

303

which thou mayesl

In

Prom

means

the sea beneal

be,

h,

In which thou mayest

Ireator of the world,

prim

sceptre.

lie,

Maker of

Thou must
!u

My

Tuyallay,
Nusta's field,
O Tuyallay,

Thou must

not

The

Ir.-e.

O
But
<

that

an

centuries

lime i- there,
Tuyallay.

>

make

|uick,

tl

Tuyallay,
Ask Piscaca,
O Tuyallay,

Sir

Clements
I

Markham,

....

Vi.rk

>f

the

m-

gala occasions

Tuyallay,

seize

\.i>.

in

Mayan

cit ies

the fifth and

we

sixth

find

the

ruined

recited by the Aztecs on

we have fragments

us realize the world's I"--

destruction

of

this

literature. 3

//..

Incas

of

Peru,

in

that

the

The

1,1, 'in. p.
100.
Brinton, Ancient Nahuatl Poetry
'Daniel <<
Brinton's Librarj of Aboriginal American Litera
B87
tur,'. Number VII.)
Philadelphia,

L910

re-

theaters.

We'll eut thy claws,

To

those

mains of courts surrounded by stepped

wall-.
These probably served a- amphi-

set,

Tuya

flourished

Tuyallay,
rap is

tli,'

Tli,'
(

es

from Central

especially

stages or plat forms.

Tuyallay,

Tli,'

remain-

scanty,

are

Bishop Landa tells

us that in northern Yucatan dramatic
representations took place mi prepared

sv

is

fail

containing verse.

Tuyallay,

me

literary

America

3weet for Eo
fruit

Lor, Is.

roll,

Tuyallay,
The harvest maize,
O Tuyallay,
The grains are white,
O Tuyallay,

The

men

all

all

For longing to see thee;

For tin' ~ol,' desire to know thee.

of
eyes

I, or,]

not feed,

NATURAL HISTORY

504

sixty songs of King Nezahualeoyotl

were held by the Aztecs as examples of

They adbest.
mirably expressed the philosophy of rat.
poetic

the

art

at

its

drink, and be merry.

is

addressed

Nezahualeoyotl

these words by

in

brother

poet

And thou, beloved companion, enjoy the

beauty of these flowers, rejoice with me, easl
out fears, for if pleasure ends with life, so
also does pain.

and raise aloft our strength and

shields,

courage.

The religious chants preserved by

Sahagun are written in archaic XaThe phrases must have sounded
huatl.
a- strangely in the ears of the

more

above inert' pleasure

was recognized, however, in subsequent

and

permanence

as contrasted

carefully trans-

lated these chants are unintelligible to

persons ignorant of Aztecan beliefs and

responsibility

lines,

Even when

so.

Therefore

usages.

common

Indian of those days as the verses of

hancer do in our ears today perhaps

for g

human

with

to follow this chant

have found it wise

with a fairly de-

tailed explanation.

deeds

SOXG OF THE YELLOW-FACED ONE

vanities.

I fear no oblivion for thy just deeds, standing as thou dost in thy place appointed by
the Supreme Lord of All. who governs all

things.

i.

In Tzommolco, my fathers, shall I affront

you
In Tetemocan shall I affront you ?
.'

ii.

Poetry was flowery speech to the Aztecs and the symbolism of flowers i- repeated in lovely phrases. For instance
:

my

Weeping, I, the singer, weave

flowers of sadness
.

myself with the jewels of saddest

my hands are the weeping flowers of war; I lift my voice in sad songs; I
offer a new and worthy song which is beautiful an<l melodious; I weave songs fresh as
I array

dew of flowers

Let
let it

my soul be draped in various flowers;

be intoxicated by them
.

Lords, the

In C'hiueyocan, the House of Disguises, the

masquerade has come down.
in.

In Tzommolco they have begun to sing

In Tzommolco they have begun to sing
Why come they not hither
Why come they not hither.
IV.

Tzommolco human beings

The Sun has come up
1

my

yucca tree booms.

song of

flowers; in

the

In the temple of Meeatlan, O,

Human

shall be given

beings shall be given.

v.

The
forth

divine
.

flowers

of

dawn

blossom

Commentary. I.

The "Yellow-Faced One"

is

of the Fire God who had many

Tzoinnioleo was a temple to this
god in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and Tetemocan is probably a second name for the same
building.
The question "shall I affront you"
means "shall I withhold from you the prescribi d
It is a formula that is often used.
The
sacrifice."
plural "my fathers" may have been addressed to
the several priests in charge of the ceremony who
were regarded as representatives and impersonators of the god.
II. llecatlan was possibly a temple of music;
at any rate the "yucca tree booms" refers to the
beating of the drums which were made of the
hollow trunk of the yucca.
The next name. Chiueyocan. may be translated "Place of Eight-ness,"
but even then the term is cryptic enough.
It

ptive

now

ceases the song

effort he has grown rich, to lordship

he has attained.
is miraculous, his being pardoned.

Without

youths, here there are skilled men in the

flowers of shields, in the flowers of the pendent eagle plumes, the yellow flowers which
they grasp; they pour forth noble songs,
noble flowers; they make payment with their
blood, with their bare breasts; they seek the
And you, O friends,
bloody field of war.
put on your black paint, for war, for the
path of victory; let us lay hands on our

other

In Tzommolco

name

names.

It

VI.

Lady

woman

utter the speech

of the House of Mist utter the speech

little

abroad.
1

Eduard

Seler. !>!

religiosen Gesiingi

der alten

n aner.
'

was possibly a temple where dancers donned their

animal masks and other ceremonial regalia.
These stanzas relate the proIII. and IV.
gression of the ceremony and call the priests to
with human victims.
The Fire
have been the same as the Sun
was made at sunrise.
These words refer to the rewards given
V.
by the Fire God to the person on whose vow or
petition
the ceremony
had been called. This
divinity was also God of Wealth and Honors.
He
was Dleaspd by worship and he heaped sudden
wealth and high rank upon his worshipers.
VI. The last stanza doubtless has some esoteric
connection with the preceding stanzas. The person
referred to is possibly a mountain goddess connected
in some mythical way with the Fire God.
Possibly
she is requested to herald his fame and powers.
a

sacrificial

God appears

God and

rite
to

the sacrifice

AMERICAN INDIAN POETRY

This Aztecan chant takes up events
in succession and gives enough detail to
indicate this succession to anyone familiar with the words and the religious

background.

musl be evident to the

It

Let the earth be covered with fog; rover the

earth with rains.

Great waters, rain-, cover the earth.
_
"\ er the earth.
Lighifa
Lei thunder be heard ever the earth;
i

thunder be heard
Let thunder be hear. over the
I

reader that the feeling of mystery and

illusion gained from the first perusal

when we

largely disappears
-

of even a

ssion

fact-

am! formulae known to the creators. In

the absence of this knowledge we get an
emotional reaction, it is true. Our in-

make

naturally

that

telligence,

sense out

<>\'

words,

strives

to

teased and

i-

The

poems <^ the Pueblo

Indian-, of the Navaho, Pawnee, and
Omaha, are filled with formulae and
with more or less esoteric and priestly
religious

the Indian- call "high

For instance, the repetition of

phrases

prayer to the four directions and to

The above ami the below is a formula of
a

The association with

world points of special color-, hunting
animal-, game animal-, birds, etc. i- a
universality.

developed cosmology of Mexico,

greater gods of the northern Indians
the

general,

in

terizations that

we

ami

floods.

who

are

They

move

in

clouds

But there are lesser

commonly

animals,

charac-

definite

find in Mexico.

are formless powers that

plants,

personificatio]

of

etc.

the

sociations for n- of the

same

[ndian

invocations

that

sort

impending

divinity.

consistently

mane

carry

often

dreadful sincerity ami give

sense of

The argument
through

reality to subjective ideality.

is

objective

beauty, bul

in

reasoning mind that would know

the Makers of

my

low

up

immersed

live

While the
as

fol-

wandering on the
For tin r
To form them fair, for them
For tin in I null
In old age

trail of
I

beauty.

labor.

In these words i- expressed the philosophy that beauty is truth and perfection
in use and being.

The question

Storms

earth mother four times with

heavens
cli

!"

asked by

person

words on reading
"1 fow
American [ndian verse i- this
much of the effect is real and how much
Someone has somei- adventitious?"
where observed that when you learn a
new language you acquire a new soul.
skilled in The use of

Words

are not

merely the currier- of

thought, they are also to

large extent

New sets oi
mold- of thought.
words involve new ways of thinking bethe

tween objects and

many

covered with the banked

may

ideas.

Literal trans-

put into the language of the

second part some original quality of the

language of the first part, bul more
often it puts in a new and picturesque
something that comes from mere contrasl between two systems of word order ami word association.

Language makes

possible the trans-

ference of idea- from one

to

another

only

because

human mind
articulated

sounds-

or graphic symbols that substi-

tute for

them

the

in

writing- rot upon a

acceptance for

common
word and common

social

flow
tin'

They

the beauty that does,

is

it

the beauty thai seems.

not

Note how

the Sin appeal through the eve and ear

Let

arts

Their

prayers for rain as are like-

or weave on cloth.

lation

they do for the original American-.

to the

re

the aesthetic

with magic.

filled

cause they establish new associations be-

course,

of these gods can uever havi

Indian-

these

wise the designs they pain! on pottery

pietographic device probably taken over

by the northern tribes from the highly

n;

To

are useful and

that

words."

lack,

regions of

sis

Navaho god created he sang

Thwarted.

let

earth.

are in pos-

portion of the

305

basis of

the meaning.

experience for
But just as the art of

NATURAL III>TOBY

:;ih;

weaving

varies

from

one

another

because

tools,

materials,

place, to

and

world and

in classifications of the states

of matter but they are

weak

in

words

present or qualify the subjective

ideas of construction varv. so the art of

that

in sounds or presound symbols, is modified

and limited by the mechanical possibiliin the
ties and suggestions inherenl

world and the states of mind. Yet. far

from being materialistic, the Indians
recognized a persistent duality in nature and each thing had its soul.

presenting though!

serving

in

it

language.

particular

Textile

Poetry is design in
words and in any particular language
must also adjust itself to construction.
The device of rhyme, for instance, is not always possible. Rhythm
of one kind or another is usually presof construction.

i!

ent because primitive

]>

serns

Some

design,

properly speaking, must follow the lines

are usually

anthropologists.

especially

Frank Cashing. Alice Fletcher. Washington Matthews, and Jeremiah CurIndian songs and
tin, have treated
myths in literary fashion.
But they
have worked from native texts and so
have not gone far astray on the fundamental meanings of the original words.

The

criticism of their translations lies

not so

much

tion.

An

requirements of the singing voice.

Eepetition often gives rise to stanza
forms especially when there is an or-

in denotation as connotaEnglish word may have approximately the same meaning as an

Indian word and yet have entirely different associations. They have given a
poetic quality where there should he a
poetic quality
hut perhaps they have
endowed the rose with the fragrance of

derly variation combined with the repe-

the violet.

Accent i- common in polysyllabic languages but the primitive singer

does not hold himself strictly to these
sung.

accents.

may

Syllables

lengthened, reduplicated,

be

slurred,

etc.,

to

meet

tlic

Thus

an extempore song of
virtues in a funeral ceremony a qualifying phrase may vary between
set
phrases. For example:
tition.

When

in

it

comes

to a

second remove

such as is seen in the "interpretation"'

of Indian verse we are on -till more
doubtful ground.

Even the most premodes

tentious interpreters of Indian

She

is

My

daughter

She

dead, the lorn,! oiu

daughter is dead, dead!

My

dead,

generous one,

thi
is

For inthought make mistake-.

might place greater faith in
the emotional and intuitive judgments
of Mary Austin if the poem chosen by
of

dead, dead!

is

stance, one

In the translation of poetry there are

prose and the poetical methods.
'I'hr prose method is to translate simply
the thought, and the natural tendency
the

of the followers of this

method

is

to

translate the thought into English which

i-

devoid of any emotional quality. The

poetic

thought

method
as

is

to

directly

as

translate

the

possible

into

The

diffi-

vrords of emotional quality.

culty with this

method

hard
to match emotional qualities between
languages.
Moreover, the persons who
naturally prefer it have subjective
rather than objective interests. American Indian languages are rich in terms
that single out details of the outside
is

that

it is

her to represent the quintessence of Indian art were not a flagrant fraud long
sine- exposed.
The epithalamium of
Tiakens was written by a French student of languages named Parisot when
scarcely twenty years of age. The daring youth fabricated the grammar,
vocabulary, and texts of a language
which he declared to be that of the
now extinct Taensa tribe and was sucssful

iii

deceiA ing the world

for -e\

eral j^ears.

Of course what the interpreters want

new themes and freshened expresThey can get these by imitating"
sions.

are

the objectivity of Indian poetry that

pictures causes and circumstances and

IMERICAN INDIAN POETRY

mind

the

lets

interpret

of the hearer or

for

reader

Sometimes

itself.

the

the wet

to

raised

:;n;

After

air.""

all

enh ure

the subject ive of our ow

is

it

rat

her

word association or the sentence si rucforeign language can be transture in

than the subjective of Indian culture

ndian poem-.
that i- -t irred by

For

-i udy of primitive
American poet ry should have a wholesome ami stimulating effect upon modern American literature.
It
is open.
sincere, and inspiring, ami it ha- an
engaging quality of directness and sim-

;t

English.

ferred legitimately into

song given above lei us

take the Tewa terms p'ine and hae,
the diminutive forms of p'in and ha,
instance, in

mean Cfheart" and "breath." These

that

terms of endearment are different from

the ones we use in English but are understandable because we ourselves make
as
use of the affectionate diminutive
(

and
little mother, motherkin, etc.
we associate the heart and the breath
with love and life. The exotic quality
that exhale- from Burton's translation
of the Arabian Nights' Entertainments
peculiar similes and
is partly due to
in

recurring phrases that

upon our western

strike

forcibly

To

imaginations.

readers these are conventions

pure ami simple and the signs of real
excellence something entirely different.
A translation that i- firs! ami last the
carrying over of a thought ami all its

eastern

associations
other,

ue language to an-

fr

essentially

is

human mind musl

creal ion.

intervene ami

re-

new

ceive the terms ami construcl

language of the
the

not

,rin

first

of

the content

hut

of the

i<>n

ami give out

|>art

the

attain the grotesque by hall' trans-

lations

make an unfair

he

plicity.

There

however,

to. lav.

i-

primit ive school that

in

pseudo-

painting, sculp-

ami poetry affects

mold hut ignores the content of art
The work
that is genuinely primit ive.

ture, music, dancing,

the

of this school

ance.

lacks

umli\ ided

and

sincerity,

i-

communal

accept-

and

innate

purpose,

essentially individual-

Nevertheless,
istic and revolutionary.
good may come out of such efforts it'
only the public learn sufficient discrimination to -elect gold from dross.
Real primitive art ha- behind

it

a tradi-

tion of untold centuries while pseudo-

primitive art can boast only a doubt ful

a choice were to be made
present.
I

Frank

<

I'

the

between

By south-way,

Men

muse

atavistic

rordon that sings

east way.

of

Dr.

shore-land place,

..line.

Boats come,
Float fast,

message in term- ami construct ion- of

the language of the second part.

who

believe that

use of

ndian

[andsome.

Man who

Paints, much-talker, he

much-

walked
Easterly, south also,
All time -talk. '.I

Vef-

Lindsay Skinner, in the

to 'l'h<- Path
On the
Rainbow, unconsciously make- clear
that her read ion to Indian verse is involved and subject ive and that -he sees

Constance

terminal

essay

only through the eyes of the

language
to

m.'

She
sympathetically.
ndian water-song i- poet ry

because of

memorj : an

old

and hi- broad

brown face deep-lined by a hundred and

chief,

ten

his

years,

hair grayed
hi-

sightless

eye

hidden under sagging, crinkled

untutored

the

-a\

>esert

the
.

May

their roads
peace,

home be on

the trail

Eappily may hey all return.

walk.
n beauty
walk.
With beauty before inc.
walk.
With beauty behind me,
Witli beauty above an. aboul me.

..t'

i-

It

i-

finished in beauty,
finished in beautj

almosl
lids

of

savage

whose immemorial
loud and bush have taught him

Painted

English

albeit

"The

and

What Would

tile

Verdict he?

walk,

to

NUT PALM BESIDE THE JUNGLE TRAIL

The nut palm is one of the most common of Panamanian palms. About every fifth palm has a
The photograph also
of opossums occupying the hollow center where the branches start.
shows typical second growth jungle about as high as it ever gets

family

308

Unk nown ranama

By

(>

X s E X

1)

Army

Lieutenant Colonel, United States

BEL] EVE ii will surprise most

Americans, and perhaps a few of
I our field naturalists, to Learn thai
righi a1 the back door of the Panama
Canal Lies an almost unknown jungle
wilderness, unmapped and practically
uninhabited in the interior except
for

primitive

very

i'rw

[ndians.

Virtually the entire eastern portion of

Panama

the republic of

and

Canal

the

lying between

Colombia,

roughly

E L E

II

The Indians

he procured.

try can

of

the interior are hostile to the invasion

of the country

no navigable

rails,

rivers,

ing the only pract

means

ical

Even maps are

portation.

and probably

ble,

There
and practically
hack packing be-

by the white-.

are no roads or

years before they become

the

such

map-

accurate

many

a-

owing

so,

to

nature of

confidential

necessaril}

availa-

he very

will

it

of trans-

not

because

exist,

three hundred miles Long by from fifty

of their connection with the defense of

to one hundred miles wide, is unknown.

and the published maps of this country, except I'm- the seacoasl and the Location of half a dozen small towns, are

the

faked.

all

my

was

It

entire

good

dry
"['

this

my

to

fell

We

nearesl the

it

lot.

;i>>i>tf(l

to

exploring

L911

country.

found

know something

to

essary

ne<

portion of

spend the

(December

seasons

June) of 1916 ami

pari

i- because this little piece of junprobably will remain virgin and

unspoiled for many years that I think

gle

11

fortune to

of

a
it

that

ami it
by Companies
(

'anal,

make

preliminary exploration with

view to planning ami expediting

mapping

accurate
(

by

its

Engineer

the

The

coasts

eiirate|\

of

Panama

charted.

the city of

well

with

fail-

of

vicinity

ami their

rivers,

a- the genera]

the rivers on which they

cated

ac-

all

are a few fair-sized

town- on the larger

Local ion. a-

the

In

Panama

are

lie.

accuracy on

course
is

indi-

existing

to the

brought

In-

and

accessible,
it

yet

have been scratched by the scientist.

yel knows what is in the in-

what

terior,

secrets

new fauna and

exploration will

reveal.

In the

which extends

'anal Zone,

miles to either side of the

tically all of the

>ince been cuL

ond

jungle

off,

of

-mall

visitor to the

In

istence.

fact

not

inhabitants of the

ami.
hi.-

in

fact,

ha<k door.

appeal

to

he dreads the jungle

No amides
1

Tli.'

to this

al

coun-

illustrations are

The
ex-

its

/one and the

'anal

ha\e ever -ecu the \ irgin

them the second growth is

citie- lieai- by

To

jungle, standing up like

not

palms,

trees,

5 per cent of the

him

does

place has

dreams of

the real jungle, nor

from

ploration

its

Canal never sees

Ex-

pioneer.

has long

foresl

creepers, thorns, ami coarse grass.

casual

five

'anal, prac-

impenetrable sec-

dense,

growth

and in

Panamanian

what

contains,

it

flora its

jungle.

not

so easily

only the borders of

Some of the mountain ranges

maps.
which can he seen
from the sea
have also been sei down.
The remainder i- unknown.
Moreover, it
will
of
remain so.
The
necessity
i-

attention

i-

It

No one

grown up

lorps.

<>f

owyht to

of our field naturalists.

E ami E,29th Onited States Infantry,

to

Panama Canal.

It

jungle,

the

uninteresting,

impossible,

terri fying.

Bui

one cuts hi- way through this

if

lan-led growth for about

of

tin'

verdure.

green

different, even

from photographs

bj

live

Canal he comes
a

Once

to

mile- in
the

real

gigantic wall
in

ii

all

is

the very climate it-elf.

the Author.

NATURAL HISTORY

310

Here one can wander at will, unimIt is

peded by thorns and creepers.
the
in
than
here
traveling
easier
even

woods of our own Northeast, because

as

rule

timber.

there

is

It is like a

much less "down'

new world, a world

that one has not even read about.

Prom the blazing sun and sweltering
heat of the second growth one enters
what is almost an underground world,
cool

Everywhere the giant

up limbless for from one huntwo hundred feet, and then

and balmy.

trees go

dred to
spread out

their

verdure,

literally

hiding the sky. Beautiful slender palms

grow in great profusion in the semidarkness forming the lower growth,
impeding one's view but not one's
Scarcely ever can one see
progress.

more than

fifty yards,

and never does

the explorer get an extended view, even

from the tops of the highest mountains.
When I first entered the jungle it was

with an indescribable feeling of awe

and wonder, and this feeling has never
left me; nay, it persists, drawing me,
calling

me

to

come back, more

insistent

for a lagoon of the sea

when

the coast

was charted.
The Rio Grande, figuring largely on
existing maps, is an insignificant little
stream, several miles long, really un-

line

worthy of a name. Beyond the valley of

the upper Piedras rises a really imposing range of mountains called Cerro
Saximo, culminating in a peak somewhere south of Xombre de Dios, which
must attain an altitude of from six
I
thousand to eight thousand feet.
think I am the only one who has ever
viewed this range, as it seems to be invisible from any place where there is
any trace of human beings, and its
presence is barely noted on only one old
map, with no indication as to its altitude.

Beyond Saximo neither I nor anyone

knows what. There are rumors

else

that the interior beyond

is

inhabited by

Indians of the San Bias (Cuna-Cuna)

tribe, and that they are very hostile to
invasion of their country by whites.
Today one can enter the jungle ten
miles east of the city of Colon, and
eastward through this jungle

even than the "Call of the North."

travel

That part of the jungle in which my

most intensive exploration was con-

wilderness for more than three hundred

ducted

lies to

the east of the city of

miles, and except for a few

my

Colon, between there and the town of

of a civilized being.

Nombre de Dios, and extending from

the Caribbean coast inland to the head-

base

waters of the Chagres Eiver system.

Between the Chagres basin and the
Caribbean coast rises the cordillera of
Cerro Bruja, a mountain range that
starts about ten miles east of Colon,

and rises steadily, culminating in the

peak of Cerro Bruja (3200 feet) about
fifteen miles south of the town of Porto
Bello.
East of Cerro Bruja peak the
Bio Piedras rises almost in the basin
of the Chagres, flows north around the
base of Cerro Bruja. then west, and
empties into the sea halfway between
Colon and Porto Bello. The Piedras is
one of the largest rivers of Panama,
but you will not find it on any map,
even its mouth having; been mistaken

marks

of

machete, he will not see the trace

In January, 1916, I established a

camp at the end of the extreme
northeastern arm of Gatun Lake, and
from there extended my explorations.
Trails were cut for about fifteen miles
into the jungle, and other base camps
were established from time to time.
Sketch maps were made of the surrounding jungle, the work being done
by Companies E and H, 29th United
States Infantry, which companies I
commanded from time to time. The
extended exploration, however, could
not be done in this way. The difficulattending the supply of a large
of men in a country without
trails or horse feed made the work very
ties

number
slow.

So

was forced

the most primitive of

back on
methods of

to fall
all

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THE

FIRST STEP

First a thick, springy mattress of

IN

MAKING A JUNGLE BED

palm leaves

is

cut

(palm boughs

IN
in

PANAMA
Panama

taking the place

balsam boughs in northern woods), then the little jungle tent, with waterproof silk floor and roof
and mosquito net sides, is pitched on top of the mattress, making a most comfortable bed, insect
At every camp site there were always plenty of palms within a distance of twentyproof and cool.
five yards with which to make the bed
of

312

THE MOST CONSPICUOUS OF PANAMA TREES

While the Ouipo

Panamanian

trei

trees,

always grows in the most prominenl places and rears its head
Rings in the bark Burround the trunk
umbrella far ahove the Burroundii
tressed trunk rem
trunk rising without a limb for one hundred and twent
elephant teg and foot
,1.

,.

is

it

like

>ur
a

by

far

gig

the
gigantic

feet,

313

31

NATURAL HISTORY

of

thai

exploration,

of

parties

small

their sup-

f,,ur

or five men, packing

plies

on their backs, and remaining out

as long as

all

supplies lasted, or as

their

long as they could subsisl on the counIn this

try.

manner

made

number

of trips of from two week- to a month's

deep into the jungle, and

learned something of what was beyond
We saw the jungle at its
the edge.
familiar with it. and
best, became

duration,

learned to depend on

it

for shelter

and

musl confess

absolute

to

incom-

it

comes

to a description

of the flora of the jungle, incompetency

both scientific and linguistic.

doubt

the jungle as a whole can he

if

de-

scribedit can only he marveled

It

is-

at.

beautiful, appealing, terrifying.

never cease t<> wonder at the treesborigon,

cavanillesia,
moras,
giant
eeibas, rubber,

and

The enormous

lig.

trunks with great buttressed roots rise

a hundred feet without a limb, and
then spread out literally to hide the'

Limbs,

sky.

most of our food.

I

petency when

see

scarcely

so

high that

can

one

them among the

leaves,

ground long
to
the
lianas
drop
tangled lines like the wrecked rigging

some ma -ted

of

Then

ship.

there

is

the secondary growth, a hundred varieties of tree ferns and palms, suited

by nature to grow in semidarkness.

robbed of the sunlight by their giant
neighbors.

Between

my

exploring, I

and appealed

first and second year of

came north in desperation

to the

Smithsonian

Insti-

tution 1 at Washington for some knowl-

The

edge of the flora of this region.

reply I received was discouraging, and

yet should be an incentive to every
botanijst

and naturalist:

"One man

could spend a lifetime studying the

flora of that jungle, and then not knowit

more than 80 per cent

growth

in

Panama

is

of the jungle

unknown

to

science."

My
also

to

ignorance of the flora extends

the fauna, except that from

many years of wilderness loafing and

big game hunting in the North I have
naturally come to a sort of practical
method of study all my own. and have
learned to observe with some little
One

things to beware of in jungle

black palm is a common tree in
The thorns which
the virgin jungle of Panama.
cover it are very sharp, and the newcomer in
the jungle invariably receives many painful

travel.

the

of

The

wounds from

before he learns

it

instinctively

when about

small

to

trees

through

the

paim

very

is

push

jungle.

in

them

demand

of

lay

aside

The wood

beautifully

longitudinal layers

much

to

co'ored

black

for canes

to

look

first

In
temperamentally and physically. 1 was in no manner ecpiipped
Xor with my
for a scientific study.

truth, but with very little science.

fact, except

his

hands on

many

as

walks
the black

To
knows

of
in

he

alternate

and white, and

is

military

duties

connected

with

Professor Henry Pittier. who probably

this jungle more intimately than does any
other scientist, having spent many years of Held
study in Costa Rica, and who has actually taken
one trip into the very country in which I was
working.
1

UNKNOWN PANAMA

altitude there are the sea-level or low-

exploration, mapping, and the manage*

able
incut and supply of my men, was
1

area,
feet.

As regards the jungle at any point

we ran distinguish four areas, which
we may designate as the ground, the
low-bush, the medium, and the treeOn the ground observed several
top.
and
tinamou,
quail,
varieties
of

from

made

of

poinl

scientific

iew,

of

collection

and

speci-

mens, aotes, sketches, and photographs

thai mighl have been of some little
value, .u unfortunately these were all
losl by the capsizing of my eayuca a
mile out at sea when rem mini; from my
I

field

work.

the

waterproof
the

or

Right here
a

can-

word

of

those with

with

ing

than

bird

alive

is

unknown
halfway

jungle,

the

to

dwell

of

ceiling

leafy

-nan-,

doves,

owls,

High up in the
macaws,

motmots, and trogans.

roof are

States

medium

the

In

me.

ant

species

United

the

to

to

other

of

variety

thrushes,

birds,

parrakeets,

parrots,

toucans, and col ingas.

Many

numbers

birds seen in large

in

uo

judgment.
ao

is

wonderful

less

The Panama
with birds. The variety

vegetation.

the

jungle

life

common

travel-

Put

material.

precious

trusl iu tlic native

The

when

freeboard,

either

the

for waterproofing photographic films.

Avoid the dug-oul cayucas, particularly
little

and

zone,

provided

containers

tin

birds,

or

canvas

of

qualities

humming

wrensj

low-bush area are

the

In

pheasants.

men inexperienced in jungle

Put do! too much faith in

caution to

bags

from intruding

refrain

nol

longesl expedition.

the two-thousand-foot
area,
and the area above three thousand

country

to devote much time to Datura! history.

The firsi year was totally unprepared.
The second year wenl better equipped

believe

315

and coloring are truly

bad begun
Even before

remarkable.

read anyhad noticed

thing "ii ropical birdthe remarkable res! riction of the activito

ties of certain birds to certain

areas or

In the region

"zones" of the jungle.

where
did mosl of my work there
seemed to 1"' three areas of bird life
dependenl <>n the altitude, and three
or more dependenl upon the jungle conI

struction.

In addition

what we may

is

area,

the

birds

in

these there

to

the second-growth

call

being

this

seldom

As regards

seen in the virgin jungle.

When we emerged from

the jungle we were

the Caribbean coast near the San Blaa
Indian country.
With a couple of natives and a
started to cruise up the
large dugoul canoe
...in
a few hours after we started we
ountered rough seas <>tT
point of land and
the canoe w;i^ Bwamped, n ir us ;>ll out in the
Fortuwhicb was infested with sharks.
1

away down

Young

pi

and we were blown ashore

practically uninhabited coast.
Bui
in;
pi m little pack which
camera.
The
the
and although

ro

ture this

did

<iii

1 >-- -

all

ii

came back

with

Bait

fed.

to

Thereafter

nit

kitchen

the
it

could

We

escape.

to

tho

afterward
grunted to be

hour--

several

and
be

not

driven

.'ill

1 1 <

managed

ii

ri

littl>-

when

.-i

finally

Hid from a herd of about

Aiter cap
Bruja Mountains
animal was kept in a cagi for five

.>

1 > i 1 1 1

aterprool
and all the photo

tiled

water

v.

from the kitchen,

and
the

was the
'-link-.

Ii

u as

li\

ing

away
com
uml

NATURAL HISTORY

316
the low countries

we found absent

at

high altitudes. I never saw guans below one thousand feet, nor toucans
The yellow and
above that altitude.
black orioles build their hanging nests
everywhere in the low country but they

were not seen in the mountains. Please

understand that what I write should
not be taken as establishing anything.
The time for observation was too short,
think
and my own observations, while
II icv were accurate, were not based on
1

What

scientific study.

out, in fact the

want

to point

whole reason why I have

undertaken this sketchy description of

the

Panama

the region

is

jungle,

is

that I believe

very worthy of intensive

study by a first-class field naturalist.

Particularly that very high part to
the south of Nombre de Dios should
be investigated, as it may be found
contain new forms, or to mark a
northern limit of some forms hitherto
to

The jungle is
and never venture

believed to be confined to the

Andean

regions.

The mammal

life of the jungle is

The ordinary
abundant.
traveler, however, will see little of it
owing to several conditions which only
a man with extensive hunting or collect-

also

very

ing experience will realize.

stantly

shifting winds

of

The conthe jungle

carry one's scent far and wide.

rustling of the vegetation

The

and otber

noises as one walks, alarm the game.

Moreover, everywhere in the jungle are

sparks of bright light, the result of the
filtering

of the

intense tropical

sun-

through small openings in the

leafy roof overhead. These sun patches
sparkle like diamonds everywhere.
I
think that the game watches these
patches and is particularly alarmed
when they are hidden by sudden
shadow. At any rate, when I began to
avoid these sunny spots, and to take
light

few natives who live on the Caribbean coast

They subsist on coconuts, bananas, yams, and fish. They

entirety uninhabited except for a

into the

interior.

gather ivory nuts, raise bananas, and make charcoal for a living, selling their produce to small
They are expert canoe men and
sailing vessels which visit the villages every three months or so.
The coast cayuca always has a turned up bow and stern and is
their cayucas are works of art.
Invariably these natives of the coast have not the slightest knowledge
equipped with a small sail.
of any of the country other than the route to the next village

UNKNOWN PANAMA
and

noise,

Among

Hi"-"

were

observed

paca,

agouti,

peccary,

deer,

hollow vessel thus formed makes a most

interesting and convenient water jug or

precautions as to wind
began to see animals.

extraordinary

vase.

tapir,
sloth,

many

varieties,

and

rabbits.

In
snake being the mosl numerous.
the two years 1 observed only two ferIt
is said the bush master is
de-lance.
hut I have never
occasionally,
with
mej

The snakes

one.

most de-

are

In the fifteen
menace.
years of American occupation of the

cidedly not

Zone

c.-mal

the

hospital

records

clude only one case of snake

in-

In

bite.

fad. practically the only dangers at-

tending jungle exploration are those of

malaria and getting lost, added to injuries thai may come from falling
limbs and nuts.
Ine nighl in permanent camp a limb
I

fell

my

on

cook .-hack where the three

companj cooks were

the col

down

sleeping, breaking

of the men, and pinning

the

i"

ground, lmt

them

fortunately

injuring any of them severely.

nol

than the dangers of our

own Canadian

great as the
woods, certainly
gangers of our Rockies, and far less
than the dangers of a modern city
as

not

Snakes were fairly numerous, the

harlequin snake, boa constrictors, and
a very long and thin bright green tree

seen

cannot say that the dangers of the

jungle ever caused me any loss of sleep.
do not believe they are any greater
I

coati-mundi, kinkajou, anteaters, monpuma, jaguar (spotted

otter,
keys,
and black ). ocelot, squirrels, opossums
of

;;i;

-i

reet.

was always interested

pression

jungle

the

that

For

make on my men.
always

im-

the

seemed

to

long trips

men having the

pioneer ability

selected

the

of

characteristics

my

in

to travel without getting lost, physique

capable of hard work including heavy
packing, love for hunting, and a knowledge of camping and woodcraft. Splen-

did

they were, every one of them.

enjoyed the work, just as any

men

They

red-blooded young

man would

trip in the woods.

camping

enjoy

But there

always came, after a time, a difference

in the way they regarded the jungle,
and this difference in attitude always
at the same corresponding time.
three or four days in from civilization.
would be just at dusk, camp made.
Ii
the little mosquito-proof tents up, -up-

came

remark after the accidenl

that that was probably the safest place
in the whole jungle now. A fterward, we
abandoned this camp for about a month,

per cooking, and the hush of evening

Then far off would begin,
started.

and on our return discovered that the

same shack had again been completely
wrecked by an enormous fallen limb.
There is one ree which bears a green

hill,

made

the

nut about the size and shape of

and weighing Beven or eight

pounds. 1 have frequently noted nuts

ball,

kind,

to

the

ground have buried themselves thr

of

this

that

in

falling

wough-h-h,
"Wough, wough, wough,
wough, wough/' booming from hill to
resounding through the whole junparalyzing at first until
Ii
is seemingly
one knows what it is.
the howl of some large wild beast, lmt
in reality it is the call of the howler

gle, terrifying,

monkey.

It

is

typical

of

the jungle,

mice of jungle peace and

jungle war. From the lime that my men
would first hear this call, they would
speaking

at

the

jungle

differently.

They

four inches below the level of the earth.

regard

A blow on the head from one of them

might easily kill a man. Monkey- feed
on them, gnawing a circular opening

were now of the jungle, they had felt

the
its -pell, they were coming hack
call of the jungle was in their Mood

about throe inches

one eml of the

the

contents

shell,

with

diameter through
and then removing
their hand-.
The

in

oever to leave.
w tiling,

do now

in

And

so

some day, Cod

too shall go hack, just

memory.

as

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The Senses of Fishes

By C. JUDSON HERRI C K
Professor of Neurology, University of Chicago

OUR

human world

is

a very

open

lim-

The un-

ited part of nature.

aided senses of primitive man

few d
's of communication be-

bween the individual and his surroundings, through which the sum Total of

ferent world.

Recent experiments have

shown that

his sense of vision

imperfect,

especially

for

With us vision

smell.

the dominant

is

sense and our mental imagery

enlarged the efficiency of the natural

man

sense

organs the microscope and

the

have extended the range of

vision, the periscope enables us to see
around a corner, the spectroscope,
photographic plate, X-ray machine, and
innumerable other aids have enabled us
to see deeper into nature.
But no new
senses have been developed and our
furthest scientific advances and most
recondite philosophical theories musl be
analysis

on such frag-

mentary knowledge of the cosmos as is

revealed to us by our senses.
Great
realms of nature remain wholly unexplored, although

new

artificial aids per-

mit constant advances into the hitherto

unknown Hertzian wave- and

telegraphy, ions and the
electrons and the

new

wireless

new chemistry,

physics.

such a- muscle sense, hunger, thirst,

and other visceral senses.
It is well

known

vertebrates

that fishes and other

possess

numerous

say,

What
whose

see

"'I

he comprehends

sort of a

how

it

blind

i>."

when

demonstration.
world is it to a

in-

terms of odors? And how

does it feel to lie a catfish, provided not
only with large olfactory organs whose
central nervous centers make up almost
of the cerebral hemispheres of the

all

brain hut also with innumerable taste

hud- all over the mucous lining of the

mouth and

and freely distributed

from the
barblets ("feelers") around the mouth
gills

over the entire outer skin

We cannot conceive the

epicurean delights which such an animal may feel when he swims into the
water surrounding a juicy piece of fresh
to the tail fin?

by whose odorous and savory

One wonder-.
he is bathed.

meat,

how

parenthetically,

far the fish

self is able to conceive or

pleasures of

any

of

life.

him-

even enjoy the

With how much mind

is endowed i> at

sort the fish

present an unsolved riddle: but

it

is

certain that his behavior complex

is

of

very different pattern from ours and

mind he may have would
surely he as different as the pattern of

whatever

hi- sense experience is different.

Eet us pursue this line of inquiry

known

further and review what

thing in our own bodies, and it is quite

impossible for us to form any concep-

the other senses of our catfish.

fish

what the world appears

and

like to

don'.

and chief

finest experiences

types of sense organs quite unlike any-

tion of

largely
a

terests are in

juices

Fortunately the traditional five senses

do not represent our whole physiological equipment for this task.
In fact,
the human animal is endowed with
about twenty distinct senses, including
two in the ear. at least four in the skin,
and numerous oilier- in the deep tissues

lower

will

is

Even

terms of things seen.

in

telescope

based in last

of

form, and everybody knows the inconceivable delicacy of the hound's sens

knowledge of things as they are

must be derived. Science has greatly

his

very

is

details

is

of

This

has small and poorly developed eyes

is largely nocturnal in habit, lying

these animals except in so far as their

concealed in dark corners during the

equipment is similar to our

own. Even the companionable dog, who
responds so sympathetically and intelligently to our moods, lives in a very dif-

day.

try

The

retina has remarkable powers

of adaptation to differences in illumi-

nation and the

fish is

very sensitive to

changes in intensity of

light.

But the

TEE SENSES OF FISHES

eye

is

nol the only light-sensitive organ.

Qts with blinded fish

Experi

the entire skin

surface

show

sensitive to

is

not un-

differences of lighl intensity, a

common

feature

animals.

aquatic

of

thai

The image-forming power of the eye is

Some catfishes,
probably nol verj g
I.

it

take

true, will

is

hook, and

-im.hu

probably

bail

in

mo-

tion

is

to be sensed by the eye.

The

it'

it

musl always be

usual method of feeding

with

bottom

the

is

to trail

the

which

are

barblets,

very efficient organs of both touch and

taste,

and when contact

worm

or

food

other suitable

sharply and snap

it

made with

is

;i

turn

to

Just a> the eyes are supplemented in

their functions by the skin, which has a
very feeble sensitiveness to light, so the

highly refined chemical sense organs in

the uose ami taste buds are also supple-

mented by
skin.

eral

chemical sense

the gen-

in

ther fishes which

In -on

have been carefully tested the general

surface i- found to ho very sensi-

.-kin

tive

t<>

chemicals

solution, to

in

substances more sensitive,

in

se

The

of equilibrium.

been

diffi-

probably they have no power of tone

uoise
i<. they can hear a

analysis, that

hut cannot tdl one tone

can boasl

fishes

from another.
no superiority

over ourselves in being able to respond

to low tone- by both the ear ami the
We can do the same, as can read-kin.
ily he shown by lightly touching the
sounding hoard of a piano or organ
when a low tone i- -truck. The same
tone heard by the ear can he readily
felt

the

h\

ceiving

per-

our boasted brain power,

inferior to the

admit

fishes.

But for

finger tips.

slower vibratory movements

>till

musl

latter lies in

has

through their ears or by refined cutaThe ingenious exneous sensibility.

periment- of Parker 1 have shown that
both of these organs serve ami that, in
fact, fishes do hear rue sound waves of
To
rather low pitch with their ear-.
tones of high pitch they are deaf ami

we. with ad

two quite different sense organs the

organ of hearing ami the organ of the

it

to

than

men, the ear contains

hut

agree,

all

prove whether their responses

to these vibrations are broughl aboul

cult

some

fart,

are the taste buds themselves.

In li>hos. as in

tions

The

up.

That they are very

ami vibra-

hotly controverted.

sensitive to mechanical jar-

ourselves

They

possess an elaborate sys-

cutaneous ami subcutaneous

sense organs of which \\i' have not a vestige. These so-called lateral line organs
in the catfish comprise a complex sys-

tem

of

the semicircular canal-, which in form

tem of

tine

tubes under the skin, the

ami function are similar

lateral

line

canal.-,

human

body.

Iml

the semicircular

1.

canals probably play

the behavior of the

to those in the

larger pari

fish,

since

taining perfect equilibrium

i-

in

mainmope

matter for a fish suspended in

water of aboul the same specific gravity
as the body than for a man walking on

difficult

-olid
-

take

ground.
to fly, hi-

Bui

when the man

es-

semicircular canals again

dominanl place in his sensory

equipment. In the practical testing of
a

the fitness of
for

the

men who

fishes

hear

extend- alone- the

lateral canal

the Imh|\ hack

the mucous
now known to

-till

often railed

Bui

they

are

numerous small sense organs

which respond to -low vibratory movements of the water. Tin' pit organs are

contain

in

has been

canal-.

over

all

ae

and are

scattered

at

si

to the tail.
They were formerly supposed to he tor the secretion of mucus

one- each

the

various directions

in

and the main

Army

mosl importanl point to be determined

i- v\ hether the semicircular canal- are
fund ioning normally

Whether

The canal- ramify

in tin' head

are candidates

Air Service of the

and two kind- of

sense organs in the skin, the pit organs.

narrow

the

the

skin,

flask-shaped

mouth ami

the less

pit

smaller

with a

numerous

larger ones exposed on the surfa

a
Parker, of

work mi

Han

arJ

nh

"_

ers

'H

NATURAL HISTORY

324

The

lateral line sense organs arc

all

supplied by a single system of nerves

related to the nerve? of the ear and quite

from those for the general tacand chemical senses of the skin and
That the
the cutaneous taste buds.

distinct
tile

lateral line organs respond to slow vi-

movements has been clearly

shown by Parker, but the distinctive

bratory

features of the pit organs are

unknown

and. in fact, our knowledge of the functions of the system as a whole

still

is

very incomplete.
It is clear that cutaneous organ- of

tmuh.

and the

lateral line organs,

or-

gans of equilibrium and hearing in the

internal ear form a graded series, and
all have probably been derived in evolution from a primitive type of tactile
organ.
When therefore we both hear
and feel a musical tone of the piano we
are reminded of the long and dramatic
evolutionary history of the very intricate

human

and

last

the

auditory organ, whose

stages both

may

same time in our own

We

and function

bodily structure

try

to

imagine how we would think in such a

situation, taking into account the animal's limitations of nervous organization. Obviously this is a poor and uncertain method at best, and no wonder many
p-\ehologists have given up the problem in despair and decided that the
only scientific procedure is to pay no
attention to animals"

minds and limit

our inquiry to their objective behavior.

Indeed, so impressed are some of them
by the futility of scientific study of
even the human mind by introspection
that they advocate throwing overboard
the whole science of psychology.
But
this is too much like sinking the ship,
cargo and all, to get rid of the rats.
Xo. if we wish to attain the heights
of a true understanding of the signifi-

cance of

mind

in evolution,

we must

keep to the steep trail and not yield to

the temptation to take smoother paths

first

leading to the rest shelters by the way.

function at

But we must watch our steps. By this

I mean that, although we can interpret
the animal mind only in terms of our
own experience, yet we must not uncritically read our thoughts and feelings back into animals' minds.
The

bodies.

cannot here recount the details of

the long series of very tedious scientific

investigations required to replace the

conjectures of amateur naturalists and

by accurate knowledge of the

And even with this
precise information we are far from a
true understanding of the fishes' minds.
To learn the structure and behavior of
any animal requires only sufficient scientific skill and industry, but to understand the mind of an animal is the most

assume that an ani-

fisher folk

only safe rule

sen -ory life of fishes.

mal

acts reflexly or unconsciously ex-

cept

when

baffling of all scientific questions.

Our own thoughts are purely personal matters.

Even with the aid of

ideas

we are able to
and feelings

to

our

is

multiplied

many

fold

try to understand even the

lie

shown that the un-

conscious mechanisms

are

to account for the behavior

gence alone

is

adequate.

inadequate

and

And

intelli-

these are

very difficult things to prove in regard

removed from us in

to animals so far

behavior type as are the fishes.

The popular dramatization of animal

diffi-

when we

this is fiction for children, not science

intimate

friends only imperfectly, and this

culty

can

to

and imputation to them of human

thoughts and feelings may have a certain justification for literary or pedagogic purposes, the same as other fairy
stories.
But let it not be forgotten that

and gescommunicate our

language, facial expression,

ture,

it

is

most

intelli-

gent of the brutes. The only recourse

is to see how an animal behaves in a
given situation and then in the light of
what we know of human and animal

life

nor the foundation for science; and

is a long, long road to travel before we shall be able to understand in
any but the most shadowy outlines what

there

fish's

mind

is

really like.

Recollections of English Naturalists

things in

/'(I/-

liiml together all sorts

lii'i

any

class affiliation

and conditions of people,

but natural history

brings all

By

T.

iii

ii

A.

I).

WD

I.

COCK

The

Nol

tions.

has

going forward with extraordinary

nn\\
\

varied have been the British contribu-

organizal ion of

for puhlic ends,

British science

E R E L L

University of Colorado

land of amateur

is

naturalists.

<>nl\

and

been

this,

but

full

of

is

forming

sils;

aeeds of the country.

excursions; everywhere

such institutions as rlew

Museum

the British

calculable

services

rue thai

hardens and

have rendered
the

to

As

minions and the world in general; but

even these have not always received adequate support, and the government has
never in the pasl show n any real dispo-

Ji-di. as a people, possess in a

in

science

the

and organizing
worshiping at
of nature, and gathering
advancement of knowledge.
hack upon the act i\ it ies of
ago,
marvel at the pure
societies

lack'

at

of organizal ion for the applicaall

this

energy

to public ends.

There was, no doubt, even a certain

advantage in the disinterested and so-

high
to

the
fos-

could not be suppressed, and then

the

lead

in

zeal exhibited, the love of nature u hich

tion of

there can be no doubt thai

degree those aptitudes which

success

look

thirty years

sition to foster research.

Yi't

shrine

the

data for the

in-

do-

British

men.

lesser

study of plain-, insects, birds, or

pasl been sadly inadequate to meet the

i-

the country

spending their leisure moments

igor as a resul1 of the war, has in the

Ii

it

common fellowship

Professor of Zoology,

EM,

irrespective of age, money, or

bond of such charm that

is

cially detached

and when conditions

men.

tific

position of most scien-

They were

not

science

in

become more favorable who can say

what may not be accomplished? The
main obstacle, undoubtedly, has been

"for reveni

the

inadequacy of British education.

only were the people in general
brought up without scientific instruc-

their head- against the walls of stupid-

Nol

and ignorance.
No, they were free
pursue their studies as they would,
tracing the pattern of life without bias

nlv." as

to

tilt

commonly

too

They were not

America.

the case in

obliged

is

windmills, or break

at

ity

i"

tion
but the leaders, who mostly had
every advantage which wealth and posi-

and without

tion could confer, did not, as the phrase

greatest of their kind, regretted that he

is,
suspect
anything about science.
Most of them able and sincere men. they

ser\ ice to

had

hindrance.

been able to

not

humanity

Darwin, the
m<>iv

tin

but

who

diers going i" battle, having forgotten

humanity's sake, can w ish him

done otherwise than as he did

their weapons.

not

will

seem

to

posteritj

like valiant

In spite of all this, brilliant scient

sol-

ific

was done, and the century of Darwin and Buxley, Bentham and the
Hookers, Wallace and Bates, and a host
w.i-k

of others, will always shine brightly in

the annals of biology.

<

me

has only to

monograph on any branch of

zoology <>r botany to see how ereat and

consult

the

same

he -aid.

at

direct

today, for

least

to
?

in

have

May
some

measure, of the great host of nonprofessional

I

naturalists

>arwin's footsteps

who

followed

in

Tier all. we must have organizaand England came very near to

fearful and irremediable disaster be-

Vet.

ion

,-i

cause she could not quickly use even the

science -he had.

Although

in

the last
325

NATURAL HISTORY

326

century the English schools were so deficient in scientific courses, the youthful

ductions would doubtless seem almost

naturalist had access to sonic excellent

many

sources of information.

mentary "natural

There were

histories/' suited

ele-

even

for children, with good colored illustra-

For those a

tions.

little older, shilling

books furnished guides to the butterflies,

common objects
common objects of

of

beetles,

countryside,

The book on

shore.

the

the sea-

butter Hies

con-

tained a complete account and good figure- of every species found in the islands.
Then there were the museums.
Not only the great British Museum,

many of the towns, such as Dover

and Bristol, had museums, with good

but

collections of the local fossils, insects,

and other

objects.

Thus

the boy Avas

largely independent of formal instruction,

and could puzzle out things for

himself.

At the next stage, approaching manhood, tbe amateur scientific journals

assumed great importance. The best of
these,

now unfortunately

Science Gossip. In

its

was
maga-

extinct,

prime

this

bad great influence, of a kind

which I think no periodical has today.
It was really an organ of tbe amateur
naturalist, in which he recorded his discoveries and advertised his duplicates
It was the means of
for exchange.
bringing together innumerable devotees
of tbe same subjects, who might be in

contemptible; but

different parts of the country or belong

from

commercialism

preaching,

it

really

and

free

represented

Free

from
the

democracy of naturalists, the rank and

file.
Another much less ambitious paper, The Naturalist's World, was published in Yorkshire.
It was the organ
of a society which carried on its affairs
through the mails. It had something
of the flavor of Gilbert White, and illustrated very well tbe saying of William
Morris, that the secret of happiness

is

in the appreciation of the small affairs

of

life.

To

the

modern rather super-

cilious doctor of philosophy, these pro-

can say. with

many

dinary pleasure at tbe time, and stimu-

an

lated

interest

which

will

never

cease.

In a country like England, where the

and conditions of men are so diverse, few things bring all together on
Xatural history did
a common level.
sorts

and herein was one of its greatest

My brother and I. ardent
conchologists, corresponded and exchanged with people in many parts of
England, Scotland, and Ireland. Sometimes our correspondents would come
to London, and we would invite them
to tea at our house at Bedford Park.

this,

charms.

On

such occasions the whole family

would be agog with curiosity to see the

stranger. He might be a country minister, an officer in tbe army, an aristocrat, a

man

almost
event,

in a small

way

of business,

anything, in fact.

be was

bond of

personality,

interest always

made

In any
and the
the meet-

ing pleasurable.

The

love of snails could bridge

all

differences of years or social status.

It

zine

to quite different social groups.

others, that they gave us extraor-

would be bard to exaggerate the uniform kindness shown by older men to

us youngsters; tbe long letters they
wrote, the trouble they took in identify-

ing specimens,

their

their duplicates.
in respect

was

J.

generosity

with

The one we held most

(Awn

Jeffreys, the au-

thor of British Conchology, our standHe lived in

ard work of reference.

London, but we never saw him: a post

card came from him on the very day
In'

died, tbe last of a long series of let-

ters

and cards: sometimes, when there

was

much

to

discuss,

coming almost

was greatly disappointed that

the British Museum would not purchase his collection. It was eventually
sold to the United States "National Museum, and Dr. Jeffreys wrote me a long
daily,

letter

lie

about

it.

contrasting the attitude

of tbe two countries.

fear his ex-

tremely flattering opinion of the con-

RECOLLECTIONS OF ENGLISH NATURALISTS

chologica]

activity

It

was

an

in

freys that on

that

Gwyn

1884,

20,

went to

London

in

to allow

ter- to attend the meetings,

will

sign

his

name

think

seum

whether -een

J.
attendance book.
Bland-Sutton, new an eminent surgeon,
then known for his studies in compara-

tive

anatomy, who signed

for

that occasion, as he certainly did

(really a separate

wa- remarkable for a gentle courtesy

which seemed to make everything go
smoothly. Temperamentally, he wa- an
entirely different man from Sir E. Ray

me on
many

Jeffreys was to read

paper on the Mollusca of the "Lightning" ami "Porcupine" expeditions, but

times thereafter.

Lankester,

Museum.

to

my

W.

ir

and

Dr.

1.

P.

Flower, was in the chair.

was

the

me

I..

Sclater,

secretary,

Beddard read
paper en the [sopoda of the "ChalI-'.

Bell,

the

of

British

Altogether

wonderful occasion

to

realize that he

voices of the gods

to the

just eld

to the

After that, thanks

unfailing kindness of the society,

was much too

r to think
of becoming a fellow,
was allowed to
attend he meetings and use the library
although

much as pleased.
The library helped me
I

great

ileal,

wa- close to my residence, and awas compact and entirely zoological, it

wa- very easy to make cross references
and find whatever wanted. Mr. I". II.
Waterhouse, the librarian, wa- .me of
the kindest of men.
He so closely rea-

it

it

sembled

hi-

entomologist

brother, the distinguished

at

the

British

Museum,

it.

remained

my

in

Then he -aid. "Perhaps some

when yon -row up, yon will find

thine worthy to he placed

Museum."

thought

ever happened,

person

that

in
it'

this

that

should he the happii si

this dav. the place

To

alive.

appeals

me with an indescribable
my wife says that when

to

romance, and
die.

if

the

to

get

British

shall go
my wish,
Museum instead of to
1

heaven.

At

a-

in

dav.

enough

was listening
!

for a

the objects dis-

at

and

young man of eighteen,

belonged to everybody in the country,

all should support it and take pride

F.

Museum,

an account of the
'u\ ierian organs of the "cotton-spinner," a holothurian. Then Dr. Bowdler Sharpe exhibited a new nuthatch from Corsica,
and T think it was Henry Seebohm who
-hewed skulls of Asiatic wild sheep.

When

father took

He -aid. "My -on. tin- i- i/n/ir

Museum," and then explained how it

Francis Day, well

for hi- work en the fishes

rey

my

mind.

lenger" expedition;

known

marveled

have always

played,

go regu-

Museum, and two thin-- he

to the
I

to

Museum.

British

\rry small hoy.

-aid. as

E.

India, spoke en hybrid Salmonidae;

to the

larly

began

the

at

attended the

first

Zoological Society,

'The president, Pro-

read the minutes.

who succeeded him

About the time

great disappointment he was not

able to be present.

or as

capacity,

that

in

president of the Zoological Society, he

was

it

Mumuseum), and

history department of the British

visi-

after theirs in the

I

tin

fellow

it'

At

Flower nearly always prerecall an occasion when

sided, though
St. George Mivart was in the chair. Sir
William Flower was head <d' the natural

meeting of the Zoological Society of

It
London.
is a custom of the sciensocieties

did net realize that

meetings,

Jef-

tific

time

for a

they were net the same person.

facts.

efforl to see J.

May

was

America

in

hardly justified by the

327

natural

the

the British
the

ton,

branch of
South Kensing-

history

Museum,

at

entomological

collection-

are

mainly kept in the basement. It is also

in the basement that researches on Mollusca are carried on. the specimens required being brought
ray by an attendant.

in a

down

flight

of

large

len

The student goes

and rings an

steps,

electric hell. W 'hereupon the doer opell-.

lie

signs his

name

in

hook, and

is

gO to the room w lime

ho -or- le-'llf
he expert- tO Work.
1

Inn allowed

to

NATURAL HISTORY

:;>

he has to have

larly,

student's card.

Eenry T. Stainton, well known

age.

These precautions arc obviously neces-;i!\

nit once they have been taken,
everything is done to facilitate one's

for his book on British Lepidoptera, I

work.
I undertook at one time to investigate the slugs (naked land Mollusca)

uary

in the

Museum, and

it

seemed a marvel-

ous thing to have before

me

the historic

specimens of famous authors, even including some collected in the eighteenth

century by Sir Hans Sloane, the
founder of the Museum. When a paper was written, it was necessary to
submit it to Dr. Albert Giinther, the
keeper of zoology in the Museum.
Giinther had none of Flower's urbanity,
and we were all rather afraid of him.
It was currently believed that the best
time to see him was just after lunch.
I confess I thought him rather unsympathetic, to say the least; but I now
recognize that he had a lot of good
sense, and I have only kindly thoughts
of him.
The last time I saw him was

shortly before his death, in the depart-

ment
older

of fishes.
I had grown much
and altered in appearance, and as

he did not recognize me, I did not

speak. I have regretted that I did not

some way to express my feelings

toward him but doubtless he did not
consider that his contact with me had
been anything more than that of museum routine, and would have been surprised that I had given it much
find

thought.
Occasionally I went to the meetings
of the Entomological ami
cieties.

Linnean

so-

At the Entomological, the one

great event I recall was seeing the venerable J. 0.

Westwood take the

and make

communication on a new

chair,

plant louse found on the breadfruit tree

in Ceylon.

"Westwood was by

all

the greatest of entomologists, and

Kirby well said of him.

in

my

odds

W.

F.

hearing.

"He

never gets tired." Physically, of

course he did but his zeal, like that of
the botanist Sir Joseph Hooker, never
;

faded until death came in extreme old

saw at the Entomological. When

Westwood read the obit-

also

St a id on died,
i

number

Entomologist's Monthly
and remarked, "The next

the

in

Magazine,

will record the

old entomologist."

wood had come

So

death of another
was, for West-

it

end

the

to

of his

days.

At the Linnean

have the

liveliest

Geddes
on anabolism and katabolism, and all
the theory he wove out of and around
recollection of hearing Patrick

conceptions.

these

The

presentation

was brilliant and interesting, and preoccupied the

mind

for a long time, as

does a well-acted play.

A society which I regularly attended

was the South London Entomological
and Natural History Society, meeting
in rooms near the south end of London
Bridge. It included collectors and amateurs and, in particular, students of the

British fauna.
There was always a
good series of exhibits, especially of remarkable varieties or rare species. Here
one would meet J. Jenner Weir, of
Beekenham, well known as a friend of
Darwin and close student of the Lepi-

doptera in their more philosophical asHere also came J. W. Tutt, a

pects.
schoolmaster by profession, with un-

bounded

enthusiasm and decidedly

It
about entomology.
was Tutt who produced an elaborate
radical

views

study of the variations of the British

naming all the forms, and

iSToctuidse,

who

later

undertook a vast work on

British Lepidoptera in general, which

he did not
lished a

live to finish.

charming

series

He

also

pub-

of books on

and a guide
and founded

his natural history rambles,

to the British butterflies,

that lively journal

The Entomologist's

Record and Journal of Variation. A

nervous and sometimes quarrelsome
man, he made many enemies; but in
the course of time he gained general
respect,

had

jus!

and the affection of many.

lii'on

He

elected to the presidency

RECOLLECTIONS OF ENGLISH NATURALISTS

of the

Entomological Society when he

Going back

to a

much

the

most

among

count

my

of

interesl

earlier date,

sources

potenl

natural history the

in

work of John W. Taylor and

\V. DeniA notice apRoebuck, of Leeds.

peared stating thai a Monograph of the
Land and Freshwater Nollusca of the
British Isles was to be published in

son

parts.

was

It

be

to

illustrated,

fully

would

and as exhaustive as

possible.

include uot only

British species, but

all

It

foreign varieties of British species,

all

exactly duplicated elsewhere

own way ami through

died.

with

details

full

about

The

habits, etc., etc.

distribution,

author, Mr. Tay-

we should

have,

in

32 9
hut in our

the

means we

America

strive con-

more

tinually to create condition-

fa-

vorable for the stimulation of scieni

ific

We have indeed some great

museums, learned and influential societies, ami excellent publications; but
the country i- vast, and we are only beinterests.

ginning

to

develop

it-

intellectual pos-

sibilities.

More particularly,
think we should
America regard the amateur, and
give him a chance to cooperate in large
1

in

undertakings.

In this period of recon-

struction, science must

he niir guiding

was to be assisted by Mr. Roebuck,

who had specialized in the slugs. My
quickly responded to the
brother and

power, science is in peril. Under existing condition- science tends to become

appeal to send specimens, as material

commercialized, ami economic necessity

was desired from every locality, and

>ur joy w as great
nothing came amiss.
when we found that we had discovered
an entirely new variety Helix hortensis
variety lilacina Taylor) and another
new to Britain. Almost every trip produced something interesting in the way
of slugs, for England has a splendid

into positions where

dominate all other consideration-. The State must hid against

lor,

<

Many preliminary

fauna.

appeared, but
the

It

is still

the monograph was

incomplete and, owing

had to be suspended but we may hope that it will he

continued, and that Mr. Taylor will be

to the war. publication

:

this, not by offering larger salaries,

but by elevating and dignifying public
all

service

among
to

have

been interested to describe some of the

influences which, in my experience,
tended to develop and mature an incipient

interesl

in

natural science.

Taken

and
means.
the advancement and ele-

science

to he.,, research,

not merely a

is

of

may remain amateurs

the old-time sense of the word, lovers

mistress

whom

they

may
mot
lic

see

may

spirit

temptation- of

even

the

commerce

ives, a-

life,

and we

with new

suffused

the distinci ion between pub-

and private purposes becomes oblitSo much depend- upon the

erated.

mode

environment, without which

even a strong inborn tendency mighl
have come to nothing.
In a measure,
they represenl the peculiar genius of
the English nation, which cannol

the hind of amateurs, will.

potent

not

resist

business

altogether, these influences constituted

a

could

ray.

Such
1

can perhaps count

only those who

it

faithful

public, naturalists

indebted.

above details

scientific life.

so,

human thought.
Thus,
whether in leisure moments snatched
from a busy life, or in the service of the

In recording the

the

but an end.

of

completion.

whom

vation

saw either Taylor or Roebuck, hut there

are few persons to whom
feel more

to

and the
even

But

in

it

young men

force-

never

able to bring

and

financial gains

have early learned

pa

long time before

of

part

first

ready.

was

it

star; hut in the struggle for wealth

this

of approach

hour of need

and Great Britain,

find

in

think, in

her service a

group of men and women whose

cerity and devotion are beyond
proach.

sinre-

EDWARD W. NELSON
Chief, United States Biological Survey
naturalist, for forty years the friend and student of wild bird and mammal
Mr. Nelson has accompanied or led many expeditions to the western deserts, to Mexico
and Central America, and to the Arctic. He served in several capacities on the staff of
tli'- United States Biological Survey and in 1916 was appointed chief.
Mr. Nelson"s contributions to the technical literature on the North American birds and mammals is
very extensive; recently he has enlarged his audience by the publication of a popular book. Wild Animals of North America.
The value to the layman of this
account of our native mammals is increased by an unusually profuse illustration, natural color portraits from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, track
The book
sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, and many photographs.
was given preliminary publication in the National Geographic Ma;iazine of November, 1916, and May, 1918

As a noted American
life,

330

Nelson's "Wild Animals of North

America":

JOEL

By

Review

A s A P

ALL

II

Birds and Mammals, American Museum; Editor of the American Museum's scientific zoologi
Honorary Member of the New York Zoological Society;
cal publications (1889 to L918)
it;
of London
Foreign Member of the Zoological S

Curator

of

Mammals

of the most valuable of the

ON'Emany

important contributions
National Geographic
the

of

Society to popular education is Edward

\V. Nelson's account of the mammals of

North America, 1 with colored illustrations by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, track il-

Thompson

powers

of $100,000.

cosl

they are,

secretive

and noc-

Of the hundreds

which we daily walk only

may bring

a rare acci-

even one of them to our

Inly the hunter and the

rapper
know the haunt- of the fur bearers and
Only the profesthe came animals.
<

sional field collector, with his resources

The account was originally issued in

two part-. "The Larger North American
Mammals," in November, L916, and
the "Smaller Mammals of North AmerThe two pan- are
in May, 1918.
k
form,
now issued together in

of skill and of especially &e\ ised

greatly facilitating their use asaconve-

names and relation-hiphe may chance to obtain.

.'"

work of reference, useful

nienl

alike to

the naturalist and the general reader.

Excellent

many

birds,

books on

Nor!

them

well

of

American

illustrated,

mammal

our smaller
"color

"

'

amateur

the

aid

of

tion

There

life.

is

finding

in

The

forms

recogni-

features

distinctive

their

quires more or less technical

hundred species
that frequent their home surroundings
>n the other
of field and woodland.
<

hand,

is

it

mammals

safe

the wild

say that

to

equally well

known

them

to

on the part of the observer before he

The

one

lire-cut

is

[nspired

wild and. above

and

research

I'amiliai- alike

mal Kingdom.
by

the

Nat
1918.

Bi

orth

A m< rica

Creatures

Edward W.

of

Nelson.

Intimate
the

Mam-

Published

with the

with the

Little

in

love

high

of

spirit

his

of

natural

explorations have taken him

throughout the continent from the Arctic tundras of Alaska to the jungles of
tropical Mexico, and have made him

i-

imalt

all,

all
a

history

malogisl and

Big and

with

discovery,

thologist, he

are

the possessor of them

degree,

knowledge of their manner of

Hd

who

volume like
numerous and
a

Fortunately, Mr. Nelson, chief

of the United States Biological Survey,

and the

ii

may

varied.

ran be counted on the fingers of a sinf

gle hand, and of only two or thr<
which will they have more than slight
life.

re-

training

could successfully prepare

the

out

of the

our midst, graceful and attractive in

form as well as vivacious and songful,
their nest building and manner of life
open to all observers. It is easy foT any-

knowledge of perhaps

no

or other popular de\ ice to

can determine the specimen he

chance to have acquired.
The requisites of an author

one with the slightest interesl in these

wonderful creations to know intimately
their life habits and to have a fair

rap-.

has the opportunity and the required

knowledge to unveil the mysteries of

have long been available, and also a

number of magazines exclusively devoted to these easily observed dwellers
in

of

mice and shrews and moles that

inhabit the fields and meadow- through

ken.

at

field

and half-tone reproductions of photographs of especial interest and pertinence, published, as stated by the editor

part,

no vocal

rule,

attention

turnal in habits.

dent

of the magazine,

most

for the

Seton,

lustrations by Ernest

have, as

attract

to

ist

able to impart

Ee

of the desert

equally an ardent mambroadly trained natural-

observal ions with

ness.

life

While an ardent orni-

forest.

his experiences
-\

has lived

mpathj and

and

direct-

with the animals

X AT URAL HISTORY

:;?

and has studied

homes; on the technical
side he is a monographer of many of
the groups of which he so tersely and
which

of

them

in

writes

he

their

clearly sots forth the life histories.

The forms
of

(species

mammals now

and

local races)

recorded from conti-

number

nental North America

nearly

2500, yet they are reducible, so far as

their distinctive traits are concerned,

As North
a few hundred types.
America, in the sense of the present
work, is mainly the continent north of
to

the

Nelson's

tropics,

biographies

of

about 120 groups comprise all of the

types of this large area which are of

primary interest, from the large game

and fur-bearing animals to the bats,
shrews, mice, and squirrels. Thus, the
hares and rabbits, numbering approximately one hundred local forms that
are considered worth distinguishing un-

conditions

lneci

of

"Gnawers most numerous of mammals,"

"Good housekeeping in rodent land."
"The ebb and flow of antagonistic species," "Countless beasts that roam the
night." "Animals that put themselves
in cold storage," "Defensive
sive

animal alliances,"

ship of certain northern forms to Old

World

types, and the presence on our

southern border of a similar affiliation
with tropical American types, while

others still are distinctly of North

American origin with no close relationship to groups found elsewhere.

The

special adaptations of species to

their particular environments,

very diverse conditions of

and the modifying

groups, each illustrated in color, and

conditions,

the distinctive external characteristics

ment

of the constituents of each

satisfactorily presented.

Never before has the general reader had

placed before him in a connected and
w^ell

tial

balanced

summary

so

much

essen-

information about North American

And

hares and rabbits.

true of

Mr.

all

the same

is

in

his

introductory

pages, contrasts the early days of the

settlement of North America with pres-

ent conditions in respect to the larger

mammalian

the continent

life of

and

life, as

to

arbo-

subterranean, aquatic and aerial,

of climatic

effect

resulting

in

the

develop-

which

geographic races in species

have a wide range, are also

among

the topics presented.

of

ity of desert

without

The

abil-

inhabiting species to live

drinking,

"through chemical

action of their digestive tracts, whereby

some of the starchy parts of their food

are changed into water,"

is

also noted;

also the storing of food for winter use

the other biographies.

Nelson,

these

ductions, as the evident close relation-

real,

and

offen-

general statements and philosophic de-

der the "higher criticism" of modern

are treated as constituting six

and habits

and

Under

etc.

captions are presented a wide range of

days,

are clearly

environment and

competition/' "Geography and color,"

the

by some species, while others pass the

winter in a torpid condition and thus
do not require food. Molting, or the
seasonal change of the coat, is also the
subject of comment,

and likewise the

a strong appeal for the conservation of

concurrent change of color from brown

to white in autumn and the reverse in
spring in many northern animals as a
protective provision against enemies.

In the introduction to the

wild life.
second part, the "Smaller Mammals of

of former days in respect to

abundance in the seventeenth and eighteenth century times and the pitiful
remnants that now remain and makes

North America,"

dozen pages are

given to the generalities of the subject,

which are condensed under such suggestive subheadings as "Animals that
learned to 'dig in/ " "A departure for
every need," "Strange adaptations to

In this connection a misapprehension

how

the

brought about is, let

us hope, finally given its quietus by this
statement of the now known facts of
the case "It was formerly considered
that the change of mammals from the
brown of summer to the white winter

change in color

is

NELSON'S -WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA"

in the fall, and from the white
brown in spring, was due to
change in the color of the hairs, but

coal

to

the

is

now known that

The time of

and

season,

the

"it

several weeks, according to

fall

or spring

is

to

these changes de-

molt.

pends

due

en1 irely

is

it

it

varies

this

whether

he

tions of the fool prints of

different

of

kinds

of

oummammals,

Large

when walking and when running, add

novel

and

interesting

he has

that

field

The

own.

the count

Folk,"
gives

mal

feature

made

from

a
a

practically his

subjects range from bears,

these sketches, en-

of

Mr. Seton

tells

he

in

ry.

"Footprints

rack of

about

trail

he "usually

ns

normal adult ani-

one inch of snow, thai

Some
in

of the

fine

of the animal.

represent the Leading

pes of

mammals

give

squirrels

They
the

to

mice

and

shrews.

many

readers

seen by them in newly

snow during many a winter walk-

imprints

fallen

field

will vividly recall to

and

over a wide range of country.

M r. Fuertes' colored illustration- are
of course of the highest excellence,

rabbits

at
.

mammals, and from

jack

While there are endless variants in each

kind.
aim to give the reader at leas!
one typical sel of each."
There are
nearly sixty Of these sketches, which

and other carnivores to deer,

moose, and caribou among the Larger

envoi!-,

dust.

goes up or across the page

rdinary gail

tl

Wild

Nature's

being ideal for tracking.

-mailer kind- are shown

The

Late."

Mr. Seton's illustrations and descripber

in

titled

333

he reader

vi\ id

and

concept ion of

varied forms of mammal Life in

North America.
Our foremost bird
draft-man may now be awarded equal
honor in a not her held.

the

rraphic Magazine,

/.'</

Reproduced by special permission

American bison 01
roamed the central plains and forests of North America as sole
narch, supplying
the basis for some of our most picturesque Indian cultures.
Even as late as 1870 it was estimated that five and
a half million head stilt survived west of the Mississippi, but
tc
>re than
and these are
gathered in Canadian and American pn
ader primit
ions the buffalo herds migrated
ward and southward with the seasons, always following the same trails which were consequently worn into per
manenl landmarks. Indeed some of our highways and railways follow in the footsteps of these wild travelers
I

Courtesy of the MacMillan

Watching

for the first sign of a forest

fire.

To

Company

protect the vast resources of our National Forests

an

maintained. Mr. Boerker tells of the vigilant work of this army of rangers who during 1916 extinguished 5655 forest fires, saving hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of timber and
perhaps many lives. Lookout men are posted in small cabins on prominent mountain peaks or on high
hills where they can observe wide areas and watch for fires day and night during the danger season.
Telephone lines connect the posts with central stations so that information can travel quickly and the
fire fighters be rapidly mobilized
extensive patrol

is

"Our

National Forests"

BARRIX

By

(i

N M

A Review
OGRE

Research Associate in Forestry, American Museum; formerly in the United States Forest Service;
Major of Engineers, American Expeditionary Force

"Our National Forests"

book by Mr. R. H. D. Boerker, Arboriculturist. Department of Parks,

with the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1917.
The book
should be considered from two distinct points of view: (1) that of the professional forester familiar
with the National Forests and their administration by the United States Forest Service; and (2) that of
the general public.
The first point of view requires an accurate statement of facts, the second requires
that the facts be interestingly presented.
It is difficult for any one reviewer to take both points of view
at once.
If he is a professional forester he will judge the book on the accuracy of its facts, and he
If, on the
cannot avoid having interests which may not have a lively appeal to the general reader.
other hand, he is not a forester, he will know whether or not the book is interesting, but not if it is
accurate.
The reviewer in this case, having been in the United States Forest Service for five years on
the National Forests, in the District Office and lastly in the central office at "Washington must confess
to belonging in the first category, and will judge the book by its accuracy although it seems to him to be

New York

City,

is

man who was

also very interesting in the

THIS

new

manner

of presentation of its facts.

B.

Moore.

Forests does not attempt a general

Roosevelt, and other lovers of our great West.

Mr. Boerker gives us rather the human side

description of the National Forests

of these forests as revealed in the

work which

Such descriptions we already

have from the pens of John Muir, Theodore

the United States Forest Service

is

book

on

our

National

in themselves.

Boerker, R. H. D.. Our National Forests

Forest Service on the National Forests, pp. i-1
1918.
1

o34

administer them.

He

doing to

has given us the

first

A short popular account of the work of the United States

238; 80 illustrations. The Macmillan Company, X. Y.

"OUR NATIONAL FORESTS"

complete and
the

relation

the

welfare

National

the

of

the

Forests

people.

to

sketches

Il<'

of the establishment

history

the

briefly

of

Service and of

Foresl

the

we have of

accounl

faithful

the activities of

of

the National Forests and the development of

Be covers

Foresl Service.

tlic

detail the

in

administration of the National Forests and

the scientific work of

count of how foresl

fought

are detected

We

are

tol

how

such a way as

i"

of

National

the

the

forest;

Forests to

how the forage

industry, and

stock

<-ut

future

the

the

and

sold

is

preserve

vah

fires

His ac

Service.

most interesting.

is

the timber
to

tin'

the

Live-

made

is

available to this industry; lastly we are told

National

of the other uses of the

summer camp

Buch as water power and

This

it

would be impossible

small spar"

in

to the

when

would

In the Northeast.

Maine, Lumbermen are awake

in

the evils of

destruction and aux-

tore-!

in

practicing

well

tends

as

the

Such

conditions permit.

fact

they are

somewhat crudely

forestry,

as

but

haps,

tun of

it-

When

the

per-

economic
statement as this

present

grazing an.

die,

down

has come to

a- each

dependence on the other.

In advocating Government control of

realize

ting on private land-

page
farther than

Somewhat

even

many

ardent advocates of forest conservation.

when

France,

forestry

i-

cut-

In

established,

well

owner can cut without consent of the

Government and as he pleases, provided he
the

d0< s

In

reduce the area under fo

n.it

the historical

part

Hi. the author gives

covered

Harrison

for

'flu-

the

creating

may

he

correct,

always understood that

initiate,)

first

(page

President

to

Foresl

hut

we have

President Cleveland

the policy of setting aside public

restore this land by

inflicted

great

ami

ing

ami

problem,

the

id'

by which the ranee

wn\

dis-

,-an

he

without closing against era/

restored

without

of

expense

the

artificial

The practice of sheep grazing

was revolutionized, much to the benefit of
reseeding.

capacity of

the carrying

Forests was greatly increased.

National

The Forest Service ha- greatly benefited

A lumberman
Lumber industry also.
on

operating

enough
to-

must

lands

private

-tan. line

buy

up

timber to supply his mill

numlier of years ahead: often he buys

Obviously this
enough for twentj years.
means an enormous initial investment on
which lie has to pay interest, taxes, and
the

of

cost

(in 1

Forest

protection.

no

timber

operating

In

outlay

such

i-

The Lumberman simply pays as

he cuts, and saves the expense of

and

tire

inte

protection.

The Forest Service

a- the author states,

i-.

under Civil Service.

ha- always jealouslj

It

guarded against political influence of anj

We have here an example of the high
accomplishment of which our Government is
kind.

capable when

"
read.

of the book
credit

To

grazing

study

scientific

taxes,

Mr. Boerker

Roosevelt's

Accordingly the
hardship on the stockmen.
Forest Service undertook a thoroughgoing

required.

which has

under

abuse.

against

closing

animosity between lumbermen and foresters.

the

the

administration, much of the grazing land on them

wa- in had condition through previous over-

National

unnecessarily

uts.

Forest

Forests

old

perpetuate

to

important accomplish
Service took over

most

National

the

lie

its

doe- not sufficiently emphasize

but

ficiency,

Lumbermen (Introduction, page xlii)

says, "Lumbering lia- been and is

i-

to

policy

The author gives the Forest Service greal

for its remarl able work and high ef-

the industry, and

say.

wise

this

credit

the

particularly

developed

Roosevelt

presenl point.

not quite fair

today forest destruction."

to

informa-

the book.

in

Mr. Boerker,

interesting

the

all

contained

summarize

to

land for Forest Reserves, and that President

fully

but an outline of the main subjects

is

treated;

tion

Forests,

335

polil
.

It

not

ii

only

are kept out.

should

contains a

he

rich

widely

fund of

valuable information presented inaclearand

interesting
first

manner, hut also represents the

opportunity tic

people of the

United

state- have had of readily learning what the

rnment

is

natural resoui

doing with

otic

atest

Food

M A R V

By
Assistant

RECENTLY

two investigators

undertook

tion

laboratory

adequate

from

the celery

nutri-

in

and he had received only

to choose

more cheaply

chosen for them.

--

of

,,\\v<

from

diets

tend

adequate

choose

to

when

diets

abundant ami varied.

mutter

fact,

A woman
the

in

"Huh,

the

-rood Looking at

too

tin'

prices

so

The

high.''

partly

Science

come

must

to

the aid

In-

high death-rale, and

of in-

comes

menace

children

dren correctly just because they are parents:

This condition

is

in

It

although a

ficient for their

children

l>e

other meals provided by

charged

to

needs, if a school committee

may

is

are

undernourished.

qoI confined to the children

a study of

.auses

fifteen

cents a

price- the Lowest

bunch.

sum

more than 5000

of

tuberculosis

among

of

had

At

of

ninety-two

family

City might bo

summed up

,it'

in

such

pro!

cut of
the

been spent

it

spent

that will

the

study

New Fork

F
deficiencies were frequent
where the amount of money spent for food
wa- enough to supply sufficient nourishment

buy adequate food for one grown person for

about forty two cents.
This man
would need from 3000 to WOO calories a day,
department of public health

iii

as follows:

was

receni

diets

and "dislikes." An extreme ease will

Bhow how this works. A workingman came
from a grocery store, eating a bunch of
celery.
went iii ami inquired the price of

at least 10 per cent

in

potent

our individual

"likes"

thai

the working classes."

Probably the other chief reason that we

present

be-

Phipps [nstitute study of the garment

is one of the

most

committee and

him.

do not choose perfect diets

It

in

it

trade shows that "malnutrition

forced to pay for

tin-

e-timated

Life

to health."

Boston some of the undernourished children came from well to do hoe

man may

think he provides his children with food sufthink otherwise, he

i-

real

of the poor:

1906 an act of Parliament was

effect that

middle

a!

of our school

England

Mendel, of

can afford an automo-

under the conditions >f modern civiAlready in one country even the
lized life.
law questions whether parents feed their chil-

passed to the

I!.

:ire

stinct

in

L.

"No one should buy tomatoes

overweight they decrease their "expectancy of life." "After the age of thirty-five,
overweight is associated with increasingly

;s
just beIt
answered her own criticism.
cause the prices are so high that instincts
do not find opportunity to work them--

out.

see a girl

as
foods, we miidit buy them occasionally
we would call a taxi.
Does it "matter"' whether we know food
values or not.'
Evidence is accumulating
every day that it doe-. Recent study of life
insurance statistics shows that when people

exhibit

critic

we

coat

although, as they are both valuable

bile"

ten-

mother does, but

guo-s every

is

thin

and lettuce unless

tliis

If

other foods.)

in

in

Yule, has -aid.

She tun e
American Museum.
know how to buy the right foods

right

all

to give

of his energy.

](

a pint for each grown-up.

food

But, as a

most of us do not have

enough variety in our diet

dency room to work in.

the

beings, too,

Stuffs are
lit'

of

parts

all

human

world have shown that

celery can be bought

in

and wearing silk

stockings and fancy -hoes we smile, but we
live in a glass house if we buy a "nice thick
steak" or a "few lamb chops" before we have
told the milkman to Leave at our house every
morning a quart of milk for every child and
shivering

pretty

selected

min. tuI salts

The

before them "cafe

set

rat-

would furnish about 30 calories.

-pent one third of his money

The man had

whether
pick oul an

if Lefl

Public Health, American Museum

although perhaps not quite a- g

tin' nutrition experts could have

as

uiic

The

of

R E

<;

out

find

could

rats

fashion.

diet,

to

themselves

diet for

a variety of

teria"

Department

the

in

a Family of Five

for

the

standard

families

too

American Museum has

wisely.

wax a-

The monej \\ahigh amounts

to give

sacrifice of

energy59

per

families were getting Less than

3

;alories

little

protein.

installed

in

ami only twelve

One

halt'

the forestry hall

the

:m exhibit Rhowing, amon

ings in wax reproductions of actual foodstuffs, an ideally
proportioned diet fur
The exhib
creek's
family of Bve, based on the
need ot thi body.
I'MThi- selected
fur M:'
prices prevailing in New York about December
ories, which i- about as cheap ;ithe rate of fifteen cent
in
di<
adequate in oth< r essentials.
;i

.-it

.-i

NATURAL HISTORY

338

families were spending more than one third

of the food

money for meat and

It

fish.

was

found that one group of families which

spent forty-six cents was getting no more

also

food value than a group that was spending

twenty-five cents.

The amount of money spent annually for

food in, the United States is somewhere
around $7,000,000,000.
Intensive investigations

few years

to

learn

how

made

in the last

families

actually

spent their food money, have resulted in the

discovery that the average American family

spends too much of its food money for meat,

and fish, spends in fact one third

poultry,

when

it

should spend only one tenth; that

it

enough for milk and

cheese, too much for sugar, and too little for
vegetables and fruit.
spends

not

nearly

Per cent of total food values

obtained from vegetables

Xo one group
because

each

of foods furnishes a complete diet

essentials and
is lacking in some

The accompanying three

abundant in others.
diagrams represent the figures given for vegetables, milk, and grain products, respectively, in
the "Percentage of the total diet" table. The total
heights of the columns indicate 100 per cent, while
the shaded part of the columns marks the actual
percentage of the total supplied by the vegetables,
For example, 11.9 per
milk, or grain products.
cent of the total cost of the sample diet was exwhich
was derived 32.4
from
vegetables
pended on
per cent of the iron found in the dirt

When

the National

War Labor Board was

chosen to look into labor difficulties during

war

became necessary for them to know

it costs to live.
The estimates of
the experts whom they called in ranged from
the

it

how much

$1100 to $1500 a year for a subsistence

minimum in a large eastern city for a family
of five. If $1500 is selected as the yearly
income of such a family, then the amount it
may legitimately spend for food will be from
40 to 50 per cent of this, which comes to
about from $11 to $13 a week.
The body has need of many more things in
its food than the six that we hear so much
talk about, namely, calories, protein, calcium,
iron, phosphorus and vitaniines, but, if we

make

sure that these are supplied in correct

amounts,

all

the other needed materials will

be included.

Per cent of

total

food values

obtained from

null:

Milk is the cheapest of our common sources of

It
calcium and a fairly cheap source of protein.
is, however, much more expensive as a source of
On the whole we spend
iron than are vegetables.
relatively too little for milk and cheese and too
much for eggs and meat. A quart of milk a day
for a child is considered as a fair standard for
the calcium and protein found in milk make it
particularly important in the diet of growing
children.
Milk is also one of the chief sources
of the fat-soluble vitamines considered essential in
a healthful diet

FOOD FOB
I', t-c<

FAMILY OF FlYF

ntagt of

th

Calcium

Grain products
Milk
Vegetables
Meal
Eggs
Cheese

32

25

16.5

9.9
4.7

B.5

15.7

.9

.7

9.8
1.3

.8

1.8

2,

.6

L5.
-

Nuts

2.4

nut products

Fruits

1.

Tabulated above

is

exhibit,

centage,

tli.'

yield

^aliM-s

supply

diet will

cal

must fur the

tin'

family of

.:

terms of per-

ami

which foods
This

ey spent.

22
ii

2.4

:;.7

.2

3.2

in.:;

.9
1

in

jed

.3

L0.6

moderate muscular work, a mother, a boy of

twelve an. inn' Hi' sis ami a girl of ten.
I

The

diet covers the six requirements usually

considered an.

therefore

all

the other essen-

Lais.

fur vitainines could not be in-

The values

food needs of a typi-

say a fath

4G

3.2

.6

lbs.

]!l

:>

:.

27.6
11.9

9.7

in

Actual Wgt.

!0Sl

.:;

all tin'

five,

ii

.5

.6

comparison of food

showing

POD

30.3
L0.6
32.4

6.

LI.

ps in the diet selected for the Ajnerican

Museum

ihorns

70.

i7.e

13.4

23.4
37.8

3.4

du

total

;;:;.)

because the quantitative aspects of

cluded

problem have nut yet been fully worked

Tin' nee.l fur tin' water soluble

-tlii-

out for man.

vitamines

will be

eovered by an adequate diet

of this character and the need for the fatsoluble vitamines

It
i'

safeguarded by

is

tin'

milk.

easy to pick out from this table the

is

groups which furnish each of the food

In the lists below

needs for the leasl money.

the cheapest foods anth

cheap*

\i

at

tin'

tup

in

Calcium

PhospJiorus

Calories

Protein

grains
fat

Limine cheese
milk
nutcheese vegetables

the

list,

I,,-"

vegetables
grains

cheese
grains
milk

meal

meatIn

each

second, etc.

-st

fruit

accompanying charts compare the

height of each of the columns that stand for

f

with

values

Then

column.

it

height

th.'

will be plain

of

the

cost

whether or not

those foods furnish that food value cheaply.

Fur instance, look

acts:

at

the .-hart fur grain prod

in these foods
phosphorus and iron

glance will show that

we buy protein,

calories,

cheaply but that grains are expensive sources

calcium. Compare the .hart fur milk with

,,t

Per

,,i,i,iiii. ,1

this:

of total food valut s

from grain products

the

values are

very cheap

reversed, a-

milk

is

pensive for calories and protein and

pensive to he considered as a source
t

tins

are .-1111111-1 the cheapest source of energj

various foods ami a- th.- Deed for

cheapening

tin-

diet

must

ini

pon them

ten\

supplying the foundation

the hart shows, hov

onspicuouBlj
a

foods high

milk

in

quantities
iit.

moii

other

fi

in

deficient

cal
in

>roil net - Bhould

1"
calcium ami vitamines su
These tin
11

itli

lacking

rule

iron.

Now

values of milk.

all

the

mam

in-

in

less

Indeed,

place of

reenforce the

food

'he Orient

they

in

milk, which

i-

scarce.

Milk, grains, and vegetables supplement each

eli

when taken together form an

which .an

are used

of

look at the .hart fur vegetables:

mure or

vegetables

fur calcium but rathei

supplemented

excel
by the

other
diet

and

make

which can be

satisfactory
tilled

foundation

out by other

fi

I 0Q "| J
s

- y,

o .2
5

c8

o>

a;

.^

"5

ft

5? *

fe

-:

-~

A = ~ -m
..s

"0

<

to

'C JS

!p:

= - ~ ~ Oij
- ~

a
2

g.yg.gfl'SjS
d
3
U

"

J
.a

-2

f4

S & |
o
-i S

' -S

>

"

v.

"' ^

J^

a >

O C

M
<D

"3

f=

"

c3

53

3
>

-2

5
c

_-

?*

**
-

<

2 i?
" 3

5 o
e5

~ -

"3

a -

X =

9
61

"3

c3

^
it

;
""

_H

+=>

-g

rt

ft

2 a

_ 5

s
2 M

cS

^3

cc

(j,

if '3
<u

"S

= *

&
>
r ~ o ^ ~ o
-

:^=&^
-

to

-=

&

>.

.2

< Z Z

2o

&_

- M

^ I|

M^

^
"2
=

t-

*^

% a
^
"
J

oi

'{-

>
^

/
t,
>-.

1 >.
^ C

%
~
r

t
-

*"

. -r.

;>

Z-.

:
"

. 8

z.

oi

;.:

^1

i ^

c5

>-~r
1

^ ;

p.

Pit3

-;.

-i-

~ 1 -^ -3 "~

ai

Vaj-*^a)C.
o
5 g
x

* h 3 fl w
i ^ r _
c ft 3 = =

>

r=

ts

2o S

g 3 ? n
P.

C M
r

_ p
()

SS

-/

i.

m
.3
-I

Scientific Zoological Publications of the

American Museum
Summary of work

F K A N

Editor of the Bulletin of

the most part, papers

>l;

Fi

the

in

ject

character they are stones which have been

earved

Science building and

great

the

for

some of them, when viewed separately, may

f no more interest to the unprofessional
man than an isolate. building stone would
I

be

The

one who was aot an architect.

t.i

fol-

lowing brief notes indicate the general

/,',

One of
anatomy

si

arch

ridian green turtle. Chel

of

articles

and one

highly

specialized

tli.

with

insects,

?.

structure and habits

grand division

<

>

members

both

of the

in

rtebrata, to which leeches beloi

furthermore, an illustration of the mutually

American Museum and students and scholars

outside of

by

various

expeditions

and preserved for

with

definitely

stall'

result,

cannot

its

scientific

only three order-.

in

ialists

S]

As

the material obtained by expeditions

be even

largely

worked up shortly

after an expedition return-, but the groups

not jim

liately

provided for must await the

MacCallum, W. a

and

MacCallum,

Q
Hist

XXXVIII,
XXXVIII.

Art.

12,

pp.

XXXIII

395
1918.

North
the

ral

Art

Hi-t..r\

to

XXXVIU
1.

It is of interest to note that

The department of invertebrate zoology

has

man

problem- of

the

A-

ica.

fossil,

field

and of

North and South

of

part

it-

study of

isolation

movements betweei

Floridiau

for

with special refer-

-ril.ution.

ence to

work

this

the

ave been carefully studied.

The

fifth

part

of the work,

of reports on this
by Messrs. I. Qg and
MutchlerS on the water beetles of Florida.
It

the

all

li-t-

of

series
i-

known

and

tributional

gives dis-

sp<

biological

together

notes,

key- for the identification

with

of certain

species.

Wm.

Mr.

when connected
much work
preparation of a monograph on
Beutenmiiller,

with the Ameri.au Museum, did

toward the

'/.
the moths
wings are usually colored and marked like bark but whose hind
'.hen at rest, are often banded
wings,

of

the

gen

'

!'!"'''.

\V\.

.-ill.]

//

"ill

Mutchler,

>'

Andrew

.r.

The Wal

1918
i

on

material

so as to get

pp
.rk

some time been planning

for

work

American
American

Subfamily Cicadel

eventually

i-

tion.

who-

anchus bra

material

this

staff is able

during 1918 were the result of such coopera-

moths

"

but

it-

of the nine entomological publieal

:il

There are so many thousand- of spets that no one man can be an

authority on nil of them; and this Museum
has

3tudy,

Museum

the

staff;

scientific

it-

up more material than

used by outside scientists and returned to

the Museum properly classified and duly re-

Mr. Olsens reported on the leaf-hoppers

which had been obtained from time to time

i-

helpful cooperation whi.h e\i-t< between the

same

the animal kingdom, the

an ama-

is

an authority on
these creature-, restricting his studies almost
This paper is,
entirely to this one family.

Eight

moir deal

Aft

Mr. olsen

who

entomologist

teur

ported upon.

of a leech which lives on the skin

This was what hap;

question.

in

with the leaf-hoppers.

the Bulletin articles 1 describes the

of the under Bide of the flippers of the Flo-

um

of some one actively engaged with the

species

Stores

of individual papers.

''

ing of these technical publications and point

out inter.

L D T X

E.
tl

call

and Mt moirs of this Museum are

technical in both language and subLike other papers of the same
matter.
tin

It

and birds

invertebrates, fishes, ainjyhibians,

.>//

By

1918

for

..

XXXVIII,

Art

16

published

in

;i

later

Dumber

of

Xatiral

Hi-:
341

NATURAL HISTORY

342

After the severance of

the manuscript and

with bright colors.

connection

his

here,

drawings were sent for editing to Dr.

Barnes, a physician

who owns

Wm.

the largest

private collection of moths and butterflies in

their types in private collections

seum

superbly illustrated Memoir % are the result

which

this

The Bulletin

cooperation.

article

and subject

which are
to

all

the

dangers of storage in a private house and of

possible lack of care when the owner's interest lags or he dies.
The American Mu-

America and who employs several assistants

A Bulletin article i and a
to work on it.
of

of access

difficult

offers exceptional

advantages as a

re-

pository of type material, being in a city

is

a center of travel, and having not

only fireproof cases in a fireproof building

contains notes on the life histories of twenty-

but also a system for the special care of

eight species, the outcome of extensive breed-

types as distinguished from ordinary speci-

ing experiments carried on by Dr. Barnes

mens.

and

McDunnough,

his assistant, Dr. J.

ing several seasons.

The red-eyed

dur-

For the most part the

known as D. ampelophila)
much used for a study of the laws
inheritance.
Dr. A. H. Sturtevant, who

experiments deal with species of which the

has been

early stages were either partly or totally un-

of

The "text" of the Memoir

fruit fly (Drosophila melano-

gaster, formerly

twenty-two plates, giving notes on synonymy,

has been very active in such work, is also a

good student of classification and has written
a paper 4 which furnishes keys for the identi-

The plates are the work of

fication of the relatives of this interesting

known.

consists

essentially of the extensive captions of the

distribution, etc.

Wm.

Beutenmiiller, together with sev-

creature as well as notes on their biology

Fred Prince. Seventeen of

the plates are in color, showing a large number of larvae and the adults of most of the
American species wonderfully reproduced by
the Heliotype Company.
Dr. E. P. Felt, New York State Entomologist and an authority on the small midges,

and distribution.
White ants, which are really not ants but
are more nearly related to dragon flies, have
most interesting habits. The paper 5 by Mr.
Nathan Banks does not deal with these

many

they are working.

Mrs.
eral

by Mr.

S.

of which cause galls on plants, examined and reported upon 3 the type material
in the American Museum belonging to the

family Itonididae (formerly known as Cecidomyidae).

When an

author

describes

but

habits

will

help

habits to identify the

students
species

of

termite

with which

Several new species from

American tropics are described. The
same remarks apply to Prof. T. D. A. CockerelFs paper 6 on some bees from British
the

Guiana.

and the author usually designates

Bequaert has published 7 a very

(social wasps
and their relatives) of the Belgian Congo.
It is based on the collection brought back by
Messrs. Lang and Chapin. Keys to and com-

(he always should do so) a single specimen

plete descriptions of the species are given,

Subsequent students refer to

together with copious notes on habits, dis-

species that he

scribed before,

has not been de-

believes

the material which he has

before him at the time and from which he

writes his description
material,

as "the type."
these types

of a group.

when

is

known

as "type"

revising the classification

In this

way

Dr. Felt

made some

important changes in the nomenclature of

the gall midges and drew up more complete
technical descriptions than did the original
author.
1

Unfortunately,

Barnes,

many authors keep

Wm., and McDunnough,

J.

1918.

Life Histories of North American Species of the

Genus Catocala.
Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
XXXVIII, Art. 5, pp. 147-77.
2
1918.
Barnes, Win., and McDunnough, J.
Illustrations of the North American Species of the
Genus Catocala by Wm. Beutenmiiller, with AddiMem. Arner. Mus. Nat.
tional Plates and Text.
Hist., Ill, N. S., Part 1, pp. 3-47, Pis. I-XXII.
3 Pelt, E. P.
1918. Notes and Descriptions of
ItonididiB in the Collection of the American Museum of Natural History. Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat.
Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 6, pp. 179-82.

Dr.

J.

account of the Vespidae

full

tribution, etc.

The author says of Synagris:

other genus of solitary wasps offers such

"No

an amount of interesting ethological problems.

Some

of the species are

still

true to the

1918.
A Synopsis of the
Sturtevant, A. H.
Nearctic Species of the Genus Drosophila (sensu
lato).
Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII,
Art. 14, pp. 441-46.
5 Banks, Nathan.
1918. The Termites of Panama and British Guiana. Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat.
Hist., XXXVIII, Art. 17, pp. 659-67, PI. LI.
6 Cockerell. T. D. A.
1918. Bees from British
Guiana. Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVIII,
685-90.
Art. 20, pp.
7
Bequaert, J.
1918.
A Revision of the Vespida? of the Belgian Congo Based on the Collection
of the American Museum Congo Expedition, with
Bull.
a List of Ethiopian Diplopterous Wasps.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXIX, Art. 1, pp. 1-384,
4

Pis.

I-VI and 267

text figures.

,,,,,,

AN AFRICAN WASP COLONY

-or. inn-'
with the methods they
are convenientlj distinguished as social or solitary in a.-.
The social wasps live in communitj oests, mosl commonlj made out ol
oniplov in building their nests.
manufacture by chewing wood; the solitarj wasps construe! individual
a BOrt 01 paper which thej
side
Members of the American Museum Congo Expedition frequentlj found on the under
ns corwuta)
S
,ortion Bhown in the photograph) hundreds of wasp nesl
walls of their huts.
from kaolin a kind of claj used by the natives in whitewashing the
mixed it with the clay whirl, thej had
ire from th
The wasps had bui
Bhape ol the nest,
required
the
into
mandibles
the
with
kneaded
then rolled with the fronl legs and
fc.acn female
entrance.
of cells each containing a larva and provided with a bent-necked
irs untd
ground-up
with
daj
builds her own nest and feeds one larva a1 a time from daj to
ol metamoi
period
for
the
Bealed
and
off
broken
ol
,t
is fully grown; after which the neck
,:l "
sometimes be
Two or
to the fuUj developed wasp.
full-grown
,ame mud lump (nol to be confused with the manj Bmall holes made bj the
In thi
wasp.
female
one
attended
bj
is
necked
eaking out); each of these
and of nursing its larva? from daj to day, the horned synagris; forms a
ting it, dei

Wasps

necting link between the solitary and the Bocial wasps

343

From Bequaert's Revision

of the
Tespidce of the Belgian Congo

The paper nests of these social wasps (Polybioides rnelaina) of the Belgian Congo are found
The outside covering consists of several layers of thin
attached to branches overhanging streams.
Within this outer envelope the combs of
brittle "paper" with numerous entrance and exit galleries.
Some of the nests are three feet in length so that
cells in which the larvae are reared hang side by side.
with their dense population and numerous exits they become, when in the least disturbed, immediate
Even Stanley, the first white man to enter this region,
centers of trouble for the intruding observer.
found the black wasps worthy

of

comment and

attention

ert's

Revision of the
Belgian Congo

of the

This photograph shows in natural size a tropical African wasp (Sgnagris cornvta) sitting outside
The nest was found to enclose four irregularly united cells, one empty
the doorway of her clay nest.
and the others containing respectively a fully developed wasp, a translucent white pupa, and a fullgrown larva. During the larval stage the wasp is fed daily on a meat diet. To rear the larva from
the egg to the full-grown larva at the time when the cell must be sealed requires about one month in the
case of this species

344

(the habits of this horned synagris have been explained

on the preceding page)

SCIENTIFIC ZOOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS

primitive habit of the Eumeninae, hurriedly
provision of caterpillars
a

accumulating
above
the

tl

walling

then

gg,

rifice

tl

In

offspring.

maternal instinct

much more

is

the

however,

species,

other

perfect; the

female nurses her young from day to day

with caterpillars ground up into a paste;

by

Land

Crocker

the

Expedi-

ion.

report by Air. G. K.

curator of herpetology

Noble, assistant

American Mu-

the

in

seum, covers the amphibians collected by the

Museum Expedition to NicaAmerican

The

ragua.-*

obtained twenty-

Expedition

species of frogs and

seven

toads,

some of

Two

species

toward

the

these very

ling habits of the true social wasps.

In-

of amphibians were described as new.

this
f

of

and taking no further care of their

cell,

Greenland

345

evidently

is

transition

termediate conditions between these two es

tremes

collections.

in

One

of these belonged to that curious group of

American salamander- which have

bound together by fleshy webs.
These salamanders are equally adapted for
The other
life in the trees or on the ground.

Central

also found."

arc

rare

their digits

Researches on Fishes and on Amphibians

Mr.

<'arl

Chicago,

Eubbs, of the University of

L.

lias

written' concerning the varia-

and relationships
of fishes belonging to the genus Atherinops
and living on the Pacific coast of North
habits,

distribution,

tion,

They are -melts of several

America.

grading

possible

the

inter-

After a consideration of

varieties.

up to the

leading

migrations

present distribution of the genus the author

seems probable, on the basis of

It

evidence

the

scaled

t \

available,

the

thai

Atherinops, subsequent to the

coarser-

northward migration of the finer-scaled type

and to the separation of the southern islands

from the mainland, has likewise moved northward, meeting the finer-scaled type on the
central

By

of California.

coasl

breeding of the two forms

the

inter-

this region the

in

peculiar hybrid-like intergrades have probably

Now,

arisen.

intergradation

this

if

spread more widely, or

.id

the typical

if

form on either Bide should becon

xtincl

new species was related

tropical

produced

Bpecies

rather

but

we should have

explanation,

thetic

by

fusion

the

w Inch were formerly

two

of

the

Two

quired.

.1.

n,

fishes.

T.

Congo and
paper
1

from

Antilles.

the

Hubbs,

Carl

Th

191

L.

pa,

Their

XXXVIII,

Art.
I'M

Re\ lew of the

Nat. Hitt.,

/.'//.

L3,

pp

On

..

bovlengi

II i/ln

abundant on the forest trees

of Nicaragua. The scene on the Rio Grande,
accompanying the report, was taken in the
central part of Nicaragua. It was here that
the Expedition camped while hunting the
many forms of reptiles and amphibians
which frequenl the river banks of these re
mote 'cut al American rivers.
i

Research)* an Hint*

Murphy, of the Brooklyn Muadded 8 another "Contribution from

Mr. B.

seum.
the

('.

Art.

L9,

BvU. Amer
677

pp,

breeding, and

of the

Atlantic petrels,

Mother Carey's chickens, belonging to the

genus Oceanites. On page 340 is shown a
tlock

of these birds skipping alone

New York

face Of

l'.a\

the sur-

This paper establishes the fact thai Wilpetrel of the North Atlantic is the

son's

Noble,

<;

Museum Expedition
"

1916.

in.

pp,

I.

pp.

Bull
IT
I

17.

Murphy, R

Oct unites.

\M

::|

The Amphibians Collected

1918

by the American

Am
U

<

or

in

Pishes

Sanford lollection." This one

taxonomy, plumages, migration,

isses the

dortalis, with

very much like

colored

is

ri

the lichens so

l"

Some Murine

Greenland

XXXVIII,

orm

tonus.
Bull.
Art
18, pp. 669-76.

XXXVIII,
T
1918,

Northwest
Rial

109
1

.1

from

the
Distribution,
Amer. Mite. Nat.

Variation,

Relationships, and History.

The other

treat- of material broughl back from

or ac-

remarkable adaptation to their environment

Agolchynis helence has the appearance of a
green leaf which has been attacked by leaf
mold; its whole back is vivid green with a
few scattered spots of yellowish brown.

Nichols, of the

materia] having come from the mouth of the

lost

of the tree frogs collected show

disl inct."

American Mucontributed two taxonomic papers on

One- deals with the genus Vom*

Mr.

teeth as a specific

character are structures easily

syn-

species

Neo

the course of

Progs of many different genera have

lost the vomerine

teeth.

become small, and have

In the Amphibia,
teeth.

divergence

by

not

to

those tiny
in

evolution, have dispensed with their vomerine

<

according

then,

differentiated,

or

to

which,

frogs

tree

PI

MY

1918

to

//-'.

XIX.

a Studj of the A.U

Siat.,

16,

PI*

Nicai

XXXVIII,

III.

XXXVIII,

NATURAL HISTORY

3dG

same bird as that found in the far South,

the southern bird migrating, after its breeding season, to the North Atlantic. This is
proved in two ways: first, by a continuous
record of migration made from daily observation of the birds between the latitude of
New York and 54 degrees south latitude;
and second, by a study of specimens taken
at

many

points in the North, South, and

The paper

tropical Atlantic.

for the

first

also describes

time the immature plumage of

and gives
new data on the seasons and rate of migra-

the petrel, the sequence of molt,

tion.

Another bird paper is by Dr. Jonathan

It deals with the snow birds called
Juncos and is illustrated by three color

Dwight.

The new aspect referred

plates..
title

is

given in the author's

to in

its

summary

"Instead of accepting the

as follows:

presence or absence of intergradation as

a guide by which to separate species

from subspecies, I have endeavored to

show that species may be recognized by
qualitative, and subspecies by quantitative characters. Specific and subspecific
characters in most of the Juncos are
almost wholly confined to color and
therefore by mapping the geographical

we

distribution of color

from a new angle a

are able to gain

fairly distinct im-

pression of relationships in this genus.

This Nicaragua frog, Hula boulengeri (Cope), has pre
viously been known only from the type specimen in the
National Museum at Washington, described by Cope
Note its peculiarly long and flat snout.
in 1887.
Its coloration gives close resemblance to the patches
of lichens

on the trees where

it

lives

Even

if

role played

am

overestimating the

by hybrids we very much

need a nomenclature that will indicate

better than at present the intermediate
as well as the extreme portions of lines
of variation. Zoologists

and botanists, by actual

experiment, have of late
years so revolutionized
ideas regarding species

and hybrids that

sys-

ornithologists

tematic

are likely to be looked

upon as backward and

unscientific unless they

more of fluctuaand mutations, of

manifestations of Mendelian and other laws,
and all the modern
learn
tions

theory

that

goes

with

them."
1
Jonathan,
Dwight.
Geographic
The
1918.
Distribution of Color and
of Other Variable Charac-

in the

ters

New

and

scene in central Nicaragua along the wooded shores of the Rio

Grande, haunt of the rare Hyla boulengeri. This was one of the cam]]ing sites of the American Museum Nicaragua Expedition in 1916

Genus Junco

Aspect of

Subspecific

Bull.

Amer.

Hist..,

XXXVIII,

pp.

2G9-309,

Specific

Values.
Nat.

Mus.
Pis.

Art.

9,

XI-XIII.

A New

Museum

Director for the British

SIDNEY FREDERICK HARMER, F.R.S., ENGLISE ZOOLOGIST, APPOINTED

TO THE POSITION PREVIOUSLY HELD BY EMINENT SCIENTISTS,
OWEN, FLOWER, LANKESTER, AND FLETCHER
KM ENT

A \\( >r\<

/\

of

i~\ Fletcher,

from

F.K.S.,

director-

the

Museum

British

the

of

ship

eomes from London

of sir Lazarus

retiremeni

the

Natural

ami of the appointment of Dr.

Sidney Frederick Earmer, F.E.S., the presEistory),

ent keeper of zoology, to

The retiring

director

He was

alogist.

the vacancy.

till

noted

is

miner-

as a

formerly keeper of minerals

Museum, and succeeded

in the British

Ray Lankester as
History Museum in

director

Sir E.

of the Natural

The appointment of Dr. Earmer was made

Museum, namely,

lor,

Lord Chancel-

the

the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the

ker

Eouse of Commons.

the

nt'

Ilis

appointment as the director of the Natural

History Departments places a zoologist of
distinction in

plan- of the distinguished

tin'

mineralogist.

Earmer

Dr.

will

retain

the

Mr.

Fagan,

E.

(
.

I.S.O.,

the director in the details

assist

of the Nat uial

was formerly
lecturer

istory

zoology,

in

has historical
tific

founder,

the

British

More than
after

on

authority

>r.

plans

of Zoology.

He

invertebrate

zoology

is

Natural

History.

In

1907

he

was appointed keeper of zoology at the

Natural Eistory Museum, and at
e threw
Ee
himself into his new duties with vigor.
particular the fauna of the

has

studied

sea,

and, following the example of his great

in

predecessor, the late Sir William

has

paid

has taken

deep interest

animals,

of

Office
seals.

"ii

Hi-

attention

special

preservation

oi

Flower, he

Be

whales.

the conservation

and has advised

the
is

in

to

of

the

Colonial

and

whales

the vice-presidents of the

Any event
Museum

ish

in

the development of the Brit-

representing,

a-

the

spent

London on

in

way home,

his

i'"i

at that

Museum, the

British

the

of

the

in

China, Japan, and Si-

museum

natural history

New

in

mind

his

in

during his long journey in the East. Sir Richard expressed general approval of the plan,

encouraging the young

when the great ground plan
American Museum appeared, Dr.

thereby

greatly

Later,

traveler.
he

more incorporated
lecture

in

it

feature

the

hall,

Owen's

plan-

large central

inclmleil

Sir

in

British

the

for

Another indebtedness thai we feel to the

Museum came through thi
meat of Mrs. E. S. Mogridge and her In-other,
British

Mr.

Mintorn, to prepare the

II.

-roup-,

habitat

bird

had been introduced

The;

after
in

Museum.

the British

thirtj seven

of our

first

methods which
of

these

small

groups for the American Museum, the

series

"-i n lt

placed

on

exhibition

in

first

1887,

and the second series a year later. A third,

ami still stronger bond of union sprang
from sir William Flower's influence on
museum development, not only upon the muupon those in
ita in, but
seums of Greal
Sir William was for
this country as well.
I

>i

man\ years director of

still

members of

ing

to

the scientific staff

study within

of the British Museum.

been

Museum.

the British

another bond exists because of the

courtesy of the older institution

Fork

Zoological Society.

[ndies,

Eistory.

Bickmore,

Dr.

York, which had been maturing

Museum.

of

ago,

(1865-67)

years

director

[armer

King's College,

Natural

of

years

where he showed Sir Richard Owen,

time

scien-

its

Albert S. Bickmore, with

Museum

beria, stopped

through

-timi

Dr.

fifty

East

Richard

ami lias published many papers on pol

ami with Dr. Shipley, now vice-chancellor of
the University of Cambridge, he edited the
\ridgt

three

control

and superintendent

Museum

niversitj

leading

Museum.

Fellow of

<)'

will

London.

in

The American Museum of Natural History

During thai period the assistant

secretary,

museum

with the welfare of the

keepership of zoology until the end of the

year 1920.

of interest to

is

We like to feel that

the welfare of our Museum is closelj associated
Museum.

the American

Dutch

L910.

at a meeting of the Electing Trustees of the

British

and greatest museum of the English-

oldest

speaking peoples of the world,

given

in

the

the

in

welcom-

from

New

hospitable walls

Such cooperation has

researches

of

Dr.

J.

A.

347

X.

348

TUBAL HISTORY
mam-

other scientific institutions at home, in the

mals; of Dr. William K. Gregory on fossil

and recent primates; of Dr. Daniel Giraud

and Colonies, and in foreign

and to the many Government
Departments with which the museum has
There are few posts with such
relations.
possibilities of advancing the natural history
sciences, of making them useful to the nation, and of interpreting them to the public."
From the Times of March 5, we quote the

on birds and South American

Allen

Elliot, for

whose great monograph on recent

primates every facility was accorded, not

only in placing material at his disposal but
also in aiding Mr. A. E.

many

Anderson

make

to

of the photographs for that work at

Museum; of Professor Bashford

and Dr. Louis Hussakof in their work on
fossil fishes; and of Professor Henry Fairfield
Osborn on the Mesozoie Mammalia, a work
which has proved to be of great influence in
the British
I

lean

palaeontology.

member

Indeed, there

of the American

scarcely a

is

Museum

staff

who

has not at some time enjoyed the facilities

courteously placed
British

at

disposal

his

by the

Museum.

the two institutions have been

brought together more than ever before
through the close bonds of allied scientific
sympathy which have been created in the
Steps are being taken to unite
great war.
Finally,

Dominions
countries,

following in order to help in refuting

"Work
two

in

the

natural history

is

divisible

it:

into

formation and study of collections

on the one side, and teaching on the other;

the

former mainly done at museums, the

latter at universities."

The truth is that both universities and

museums are teaching in character although
they employ different general methods, and
at the present rate of growth of the museum
as a practical educator, its future competition with the university

likely to bring

is

modification of method in both institutions.

The further truth

is

that both institutions

more than one division of the respective

are

museum

staffs into similar scientific organiza-

with the educational output based on this

The National Research Council of Amer-

answered in part this old-fashioned distinction between universities and museums, writing in the Times of March 9 "The classifica-

research.

tions.

ica,

one of the best outgrowths here of the

war,

endeavoring to internationalize

is

the sciences, through a

tive

society.

tronomy,

all

permanent coopera-

Affiliation

in

and palaeontology

This suggests and leads the

tion

fundamentally

chemistry,
is

as-

under way.

way

to affilia-

and cooperation between the museums.

The American Museum hopes, not only

renew

to

the bonds which

between the American and
British institutions, but also to bring about
new means of cooperation and interchange
of ideas, with exchanges of specimens and of
methods of exhibition.
During the publicity and discussion which
have come in England at this time of change
of administration in the Natural History
Museum there have been expressed certain
ideals of the British Museum and of its office of director.
These concern the scientific
and educational status of the institution and

already

and

strengthen

exist

as such are of interest because of their pos-

wide application. We quote from the

London Times of February 27, the following,
sible

with full agreement: "The director has to

represent natural history to the public, to

An

research

in

character,

eminent English naturalist has

tion of naturalists into those

those

who form and study

who teach and

collections is very

loose and misleading. Teaching in science is

bound up with research, and research in
is knit into one with research in
[The museum research laboratory
should differ in no way from the university
There is no sharp
research laboratory!]
division of interest such as your correspondent assumes, either between the universities
and the national museums, or between teach-

laboratories

museums.

ing and the collections within the universities themselves."

In the history of museum growth there

has been a preliminary time of development
of collections, and of accomplishment of a
laborious mass of systematic and descriptive
work on them. For most groups this work

has been pretty well in hand, however, for

some years; and the idea that a museum is

limited to collections and taxonomy is nowhere extant except in the minds of a few
who have not kept themselves informed as
to the development of the modern museum.

The Climbing Fish

Bv K. D. 0. JOHNSON

UP

IN

the An, inn; heights of the De-

partment of Antioquia, Republic of

Colombia, there

marked by

turn

climatii

is

and great humidity. The rainfall is enormous in quantity. The topography included
within the stratum is mountainous in the
The streams are many and torextreme.
rential in character, and their waters rush
roaring down the steep and tortuous channels
placid

to the

of the plains below

rivers

they are but a series of

blustering
schistose

and
\iM\

country

and

character

in

rock

beds

up

high

canons' sides are pitted with

on

many

the

potholes

of unusual interest to the student of dynamic

There

not

waterfall

the

in

today so small or insignificant that

not

is

it

is

mure or

busily

less

The

neath.

engaged

falling

around with

boring out

(rater

at

to

it.

abound, and within these mills of

is

ground

impalpable powfreed from its matrix linds

an

to

and the u
lodgment in the gravels and the alluviums

der,

r<

>

the plain- and the river bottoms.

was

It

gold that indirectly drew

li

such

to

install

lure'-

"Say,

mining.

company engaged
A permanent camp had

tablished

in

operations of a

"t

cut

in

the

in

placer

beei

steep

feet

L5

was located ;it an elevation

above the roaring Santa

leek.
-

of

112.

Johnson, Annals

Climb

New York Academ

to expatiate

and upon the utter inability

among the best swimmers,

place,

even

upon

ot'

any

sur-

<

>

mount the
I

difficulties of such a stream.

pointed nut the absurdity of imagining

swimming with nine

tenths of it- body

would have to be,
up that pari of the stream where the water

li-h

out

of the

water,

passed

in

"He'd

have to

as

it

a thiii sheet over the sn

be an

aviator,"

th rm-ks.

So

-aid.

pooh-poohed the idea recklessly.

Harry

listened with suspicious patience to

lengthy
-t

dissertation, while I, from

and point, utterly demolished

unthinking assertion, then

"Well, are you

This

fish!

i-

he

Mere'-

fact,

net

out:

blurted

through ?

all

his

the

theory you've

utted up against."

Me
catfish

held
at

in

hi-

that,

hand

li-h.

it

e\er.

living

resembling

horned pout of the

looked

power Btreams were numerous, we

ce

and proceeded

bag thin--."

sides

fish."

the impossibility of his finding a fish in such

the

the canon and

of
<

oiches

ith

I replied saying something about hi- "see-

my

hydroelec

connect ion

Since

contained

my brother proceeded to dig out one

them while
was engaged in taking the
readings from the weir.
Me had been at this task fur only a tew
minutes when he ailed out to me:

u!

theoretical

in

infrequently

gold,

of the term.

were employed

not

potholes

my

plant to be used

as-

the stream.

ut'

and the deflecting dams were mi It in.

the water was turned, a part of the
bed of the stream lay uncovered, exp

brother and myself so far into the .jungle

We

were directed toward

efforts

first

jungle thai answers the most rigid definition

trie

t.

lished

li-h.

Into these potholes falls the drifting, gold-

the

rocks

si

When

bearing quartz with which the upper Andean

ut

broad

this it was necessary to introduce a

measuring weir at a poinl above the takeThe weir was soon estab
off of the plain.

up a rotary

set

sand,

stones,

out the pothole.

regions

down

To do

of

poinl

the

and gravel
and the resulting wear bores

carrying

motion,

Our

slipped

distance,

certaining the volume of flow

cylindrical hole in the rock be-

seems inevitably

impact

in

the

to

The bed of

a couple of old gravel-filled potholes.

stream

Ancient

region

convenient

surface of the worn

considerable

a thin

in

Ls

rapid.

geology.

i"i

over the smooth

is

ream beds

si

mosl

lieyimiing our work.

thirty-eight degrees from the horizontal and,

comparatively

erosion of the

tlic

cascades, and

falls,

The

"riffles."

one

the

for

power stream held an average angle of

this

mperature

a unifora

selected

camp

North.

There

it

oearly a half foot long.

from

Hi-'

fish,

the
I

was,

and a

catfish

took
a

or

it

and

real

live

There eould

lie

Republic of Colombia."
127 333, Di

X ATI' HAL IIISTUHY

350
no possible doubt about

in spite of the

it,

utter impossibility of the thing.

Harry had his laugh and returned to his

but I
I was completely puzzled
had pressing work to do. I carefully placed

digging.

This

the fish in a small pothole at one side.

was about four inches in diameter and

twelve inches in depth and held perhaps two
hole

or three inches of water.

Catfish are hardy,

figured that there

was enough water

so I

to last this little fellow until I could give

him more attention.

After I had finished

my work

at the weir,

side of the bucket.

I put it back and
watched the performance repeated. Then I

one to a tall glass jar and

through the glass watched the operation of
I caught others
the creeping mechanism.
transferred

and dissected them and studied them until

I was in possession of their secret.
This lies in the combined action of two
sucking mechanisms. One of these is the
ordinary sucker mouth, surrounded by a soft
flap, very thin and flexible at the edges.
The other is an interesting structure consisting essentially of a bony plate beneath

I returned to the little pothole to give that

the skin on the under side of the fish where

amazing fish a closer scrutiny.

He was not to be found, so I called out,
"What did you do with the fish, Harry?"
Harry asserted that he had not taken the
fish and that he had paid no attention to it.
That certainly was a mystery. I did not

These fins are

broad and flat and their surface is studded
with small sharp teeth pointing backward.

think

it

jump out
inches

catfish

possible for a five-inch

of

deep.

pothole

four-inch

concluded,

twelve

however,

was the only way of escape and

that

to

that
con-

the ventral fins are attached.

The bony plate

able to create a suction pressure, and by

means of the alternate action of the two
suckers,

tion.

like,

Before

we returned

camp that

the

to

caught two more

These we car"cats" in another pothole.

Harry

had

camp in our dinner

camp just as the

ried

down

We

arrived at the

to the

afternoon meal was being served.

pail.

late

I hastily

poured the water and the fishes from the

dinner pail into a three-gallon galvanized
bucket and set it in an inconspicuous place
outside the kitchen. After dinner I sought
the bucket to get a better look at the fishes

which had destroyed a good theory. They

were not in the bucket. I inquired of several
who might possibly have freed the fishes
but no one knew anything about them. This

mystery was getting too thick for comfort.

The next day I made a special trip up the
power stream and managed to secure two
more of these fishes. I brought them down
to

camp and placed them

that had held the others

same

in the

and

sat

pail

down

to

watch their maneuvers.

For a time they were content to swim
about, butting their blunt noses against the
sides

ment,

of

the vessel.

Then, to

one of them thrust

of the water and began

its

my

amaze-

"nose"

out

creeping up the

I watched it hitch itself

side of the pail.
up by short longitudinal movements until
it had reached the top edge and fell out-

given a shuttle action by

fins may be moved lengthwise of the fish

through a distance equal to about one sixth
With this apparatus the fish is
its length.

tented myself with this rather lame explana-

afternoon,

is

muscles attached fore and aft so that the

it

is

enabled to crawl, inchworm-

on a smooth vertical surface.*

Shortly after this, the mining company

undertook the cleaning out of a large pothole which was eight feet in diameter and

twenty-two feet in depth. Before the bottom had been reached, the water that remained in the pothole was found to be full
of these climbing catfishes. They were naturally greatly agitated by the action of the
workmen who were shoveling out the gravel.

Several

times

some

of

them

started

to

climb out but were frightened by the men

and dropped back. I surmised that as soon

work was stopped for the lunch hour

would essay the long climb to
I was not mistaken and my watchthe top.
as the
these

fish

The climbing

catfish

which Mr. Johnson de-

scribes is not the only species of fish which is

able to climb by means of its ventral musculature.
In the Himalaya Mountains so similar to the
Ancles in ruggedness there occur several species
which have adapted themselves in various ways to
Nemachilas rupicola and perthis environment.

haps other species of mountain cyprinids adhere

to the rocks by means of their smooth, ventral
The silurid genera Pseuskin and enlarged lips.
decheneis and Crlyptosternum cling by means of a
The mountain
well developed abdominal sucker.
torrents of the Himalayas form the nursery for
many species of frogs. Their tadpoles, like the
fish, have become adapted to these terrific floods.
Some of the tadpoles, such as Hcgalophrys parna,
cling by means of their lips and the ventral muswhile other species, such as Rann
culature,
afghana, possess a well developed ventral sucker.
G. K. N.

NOTES
ing was rewarded by seeing four climb up a
of water
distance of eighteen feet to the
1

They followed a
down the

above.

thin

kept their

film

water

wet and sustained them on a

-ill-

re
[1
climb that must have b< en arduous.
quired half an hour to make the ascent.

To my own

satisfaction

question of how

had answered the

remained

lour; there

was

LI

The fish was evidently

the question of why.
f extreme modification and adaptaa
,

them.

;i

As swimmers, however, these

time of

in

swer.

tains

found that the Ate lean torrents were the

habitat of myriads ,,t' these curious creaI

are

they

"eapitanes"

tures,

The individuals

natives.

were living

in

called

the

bj

had examined

stream

torrential

almost

daily subjected to the sudden fury of sweepTh- violence of these floods

ing floods.

unimaginable

La

one who has not witnessed

to

flood, these

denizens of the wild

waters anchor themselves by means of their

Yet these catfishes are to
sucker mouths.

be found

cattish

fishes

To witness their awkward, wriggling, swimming movements is

to know at
:e thai they could not by that
means of propulsion alone make any headway against even moderate currents.
We can understand that to remain at home

are clumsy and inept.

Some
peculiar environment.
fit a
do not climb, why should these.' An
analysis of the environment brought the anto

tion

seems that nothing unanchored in

bed can withstand their wild

It

stream

the

of water

This

rock.

trickled

that

351

in

parts of the stream-, from

all

the slender spring branches of the high mounto the sluggish rivers of the plains.
Travel they must and by using the climbing

mechanism

had seen operate- -the alternate

mouth and ventral suction plate.

That they are able to surmount even great
falls is evident from their presence in the
action of

Santa Rita Creek, for this stream falls into

the Santo Domingo River over a precipice
more than two hundred feet in height.

Notes
Edward

by the

painting of the

(reproduced in

number of Natural History),

Howard

artist,

the

is

time

tirst

Russell

X.A.

Butler,

study of such as-

in the

tronomical phenomena, that the colors of the

corona and its prominences have been ob-

by a trained

and recorded

artist,

at

the moment, eliminating the chance of in-

accuracy.

In connection with this most

re-

markable painting Mr. A. lams writes of the

especial Lnten

from

the

attached to the 1918 eclipse

si

fact

observations of

that

Lawrence

has presented to
oil

1918

of June,

eclipse

solar

color in this

It

Adams

D.

American Museum the

the

were

it

confined to the area of the United states.

It

M.

I.

am be,

the

well-known

anadian palaeontologist, died of pneumonia

on

March

L919.

1_.

paheontologieal

Survey for

logical

lie

stall'

had been on the

of the Canadian Geo-

thirty-five years,

ami for

the last fifteen years had devoted especial at-

tention to vertebrate paheontology.

cent year- he had

of

leading

the

When

come

to be

Jn re-

regarded as one

authorities

on

dinosaurs.

the Geological Survey collections were

moved to the Victoria Memorial Museum at

Ottawa in L910, he took charge of the fossil
led in building up a
vertebrates and succ
remarkable collection, especially rich
Cretaceous dinosaurs of Alberta.

in the

In

secur-

was observed only by

pie of th.' United state- and Canada, as
the great war prevented foreign astr
mers
from coming to this country to witness the
The resemblance of the flame at the
event.

ing this

one of the prominences to the outBpread wings of an eagle prompted lie as-

Lambe, as he studied vertebrate palaeontology in 1903 under Professor Henry Fairfield

is

true

also

that

it

of

tip

the

aid

Mr.

C.

of

i-t

ince

arm2

the

of
_

at

,,t'

American

sted

prominence"

corona of th

the time

and

referring
1:>

g.

veteran

Museum

American
Lnteresl

American

collector.

work

the

id

staff

and

learned here

has

The

followed with

success

much of

of

Mr.

the field

ictori-

technique and methods of research which he

Allied

applied to Canadian palaeontology with such

the use of the term

in

lipse of

the

the

H. Sternberg, and of his son-.

sociation of the eai.de with the astronomi.nl

evei

material he availed himself of

fine

to

the

Bis unexpected death in the

busy and successful career comes

ble results.

midst of
.-.-

shock

to

his

many

friends

and as a

SAT URAL HISTORY

352

groat loss to the science to which he hail de-

American Museum), has resigned

voted his

ministrative work in the university to become

life.

executive head of the American

A Roosevelt .Memorial Exposition to commemorate the life and achievements of TheoColumbia

University in the Avery Library during May.
The University has previously established in
Columbia House one of the first of the colEoosevelt

dore

will

held by

be

lege centers for Americanization in the coun-

and
memorial
try

will

establish

a permanent

there

to Colonel Eoosevelt.

The

his

Red

ad-

Cross.

new Jardin des

proposed for France in the park
of Versailles between the Trianon (villas of
Louis XIV and XV) and the Forest of
establishment of a

Plantes

is

The new garden of about fifteen

Marly.
hundred acres will be, to a large extent, supplemental to the old Jardin des Plantes in
Paris, the further expansion of which has
been shut off by the growth of the city.

Professor and Mrs. Henry Fairfield Osborn, accompanying Mr. C. William Beebe,
left

New York February

unusual

facilities

York Zoological

26 to inspect the

for research at the

New

Society's station in British

Colonel Roosevelt in 1915 wrote of

Guiana.

this station enthusiastically as

marking "the

beginning of a wholly new type of biological

work capable of literally illimitable expansion."

The

Zoological

Station

Society

in

of

the

British

for scientific investiga-

Guiana has reopened

tion, after a lapse owing
most of the

staff

to the absence of

with the American Army.

Mr. C. William Beebe, the director, sailed for

Bartica on February 26. Bartica is favorably
situated for the study of both fauna and flora
climatic conditions are ideal for the

its

work.

General ecological investigation will be

the relations of plant and animal life

made ou

jungle while special work will be carried on by individual investigators. Professors William Morton Wheeler, of Harvard,
in the

Ulric Dahlgren,
Reese, of

West

of

and Alfred
make special
and crocodiles,

Princeton,

Virginia, will

study of ants, electric fishes,

respectively, while Director N. L. Britton, of
the New York Botanical Garden, will make a
survey of the forests. The New York Zoolog-

assumes the financial support of

the project through the generosity of five
members of the board of managers, Colonel
Anthony R. Kuser, Messrs. C. Ledyard Blair,
Andrew Carnegie, George J. Gould, and A.

ical Society

Barton Hepburn.

assistant

botany at the University of

Michigan, was recently appointed first assistant to the director-in-chief of the

New

York Botanical Garden, to succeed Dr. W.

A. Murrill who occupies the newly created
position of supervisor of public instruction.

The New York Aquarium

Research

Tropical

New York

and

Henry Allan Gleason,

Dr.

professor of

is to

have con-

structed a seaworthy well boat for purposes

Such a boat with a

of marine collecting.

10 x 11 foot well for preserving the fish alive

will

make

possible hereafter the

transpor-

good condition of not only the

local fish of Long Island shores but also the
tropical species that migrate in summer up
the Gulf Stream, and other large fishes retation

in

ported taken in the trap nets of local

fish-

ermen.

An

example of the development of modern

museum methods

of instruction in connec-

tion with university

expansion of the
of Illinois.

work

museum

The plan

is

shown in the

of the University

includes, in zoology,

both general synoptic series illustrating the

principal forms of animal life, living and extinct, and ecology groups, such as life in and
about an old decaying log of the local woods.

The

first

of a series of economic groups to

activities of common

show the presence and

insect pests is also completed.

The

fight of the entomologist against in-

sect pests has

the war.

been greatly increased during

Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the

Dr. Livingston Farrand, president of the

University of Colorado, formerly professor
of anthropology in Columbia University (in

Bureau of Entomology at Washington, has

recently reviewed the work of his Bureau and

1903-4 assistant curator of ethnology in the

of

of the subcommittee on medical entomology

the

National

Research

Council.

The

io:
o"

5<

aj

<J2

i-

,2 h

1.
U

. "
- " - ~
r o
X
s *w 3

58
03
OJ

r.

03 h

S
pV-gs
'

ii

&>>>}

XATCL'AL IllSlonV

354-

fighting

of

disease

first.

as

was

the

all

later discovered, of the very general

trench

were thoroughly investigated

fever,

and reported upon

-** "

occupied

carriers

governments from the very

Body lice, carriers of typhus and,

attention of

England, France, and

United States began
massing troops; but extensive experiments
were later conducted in this country, in co-

Germany before

in

the

operation with the Chemical Warfare Service,

war gases
and an overhauling of army laundering processes was
as to the possible utilization of

as fumigants against this pest,

undertaken with a view to complete

steriliza-

tion of clothing.

The work of the Bureau in protecting crops,

ground supplies, and lumber is perhaps more
generally familiar to the public, although Dr.

Howard says the preeminently practical men

who have been working for years along this
important

were

line

even

that

"chagrined
high

certain

in

the old idea of the entomologist

was a man whose

that he
to

of

differentiation

the

life

find

to

circles

official
still

held

was devoted
species.

."

The stimulation of food and lumber production was one of the most important of our
home activities. In assisting the farmer the
duties of the Bureau were, as usual, multifarious, as, for example, the heading off of

a plague of grasshoppers in Kansas, there-

by saving about $3,000,000 worth of wheat

and $2,500,000 worth of alfalfa. The cultivation of castor beans for their oil arose

as

war

special

measure

inasmuch as
up and

the entire Mexican crop was bought

shipped

planted

in

to

German

was
which the

large acreage of these beans

the

United

worm

army

southern
quickly

probably

Spain,

to

agents.

discovered

were called

in to

and

States

and
the

other

insects

entomologists

prevent an insect raid.

In-

spection and protection of the great stores

of grain, lumber, and wooden implements also

entomologists and they found it

fell to the

accessary to investigate the ways and means

of getting out logs so as to prevent their
Friends of 1st Lieut. Charles L. Camp have
learned that at a recent divisional review in
Prance he was awarded the French War Cross
with gold star for services in the Argonne.
Lieutenant Camp was working in vertebrate
palaeontology and in herpetology at the American Museum and Columbia University previous
He has served with
to his entering the Army.
At presthe 7th Field Artillery. 1st Division.
ent he is giving courses in history to the men
In telling his father of
of the 18th Infantry.
the honor he has received, he wrote, "Those
who most deserve the decorations are. however,

underground."

destruction

by

borers.

Aside from this

co-

operative research, entomologists were also

commissioned

and

their

praise

in the

services

Army

for medical work

received

from the Army

well

merited

authorities.

A tale of "pheasant farms" in China

where thousands of golden and silver pheasants supposedly are raised for their plumes

NOTES
has grown up an.l lately been broughl to the
attention of the United States Treasury Department with reference to :t proposed im-

The New York

portation of the plumage.

Zoological Society has investigated the matter and found the reporl untrue Mr. '.Wil-

355

In spite of resolutions and brigandage in

China, the academic work at the West China
Union I'niversity, Chenytu, litis continued at

maximum

Chengtu lies not far

capacity.
It
is
from the inland port of Chungking.
the capita] of the rich province of Szechwan,

liam Beebe, curator of birds at the Zoological Park and author oftherecent monograph

the governmental

on the pheasants, and Mr. Roy C. Andrews,

leader of the American Museum's expedi-

of

both deny the existence of

tions to China,

any such farms in southwestern China. Dr.

Eornaday wrote also to the French Consul
a1 Mongtseu who further denied the reports.'
silver pheasants, the consul

The golden and

reports,

have never been

usually

die

domesticated ami
Certain

captivity.

in

aboriginal non-Chinese tribes of

keep male pheasants for decoy birds

to attract the hens

the

of

Yunnan do
order

in

spring, but such decoy

in

Mexican while a pheasant

for the table can be purchased in the moun-

birds bring $13

The

tain country for thirty or forty rents.

exportation

pheasants

living

of

their

or

plumage is absolutely prohibited in China

and Endo-China, and the authorities arc very
much interested in preventing commerce in
the feathers for,

the price should chance

if

natives would soon

the

to rise,

destroy the

Chi

work of the

first

on

encyclopedia

-i

'

from the Oxford

China.
.'."

writes

hope that

it

kin.

out

the

may

recently

This

is

the

that has ever appeared

send

"I

has

-'

Press.

Encyclopaedia

the

editor,

"in

sincere

the

help to interpret and open

The

form.

city

political

re-

located at the beginning

is

of the ancient caravan route to Tibet and

is

even today the center for the greal drug ex-

porting

from

trade

The

plateau.

last

and

its

yens have

\,,i

the

hearty

approval

least

successful

university

is

chin.

by

seen the

in

<

the

of

after

leled

Western attempts

s.

tate Chinese architecture

'heii-t u

Chinese.

the

feature

buildings

its

unknown

almost

that

ten

creation of this modern university

imi-

to

have usually

I.

ecu

failures, but the Chinese designs of the university's

and halls were an imporwinning Chinese approval of

colleges

tant factor

iu

the institution.

The Reverend Marry

missionary
will join

Caldwell, repre-

R.

Methodist Episcopal Church as

senting the

the

important center

an

commercial enterprise and

field

species.

and educational capital for

people and

15,000,

Xenping,

at

Mr. Roy

'.

in

October for

work in china under the auspices of

American Museum. The Reverend Mr.

Caldwell assisted Mr. Andrews

the

Province,

I'ukien

Andrews

Pukien Province, uotably

191617

in

in

in

;m attempt

to shoot a melanistic Chinese tiger, the "blue

tiger,"

the

the story of which

was narrate.! in
for May.

American Museum Journal

L918.

China to the foreign reader, and may increase mutual respect and knowledge between
uj>

Many

East and West."

topics on the natural

history of China are included and extensive

bibliographies

given;

under

example,

an-wei

In
speed

of

gutturosa

to

regarding

question

the

Mongolian antelope {Qazella

Mr. K"V c. Andrews writes from

the
,

Supply, contributed most of the material on

China again that he has "no hesitation in

"At
placing this at sixty miles an hour."
one time."* he -ays, "our car was running at
lometer) and a herd
fort} miles (by the s]
of antelope which had started when nearly

the products and exports of China and sup-

opposite to us and about three hundred yards

"ornithology" Mr.

.1.

for
I

de La Touche

Mr.

155 articles and books.

author of Chines*

plied

many

of

distinguished

Forest

the

Ministries and

Trees and Timber

Many

statistics.

authorities

lists

Norman Shaw,

and

other

Services contributed

impor-

tin

<1'

L918
*

The

Honor
Xorth-China Branch

formerly

1 7.

<>t'

the

and

Editor

Couling,
of the

Royal Asiatic Society,

ran parallel with n- for

hen
in

all

some distance

gradually drew ahead and cro

front; they kept about the

away

tant articles.
/:.///.

Government

In ether

the time.

same distance

words while we

were running forty miles in a straight line

they were going in a semicircle about us and
still keeping almost the same distance away
rhaps they

lost fifty

When we began

to

yards, but not more.

Bhoot,

the

animals

in-

XATURAL HISTORY

356
creased
the

their

man

very

speed

with

me

considerably and

estimated then that they

were running about seventy miles an hour;

is no doubt that they can run sixty
miles with comparative ease.
I never knew

for the appointment of a highway tree

warden who shall be a scientific forester

with practical experience along the lines of

there

landscape engineering. The bill asks for an

appropriation of $10,000 for carrying out

what running was

and $10,000 for an

demonstration on the state highway
between Syracuse and Utica.

until I saw those antelope

simply flew, and one had a strange
impression that they were skimming the

they

the provisions of the act,

initial

ground, for their legs appeared only as a

The

blur."

meet

'I'd

gardeners,
diers

for

and

tin'

and

growing demand for trained

to

afford

convalescent

sol-

sailors opportunity for preparation

such

work,

the

New York

Botanical

Garden has inaugurated a two years' course

practical gardening.
The remarkable
natural facilities of the grounds comprising
the Botanical Garden in Bronx Park, Xew
York City, offer an unusual opportunity for
in

training in this subject, while in addition

the extensive library of horticultural books

and the well equipped laboratories will be

at the disposal of students. The instruction
by the staff of the Botanical Garden will
combine indoor lecture and laboratory
lasses with outdoor gardening.
During the
<

first

year, classes will be conducted in such

elementary

scientific

studies as elementary

botany, zoology, plant physiology, anil chemistry,

Massachusetts,

Springfield,

museum

history

is

to

Saturday

conducted

natural

have special classes

by

afternoons

junior high school art teachers.

the

This plan

grew out of the exceptional results obtained

by school children of the city who have been
working with pencil, brush, and clay on various museum subjects. One boy, becoming interested

the dinosaurs,

in

executed a clay

model of such merit as to warrant its receiving a place in the permanent exhibit of the
museum. The Saturday afternoon lectures
which have been given on various subjects
have proved an inspiration to these youthful
artists and it is expected that the inauguraof art classes will attract

tion

many

cooperation between

This

dents.

stu-

and

art

is an illustration of the complementary nature of much of the work of

natural history

institutions traditionally looked

apart

upon as far

in interests.

and practical training given in green-

One

house practice, flower gardening, and vegeta-

and fruit gardening. The second year's

course has not yet been announced, but will
include such advanced subjects as surveying,
garden design, garden pathology, and garden
ble

mycology.

of the best

known founders

of the

American Ornithologists' Union is Mr. William Brewster, of Cambridge, Massachusetts,

who served as its president from 1895 to
1898. Before the organization of the Union
and for many years since, Mr. Brewster has
been president of the Xuttall Ornithological

The

artistic planting of trees

along roads

Club, the oldest bird club in America,

not only adds beauty to the countryside, but

also helps to preserve the roadbed and to

existence.

break wintry winds.

cal

The possibilities in this

form of highway improvement have just
been presented for public consideration in a
Circular of the New Yuri; State College of
Forestry by Professor Henry R. Francis.

Xew York State, with its network of improved highways, offers a splendid opportunity for roadside tree planting.

Eoadside

conditions at present are entirely haphazard

and the care of the trees has been neglected

or left in the hands of those unskilled in
either landscape gardening or arboriculture.
Recently a bill has been introduced in the
state legislature to amend the highway law
with a view to such improvement, providing

He

still

in

has devoted much attention to

the development of his private ornithologi-

museum, a unique

institution at which

its meetings and

which recalls many pleasant memories in the
minds of those bird students who have been
fortunate enough to enjoy its hospitality.
While primarily a systematic ornithologist,
Mr. Brewster has always devoted much at-

the

Xuttall

Club holds

tention to the study of birds in the

and as an accurate and

field,

skillful deseriber of

their habits he is today without a peer.

The marine
stitution
1

research of the Carnegie In-

was somewhat modified during the

"Department

of

Marine Biology." Carnegie

Tear Book Xo. 17, pp.

Institution of Washington,

149-172.

NOTES
of the war. and the

year on account

past

work begun

Tortugas, Florida, had to be

at

Dohrn" being
The director,
Dr. Alfred G. Mayor, accompanied by Professor A. L. Treadwell, Duncan Gay
made
r
and Mr. John Mills engii
a two months' trip to Tobago, British West
[ndies, where collections were obtained and

.;:,;

warm

than

surface waters and SO maintains

a higher state of acidity.

postponed, the yacht "Anton

Navy.

the Bervice of the

in

"The Superb

Position of

title

made

worms).

cadt

my

of siphonophores

distribution

[ndian marine fauna and the

West

America upon

influence of South

Further trips to the Wesl

it.

ndies

prevented by the appearance of enemj

marines

pp.

and of the Eunicidae (ma

Especial attention was paid

to the question of the southern

of the

XXVII]

the

etc.),

(jellyfish,

rine

Vol.

City

is

ki which

of a paper by Dr. A. K. Lol

extensive studies weir

New York

as a ('enter for Physiographic Study"

"ft'

our coast,

tin'

sub

director, with Pro-

L. B. Cary and Mr. John Mills, visPago Pago, American Samoa, to continue studies of the coral reefs begun the
The results of these two
previous year.
voyages show that certain stony corals
(Madreporaria) of the Pacific grow twice

fessor

ited

as do similar corals of the Atlan-

;>mI\

An Acropora,

tic

ounces

sixty-eight

This genus
the

The

is

for example.
in

the

Increased

months.

fifteen

the most important clement in

outward growth of the Samoan reefs.

Porites, which form irregularly rounded

masses dangerous to navigation, grow

rate

of

about

one

inch

at the

Drilling

year.

through the fringing reef at Pagopago, Proa: \

found it to be 1-1 feet thick
Further
and underlain by volcanic rock.
will be taken up on another trip when
gi
examination of the precipitous outer
t

will

be

made by

The more rapid

the

use

rate of

of

diving

growth of the

Pacific

corals evinces the fact that the presenl reefs

may have

attained their growth during the

lasl

30,000 years or since the

E]

h.

The greater rapidity

last
is

Glacial

probably

due to a better food supply.

During the voyagi

made

were

and alkalinity of the

Burface water- of the ocean and the results
obtained maj be of importance to navi-.
For example, the water of the rulf
much more alkaline than That
is
which drifts down the east coasl of North
of

the acidity

Poh-we-ka
(Little
Blue ('urn
Flowi
young Tewa woman
Marie Martinez,
[ldefonso pueblo who is attempting to
i

keep

<

cut

symbolic art
the

ii

Amei

ica,

so

that

aa\ igator,

eastern

Pueblos

was
filled

made
with

meaning and

refi r

mountains, and
5ns are in part praj era
life-giving rain.
Marie Martinez and
her husband ;irc fully acquainted with the ancient potterj excavated from villages in Pajarito
I';irk
(one of our national monuments) as well
:i*
with the iimr.- recent productions of San
rtes; ol /
Palacio
mostly

enterii

of the pottery of
besl potter}
of the
S;ui
al
[ldefonso.

to

clouds,

rain,

tion
ii
for the
;

leaving an Atlantic harbor, could easily de-

termine

hi< position with reference to

Arctic water and water from great depths

it.

is

more heavily charged with carbon dioxide

>

X ATUBAL

358

points out the unusual variety and completeness of the illustrations of earth sculpture

radius of throe hundred

within a

In

the metropolis.

geological and

>h\

fad

great

miles of

wealth of

sin- raphical material

may

be reached by half day trips, or even within

The various agencies of

erosion are all typified in the vicinity. Both
young ami mature rivers are found and indeed the Bronx River alone illustrates both
stages in its upper and lower stretches re
The Hudson presents the very
speetively.
the

Jl

English geologist.
These date from 1836
and are addressed to Dr. Benjamin Silliman, founder of The American Journal of

ageing with further referrepeated uplift and renewal as is

old stages of river

(which celebrated

Science

centenary

its

in

and at that time professor of

July, 1918),

"chemistry, mineralogy, etc.," at Yale.

Lyell's

limits.

city's

>mi;y

fame was world wide and

geology were

systematic

on

world

his

the

and texts in that

treatises

works

standard
science.

.Most of the letters are concerned with busi-

ness

items

relative

the publication and

to

sale of these hunks in the

United States

Professor Silliman, as Amer-

matter which

where the Kaaterskill has diverted the head-

most noted geologist, was eager to proLyell's

volumes were undergoing
constant revision as contemporary iinestigation advanced and as he himself traveled
into new lands, and the proposed edition of
the Elements with notes and additions in
American Geology came in for discussion

waters of Schoharie Creek.

with Professor Silliman, especially in that

ence to

seen in the stepped peneplains of

The relation of streams

walls.

its

valley

dividing

to

ridges and the subject of stream "capture"

may

also

cellent

be mentioned, especially' the ex-

example in the Catskill Mountains

The great continental

maximum
here

we

expansion at

part of the correspondence exchanged during

New York

Lyell's

so that

and erratics, or rocks

from great distances.

moraines,

carried in the ice

mote.

glacier reached its

find the various effects of ice erosion,

terminal

ica's

Well defined coastal plains

within easj

lie

reach to the south, especially along the

New

American trip. Continual personal

of Darwin and other historical
characters gives an added interest to the
mention

Mrs. Osborn's gift reverts

manuscripts.

tention, in these days of stenographers

typewriters,

greatest scientists

economic dependence of people on topographic features and the determination of

routes of travel by them. In the Alleghenies,
throughout Pennsylvania and New York,
we find examples of folded mountains, while

vestigators

among

Life,

Adirondacks,

the

the

"White,

and

the Green Mountains stand carved and worn

down masses of complex

ranges.

The only

important feature not well represented is

the phenomenon of volcanicity although
there are roots of old volcanoes like Ascutney

Mountain

in

Vermont and long

intrusive

when

the time

to

Jersey coast, and here are illustrated the

the

world's

and most industrious

wrote

laboriously

their

at-

and
in-

letters

with pen and ink on both sides of the paper.

M. Felix Sartiaux

is

preparing a French

translation of the Origin and Evolution of

by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, which

be issued from the press of Masson
M. Sartiaux, the author of Troie
et Cie.
La Guerre de Troie (1915) and Morale
will

Kantienne et Moral humaihe (1917), is an

authority both in the archseologic and philosophic

fields.

ridges like those forming the Palisades.

Not only

is this

region most accessible to

the student located in

New York

City, but,

no section of the country

which has been so thoroughly worked over,
mapped, and described so that both the
amateur and the expert geographer and geologist have at their command a great wealth
of literature. Dr. Lobeck gives an extensive

in addition, there is

bibliography of the region.

The

close of hostilities has released con-

siderable discussion on the question of marine

camouflage

its

relation

to

the

There are two general types of marine camouflage:

(1)

the low visibility patterns in-

tended to make the ship invisible or indistinct

at

medium ranges;

(2)

the

British

"dazzle," constructed of prominent patterns

which serve

Mrs. Henry Fairfield Osborn has recently presented to the Osborn Library of
the American Museum a number of private
letters written by Charles Lyell, the great

and

theory of protective coloration of animals.

and

to

break the outline of the ship

to render calculation as to her length,

speed,

direction,

and

distance

inaccurate.

In order to "paint out" the ships

it

found that monochromes were never as

was
ef-

359

NOTES
of the
fective as the contiguous application
various colored constituents of the shade of

Accordingly the ships bore spoti

of which
ed, green, ana violet, either one
colors will predominate as the lighl eha
the
in the resultant -ray transmitted to

Mr.

-imiaii

l,

Murphy,

nature

was

found

ultimately

for

ssful

department of natural history

Brooklyn .Museum, ha- pointed out

tical

and other "dazzle" figures all

and horizontal lines are eliminat<

thai

it

II

in

the

in

this

By means

of stripes

ver-

nearly impossible to see the prow

is

what direction

in

it

These

points.

perspective to such

curator of

the

to

protecting ships.

stent that

many

range by

range finder will miss the

In addition to the

meters.

connection the interesting living example

of low visibility, the

whale bird

Prion) of
At-

subantarctic

the

whose dominant hue is practically

identical with "omegalantic,

."

color

the

de-

,vy for

The

st

the

lue

also

nigh

invisi-

this

of

bility

bird

v.

shading

to

a slight pattern of

and

light

in

visibility

low

latitudes.

and dark bands.

mbination of this
Camou-

"Marine

"dazzle" were no1 vei

Early attempts at the production of a
"Tuscania," taken the day before
This photograph of the British transport
vorticists than anj systematic
t
vagari
she was sunk represents rather the
e later types ... camouThe practica
of deception.
>rds show definitely the
established, however, as
painted ship
.nice of life" of the protectively
'

77-.

/'

Jan.,

her
the largest ship
given a new "dazzle," repr
with a low-visihiUty dazzle, the
will
a at a distal
coiors which, when
hich mighl 61
of all horizontal and vertical It,

dazzling

'

'

The "Vaterland,"

Ughts,

nM*;
Leviathan

.1

^paiLd
,f

,.

ttral tint

"and

dark triangles
pletely confused

al

the bow.

Tl

ran,.I

tru

...... -r.

A IV 7 7/1 L

360

HISTORY
There

has

recently

from within
the American Museum's
passed out

an
organization
whose work has now behistory.
Local
come
Board, Division No. 129,
walls

of the city of

New

York,

here since the inaugurathe

of

tion

draft,

proceeded in

quietly

has
its

work of choosing men for

the United States Army.

On

the occasion of final

departure
of the
Courtesy of Sea Power and the Brooklyn Museum Quarterly
A living example of protective marine coloration is found in the whale
The color of this petrel is
bird (Prion) of the subantarctic Atlantic.
a neutral blue-gray, not unlike the "horizon blue" of French field uniforms and of substantially the same wave length, saturation, and reflecting power as "omega-gray," the shade used by the Navy for low
It is said that the latest British experiments in airplane
visibility.
camouflage point toward designs and colors similar to those of Prion

confusing dazzle, however, the color scheme

the color

and figures

so selected that

is

combinations fuse at a distance

now completed and on exhibition

American Museum. The killer is a
small whale of no commercial value but distinguished from other whales by its great
It preys on warmstrength and ferocity.
blooded sea animals such as seals and sea
lions and attacks other whales, biting off
the ends of their flukes and flippers and tearwhale,

is

in the

ing

out

"packs."

way

their

When

Killers

tongues.

hunt

in

attacking, they bellow in a

that paralyzes

The present model

is

their

prey with

fear.

a life-size reproduction,

twenty-two feet long, built with a wooden

framework planked diagonally in basswood
and covered with wire netting. This surface
is

filled

with a coating of white lead and

A
final paint is laid.

whiting over which the

chairman of the

Cohen,

Board, in the course of

"There
which he said
:

nowhere a

appears

rec-

of this contribution

memory

of the spirit of cor-

and helpfulness displayed by every

diality

A model of a killer whale, the so-called

"wolf of the sea" (Orca orca), posed as if
making an attack on a sulphur-bottom

appreciation

which the American Museum has made to

the great service of winning the war, but
our Board has an indelible record; it has a
very definite

into a blue gray of low visibility.

received a

from Mr. Julius Henry

ord

for the stripes

of

letter

President

the

Museum

one connected with the Museum with

our work brought us in contact."

whom

Mr. George K. Cherrie, ornithologist and

has returned from Venezuela

field naturalist,

with

large

collection

American Museum.
to readers of

of

for

birds

the

Mr. Cherrie, well known

Natural History and

of Col-

Through the Brazilian

TVildei-ness, has had a long and varied experience as a collector in South America,
making twenty-eight expeditions into tropical America and visiting every country in
Boosevelt's

onel

Mr.
southern continent except Chile.
Cherrie took his latest journey alone, except
for an attendant, and lived for weeks at a
the

time on the native diet of corn and goat's

milk.
His recent collection contains about
eight

and

hundred specimens of great variety

scientific interest.

structure of this nature eliminates the great

weight which would encumber a plaster

cast.

Mr. Otto Block, of the American Museum's

preparation shops, constructed the model
under the

supervision

of

Director

F.

A.

Lucas, from measurements and photographs

taken by Mr. Eoy C. Andrews, of a specimen

captured on the Pacific Coast.

"A

most

interesting

modern

develop-

ment," observes the Eeport of the British

Educational Mission, "is the increasingly

important part played by the museums, not
only in respect of educational visits of
school children, popular lectures,

as at the Natural Historv

etc.,

Museum

of

but,

New

NOTES
York, by means of traveling colli e1
In this connection

361

usually associate peat with poor communities

in-

which cannot afford coal and must turn to

Department of
Education of the City of New York has
made a supplementary appropriation of
$4100 to renew the popular lecture co

swamps for fuel, but in some places in

Europe peat commands a higher price than

the distribution of nature

11,188 square miles of peat bog which would

out to schools."

is

it

teresting to report that the

for children an.

collections

to

the

suspended
my.

for

In

which had been

schools,

time for reasons of war

i< supposed to be a
country we have about

which

for

.oal

th<-

substitute.

it

this

than

So far

fuel.

almost

twelve billion

this natural resource

Numerous other

unexploited.

of peat are explained

THESE

two remaining colonies

North American coast,

only

are

gannets on

the

Rock

Magdalen
Islamls. the other on Bonaventure Island
in
The
the
Gulf
of
Lawrence.
St.
one

Bird

on

rookeries
a

the

of

recent

near

latter

the

are

described

in

The seawar.l

face of Bonaventure Island

is

a vertical eliff

rising about three hundred feet

from

hibit, such as the

yam

and

for packing; an.

"Approaching this side from tin- sea, one is

aware that every ledge and shelf i- covi
with white as" though snow ha.
piled in
drifts upon them, allowing only the overhang- to -how .lull red between the glis
A wind seems to stir the
ing surfaces.
white masses, and they blow off in eddies
ami clouds of great white birds that swirl
about the .-lift' faces and circle round the

of

Philadelphia ex-

spinning of fibrous peat into

into paper:

its

value as a preservative

its

it contain- large amounts of humic

Ground up peat may also be u->
a tiller for fertilizer, making possible the use
of slaughterhouse waste, ami as a filler for

because
acid.

stock feed, such a- molasses, which could not

otherwise

th<

in the

manufacture

its

tons

has been

fed

be

animal-.

to

sound-proof boards, pavi

alcohol

among

are

its

Insulations,
-.

'

and even

manufacture.

prod-

intruder

ami.l

These

are

gannets,

in

the field of California

that state, including an account of their life

ies,

hoarse

of

publications 1

II

which should appeal to the hunter

a- the naturalist an.

serve as al

solan

for intelligent legislation on the matter of

of older author-, each a* large as a

The other treats of the

protection.
ground squirrels of California ami sup
information of importance to the farming in-

cries.
-

pandemonium

Two

zoology have recently appeared. One i- an

exhaustive treatment of the game birds of

the

the

goose, pure white with black winy tips.

Natural History
issue an article

of the State

by

publish

will
I

'ire.

Museum

tection of these bird

tor

at

in

its

."
.

next

John M. Clarke.

Albany, on the pro-

bird

terests with reference to a

number of S]

inimical to the crop-.

col..

Bird* of California.
By Joseph
Harold C. Bryant, and Tracy I. Storer.
642, with 16 color plates by Louis
rtes ami Allan Brooks.
',ia.
By Joseph
Grinnell and Joseph Dixon.
1

The

Gains

Grinncli.

THE

possibilities in the utilization of peat

by a large exhibition at the

Commercial Museum of Philadelphia.

Since the
the

folio'.'

last

issue of

Natural History
been

have

We

el.

members of the American Museum:

I

K.

J. II. Lancashire, Misses IIattik W.

Perkins, Eudora d. Snyder. Capt. Clinton Pelham Darling
a
o .

'.

Twis

Edward

Avinopp,

\.

Merriam,

.(.

B.

s.

Cuwi.es.

Pardoe, W.

C.

Ludwig Baumann,
salLjChae
:sox
ROBERT M. DONALDSOl
GEi GE B.
William Webster Hall, William
i

F.
Hetde, Edwin W. Inslee, Praj
ElLEINBERGER, ERNEST A. NEILSON, M. NEW-

borg,

MESDAMES Thomas

Harold

Saml.
Joseph
I

Mo

P>.

s.

W.

Whitney.
i/

[nei x.

Thalhimer,
Trawick, and

P.

:.

Ttbbals,

G.

.--

-.
Mrs. Elizabeth M.
Rose Dougan, Doi

W. I'. M IlNton, WalW. Osborn, Messrs.

Frank Dabney, Daniel Howland, Edwin
P. Mack, Edward 1'. Wi
2d, Walter D.
Whcox, Bobebt C. Wrigb and Geor W.
a

ter

i'

B.

Newcomb,

II.

A'iu:K.

The American Museum

Its

of Natural History

Work, Membership, and Publications

The American Museum of Natural History was founded and incorporated

1869 for the purpose of establishing a
of encouraging

Museum and

in

Library of Xatural History;

and developing the study of Xatural Science; of advancing the

general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to that end, of furnishing popular

instruction.

The Museum building

is

erected and largely maintained by

New York

City,

funds derived from issues of corporate stock providing for the construction of
tions

from time

to

time and also for cases, while an annual appropriation

for heating, lighting, the repair of the building

\

and

its

is

sec-

made

general care and super-

ision.

The Museum

open free to the public every day in the year; on week days
on Sundays from 1 to 5 p.m.
The Museum not only maintains exhibits in anthropology and natural history,
including the famous habitat groups, designed especially to interest and instruct
from

is

9 A.M. to 5 P.M.,

the. public, but also its library of 70,000

and

travel

is

volumes on natural history, ethnology

used by the public as a reference library.

The educational work

of the

Museum

is

carried on also by

to children, special series of lectures to the blind,

Memorial Fund, and the

of evening lectures for Members in the

lectures

and lantern

slides

There are in addition special

series

issue to public schools of collections

illustrating various branches of nature study.

numerous

provided for by the Thorne

and spring of each }'ear, and on Saturmornings

lectures
for
the
children
of
Members. Among those who have
day
Admiral
Peary. Dean Worcester. Sir John
courses
are
appeared in these lecture
Murray. Yilhjalmur Stefansson, the Prince of Monaco, and Theodore Eoosevelt.
The following are the statistics for the year 1918
fall

Attendance in Exhibition Halls

A tendance
I

at Lectures

Lantern Slides Sent out for Use in Schools

School Children Beached by Nature Study Collections

627,302
61,036
72.287
817,610

Membership
For the purchase or collection of specimens and their preparation, for research,
and additions to the library, the Museum is dependent on its endowment fund and its friends. The latter contribute either by direct subscriptions
or through the fund derived from the dues of Members, and this Membership
publication,

from the fact that it may be devoted to such

may deem most important, including the publication of
Xatural History. There are now more than four thousand Members of the
Museum who are contributing to this work. If you believe that the Museum is

Fund

is

of particular importance

purposes as the Trustees

doing a useful service to science and to education, the Trustees invite you to lend

your support by becoming

Member.

NATURAL
HI
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY,

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP-

MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

THROUGH THE MUSEUM

APRIL-MAY,
Volume

xix,

L919

number

NATURAL HIST
CONTENTS FOR APRIL-MAY

Volume XIX

Frontispiece, Portal of the Cathedral of Notre

Dame, Paris

In connection with "Zoological Sculpture in Relation to Architecture,"

College of Fisheries in the Northwest

A new branch of technical education inaugurated by

Numbers 4-5

page 449

Hugh M. Smith

New

the University of

367

Washington

David Starr Jordan

The Red Salmon
John M. Clarke
Sanctuaries
Bird
The New Gaspe
Alfred
M. Bailey
Eeservation
Hawaiian
Notes on Our
Warbler
by James
Kentucky
from
The
Quotation
Wilson
Alexander
Lane Allen, through courtesy of Author and Publishers

370

Jefferson's Contributions to Natural History. .John S. Patton

Jefferson's political activities have tended to crowd out remembrance of his wide interest
It was his scientific zeal which prompted
in American natural history.
investigations
and

405

Thomas
him

War

to

373

383

397

sponsor the Lewis and Clark Expedition

Ludlow Griscom
E. F. Phillips

411
416

William K. Gregory

421

Impressions of French Bird Life

ionserving Our Natural Kesources of Sugar

The Evolution of the Human Face
(

The bones about the orbit of the eye in the human skull can be definitely traced back through
an evolutionary series to homologous bones in the primitive fish

The Wars of the Wind

Enos A. Mills
Herbert P. Whitlock

at Timber-line

Art Motives in Snow Crystals

Among

427
437

the infinite forms of "snow crystals are to be found geometrical designs for textiles,

and china
Microphotographs of snow crystals by
jewelry,

W.

A. Bentley

Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern Science

and Education
Zoological Sculpture in Eelation to
Architecture

S.

Herm

441

Breck Parkman Trowbridge

449

Charles

F.

of the architectonic use of animal and human designs from the Cro-Magnon cave
sculpture to the present day illustrates the necessity of a blending of architectural and sculpBoth antural form, restrained and" stylized with the repression of all unnecessary detail.
cient and modern sculptural realism have marked periods of architectural degeneracy
Illustrations from photographs of a series of Assyrian sculptures in the British Museum

The history

Charles

Wild Life in Art

Critical review of a recent exhibition, at the

dealing with plant and animal

Brooklyn Museum,

of

Recent statues by Proctor in Washington

Washington

W. Shufeldt

E.

illustrate the sculptural possibilities in

game
of

Knight

461

life

Zoological Statuary at the National Capital

With photographs

K.

contemporary American art

zoological statuary by the

Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water

By systematic study of the life conditions in our

4T1

native big

Author

Farming

Frank Baker

lakes for fresh-water fish

we may

still

479

fur-

ther utilize these as valuable sources of food supply

Quest of the Ancestrv of

Man

-A

89

Organizations to stimulate anthropological and archaeological research and investigation of

the problems relative to the origin and early history of man

John Burroughs
Mr. Burroughs by Dr. W. D. Matthew

Letter from

Reply

to

Notes
M.

491
491
493

Dickersox, Editor

Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History,
York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year,
Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St.
and Central Park West, New York City.
Natural History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges

New

of membership.
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under the Act of August 24, 1912.
Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918.

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PORTAL OF NOTRE DAME TO ILLUSTRATE SCULPTURE

TO ARCHITECTURE
The world

rejoices with

IN

CORRECT RELATION

France that the war did not reach Paris

Every figure in this portal of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, in Paris, expresses with infinite skill the
beauties of Gothic architecture the pose of the heads in the tympanum, the lines of the draperies and the
shadows are all designed with reference to the structure. Even the voussoirs of the great arch are expressed
by the shadows under the canopies over the saints' heads. The central post is the acme of architectonic
sculpture

....
,,
. .r>
From "Zoological Sculpture in Relation to Architecture, page 449
.

\TURAL HIST
APRIL-MAY,

Volume XIX

DEPARTURE

TECHNICAL EDUCATION PLACES AMERICAN FISHING

INDUSTRIES ON A SCIENTIFIC BASIS

IN

By

l"

II

11

(i

M. S

United States Commissioner

e recenl establishmenl by the

University of Washington of a

Til

college

fisheries

of

importance as almosl
the

and

in

to

of

is

such

mark an epoch

historj of technical education

the development of the fishing

industry

in

America.

This even! is of greal interesl to the

United States Bureau of Fisheries
because the bureau welcomes everj
agencj thai extends knowledge of and
increases concern Eor the welfare of the
American fisheries and the creatures

which make those fisheries possible

and also incidentally because the director of the college is a former valued
The founding
assistant of the bureau.
of

new

the

college

particularly

is

pleasing to the presenl commissioner

because of his Long and continued advocacj of technical instrucl ion in fishf
eries and because it is the outc< n
a

special

ference

recommendation
with

the

and con-

to

authorities

the

of

The new

college of fisheries provides

four-year course, divided

into

three

sections, namely, commercial fisheries,

technology or the methods of preparing
aqual ic products for foods and for nse
in the arts and indusl ries, and aquicul-

The

ture.

dad

ic

ins! rucl ion

and pracl

ical,

years of the course the

expected i" devote

bul

ill

for
si

II

Fishei

of

time to practical training at fishing

establishments and fish hatcheries.
The college has a strikingly fitting
Seattle is the principal
environment.
city of one of the greai fishing states,

and, as pointed oul by the university

authorities, is the only American city
within whose corporate Limits or in territory immediately contiguous may be

found

active

in

everj

be both dii

he

lasi

udents w

two

ill

1"'

large pari of their

practically

operation

raw

turning

for

plan!

type of

aquatic materials into human food and

Fishery opother useful commodities.
erations are conducted in the very harbor of Seattle; the greal fleets of vessels
resorting to the Alaska fishing grounds
make Seattle their principal head-

quarters for outfitting and for discharging their catch the salmon fisheries of
the Pugel Sound - Fraser River - St rail
:

of

valuable

Fuea system are the mosl

in

region

The

is

the

River,

Fraser

in

interest.

fisher}

special

of

the

Internationally

world.

the

salmon stream

University of Washington.

4-5

College of Fisheries in the Northwest

New

Number

1919

red

principal

the world,

is

Brit-

in

Columbia, and all the spawning

ish
grounds of he red salmon frequenl ing
t

the

Canadian
pari

waters

international

province,

of the annual

while

are
the

in

the

major

tribute exacted

by

the salmon schools is taken

From the fish-cultural
in Washington.

man from

standpoint,

and

state in

are on

the

operations

by

nation

the water- of Washington

scale of almosl

unequaled mag367

Panoramic view

Washington, showing Meany Hall and (on

expanding its present instruction in ichthytrain fish-culturists for government and private fishery work

campus at the University

and Denny halls. The University

of part of the

the opposite page) Science

ology into a technical college of fisheries to

and every species of Pacific salabounds, spawns, and is artificially

of

is

that the gradu-

nitude,

the college of fisheries

mon

ates in the various courses

propagated in the local streams. The

wide expanse of waters that may be regarded as the real campus of the fishschool is rich in other life, and
ample material is afforded students for
work on the anatomy, physiology, embryology, and life history of important
whose conservation is a
creatures
matter of public concern.

ery

practical point in connection with

find congenial

is

may expect to

employment in

national,

The

state,

and private

mand

for fish-culturists has far exceeded

fishery work.

de-

the supply in recent years.

The need

young men and women

qualified in

for

aquatic zoology, in the use of fishing

methods and appliances, and in the

technology of fishery products and byproducts is very real and is certain to
In the fishery department of
increase.
every

state,

there

should be, as a part

of

the

staff,

permanent

men

with

knowledge
bearing on all the
duties and probexpert

lems that arise in

connection with the
administration of
local
waters
the

and their inhabiSomestates

tants. 1

have already realized and acted on

established College of Fisheries

The Hatchery Building of the newly

government canal connecting lakes Union and Washington.
Regular instruction and research in the subject of fisheries begin at
the new fall term when two new professorships are to be established to
Cooperation will
amplify the work of the zoology department in this line.
also be effected with government agencies and private industries
i-

1
In this connection, see one phase of necessary
"Fresh-water Farming." pp. 479-488. The Editor.

368

this responsibility

situated on the

expert

knowledge

other states

may

be

expected to

fall

in

line as the
in

Prof.

growth

Baker's article on

The University
er

of the

of the

Alaska

Washington

of

is

most favorably situated

great northwestern fishing industry, and

is

for the study of fisheries.

the headquarters

.Seattle

in

lies

and discharging station

fish)

demands it and as
become available.
The University of Washington, while
entitled to all the prestige and honor

of public sentiment

fishery

qualified assistants

potenl agencies for molding the public

that

deservedly

belong

to

it

as

pioneer, should not indefinitely enjoy

a
a

and should become

legislation

sentiment

should be back of

that

all

beneficent laws for the conservation of

aquatic resources and the regulation of

the industry.

An improvement

in the

monopoly of a college or school of fishOther universities favorably siteries.

uated should follow suit; and at the

quality of legislative fishery measures

presenl time there should be serious at-

graduates in

should confidently
the

xpected through

working of the leaven of

all

fishery

parts of the country.

tention given to the establishment of

<>ne of the chief boons that colleges

on the Atlantic and

on the Great Lakes, and in

of fisheries cau hope to confer on fishery

such

institutions

Gulf coasts,

the Mississippi Valley.

the

Colleges of fisheries, through the influence they exert

at

large and through

their graduates, can do

all,

Washington and the

much

Wat
work ol

University of
scientific

work throughout the country

to

guide

tions

substituting

of

accurate

will be

observa-

and sound biological principles

for

the unscientific methods that have often

characterized fishery procedures.

edge of lakes Qnion and

with the practical w ork

in fisheries

369

The Red Salmon

WITH AN INSTINCT FOE LAKE WATER

A FISH

DAVID STARK

By

THE

habits

fall,

Walbaum)
unique among

nerka

are

absolutely

The

fish easts its

fishes.

salmon

red

the

of

(Hypsifario

spawn

in the

but only in small streams tribusome lake. After hatching, the

tary to

young

slip

fishes

downward

fore-

tail

most, with the current, into the lake.

There they mostly remain through the
year, then dropping downward,
head always againsi the current, to the

first

seas.

In the

they

sea

fourth year,

remain until the

start upstream

when they

spawning grounds. Whether they

go to the same grounds or not. no one
The idea that they do reach
knows.
to the

substantially the same streams

is

Yet that

borne

this in-

out by

-"in,,

stinct

should be minutely- accurati

evidence.

After

entering

male scoops
gravel.

river,

tin-

the

fish

digestive organs

and the fat and cell-substance

On arriving
are gradually consumed.
at the spawning grounds, the fishes,
male and female, are battered and exhausted.
The jaws are greatly elon-

AN

furrow in the sand or

fills it with eggs
smoothed over, after which
drift back into the cura

is

fishes

rent and float downward "tail foremost in the old salmon fashion."' every
one dying in the course of a week or so,
none ever reviving or reaching the sea.
A few spawn prematurely at three
year-: other- are belated and spawn at
Jive years, these being of larger size
than the others which range from about
seven to eight pounds.
The age of the salmon, a- Dr.
Charles H. Gilbert has demonstrated,

can

determined by the study of the

The scales are marked by closeT
concentric rings of growth.
lie

scales.

set

summer, when

are widest apart in the

i-

best,

and become

in the winter.

The

1)

The female

The sand
the

feed

not conceivable.
feeds no more.

fish

By

close together

these, the age of the

can be ascertained, in a fashion

to finding the age of a

analogous

rings of growth.

shrivel

by

gated in the male, the front teeth en-

salmon never enter a stream which

So far as their range
has no lake.
goes, northern Japan to Bering Strait
and south to Oregon, there is not a
stream with a lake which they do not
enter.
And the time of starting to run
in the spring bears some relation to the

larged,

and the color change-

clear blue to

dark dull-red.

way upward the

fishes

pair

from

On
off.

the

The

it-

The most remarkable

red

fact i> that the

THE RED
distance they have to go.
kon,

the

fifteen

In the

Labarge,

lake,

firsl

hundred miles above

Yu-

about

is

Another

Labarge.

ream

is

;ii

Alaska, not
feel

in

mile long,

wide, and shallow

in

salmon

less

at that.

and

stream

the

is

red

salmon

certain

heads

crowded

locally called "blue-

bridge across the forks of a tributary,

one branch heading in a lake, the other
lake
From this bridge, Dr.
without

ami

;i

rilberi has watched the two species of

salmon as they run. The bluebacks all
turn toward the lake, while the Chinook
salmon
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
(

move apparently indiscriminately either

w a\
e has ever seen a red salmon
any lakeless river.
Mr. J. P. Babcock,
Fish Commissioner of British
Columbia, tells of an experiment of
piping water from the outlet of a lake
The red salmon gathered
into the sea.
around the mouth of the pipe, as
though recognizing the peculiar kind of
wiiter. though they naturally could riol

in

ascend the pipe.

is

of instinct

by which

it

recognizes lake water in whatever form.

It

makes do difference whether

it

is

ice-

cold ami milk-white from the fool of

glacier as

in

!hilkoo1

River, or clear

lie

distinct

fourth year about double the

ordinary run.
The cause of this goes
far hack into the history of the species

unexplained.

i-

Sound, the humpbacked

salmon
{Oncorhynchus gorbuscha),
which lives but two years, runs in enormous Dumbers on alternate year-, being
almost
wanting in the odd year.
Neither species shows this rait of alternation in any water- other than Puget
Sound.
The red salmon is known by various local name- a- "Krasnaya Ryba"
in
redfish i.
ami
"nerka"
Alaska
Kamchatka (although Done of as has
Puget

In

heard

ever

it

so

called),

(Sukkegh)

in

British

"bluebaek"

in

Oregon.

not

so pleasant

the

much

der

probable indeed that the salmon

l<>

almost every deep lake from Idaho

around to oorthern Japan.
By -nine unexplained freak, the run
in
Puget Sound and Fraser River is
every

It

of red salmon
These mature at
pound or two ami at first

Such
(Hypsifario hennerlyi).
dwarf lake-locked salmon are found in

back") runs in moderate numbers in

the Columbia, a river with few lakes.
At one place, above Umatilla, there is

ha- some sorl

Dumber

oever leave the hike.

species

It

Quadra

the Boca de

than ten

with red salmon.

The

in

Vi- Bay.

at

weight of a
were naturally taken

beautiful lake with fine spawning

grounds,

31

southern

aotable

Boca de Quadra

ILMON

spring water aor

idewater.

Yet red salmon reach the head of Lake

si

in

The

"sockeye''

Columbia, and
It>

flesh

i-

to the taste as that

id'

larger Chinooks, hut

it

is

red-

color ami therefore -ell- better.

v<\

salmon

i-

the oiost valuable

single species of fish in the world, a-

it

uncou uted oumbers especially

in the streams about Bristol Bay, the
Karluk River of [vadiak [sland, and in

occurs

the

in

Fraser River of British Columbia.

Photograph by

THE SHEER

CLIFFS OF

BONAVENTURE

and many of these photographs have

the races of sea
been made onlv at great risk. This is one of the broader gannet ledges. Happily,
protection in
birds that frequent this remarkable breeding place have now come under government
Bird
Rocks as bird
and
the
Island,
Bonaventure
anada by the law just passed establishing Perce,
Thus are saved to the world certain species of water fowl which were rapidly becoming
sanctuaries.

The

extinct

cliffs

of

Bonaventure are exceedingly

difficult of access

The New Gaspe

By

Oil X

Bird Sanctuaries

M.CLARK

State Geologist and Paleontologist, and Dim-tor

Fl

many

years

four hundred

nearly

>K

of the State

Museum, Albany

on the Lab-

of the bird colonies

Gulf of St.
Lawrence have wondered at the
immense colony of sea fowl which

have ceased, other damage has

been done; partly because the presence
of the lighthouse with its noisy aeces-

npon the ledges of the Isles-auxMargaulx the "Bird Rocks/' as they

sories

rador

the navigators of the

nest

known

are

to

modern English geog-

These remote

raphy.

aboul ten miles to the north of the

Magdalen [sland group, and as they
are constituted of the same rocks, they

must

be

to

same

the

little

number

a flat rock table, oot

is

who

exchange"

not

i-

without

this matter.
in spite of its

and remoteness,

much beauty

make up

is

an island

level grassy

its

its

gray steplike bastions are

the ranks of gannets, the most beautiof murres and

ful of all waterfowl

so large

floes,

ice

of

collect- hird-'

top covers about seven acres of ground,

and aligned on all the ledges which

with sheer vertical

rising one hundred
all
sides,
walls on
and fifty feel from the water to the

some

in

gem

In the earl) days the two

fragments now called the "Little Birds"
were one, but the sea has broken them
The "Great" or "Northern
apart.

Bird"

for

isolation

little

now.

as

jrgg

blame

lover"'

The Great Bird Rock,

are three in

their

greedy "bird

archipelago.

The Bird Rocks

of

vessels

lie

assigned

warning

partlv from the invasions by the

Magdalen Island fishing licet and the

lation

rock

bits of bare

for

proximity to the rock ha- helped to

diminish the census of the hird popu-

razor-hilled

kittiwake-; of guillemots,

auk- and puffins;

a short

st

of species

base of the lighthouse

which constitutes
outposl

lone

the

it

of

Ever
civilization.
since the days when

Audubon
;

has

ject of

n the ob-

much

thai

students

by

birds.

visiting,

and writ-

collecting,

ing

the

Labrador,

the
islel

visited this

on his voyage to

It

is

century

of

probable

ago

the bird colony here

wa-

the

the

Atlantic

hut this
true,

largest

is

for.

on

Coast,

no longer
while the

inroads of the eg

which
this

broughl

so

depleted

colony

Perci Rock and Bonaventure Island,

Gasp^ Peninsula, and farther out in the Gulf the Bird Rocks of
Magdalen Island k.oui>. have been for centuries the breeding

The Gaspe Bird Sanctuaries.

ami

to e\t incl ion

off
ill.-

of

the

which rarelj or never nest on the mainland.

cause of their isolation, are ideal resorts for sea fowl

several species of birds

These rocky

i-:<-t-.

i-

The beautiful village of Perce at the point of the Gaspe Peninsula faces squarely the waters of the Gulf of
Lawrence. It is one of the oldest settlements in eastern North America, having been established as a fishing
Perce Rock, which lies off the point of Mt. Toli, often figures in the relations of
Station before the year 1600.
Bonaventure Island, in the background, is also an ancient station and
the early navigators and missioners.
had a church a^ early as 1671
St.

Photograph by A.

J.

Cramp

Bonaventure Island is in itself an object of great natural beauty and during the tourist season is visited
daily.
A climb to the summit from the wharf on the low western shore affords an effective distant view of the
gannet ledges, while the boat trip around it gives a close view of its feathered community, considered one of
the wonders of the Atlantic Coast

374

Photo

ra,

?i

'

<

.1

<

in

a,

rdure capped summit of Percl Rock i- the home oi < co'.onj made up of herring gulls and crested
This assemblage has been here since the beginnings of human historj on the coast, and the upper
cormorants.
This pic;i^
surfaci
rods
never, so far as records show, been the breeding place of any other species.
lutifully colored mass <>f vertical Devonian limestone is here viewed from the summit of Mt.
and BO feel wide. Toward the sea
m the mainland, 'it is approximately 300 feet hig
g,
finl the rock is pierced by an archway which frame's tue waters of the Gulf beyond

li

M.

Chapman

known rookerj of the gannets outside ol Bonaventure Island, on this

>per and his assistants.
population except thi
When the Bird
Nlaii.lv were
l>\
Jacqi
in
L534, the "Isles-aux-Margaulx" as he named them, housed an
water fowl,
in
place,
however,
U
mnd
that
When Audubon visited the
the attacks of
elsewhere, particularly <>n the Labrador coast, were resulting in
sale in the Boston and New
York markets of hundreds of thousands of dozens of eggs annually. These attacks have undoubtedly been the
extinction of the gannel roosts >>ti the islands and coasts of Labrador
Bird

the

Atlantic

Rock

i~

has no
discovered
It

the onlj

human

it'

1 1

375

NATURAL HISTORY

376
but

an

association

of

most

ancient

date

The romance and tragedy

of the bird

It was here that Louis A. Fuertes

went for subjects for his paintings of
the "Birds of New York," and these
tion.

have been depicted

Few more
both by camera and pen.
effective pictures of birds have been
made than the photographs taken here

ledges

by Herbert K. Job and Frank M. Chapman who risked limb and life in the
acrobatic performances necessary to

fowl

life of this colony

catch their effective views.

And

these

were pictures taken when such photography was a new and perilous adventure without the help of telephoto
lenses or long distance electric connec-

furnished the

setting

for

the

Bird Bock Group in the American

.Museum of Natural History.

larger colony of these water-

still

that on the

is

cliffs

which bound

the eastern face of Bonaventure Island,

lying two miles out in the gulf from

point

the

of

Perce,

easternmost

the

projection of the Gaspe coast.

Bona-

venture Island is nearly circular and

about a mile and a half across. It is

another

insulated

remnant of tableround center

land, like the top of a

down

table tipped

to

low shores at the

west but with high and vertical edges

hundred feet at the east.

on these steepest, most elevated,
and most inaccessible ledges of the
rising four
It is

island that the greatest of all the bird

colonies

left

in

the

makes

gulf

its

breeding home. Until late years these

birds have never been subject to the
assaults which have so gravely impaired
the census of the Bird Bock colony.

Bonaventure is a continental island

and strictly within the control of the
mainland, so that the eggers of the
Gloucester

made

fleet

who

in the old days

their regular inroads

upon the

farther out in the gulf and

colonies

carried back to the Boston market hun-

dreds of thousands of dozens of eggs

every spring, were not sufficiently ven-

turesome
limits.

to

invade

these

On Bonaventure

mainland

the

damage

done has been partly through the egging carried on by the local fishermen,
but of late years, as the beautiful Perce
country becomes annually a more favorite resort for tourists, there have
been increasing and ruthless attacks
upon the nesting birds by the "fool
with a gun," who has slaughtered for
Photograph

bij

L. D. Bostock

Fledgling gannets on the Bonaventure Island

ledges. The young when hatched are naked and
helpless.
A white down soon appears; at a year
old the plumage is a smoky brown with white

V-shaped spots, which finally gives way

pure white of the adult

to

the

the sake of slaughtering and shown his

sporting blood by enfilading from a
distance squads of harmless waterfowl

nesting upon their young.

The

bird

colonv

at

Bonaventure

THE NEW GASPE BIRD SANCTUARIES

same composition
that of the Greal Bird Rock, and it
perhaps nothing more than an inter-

rsland
as
is

is

of quite the

esting coincidence that these two great

colonies, constituted of the same aggreto

gation of bird species, have chosen

bring forth their young upon the same

kind

conglomerate

of

ami

sandstone

signed to the gannets of the Bird Rock

colony.

The

third of these notable

colonics

island

lies

and dramatic
upon the coasl
and is in itself the

close

line of Perce village

most extraordinary scenic

lesy

Photograph by I
of /'. Appleton

The nesting mother gannel (Svia basmna) on the conglomerate ledges of

This bird, often called the solan goosr and
overlookins; the Gulf t St. Lawrence.
from 11- best known 1mm.- on the Bass Kork near Edinburgh, is the largest and
The bodj of th.- adult bird is almost entirelj white, the winsalt water fowl.
neck and head trashed with huff, and the bill bluisb gray

same gray and rod color,

same geological age and
formation and having the -nine hori-

rocks of the

zontal
of

the

of

all

Mr.

position.

the

1'.

A. Taverner,

all

the Atlantic

alone

gannets
colony
very

i-

much

larger

the

in

between

of

the

Bonaventure
and 8000, a

number than

that as-

hapman
Company

!oasl

a ma--

of ver-

limestone tinted with red. yellow,

and purple, with undulating verdurecapped summit, and it i- the wavy top
tical

the abode of

colony composed

gull

population

<nul

graphs,

the

on

Bird Rock,
taking its Latin name
most beautiful
tips being black, the

of two species of birds,

that

feature

the Great

Survey of Canada,
ha- estimated, from a series of photoGeological

Gaspe bird

that on the top of the Perce

This celebrated

Rock.
rock

i>

thai

is

the

herring

Ever
and the crested cormorant.
-nice tin' days in the late years of the
sixteenth century,

when

from Brittany ami the

the fishermen
Pa\

of

Biscay

NATURAL HISTORY

378

The coming

of the

gulls and their de-

mean

parture

to

people

the

the

promise

and

the

farewell

of

the

summer.
All of these terin the

ritories are

bec and the

QueCounty

of Gaspe.

On

Province

of

seventeenth of

March

the
la.-t

which

a bill

introbeen
duced in the Quehail

bec Parliament for

the purpose of es-

these

tablishing
colonies

pro-

as

tected bird sanctu-

became

aries

In

many

the

law

a law.

respects

very

is

extraordinary

en-

actment, for

is

it

frankly based upon

recognition of the
"rapid and alarming decrease in the

A group of razor billed auks on the ledges of the Great Bird Rock of the
Magdalen Islands.- This bird is the nearest relative of the extinct great auk
which at one time also inhabited Great Bird Rock
began their operations

at this celebrated

fishing port, the cries of the sea birds

number"

of

these

which,
by
there has resulted
a "threatened extinction"; and because
these ai'e "almost the last resorts of

vanishing

birds

inter-

have been the familiar accompaniment

of the life of the eoasl and the gulls of

certain

Perce Rock an historic part of the

Xo one kills

ence and valuable as scavengers," the

law has been framed and passed with
sentiment paramount and human econ-

liv-

ing scenery of the coast.

a

herring gull except

man whose

hungry

palate does no!

ye1

fisher-

resenl

the fishy flavor of the fluffy young bird

The
stumbling about the beaches.
Perce Rock is unscalable ami thus the

birds have had

tion, hut
1

fair natural

their greatesl

protec-

protection

has,

think, lain in the fact that here close

upon

tin'

shore they have always been

esting

t<>

all

species

lovers of nature

omy taking a secondary place.

The birds are protected to

and

sci-

prevenl

Them from vanishing, because they are

interesting and wondrous creations of
great

beauty, and incidentally because

they are valuable as scavengers.

haps in the entire history of

Perbird

Legislation in the western continent

no

kindly regarded by the people of the

place as their natural neighbors and

other regulative measure, so essentially

based upon the higher sentiment of the

beaches.

community, ha- Keen enacted, and for

helpful

scavengers

for

dirty

Photograph by P.

Ah

GANNET COLONIES OF BONAVENTURE

north lir-i
colon] begins.

two ci npanies. The observer approaching the

a hiatus follows of barren rock cliff before the second
existence to a great rock fall in
possible thai this uninhabited intei
for its bird inhabitants all memor; of their former nesting p

of Bona venture [sland is

comes upon the Lesser colony; then

n\

irger

It

blotted

-.-.'111-

out

379

NATURAL HISTORY

380

zone about
vere

Se-

it.

penalties

imposed

for

are
of-

fenses against this

law.

After the perfection of this enact-

ment, an order was

issued by the Governor General in
(

Jouncil

29

Bird

same

ef-

far as the

so

fect

March

to the

Sanctuaries

are concerned, thus

giving to

tin-

res-

ervations

na-

tional

recognition.

The history of the

movement
which
ha- led up to this
is

not with-

its

interest.

result

out

About

six years

ago

the anglers of the

(ia-pedistrict
Photograph by F. M. Chapman
Courtesy >>/ D. Appleton and Company
Gannets, murres, and puffins on the horizontal rock ledges of the Great
Bird Rock, Magdalen Islands. In view of the years of persecution to which
these birds have been subjected, they are still remarkably tame

this reason the

Tii

law stands tremendously

the credit of the parliament and the

people of Quebec.

law;

it

It

takes under

its

is

stringent

cover

all

the

migratory game bird- and migratory

insectivorous birds as well as the migratory nongame birds, in pursuance
of the migratory bird law. this being
an important but actually an incidental
part of the legislation.

To

we

have been referring: the Bird Rocks

and a one-mile zone surrounding them
a strip of land on the north and easl
:

sides of

in

Bonaventurc Island, ten

depth along the

cliffs

feel

with the face

of the cliffs itself, this provision pro-

tecting

all

of the nesting places with

hut slight encroachment upon the woodlands there under private ownership;

and the Perce Rock with

one-mile

made

allegation to

the Ottawa govern-

ment, regarding the

depredations by the

crested cormorant

upon the salmon and

The

indicted bird was ac-

trout pool-.

cused of being the greatest enemy of

young of the fresh-water game
fishes, and as the cormorant colony on
the

the

summit

of Perce

Rock

large nesting ledge of

its

the only

is

kind on the

the game inspector, the late

Commander William Wakeham, was

coast,

officially

the sanctuaries thus created

joint

ordered to destroy these birds.

arrangements to carry out

He made

this order

by having the Perce Rock

scaled, the

young birds

killed,

nests destroyed, although

my

it

is

and the
within

personal knowledge that he did this

with
then

utmost

reluctance.

It

seemed

proper time in which to enter a

demurrer so far as could properly be
a

done until the indictment against the

cormorant could he tried out.
Ornithologists were not at all dis-

NEW GASPE BIRD SANCTUARIES

Till-:

posed

unanimity

i"

regard

in

to

the

natural food of the crested cormorant;

nor were
laid

its

;it

mine

referred

in

againsl

protesl

official

order

in

door.

matter and

this

of

he crimes

the

deter-

to

view of

more

procedure

the Ottawa order was re-

to,

sympathy in this undertaking

prime moment.

whose
w as of

hey willing to granl thai the

indicted bird was guilt}

think'

safe to say thai

it

cormoranl

the day for these St. Lawrence

nesting place- and, like many another

saved

martyr

in

good cause,

ssgis.

black

plenty

of

trouble

'anada could cuter upon and conclude

an investigation of the habits of the
cormorant.
Mr. P. A. Taverner, with

proteel ive

The
a

greal

that

the cormo-

ranl was nol guilty.

Mr. Taverner's
examinal ions, however, extended much

further than to a solution of this probhe gave close attenl ion to the
lem
ether birds of the Perce colonies, and
:

he.

perceived and emphasized the

too,

adverse

conditions

under

which

the

birds were maintaining their existence.

The long campaign which

c

sort.

The

mosl atRock and

Perce

[sland

objects

of

The Perce Rock

under the

tlingly

[sland

lies

!olonizal ion,

ines

and Fish-

Pro\ inee of Ouchec. and

the

for

of the

|>n>\ isions

like

greal

whale revealing nothing of its

bird wonders to the man ashore.
The
heat trip around it beneath it- sheer
reck walls
its

mosi

To

nity.

lens

it

is

the lifting of the

the Bird Rocks of the

is

aboul

heart of the gulf,

124

miles,

veil

to

commu-

impressive feathered

Magda-

into

the

pleasanl two-days'

law were drawn

Chambers, of Quebec,

able weal her.

sible

of

"Bird

Rock'
o

ever star-

Bonaventure

green

Phi

I..

of

natural

Such a trip is nol posunder presenl arrange

nt hut it
may be within the power of the Province which has gone hus far so well, to
arrange such voyages over it- greal
Marine Park.

Honore Mercier, the Min-

by Mr. E. T.

St

is

eye.

the offing

in

are

cliffs

greal

journey by boa! from Perce with agree-

ister of

eries

now has

the

of

for its ef-

Honorable

the

fruition had

at last

Bonaventure

the

Quebec

conclusion the initial ive of the

e to so fine

fect ive

has

of

reserve

beauty.

judgment

tractive

seems to have
under any of the

bird

tion of the ingested Hood of these birds,

he rendered

alone

lavs s.

themselves

assistants,

bird

Province

was detailed to make a

special study of this problem on the
ground, and as a resuli of the inspechis

itsel

i-

outside the pale of the protecting

left

scinded until such time as the ornitholo(

he en sted

the sacred bird which has

is

gists of the Natural

Eistory Surve} of

381

is
about seven acres in area, with
keeper and the birds together keep watch

and
here

al

F.

/'/'.

ton

M. I 'hapman
and Company

weathered, precipitous sides.

entrance to the Gulf of

the

MAN-O'-WAR BIRDS OF LAYSAN

The

frigate or man-o'-war bird (Frigata aquUa) has a bright red gular pouch, an inflated air sac
only indirectly connected with the lungs, so that it can be filled or emptied but slowly.
When the bird
is on the wing the red pouch bobs from side to side, giving a most bizarre appearance.
These birds
are adroit fliers.
It is while on the wing that they gather twigs for the nest, catch surface-swimming
fish, and even drink water, catching it up as they dart downward in long parabolic curves.
The frigate
birds are numerous on Laysan, and maintain a piratical warfare on their neighbors, the blue-faced
boobies, who are skillful and industrious fishermen.
The boobies are set upon when coming in from the
sea laden with flying fish, and are rudely overturned in mid-air, a procedure which invariably causes
them to drop the fish which the man-o'-war birds scoop up as they fall. Afterward, the members of the
expedition turned the tables and collected good specimens of flying fish for scientific study from the mano'-war birds by rapping them lightly on the head with a cane, thus causing the birds to disgorge the fish.
Laysan is the largest of the chain of islets running to the northwest of the main Hawaiian group,
set aside by President Roosevelt in 1909 as a bird reservation.
The islands are formed by the summits
of a great submarine volcanic mountain range.
Like most of these islands Laysan is probably an old
atoll with a surrounding reef and central lagoon.
Nowhere does it rise more than fifty feet above sea
level.
Tall, bushy grass and shrubs cover its inner slopes, supported by a soil formed through the
dis
integration of coral and phosphate rock. At one time it was reported that there were several palm trees
on the island but our expedition found only dead stumps of palin trees

582

only

bri

Pacific rollers
Laysan's fringing reef over which the long
asily effected in favorable weather
where landing can

"ii

the western Bhore,

Notes on Our Hawaiian Reservation

A L F R E D

By
fator of

OUT

in

tli''

llif

group

main Hawaiian

northwesterly di-

are a
rection for fifteen hundred mil'-,
world
the
Earned
islands
-mall
"I'
series
longover for their vast number of

These islands are

Honolulu and as
from
reached by boal
,,,. proceeds on the way to the famous

winged

sea

feathered creature excepl possibly

man-o'-war bird dark againsl the sky,

ing
;1

Kauai and Maui without

;i

one wonders why these other favorable

are
places in the beautiful Hawaiians
not occupied by a greater bird population.

We

lefi

steaming

Honolulu
.!"-'

i"

December

16,

verdure-covered
a

rookerj of the rare

monk

Beal,

was published
niuBt]

a-

[sland.
of the second daj out.

It

is

precipi-

mass of rock
tous little
towering sheer for nine hundred feet,
one portion crumbling t<> the water's
mountain,

and the gentle interior slope like

bowl of a timeworn volcano. Thou.

tli!'

sands of birds, flashes of white againsl

dark
the dark blue of the Pacific and
againsl the lighl of the sky, drifted oui

meel

to

the

on-coming

boat.

few

albatrosses were seen skimming the

waves, and wide-stretching man-o'-war
birds drifted lazily above the masl tops,
circling rings aboul the boal with no

We found
apparent win-- movement.
was im[sland
Bird
on
thai landing
possible,

vi-i.j

in tn<

Museum

we circled "IT toward Bird

Tin- we reached the morning

Kauai

birds.

green
bird paradises and sails pasl the
Slopes Oi

L E Y

and Birds, Louisiana Mat,.

mid-Pacific, extend-

ing from
in

Mammals

ML B A

iono

"wini,v

to the

tremendous surf

Executive Order as

;i

sanctuary for

may,

Photographs

bj

the

Author
-

The Hawaiian terns (Micranous hawaiiensis) are confiding birds and dart about the head of the visitor to
their island in a fearless manner.
They nest in targe colonies among the matted bushes, making long excursions
offshore for the fish on which they almost entirely subsist.
These terns do not dive for their prey but snap up,
with a quick jerk of the head, the minnows that come near the surface

Sharks glide stealthily from one cut to another in the outer coral reef, seeking such finny residents as they
As we rowed in to the island, they nipped at our oar blades, noseing curiously the strangt- disturber of their unfrequented waters

may devour.
384

During the winter months Laysan suffers from violent storms The waves pile across the reefs with thunderous roars, rushing in and breaking over the south sea wall in clouds of spray, often sixty feet high. The greens
and dark blues of the deep water meet sharply the light blue of the water over the reefs, and these, together
with the prismatic colors of the spray, contrast with the dark and forbidding shadows of the broken bowlders of

ti^h which leap from one hole to

r gobj
in which live oj
from pursuing enemies. Spined sea urchins line the most exposed places where they
force of the breaking wave-.
The reefs have, however, other stories to tell for on them maj be
oil
and hasp from wrecked ships, reminders of tragedies of days

ea wall

another

to

make

receive the full

is

rut

up with innumerable potholes

their escape

385

X ATI' HAL HISTORY

386

which

crashed

against

bowlder-

the

is

miles from Honolulu, and so far

">n

<

we turned westward.
At sun-up next morning we sighted
Necker Island, a distant, ghostly mass

off

showing vaguely against the sky line.

This wall of igneous rock, picturesque
and forbidding with its red veins show-

island

-tivw n wall, so

ing against the dark,

is

more

a little

than half a mile in length and three

hundred

feet in height.

weather

among

The

walls are

and only in the calmest

precipitous

it

is

possible to land a boat

We

the broken pinnacles.

close to the island in a skiff,

pulled

with

sail-

and a lieutenant to man the boat,

we rounded the northernmost point searching for a landing, the
crashing waves kept us from a near
Sharks nipped at the oar
approach.
blades and as we entered the deep
shadow of the high wall, a great skate
an indistinct mass of
rose off our bow
glowing phosphorescence, and then
sank slowly from view.
ors

but, although

It is majestic in the lee of that is-

land.

Thousands of birds shriek above

and the sight and sound of

one's head,

the waves, with their high-thrown spray,

One of our party

are bewildering.
landed by swimming a hazardous feat
and obtained a footing on the slippery rocks only after he had three
times disappeared under water, sucked
down by the undertow. This rocky

islet,

group,

ments

far
is

from the main

Hawaiian

noted for the old stone monu-

built

upon

its crest.

Numerous

idols have been found and it is

supposed that the ancient Hawaiians
used Necker as a place of worships
long voyage for their small outrigger
canoes, with no compass to guide them
Pearl and Hermes reefs with the rare

little

warm-water

seal,

Midway

Island, the

farthermost of the chain, and Lisiansky

were visited, all of interest for tbeir
wealth of birds. But it was on Laysan
that we spent three months, studying
the conditions of this Pacific reservation.

Laysan

is

apart from the world.

It

the general line of boat travel that

during our entire stay we saw not even

smoke of a distant

the

The

vessel.

oval in shape, two miles in

is

Length bj one

in

width, a dazzling strip

of sand lost in the sparkling Pacific

upon the broad exsupposed to be a raised

just a dot of white

panse.

It

is

and the interior area

atoll,

to a little salt lagoon,

slopes gently

bordered with

thick carpet of Portulaca.

This island is the largest of the Leeward reservation and the best known to
bird lovers the world over.
Here on
this little place are found five species of
indigenous birds, one the Laysan teal
so restricted in

numbers that only seven

individuals existed at the time of our

visit

a wingless rail skulks

the

grasses,

red

among

honey-eaters,

the

quiet-

colored miller birds, and joyous- voiced

finches dart

among

the Cheno podium.

But

casual

observer

to

the

the

vast

throngs of sea birds that crowd this

sanctuary make it a delight. A great
colony of Laysan albatrosses occupies
the flat surrounding the lagoon, where
they assemble each year to raise their
young.
A great flock of these large
white birds of immaculate plumage resembles the whitest of cotton fields, and
hundreds of these darting albatrosses
in the sunlight give a picture

beyond

the power of camera or artist to por-

On

tray.

the exposed beaches, where

the winds sweep viciously, are reared

young of the black-footed

the

alba-

These old pirates have a rugdisposition and are inclined to

trosses.

ged

make
off

stand for their rights, fighting

intruders with beak and wing.

Five species of agile terns

make Lay-

san their nesting ground, and when

large numbers of graybacks and sooties
are assembled, it is necessary for a man
to shout if he cares to be

heard above

The

large noddy
smaller brother, the Hawaiian
tern, choose the matted bushes as nestthe calls of the birds.

and

its

ing

sites,

and often ten nests may be

THE
LITTLE

WHITE TERN
OF

THE

PACIFIC

The
tern

little

Qygis

white
alba

tli'
or
"love bird" of the
is
Pacific,
not

common on
san,

for

been

it

Layhas

mercilessly

slaughtered
poachers.

by
Only

three pairs of the

terns
were not-

ing on Laj san at

the time of our

and one
brown chick

arrival
little

hatched
first

out

the

Two

clay.

months later he
was flying about

company

in

with
This
species lays only
one eggr. usually
his parents.

on

an

exposed

rock with no nest

whatever, but occasionally the egg
may be found balanced precariously
on a bare branch.
Whenever an intruder
wanders
near the brooding

birds

they

flutter

about
examining
him curiously. As
the
birds
hover
overhead
their

dark

eyes
seem
out of propor-

all

tion

in

size,

and

their rather harsh

monotonous

voice

inappropriate for
(1. Urate
such
creatures.
The
cling tenato
the
nest, ami the parent
feeds
them
with small silvery

ciously

which
carries
in

her

or

more
The

she

crossit ise
l'ak.

two

at a time.
safety
of
species seems
assured, notwith-

tln~

standing the persecution on LayBan,

for

the birds

arc
found
by
thousands on Neeker,
French Frigate
Rock,
and
Bird
[stand,
where thej

among

the

cessible

cliffs.

inac-

Successful experiments have been conducted on sandy wastes in the Pacific in the transplantation
of a species of salt grass from California.
The time has now come to reclaim the slopes of Laysan
The rabbits, which were introIsland because of the ravages of a rapidly multiplying rabbit horde.
duced about 1903, are destroying the vegetation and will turn the already inhospitable island into a
desert unless they can soon be' reduced.
It will be difficult, however, to exterminate the pests owing to
the presence of thousands of petrel and shearwater burrows which afford safe hiding

to the square yard. But the little

white tern, the "Love Bird of the Pacific," is the most beautiful of all, white

they puise a few feet overhead, white

plumage with an indescribable flush

given by the salmon color which veins
the tail and wing feathers, and with
deep-set black eyes and glossy beak. As

imaginable.

found

of

388

against the light sky, they are the mos1

interesting studies in light

They

and shade

lay a single egg on

an exposed rock, although I saw one

egg deposited on the limb of a bush in
depression scarcely larger around than
.1

Uk

The man o' war bird rises from the nest awkwardly, sprawling over the bushes, Imt our,- on the wing be is
powerful flier, soaring to great heights in an almost total calm. The immature birds (recognized in the photograph by the white feathers of the head) ar<' playful and dart at the visitor with open mouth, but although very
formidable-looking they can inflict no injury
a

On Laysan the man-o'-war birds build their nests among the bushes, using a miscellaneous heap of Bticks
and vines. They build several week- before the time to laj the eggs, and spend tl
bag days holding
their
such is the competition in the matter of space and nesting materials thai if thej leavi
inguarded it i- booh appropriated, a- a whole or piecemeal, bj neighbors.
(See appearance ol the inflated
gular pun.!, trhen the bird is in flight, page

down

389

NATURAL HISTORY

390
the egg

The

itself.

protectively

are

tiny

colored

brown chicks
and cling te-

naciously to the rocks.

I'd ivl

and -diearwaters erov

il

lie

is-

land, nesting in

deep
dug

burrows

birds and

make

welcome addition

the old frigate's domain.

to see one of these beautiful white birds

go squawking through the air, closely
pursued by several old man-o'-

war

in the loose

the

wh ite-breasted
petrel is a dove-

bird

like

mm 'ins
to

and
not

swarm over

was

so

him

by the tail and

turns him comover,
pletely

our faces when

near their nesting colonies, and
they were continually

the

grabs

ally

filled

protect

to

disgorge

man-o'-war usu-

air

with flying birds

that we always

had

he does

if

gracefully,

the island in the

The

overtaken,

soon

which

Literal!]

evening.

If

birds.

is
booby
heavily laden
with fish, he is

The

coral sand.

to

common

It is

thus persuading
His rehim.
source

to

is

alight as quickly

coming

possible,

as

for

long-winged

into the house at

his

night, attracted

enemy

light.
the
by
Christmaslsland

less

is

help-

on

the

ground.

Laysan,

shearwaters nest

on

t h
u nder
bushes, while

our visit, was still

the quarrelsome

and

wedge-tails

a bird paradise,

go

under-

far

ground.
colonies

few years previit had been

ous

Great
of

raided by poach-

the

The

long -winged
nest

heights

the

the

on

ence of a human visitor the parent takes great pride

in her offspring, but stands ready to resent any undue familiarity. With the offspring of her neighbors,
however, the parent albatross shows impatience, and

of

island.

will

all undefended nestlings in

The young birds when approached by
become excited, snap their bills, and may

not infrequently trounces

Flocks of these
birds

the high seas for most of the year, but in season a

In the prescareful attendant upon domestic duties.

the southern end

of

albatross (Diomedea nigripes) is

bird of grace and power, a wanderer on

black-footed

especially

man-o'-war
birds

sail

is

at least

birds.

charge

these

man-o'-war

180,000

We judged

that during our

stay

there were

50,000

to

killed,

estimated,

the visitor

ing blue-faced booby and the smaller,

more graceful red-footed booby nest in
to

it

present

and higher they

go, as we watch, until they gradually
disappear from view. The solemn-look-

proximity

who

ers

the vicinity.

even attempt

for hours; higher

near

this in spite

of the fact that a

trosses,

about
alba50,000

pairs of petrels,

many

and a few odd thouThere were not

many more birds on Laysan at that time
than the poachers had killed. At the
Waikiki dumping grounds in Honolulu
half as

terns,

sands of other species.

NOTES ON OUR HAWAIIAN RESERVATION

greal clouds at everj

we destroyed eleven wagonloads of the

feathers and wings which bad been collected by the poachers, besides a

The

young perish in uncountable numThe winds starl the -ami- driftthe young birds are smothered
ami
ing,
under the forming dune-. Young alba-

bers.

wings and allowing the birds to die of

hemorrhage, and other equally savage

moving

were on the Island, even

persecuted

birds had been so terribly

such a short time before,

sea of sand,

the surface of their

and,

unabl(

with

their

raid.

to

The

prevenl a well-established
poachers were on Laysan at

they had worked their way

hem where

soon replenish their devastated colonies

preif adequate precaution i- taken to
war
the
the
Before
ran!.
another
N ,.]it

enough

swift-

to

island was protected by the revenue

cutter which made several trips a year
into those waters, which proved often

the

become exhausted,

and are soon covered over. The little

petrels, nesting underground, are the
have found
mosl terribly punished.

were responding to the renewed

favorable conditions; and dow they will

they

toddling with

starl

trosses

practices.

th'

sea

their

When we

turn of the wind

birds could go elsewhere, of

course, hut their inherited tendency to

return year after year is strong, ami

whole

shedful lefl on Laysan when the revenue cutter "Thetis" took off the poachwill nol go
ers with their plunder.
methods
barbarous
the
aboul
detail
into
used in the slaughter, cutting off the

though

391

to go
head- ju-t

burrows
had died
above -round.
tilled

farther,

buried alive, and not one or two. hut

thousands.

We

killed

more than

five

thousand

rabbits by actual count, and that should

be a help, hut by m.\\ the pests will be

numerous as ever, ami it i- strongly

recommended that something system-

;i-

he done to lessen their numbers,

ami something also to increase the vegeThere is a tobacco which ha- in
tation.

time the island was made into a

reservation, ami their plundering was
well along before the officers had the
authority to interrupl the ravages. Be-

atic

war has interfered

cause of
with our work of protection, advantage

seems to he increasing
abundance. Hut the tussock grasses,

the

the

late

may

be taken of our unpreparedness,

raid, more serious than the

and another
first,

is

perhaps to be feared.

Bui Laysan's worsl

her own borders, and
offered

enemy

the island

soon,

within

is

relief

it'

is

nol

become

will

Rabbits were

waste of drifting sand.

introduced a good many years ago and

have increased to such an extent that
The
they now overrun the island.
vegetation
idly by
little

thai

depleted

there

which

once

so

rap-

danger the

is

ius birds will

indigen

bushes,

being

is

them

perish.

offered

The

favorable

bunch
Even
the trailing vines are disappearing, ami
nesting
Lr ra

the

sites,

are

girdled,

the

undermined and destroyed.

loose

chored by

coral
a

-ami.

network of

no

longer

an-

roots, shifts in

some way been introduced on the

land

this

uecessary to hold
slope,

the

the

soil

to the

is-

in

so

inner

Chenopodium, and various

Rapidbushes are fa-t disappearing.

growing forms which will hold the -ami
should he introduced, the good work
of reclaiming the waste land of Midway
he done, hut
i proof that the work can

should not he delayed.

'I'lllate Theodore Roosevelt

it

estab-

Hawaiian reservation
in 1909, along with main others in this
and
Roosevell is -one n w
n1 r\
friends and admirers are
his many
lished that greal

seeking to establish monuments to perA Roosevelt

memory.
petuate his
nidation for the Protection of Wild
,

a fitting memorial and

would meet many such emergen ies as

Life would be

that of l.av-an.

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Frontispiece engraved for Sir William !<

edition of "American Ornithology,

London

ALEXANDER WILSON, ONE OF AMERICA'S GREAT

HUNTER-NATURALISTS M766-1813)
Inspired by the story of the life of Alexander Wilson, a Kentucky boy of today has searched until
weary alone through the woods to find the Kentucky warbler, a bird discovered and named by Wilson
which James Lane Allen makes typify the boy's self. The boy dreams
Then there stepped forth into the open the figure of a hunter, lean, vigorous, tall, athletic.
He discovered Webster and with a look of relief stood still and smiled. There could be no mistake.
Webster held imprinted on memory from a picture those features, those all-seeing eyes; it was Wilson
weaver lad of Paisley, wandering peddler youth of the grey Scotch mountains, violinist, flutist, the
poet who had burned his poem standing in the public cross, the exile, the school teacher for whom the
boy caught the mouse, the failure who sent the drawing to Thomas Jefferson, the bold figure in the skiff
drifting down the Ohio the naturalist plunging into the Kentucky wilderness and walking to Lexington
and shivering in White's garret the great American ornithologist, the immortal man.
"Would you be afraid to stay here all night
He came and stood before Webster and
alone?"
looked down at him with a smile:
"I would not."
"Have you found him, Webster?"
"If, during the night, a storm should pass over the
Webster strangely heard his own voice:
"I have not found him
forest with thunder deafening you and lightning
flashing close to your eyes and trees falling every"You have looked long?"
where, you would fear for your life and that would
"I have looked everywhere and I cannot find
be natural and wise; but would you come again?"
him."
"I would."
"Why do you look for the Kentucky Warbler?"
"If it were winter and the forest were bowed
Webster hesitated long:
deep with ice and snow and you were alone in it.
"I do not know," he faltered.
having lost your way, would you cry enough
"Something in you makes you seek him, but
Would you hunt for a fireside and never return?"
you do not know what that something is?"
"I would not."
">~o. I do not know what it is: I know I wish
'You can stand cold and hunger and danger
to find him."
and fatigue: can you be patient and can you be
"Not him alone but many other things?"
:

.'

"Yes.

manv

other things."
life of the forest?"
the wild things in the forest

"The whole wild

"Yes, all
wild forest

and

the

still

itself."

There was

silence.

forest was becoming

singing of the unseen birds

The

more wonderful. The

more silvery sweet. It was beyond all reality.
The hunter hurled questions now with no
.

pity

persevering !"
"I can."
"Look long and not find what you look for and
not give

up

?"

"I can."

There was silence for a little while: the mood

of the hunter seemed to soften
"Come," he said, as with high trust, "J
will show you the Kentucky warbler."
.

Quoted from James Lane Allen"s The Kentucky Warbler, pp. 164-70
396

Alexander Wilson
A LIFE THAT LED, THROUGH MANY FEARS OF DEFEAT, TO THE BIGH
ADVENTURE OF PERSONAL SACRIFICE, PROFOUND
ENDEAVOR, AND SUCCESS
through the courtesy

ited

the

of

Author

;m<l

the second chapter of

The School,"

of

Page & Company, publishers, from

Fhi Kentucky Warbler

Doubled;..

James Lane

Allen's

classroom in one of the high schools of Kentucky in 1916; an

Foreword. The scene is
exchange professor is standing before the pupils readj to address them; the sunshine of an
April morning enters at the win. lows, slanting across the tares of the pupils, and the:
Webster, the Kentucky boy whose vision of Wilson
sound in the air of distant bird song.
and tlie Kentucky warbler is told on the preceding page, is among the pupils, far back near
a win. low. as though with a wish to jump out and be free.
The lecturer's subject is the life of Alexander Wilson, but first he tells of George Eliot's
Silas Marnei an. his life as a weaver in Etaveloe, England, for two reasons, to enforce the
power of seeing
r Scotch weaver and to put emphasis on the greal
picture of Wilson a- a
which Wilson possessed in contrast with Silas Marner who saw only his thread and shuttle
and loom. The following quotation is the storj of Alexander Wilson, as the lecturer told it,
and it is a -teat pleasure to be allowed to (.resent it in the very beautiful prose of .lames
Lane Allen, the author, carrying his keenness f understanding, his appreciation of both human nature ami nature, ami his sympathy.
:i

1A M

going

who

boy

speak to you boys about

never reached high school.

want you

t"

mist and snow ami storm a- a faint

glimmering spark, rudely blown upon
by the winds of misfortune, endangered
wanl
and all hut ready to go mn
you t" wat.-h how that endangered
1

-park of

boy's

brighten

slowly begins to

life

grow
to
draw Dearer and

distance,

the

in

stronger, and finally to

nearer until
lighl ahmit

Watch.
on

life's

at

Last

it

you here

how

say,

horizon,

at

shines as

greal

"Now,

and
hi-

becomes

human

eyes to

about the period that

of

Scotland,

man

of Alexander Wilson,

erate distiller.

am

to tell

He had

-on

by the
pom- illitthe boy

you about.

boy's father ami mother

opened before him the two main hon".

'I'hc

neither,

would

wish.

not

know
He

his

did

own mind or
know that he

take the road- hi- parents

a- to them he was a road;

ie-- boy.

mother died when he was quite

young, a stepmother -topped into a
stepmother's place, and -he quickly deilis

cided

with

Scotch

thrift.

third

Accordingly, when he was aboul

eleven years old. he was taken from
school and bound as an apprentice to
we lament child labour now
a weaver
trade.

paint- the life of her pom- Engweaver there lived, nol in merry
and
and hut in Bonnie Scotland
s
to ho bonnie i- not to he merry there
lived in the little town of Paisley, in
wesl

chose

boy and into that he should be pushed

and made to go he mu-t he put to

star

lish

name

not

did

own

pointed out

an old lament.
"The boy hated weaving
i-

it

Eliot

the

He

choose.

was -elf-willed and wavering,

he

troubled ray, low

last

as long as there shall be

.

him
for

Scottish road should be opened to the

the world of men, high fixed and

resplendent to be seen by human eyes

in this very place.

in

see anything.

oured roads of Scottish life that of a

physician ami that of a minister] and

watch how that boy's

seen in the distance through

firsl

lit'.-

to

a-,

perhaps,

he never hated anything else in hiand in tune he hated much and

hated

many

things.

[e

life

he

seems soon

to

have become know n a- the lazy weaver.

.;!afterward he put into hitter
"i

words a description of the weaver "A

weaver is a poor, emaciated, helpless
being, shivering over rotten yarn and
ming over hi- empty Hour barrel.'
:

Kl-eW here he called

he r;i\iT

:\

-ca P'-

398

.V.I

He wrote

crow

in

titled

Groans from ike Loom.

"Five

rags.

interminable

groans and
strong,

ended

his

all

;i

years

77

/;.

poem

\L

en-

eager, wild, head-

boyhood
gone from him as lie sat

was
like a

boy-spider with a thread passing end-

During these

inter-

minable years, whenever he lifted his

eyes from his loom and looked ahead,
he could see nothing but penury and
dependence and loneliness his loom to
the end of his life.
"Five years of this imprisonment and
then he was eighteen and his own master: and the first thing he did was to
descend from the loom, take a pack of
cloth upon his shoulders and go wandering away among the hills and valfree at last
leys and lakes of Scotland

young deer

like a

in the heather.

He

from that hour

eyes had first opened on the

of himself that

said

when

his

weave music instead of listening to the

noise of the loom he had his flute and
his violin.
But what he accomplished
with poetry and flute and violin were
obstacles to his necessary work and ren:

those

of

liberty-loving

lessly into a web.

HISTORY

dered this harder.

to

The time he gave

them made his work

less

the less his

work, the

less his living; the less his

living, the

more

his troubles

and hard-

ships.

"Bobert Burns was just then the

new sun
shining with vital splendour into all
Scottish hearts. Friends of the young
weaver and apparently the young
weaver himself thought there was room
in Scotland for another Burns.
Some
of his poems were published anonymously and the authorship was attributed to Burns. That was bad for him,
it made bad worse.
Wilson greatly deidolised poet of Scotland, a

sired to

know the rustic poet-king of

The two poets met in Edin-

Scotland.

light

of grey Scotch mountains, the

world of nature had called him. He
did not yet know what the forest and

burgh and were to become friends.

Then Burns published Tarn O'Slianier.
"The Paisley weaver by this time had

the forest meant or would

mean; he only knew that there he
was happy and at home.
"Thus, like Silas Marner, he became
a poor weaver and peddler hut not with
Seldom in any
Silas Marner's eyes.
human head has the mechanism of

such conceit of himself as a poet that

he wrote Burns a caustic letter, telling
him the kind of poem Tarn O'Shanter
should and should not be.
Burns replied, closing the correspondence, ending the brief friendship and leaving
the weaver to go back to his loom. It

\i>ion been driven by a mind with such

power and eagerness to observe. And
he had the special memory of the eye.
There are those of us who have the

was a terrible rebuff, and left its mark

on an already discouraged man.
"Next Wilson wrote an anonymous
poem, so violently attacking a wealthy
manufacturer on behalf of his poor
brother weavers, that the enraged mer-

the

life of

ever

special

memory

of the ear or of taste

He had

or of touch.

the long, faithful

recollection of things seen.

With

this

during the next several

years he traversed on foot three-fourths
pair

of eyes

of Scotland.

"But though he followed one

after

another well nigh all the roads of

Scotland, he could find in all Scotland
no road of life for him. It is true that
certain misleading paths beckoned to
him, as is apt to be true in every life.
Thus he had conceived a great desire
to weave poetry instead of cloth, to

chant demanded the name of the writer

and had him put in prison and compelled him to stand in the public cross
of Paisley and burn his poem.
"Darker, bitterer days followed. He
shrank away to a little village even
more obscure than his birthplace.
There, lifting his eyes, again he looked
all over Scotland: he saw the wrongs
and sufferings of the poor, the luxury
and oppression of the rich he blamed
:

the British government for evils inher-

ALEXANDER WILSON
.in

human nature and

iii

perfections of all

against his native country and

found himself without

"Then

their

in

the handwriting on the wall

read

within hi in -elf.

"Hi-

which has

many men

so

heart

at

he should be or could he: he had not

yet

fatherland.

that glorious vision

opened before

imturned

for the

human society

and dejection of a man who has

own country and does not
know that any other country will acliness

America. ... In America he thought

all roads were open, new roads were
being made for human Lives; that
>ne aushould become his count ry.
tumn he saw in a newspaper an advertisement that an American merchantman would sail from Belfast the

rejected his

<

following spring and he turned to

weaving and wove as never before to
At this time
earn his passage money.
he lived on one shilling a week!
When spring came, with the earnings
of his loom he walked across Scotland
.

to the nearest

When

port.

he reached

every berth on the vessel had

been taken: he asked to be allowed to
sleep 'ii the deck and was accepted as
Belfast

a passenger.
".

The

port was to be

Philadel-

phia but he seems to have been so impatient

New

to

foot on

set

World that he

the
Left

soil

of the

ship

the

at

New Castle, Delaware. Ee had borrowed from a fellow-passenger sufficient

money t< pay his expenses while walkPhiladelphia thirty- four miles

ing to

away; and with

this in his pocket

and

his fowling-piece on his shoulder he dis-

appeared
kill a

in

The

v.

the July

of

forests

New

was to
l-pecker which he

thin-- he did

first

red-headed w

declared to he the most beautiful bird

he had ever -ecu.

"I do not

find

he had ever killed

during

all hi-

bird

in

hi- that

Scotland

Now

years of wandering.

him

in

the

New- World was to go straight

to

the

the

first

event

American w

that

and

befell

what he declared to be the most beautiful bird he

had ever -ecu.
This might naturally
have been to him a sign of his life-road.
Is

kill

But he -till stood blinded in hi- path,

with not a plan, not an idea, of what

liiin.

fellow Scot, in Philadel-

him

phia, tried

at

copper-plate print-

lie quickly dropped this

ing,

and went

hack to the old dreadful work of weaving he became an American weaver

and went wandering through the forof

New

Jersey a-

peddler: at

peddling left him free to roam the

forests.
Next he tried teaching hut he
himself had been taken from school at
least

the age of eleven and must prepare

himself as one of hi- own beginners.
I

did

le

ment

not

in

this teaching experiJersey and migrated to

like

New

Virginia did not please him

Virginia.

and he remigrated to Pennsylvania.

There he tried one school after another
in various place- and finally settled on
the outskirts of Philadelphia here wains la-t school, for here wa- the turn:

ing point of hi-

wish

"I

life.

had time

to

you the school-house with

ings, for the place
in the early

i-

to us

American

describe
it-

now

life

for

surrounda

of

man all

picture
a

great

such historic picture- are in'atch one glimpse of it

valuable.
a
(

-tone

neat

school-house on

sloping
with grey old white oak- grow :
ing around and row- of stripling popi

lars

any word of

New World

years in the

first

were more disastrous than any in Scotland, for al\v,-i\ - now he had the lone-

despair, disclosed itself: hi- eyes turned

to

:}!>!!

and scattered cedar

A road

tree-.

ran near and not far away wa-

a little

where bo lived.
The yard was walled oil' from the road
ami there were -eat- within and rosebushes and plum tree- and Imp-vines.
On one side hung a sign-board waving
on the
before a little roadside inn
other a blacksmith -hop with its hamyellow-faced

cottage

mering.

s -

Not far

off stood the edge of

'resounding with the
of warblers. 3
n the depth- of it

the great

forest

NATURAL HISTORY

too

was

favourite

spot a

retreai

"Genius builds with lavish magnifi-

no longer

cence and inconceivable swiftness; and

hardly had he succeeded with his first

secrel

\at are.
"There then you see him

for liim in

youth kit

had

>till

tried closed

young every road

to him in America
:

lie

drawing- before he had wrought out

as

monumental plan:

Scotland: not a doctor, not a mini

a g
poet, not a good flutist,

in

ler. not

as

to

turn himself free

soon as possible into the vast, tin-

North American

travelled forest of the

not a good violinist, not a copper-plate

continent and draw and paint

engraver, not a willing weaver, not a

Other men, he said, would have to

found the cities of the New World and
His study was
open up its country.
to be the lineaments of the owl and the
plumage of the lark: he had cast in his
lot with Nature's green magnificence
untouched by man.
"For a while he must keep on teaching in order to live he taught all day.
often after night, barely had time to
swallow his meals, at the end of one
term tells us he had as large a sum as
fifteen dollars.
Often he coloured his
first drawings by candle light, drew
and painted birds without knowing
what they were. Drawing and painting
by candle light
but now he had
within himself the risen sun of a splendid enthusiasm. That sun kindled his
school-boys.
They found out what he
wanted and helped. One boy brought

willing

peddler, not

willing school-

teachernone of these. No idea yet

in him that he could ever he anything.

homeless

playing at lonely

self-exile,

twilights on flute

and

violin the loved

airs of rejected Scotland.

"Now

happened

it

that

near

his

owned by
The American,
seeing the stranger east down by his
aimless life, offered him his portfolio
school was a botanical garden

an American naturalist.

and suggested that he try

draw a landscape, draw the human
figure.
The Scotch weaver, the American school-teacher, tried and disasof drawings

to

As a final chance the

American suggested that he try to draw
trously failed.

He did try: he drew* a bird.

He drew again. He drew again and
again. He kept on drawing.
Nothing
could keep him from drawing.
And
a bird.

there at last the miracle of power and

its birds.

him

large basketful of crows.

other caught a mouse in

school

Anand

in him and
from one wrong

the incident i- worth

contributed that
quoting by showing that the boy pre-

thing to another wrong thing, disclosed

it -elf
as dwelling within his eyes and
hands. His drawings were so true to

mouse to a school-book.
"Take one instance of the energy
with which he was now working and
worked for the rest of his life: he
wished to see Niagara Falls, and to lose

genius,

driving

so

him

long restless
aimlessly

lite, that there could be no doubt: the

road lay straight before him and ran

clear through

coming time toward

eter-

nal fame. 1

"All the experience which he had

been unconsciously storing as a peddler
in Scotland now came back to him as
guiding knowledge.
The marvelous
memory of his eye furnished its discipline: from early boyhood through
sheer love he had unconsciously been
studying birds in nature, and thus during all these wretched years had been
laying up as a youth the foundation of
his lifework as a man.
1
The naturalist was William Bartram.

may

vet tell posterity that

their existence."

ferred a

no time while doing it he started out

one autumn through the forest to walk

and back, a short trip for

hundred miles. He
reached home "mid the deep snows of
wi nter with no soles to his boots. What
of that?
On his way back he had
shot two strange birds in the valley
of the Hudson!
For ten days ten
days, mind you ! he worked on a drawing of these and sent it with a letto the Falls

him

of over twelve

ter to

Thomas

Jefferson.

You may

as

yet have thought of Jefferson only as

Wilson w rote to him in 1805. "They [his bird drawings]

was honored with your friendship, and that to your inspiration they owe

ALEXANDER WILSON
of

cum-

begin
the

America's earliesl statesmen

now to think of him as one of

American

first

And

naturalists.

if
3

yon wish to read a courteous Letter

from an American President to a young
stranger, go back
to the

Jefferson's Letter

to

Scotch weaver

\\

ho senl him the

drawing of a jaybird.
"Pass rapidlj over

Ee
down

years.

.Maine

South.

the

the

from

trip

the Atlantic Seaboard

to

Ee has returned and

is

starting out again to cover the vasl in-

terior basin of the

he

at

Irleans.

"Now

you
It

spring

is

is

coming

to

swollen

river,
full

is

I.

il

moving

he

you here.
the twenty-fourth of Feb-

the

ruary:

that

see

nearer oearer
".

Valle}

Pittsburgh and end

to begin at

is

New

ississippi

explored wilderness of the Mississippi

Valley.

"Wondrous experiences were his:

from the denseh wooded shores there
would reach him a- he drifted down,
bird those firsi
spring notes so familiar and so welcome
to us on mild days toward the Last of
the whistle of the red

Eew

aexl

made one

lias

with

the

of white masses of

!<!

Away

February.

between

leys,

the rising

Log cabins
like
looked
doghouses under impending mighty mountains.
Hi- rapidly steered skiff passed
flotillas of Kentucky ark- heavily mak-

way southward, transporting

ing their

men

women

and

or

in

canoes

each

out of a

new

world

made

to he

"He

for

mills
st

not

ream.

Pittsburgh, his gun and

and

his oars

"in

runk and

the other end himself and

at

the skiff,

with which to bail

necessary, to keep it

if

the

young boatman borne

new world on his greal work
hearl expanding with excitemenl

away
his

solitary

to a

and joy as he headed tow.n-d the un'

Tin- letter
32fl

given

editioi

in

full

icon

'

Bj

Alexander Wilson,

Vol.

in

Ornit)
ih.

pp.

on

now sounds

<

which the river foamed and rolled

the sea and he had to make g
til!

keep the

to

till

he could put

the shore of

shore

in

use

hailed out

-kill'

The

to shore.

the\

.-all

him now toward

before

but

had

night on the

first

he spent

like
I

ndiana, now toward the

either

hed
lli>

in

Kentucky,

of

he

disappeared.

Kentucky shore

the cabin of a squatter ami

heard him tell tale- of bear-treeing and

wildcat-hunting and wolf-baiting. All
nighl wolves how led in the forests near
by and kept the dogs in an uproar the
region swarmed with wolves and wildcat- "Mack ami hrow n.'
;

"< >n

and on.

reached
r.

built

March fifth he saw

a dock of parrakeets.
Think of parrakeets on the >hio River in March
Mice he encountered a storm of wind
and hail and -now ami rain, during

tin

from sinking and also to use as his

drinking-cup to dip from the vw^w
"Thai Februar} daj
the swollen,
rushing river, the masses of w hite ice

vet
.

records what t" us

of w did turkeys enticed

in

incredible, that on

the boat some biseuil and cheese, a hottie of cordial given him h\ a gentleman

overcoat

home-

for

steads in the wilderness; transporting

of hi-

the

carrying horses and plow

to clearings yet

single tree, usually the tulip ree, which

you know is very common in our Kentucky woods.
Bui to mention danger
was to make him go to meet it.
Ee
would have ii" rower, had uo money to
hire one. had he wished one.
Ee tells
us what he had on board in one end of
t

children

Kentucky arks

called

hollowed

and

moving pioneers of the young nation

the first ri\er merchant-marine of the

any wilderness

down on barges

At

the Landscape gro-

tesque

risked the passage of the river floated

saw

ke of -near camps.

other openings mi

mill-stones

val-

forest'

headlands,

he

They warned him of

his danger, urged him to take a rower,
urged him not to go at all. Those who
ice.

dim

off in

bold

lii-

ville

until

la-t

at

he rapid- of the

Hiio

the
;1 t

-kill'

Louis-

and he stepped ashore and

-old

nit

hi-

frail

-a\ iour craft

which,

at

-tart-

NATURAL HISTORY

!<.'

named the Ornithologist.

as the
The Hentuckian who bought
he had

in-,

it

name

Ornithologist accepted the droll

some [ndian

as thai of

He

chief.

soon

baggage

Louisville, having sent his

left

by wagon, and plunged into the

Kentucky forest on his way to Lex-

mi

Qgton.

"And now.

indeed, you see he

com-

is

ing nearer.

was

It

twenty-fourth of March

tlic

when he began

his first trip southward

through the woods of Kentucky. Spring
was mi the way but had not yet passed
northward.
Nine-tenths of the Kentucky soil, he states, was then unbroken

wilderness.

March twenty-ninth that,

emerging from the thick forest, he saw
before him the little Western metropo"It was on

lis

of the pioneers, the city of the fore-

fathers of

many

ington.

wish

to

of us here today
I

Lex-

could stop to describe

you the picture as he painted

it:

the

town stretching along its low valley; a

stream running through the valley and

turning several mills water mills in

In the
Lexington a hundred years ago
market-place which you now call Cheapside he saw the pillory and the stocks
and he noted that the stocks were so
arranged as to be serviceable for gal!

lows:

our

ranged

Kentucky

that

they

niently hanged,

if

forefathers

should

lie

ar-

conve-

they doerved

it.

great

unknown man in

the in.-elves,

on
time he rightly
considered that he had had adventures
worth relating: but he declares that if
he attempted to relate them to any
Kentuckian, the Kentnckian at once
interrupted him and insisted upon relating his own adventures as better
worth while. Western civilization was
of itself the one absorbing adventure
to every man who had had his share
a vivid historic light

their character.

in

By

this

it.

"On

the fourteenth day of April

he departed from Lexington, moving
southward through the forest to New
Scarcely yet had the woods
Orleans.
begun to turn green.
.

"And now we begin

to take leave of

him: he passes from our

We

picture.

glimpse of him at the Kentucky

River, standing on the perpendicular
cliffs of -olid limestone, green with a
catch

number of uncommon plants and

we catch a glimpse of him
standing there, watching hank swallows

greal

flowers

and listening to the faint music of the

boat horns in the deep romantic valley
below, where the Kentucky arks, passing on their way southward, turned the
corners of the verdurous cliffs a- the
musical gondolas turn the corners of
vine-hung Venice in the waters of the
Adriatic.

"On and on southward:

visiting

roosting-plaee of the passenger pigeon

"On a country court day he saw a

thousand horses hitched around the
courthouse square and in churchyards
and in graveyards. He states that even
then Kentucky horses were the mosl
remarkable in the world.
"He slept while in Lexington this
.

Kentuckians

the

which flashes

as

a public spectacle of warning.

on

his

a garret called

Salter White's, wherever that was

and
for yon know we
:

which was reported

to

him

as

forty

miles long: he counted ninety nests

one beech

tree.

We

see

in

him emerging

the Kentucky barrens which were

covered with vegetation ami open for

upon

the sweep of the eye.

Xow. at last, he begins to meet the

approach of spring in full tide all Xa:

tnre

\n

is

bursting into leaf and blossom.

longer are the redbud and the dog-

lie shivered with cold,

can have chill nights in April. He says
that he had no firewood, it being scarce.

wood and the

the universal forest of firewood being

forest,

sassafras conspicuon- as

And now.

half a mile away: this was like going

overflowing the
advances the full-crested wave
of bird-life up from the south, from the

hungry

tropics..

"And

in a loft over a full baker-shop.

I

must not omit one note

of

its

heralds.

New and unknown

species are

everywhere before his eyes: their new

ALEXANDER WILSON
melodies arc

in

he

ears;

his

busy

i-

ishable deed.

drawing, colouring, naming them for

being

his work.

in be

in

wove

our picture:
southward bound, encountering a cloud

"So he passes

and

parrakeets

of

from

cave w

ith

handkerchief

creeks,

full

sleeping

at

night alone in the wilderness, his gun

He vanishes
and pistol in his bosom.
scene, never from the
mankind.
me tell yon that he did nol live

from the

memorj

foresl

of

|j't

leath overl
complete his work.
him, not a youth hut still young.
,was going to speak to
told you
asked yon to fix
you of a boy's life.
to

weaver:

lie

the

of

ington that distant April of 1810, encountering hi- firsl spring in the Ohio
valley with it> myriads of birds, somewhere he discovered a new and beaul i-

your eyes upon it as a Ear-off human

spark, barely glimmering through mist
ami fog hut slowly, as the years passed,
getting stronger, growing brighter, always drawing nearer until it shone
aboul you here as a great lighl and then
passed on, leaving an eternal glory.
"I have done that.
"You saw a little fellow taken from
ol at aboul
the age of eleven and
put to hard work at weaving; now you
one of the world's greal ornithologists, who had traversed some ten thou-

sand mile- of comparal ive wilderness

an imperishable figure, doing an imper-

American wood warbler

species of

ful

and gave
name.

habitation and

local

it

"I Ie called

in

tucky

And would ymi

that

and

republic

tin-

heai-- the

t.

crossed

Ken-

day- of the pioneers?

in the greal

picture of

ili

not like to see

day- of the young

the greal

American

i'l

mighty hunter who

picture of that

lived

Wa

the Kent llek\

it

"And now. would yon

tapestry

American forest.
"As he passed southward from Lex-

original

as

hated

he mosl

the beginningvast,

him

love to think of

the end what

in

bird-life of the

emerging

pigeons,

swimming

of bats,

of

ou1

L03

not

also like to see

exquisite and only bird

name

of our State

he

Kentucky Warbler?"
passed

lie

over to them

portrail

Alexander Wilson in the

dress of a gentleman of his time. Ids
And
fowling-piece on his forearm. 3

engra^

mil:

of

along with this he delivered

life-like, a

bler,

them

to

singing portrait, of the war-

painted by

greal

American

ani-

mal painter and bird painter Fuertes.

It was not until tlie lecturer bad progressed in hi- story to the poinl where Wilson came
America thai Webster, back by the win. lew of the classroom, was noticeably interested.
-auk- so breathless that it filled the room ami the other
Finally, however, hi- attention
listeners were merely grouped around it a- accessories; and tin' lecturer recognized that he

to

witnessing "that particular miracle in nature the contexture of the generations

the
You -tan. before some all but
living taking the meaning of their lives from the dead. 2
'i'ii
mound of human ashes; before you is arrayed a band of youths unconsciously
holding in their hands the unlighted torches of tin- future.
Yon utter some word about the
cold ashes and silently one of them walk-; forward n> the ashes, lights hi- torch an. goes his
radiant way."
Webster, tin' Kentucky boy of th'' present, filled with all that Wilson had been made to
mean to him. -pent a whole .lav wandering in pasture ami forest, an. returned home at night
-till in hi- blood.
with the fragrances and bird songs -till about him and the heal of the
Then hi' lived in the reality of In- great dream ami wandered through tin' woods with Alex
ander Wilson.
When anally the Kentucky warbler wa- revealed t<> him. he turned to his
w:i-

Mm

guide gratefully to thank him. bul

\.i one was near him.
dge >!' tin- thicket yards away;
Webster -aw the hunter mi tl
he stood lu. .kin- back, hi-- figure dim, fading.
Webster, forgetful .a' the bird, cried out with
quick pain
Am never to see you again?'
ajoing awaj
"The voice that reached him seemed scarcely a voice; it wa- more like an echo, close to
.'

hi- ear. of a
/

.it

voice
1

lost

tcish

forever
to

s<

""
r

Alexander Wilson
Iphia.

entei

tl"

fori si

in

tin-

churchyard

.>

Gloria

U> art.'

Dieu

"

Old

Swede's)

Church,

of

THEIR FIRST VIEW OF THE PACIFIC, 1806

Memorial in Bronze
Soon to be unveiled in

to

Lewis and Clark by Charles

Charlottesville,

stand at gaze, with Sacajawea, the squaw

the ocean revealed before them

404

huh.

Sculptor,

Xnr

York-

Virginia, the early home of Meriwether Lewis.

They
guide, bending forward, intent on the vast expanse of

Thomas

Jefferson's Contributions to

Natural History
HIS EFFORT SENT OUT THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPLORING PARTY
[NTO THE UNKNOWN WEST RECOGNITION A.ND BONOK ARE

GIVEN TODAY TO THE EXPEDITION'S LEADER,

MERIWETHER LEWIS

JOHN

By

P A T T

s.

<>

Librarian of the University of Virj

THE

fan

son's

was

Thomas

that

service

besl

the

limited

has

political

Jeffer-

mankind

t"

world'- estimate of his greatness

contribution of hi- useful

\>>

one

That

life.

was the preeminent statesman of his

day a- today he is the dominating influence surviving from the first years
uf the republic, was not owing t" a predilection for politics hut to his answerh<'

ing thr n

for

great

constructive

and safely guiding genius at the beginning of our independent national

life.

[e rejoiced, instead, at

of thr studious

pect

abound

most

th<1

expressions of hi- desire to

in

from the arena

retire

mponl de Nemours

The one

is

t"

me

ture intended

I'm-

to

often quoted

retire
few 'laybooks ami farms.

my

family,

which he was

in

ootable figure.

Within

the pros-

Hi- letters

life.

my
Xa-

them my

<

i^

1 1

ami

systematically classified

facts

broughl

tinder

general

law:

lie

was connoted by
the word scientiq in the days of its
widest acceptation.
Be was an eager
student going into every field open \><
him. It would m>t 'I" to claim profound
ant

by

scholarship
hi-

all

it

for

interests

limitations

of

restrained

mensural

ion,

that

him

were

catholic,

and

that

instances;

all

too

time

him

in

and

opportunity

the

thorough-

ness of the specialist, often met icu

-t

rength of materials

).

anatomy, geology, zoology,

botany, economic entomology, aeronautics, ami palaeontology.
While this li-t transcends in some
instances the limits to which "science"
iconfined h\ present day definition
ami intrudes upon the domain of the
industrial an-, it i> far from embracing all that Jefferson would have
surgical

included

the

in

meaning

of

science,

scientia, the derivative of all information

tn

ami

-kill.

invent

const ruct

His science enabled him

plow, indeed

barometer,

the

plow,

t<>

thermometer,

wiml gage, a duplicating writing mawhat not

to realize West
Point for the nation ami the National

chine, ami

Ibservatory, t" build the University

Virginia and

Ami by science he meanl more than

men do now. It included more than
rved

the tranquil pur-

-uit- oi science, by rendering

supreme

was m>t within his reach.

Bui he
had a more >>r less scholarly acquaintihanics, astronomy, meance with
engineering
teorology, physics, civil

ami purpose

The

inform
hit

student

it

id'

with a spirit

herto disregarded.

who

take- to the high-

ways ami byways of knowledge is sure

tn find wherever he penet rate- that M r.
Jefferson ha- passed along before him
with more or less careful observation.
After twelve years of faithful, scholwork in rediscovering and deter-

arly

mining
accent

tin' truth of Latin and Celtic

and rhythm and showing that

our traditional rule of Latin pronunciation i> at variance with the obvious
usage of Latin verse, Professor

Th

as

Fitz-Hugh, of

of

Yir-

tin'

University

105

NATURAL HISTORY

406

ginia, turned in pursuit of another ob-

jectfor he had published the results

of his own discovery to Jefferson's
essay, Thoughts on English Prosody,
and found that he had been anticipated,
by Jefferson by more than a century,
and that nobody had seemed to knowWhile Jefferson was the first to
it!
assert and use the principle that the
pronunciation of an ancient speech cannot contradict the

known rhythm

of

its

poetry, Fitz-Hugh has used the principle to reveal a now world of accent
and rhythm in Latin and Celtic and to

expose the error of the current theory

"It is well worth while,"
in both fields.
Professor Fitz-Hugh warns, "for the
scholar and technical scientist of today

examine Jefferson's reflections upon

any field of investigation in which he

to

allows himself to

make

excursions."

And so Buffon thought long ago. He

had announced his conviction that animals common to the Old and the New
worlds are smaller in the

latter,

that

those peculiar to America are smaller.

that

those domesticated

in both

have

degenerated in the New world, and that

the western world has fewer species.
Mr. Jefferson collected data and upon
ascertained facts based three tables in

which he contrasted aboriginals (1) of

both the Old and the New worlds, (2)
of only one. and (3) of those domestiThe first table showed
cated in both.
that of twenty-six quadrupeds common
to both America and Europe, seven are
larger in America, seven of equal size,
and as to twelve the facts were not decisive the second showed that eighteen
quadrupeds are peculiar to Europe and
seventy-four to America, while one of
the tapir
the American quadrupeds
weighs more than all the eighteen of
Europe together; and the third failed
to sustain Buffon's theory of animal
;

He
degeneration in the New world.
did not stop here, but had the bones
and skin of the largest moose obtainable, the horns of the caribou, elk.
deer, spike-horned buck, and some other

Buffon
large animals sent to Paris.
was convinced, and said to the Virginian: "I should have consulted you,
publishing my Natural
Sir, before
History, and then I should have been

my

sure of

while

to

It is scarcely

facts."

whether

inquire

Frenchman was

the

worth
great

pleased by the revela-

tion of the truth or irritated by defeat.

In

17!>1

JelTerson

was made presi-

dent of the American Philosophical Society, and took his place officially at the
head of the scientific world of his counElected Vice President of the
United States, he went to Philadelphia
and took with him
to he inaugurated
the os femoris, a radius, an ulna, three
claws, and some other bones of an anitry.

mal then unknown

edentate,

to science, the giant

to

allied

the

recent

sloth.

These bones, which he had collected in

Greenbrier County. Virginia, he presented

to

the

Philosophical

Society,

with a statement of the results of his

His
studies in connection with them.
discovery

hears the

name Megalonyx

jeffersonii.

"The

spectacle of an

man coming

American

states-

to take part as a central

ceremony
and bringing with him

figure in the greatest political

of our country

an original contribution to the scientific

knowledge of the world, is certainly one

we

shall not soon see repeated," said

Frederic N. Luther, writing of JefferDuring those
son as a naturalist. 1 ".
.

exciting weeks," Mr. Luther continued,

"in February, 1801,

when Congress was

vainly trying to untangle the difficulties

arising from the tie vote between Jef-

ferson and Burr,

when

every politician

was busy with schemes

and counter-schemes, this man. whose
political fate was balanced on a razor's
edge, was corresponding with Dr. Wistar in regard to some bones of the
mastodon which he had just procured
at the capita]

from Shawangunk. Ulster County.

Again in 1808. when the excitement
1

Magazinr

(volume 13).

of

American History

for April,

1885

MASTODON JAWBONES COLLECTED BY JEFFERSON AT SHAWANGUNK,

ULSTER COUNTY. NEW YORK
We have had two men in the presidential chair in the United States who were naturalists and who
used their influence for the advance of scientific affairs Thomas Jefferson and latt> rl> Theoilor.' Koommen the words bj Jefferson, bo often quoted, were true, "Nature intended me for the
That Jefferson received more
tranquil pursuits <>i' Bcience, bj rendering them my Bupreme delight."
blame than praise for his scientific work and that he is known in historj onlj as a great Btatesman, but
centurj ago and our greater enlightenment as t<> it- value
convinces us of the pioneer Btatus o<
garding mastodon discoveries at Shawangunk, Bee note, page 196)
4"7

.V.

t08

177/;. L
I

HISTORY

A TREASURE OF

THE

UNIVERSITY OF
VIRGINIA
Elk horns, one of the firsl trophies of the
Lewis and Chirk Expedition, carried t" St.
Louis in the winter of 1805 bj a messenger
from the expedition's first winter quarters.

The members of the

These elk horns were highly valued by Jefferson and were long at Monticello.
Lewis and Clark Expedition, sent out as a direct result of Jefferson's interest in natural history and exploration, were the first white men to traverse the region now mapped as the states of Nebraska. North
and South Dakota. Montana. Idaho. Washington, and Oregon. A memorial to Meriwether Lewis, leader
of the expedition, is about to be inaugurated at Charlottesville. Virginia, his early home

over the embargo was highest, when

everv day brought fresh denunciations
of

him ami

his policy, he

was carrying

on his pakeontological studies in the

rooms of the White House itself.
Never for a moment, however appar.

ent ly absorbed in other work, did he lose

warm sympathy

with Nature." This

devotion at that early time won for him

his

than ridicule and blame in

his own country. The feeling it evoked
was expressed by Bryant, then a buy of
less praise

thirteen
Go. wretch, resign the Presidential chair.
Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair.
Go, search with curious eyes for horned
frogs.

'Mid the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs;

Or, where the Ohio rolls his turbid stream.
Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme.

Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution,

declared "is the most important scien5

work as yet published in America/

"measured by its influence."" It was

tific

if

the first comprehensive account of the

topography, natural history, and re-

sources of any North American commonwealth, and Goode pronounced it

"the precursor of the great library of

scientific reports which have since been
issued by the state and federal govern-

ments."

He was deeply interested in what was

concealed from the world a century and
a quarter ago in the great unexplored
region between the United States and
the western ocean.

The mammoth, he

The man thus lampooned was the

author of Notes on Virginia which a

might be found roving the

great interior plains: indeed, nothing
was too much for his credulity. The
exploration of the Northwest was one

Brown

of his fixed purposes, to be carried out

historian of science, the late G.

believed,

JEFFERSON'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATURAL HISTORY

the

at

tir-t

When John

opportunity.

Ledyard reached Paris in 786, Jefferson, who was there as minister of the
United States, believed the hour of the
Ledyard
great adventure had arrived.
had been \\ itli look on hds voyage to
the Pacific and had engaged in other
adventurous undertakings. He was ap1

<

man

praised by Jefferson as "a

of gen-

President of the United State-, decided

the exploration

that

upon

seized
to

party

the enterprise, bul

in

terest

Sis

it.

years later,

American

the

Mr. Jefferson,

association with

in

Society.

Philosophical

now

Dr. Jefferson by the

decrees of Yale ami

promoted

ties,

Jefferson's in-

nol

Harvard universi-

subscription

the

for

it

>

it-

way

to

explore the

to

Andre Michaux,
ani-t

Lew

ami

i-.

within

the noted

traveler,

and

ten

mile-

of

view-

i-

i-

for the enterprise could

he

"the purpose of extend-

charged
the

in--

United

the

a-

Lama

Virginia,

home
were

which was

animal

it

i-

also to

history,"

mammoth
to

Irani

or Paca of Peru,

is

your

in-

whether
found in

those part- of tin- continent."

Whatever it- motive, the French government
interfered with the undertaking by
charging Michaux with a mission rela'" 'I
icupation of Louisiana.
Later the French minister canceled the

appointment.

Ten years afterward

commerce

which

of

understand a- legislative -auc-

The

hill was passed.

Meriwether Lewis, who wa-

private

Jefferson,

secretary

whom

by

he

pointed captain of the

I

accom-

1"

for

two

President

had been apregiment of

first

wa- eager
the adventurous journey.
infantry, an.

undertake

to

"()f courage

undaunted.** Mr. Jefferson wrote of

him. "possessing a firmness and perseverance of purpose which nothing hut
impossibilities could divert from
rection,

careful

a-

father

of

it- di-

those

committed to hi- charge, yet steady in

the maintenance of order and discipline, intimate with the Indian charac-

customs, and principle-

ter,

to

the hunting

habituated

guarded by exact
observation of the vegetables am! animal- of In- own count ry against Losing
time ill the description of objects already

possessed

liberal, of

Jefferson, then

the

President

the

id'

Jefferson's

recommended

States,"

year-

told, "that of the

part icularly

quiries,

of

to

external

Meriwether

Jeffersonian care of detail-.

head

The necessary

with jealousy."

it

appropriation

been

of instructions,

the

Michaux

a literary pursuit,"
thus
advanced in his plan to persuade
Congress "would not he disposed to

pany Michaux. had now

discloses hi- interest in natural history

"Under

other literary pur-

French bot-

chosen to make the westward journey.

The letter
drawn with

/'<//

<///</

ing this as

raised.

youth of nineteen, who lived

,-i

Albemarle County,

in

he

to

ake
other

he

would

guineas of the amount

".

Pacific.

poses" M r. Jefferson contended. "Thi

nation claiming the territory, regard-

tion.

thousand

the

Mis-

knowledge by undertaking voyages of

became

for

afforded

encountered great
enlarge the boundaries of

t"

discovery,

explorat inn of the West, and personally

responsible

President
it

source and thence

to

expense

the

longress, in a confidential

civilized nation- have

regarded

be

was un-

ribes

opportunity

tin-

propose to

message,

way i" explore the western pari of the

North American continent. Hi> itinerary was to take him through St. Pel
burg to Kamchatka and thence to
\ otka Sound. Ledyard's arresl by the

I'm ian government, which

to

ndian
houses with he
der consideration and

souri

the undertaking as impracticable, ended

not

ought

In L803 the cont inudelayed longer.

ance of the act for establishing rading

and "of some science," and the

greal American soon had him on the
ius"

409

fidelity

to

life,

honest, disinterested,

-mind understanding, and a

truth SO scrupulous that

NATURAL HISTORY

no

whatever he should report would be as

if soon by ourselves with all

certain as

these qualifications as if selected

implanted by nature

in

this express purpose,

and

one body for

could have no

hesitation in confiding the enterprise to

To fill up the measure desired,

wauled nothing but a. greater familiarity with the technical language
of the natural sciences, and readiness in
him.
he

the astronomical observations necessary

for

the geography

his

of

route.

To

acquire these he repaired immediately

Philadelphia, and placed himself
to
under the tutorage of the distinguished
professors of that place."

With Lewis Mr. Jefferson associated

William Clark, a brother of George
Eogers Clark, the Hannibal of the
West. and, like him, a born leader of
men, a soldier and an expert in woodcraft and in knowledge of Indian char1

The other members of the party

were fourteen United States soldiers,

acter.

nine volunteers, Clark's colored valet

(York), and an interpreter and his In-

The Lewis and Clark Expedition was

with vast results,
whose characterization transcends the
high

adventure

scope of a sketch.

An

abundant and

has resulted, and

will be increased. The first installment
as was approof the story was written
thrilling

literature

priate

by Mr.

Jefferson in his message

"communicating discoveries made

exploring the Missouri,

Red

river,

in

and

Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark."

1

larly

scant, as in the case of Clark's

elder brother, George Eogers Clark.

The members of the exploring party

were the first white men to traverse the
region now mapped as the states of
Nebraska, North and South Dakota,
Montana, Idaho, Washington and Oregon.
Meriwether Lewis, the leader,
who contributed to our knowledge of
the customs, manners, and languages of
the American Indians, has had until

my

information goes,
In Lewis
County, Tennessee, "in the midst of
wild and romantic scenery, surrounded
only by the native growth of the forest
and where but few travelers pass, there
stands a gray stone monument composed of native rock, with a shaft of
limestone in imitation of a giant of the
forest untimely broken, " the tribute of
recently, so far as

a single visible memorial.

General Assembly of Tennessee

rendered to Meriwether Lewis in 1848. 2

the

Another memorial

is

now on

the eve

of inauguration in Charlottesville, Vir-

dian wife.
a

While the record in hooks is ample, in

marble and bronze it has been singu-

George Rogers Clark, born in Virginia

in 1752,

won fame as so'.dier, surveyor, and Indian fighter.

He was known as the conqueror of the large area
northwest of the Ohio River, which was practically
reclaimed from the warlike Indian tribes by him.
He died in Kentucky February 18. 1818, and lies
buried in an unmarked grave in Louisville.

ginia, the home town of Lewis until

he enlisted in the army at the time of
the Pennsylvania whiskey insurrection.
This monument, the work of Charles
Keck, of New York, is a group in
bronze, and commemorates the moment
when Lewis and Clark had their first
They stand at
view of the Pacific.
gaze, with Sacajawea. the squaw guide
and only woman of the party, bending
The
forward, intent on the scene.
group is the gift of Paul Goodloe McIntire, of Charlottesville.
=

Since writing this

have been informed

of

to Lewis and Clark in Portland. Oregon, but I have not been able to obtain facts relative to the artist or to the details of its erection.

monument

War

Impressions of French Bird Life

LUDLOW

By

Member

of

the

"ART
for

with old friends in the bird world, the

hope of acquiring new ones, and the
possibility of observing the effects ol

The

France

in

fad aboul the birds of

impresses the traveler is

firs1

France thai

hearts of the people.

are typical win, Hand

thrushes

In

shy

so

especially,

France they
the two

birds,

time-

at

observe

to

that they are aboul as easy

as a field mouse.

England ha- frequently been likened

In the same spirit
park.
a va-t
France could be likened to a huge wheat
tield oi- a vegetable garden neatly diinto little squares, hedges doing
\ ided

t<>

duty for fence-. All western, northern,

and central France is under a nearly
maximum amount of cultivation, ami

war upon them.

Conditions for Bird Life

S C

American Ornithologists' Union

from very obvious reasons

wanting to be in France
l
during the war. the \\ riter had
long been interested in French bird life,
owing i" former extended travel in thai
country, so thai there was the addidesire to renew acquaintance
tional

GRI

tin'

pea-ant-

each

cling

patch of hind with

hi-

to

little

passionate devo-

characteristic of

any

tion which

given area, coupled with the extraordi-

the people.

nary abundance of individuals of some

from any given town in an efforl to

reach really good count ry, oever _
All tempt ing patches of woodthere.

the

number

small

of

species

in

ami the equally marked scarcity

This is easily accounted for.
of others.
n country settled a- long as France
has been, the adaptive power of any
given species t" a changing environspecies

1)

severity.

any
tesl

been

has

meiit

<>l>\

It

i-

with

tested

ious, therefore, that

successfully

species

merciless

passing

this

has flourished in proportion, while

musl be
soughl for in game preserves, governland-, and
nt
such more
foresl
remote sections of country a- have
remained
comparatively
unaltered
through the centuries.
Another factor ha- served onh to ac-

the

species

failed

has

that

centuate tin- process of elimination.

France,

whether legally or otherwise,

almosl every bird

leasl

pasl

ha-

and

ii

i-

abundant,

many

game

game during

up

t<>

very

follows, therefore, thai

ureat

In

are

An

parison can here he

very long

recently.
birds,

remarkably

cases.

bird, or at

It

although
shy

in

interesting com-

made with

condi-

England, where the

thrush, blackbird, and robin redbreasl
are familiar garden birds dear in the
tions

in

a salient

is

The

bird lover, starting out

the distance turn out to he pri-

land

in

vate

parks w

ith

fence around

high

them, or governmenl forets,

ond or third growth, all
planted

same

the

at

besl sec-

a1

time,

the

trees

of

equal

height, ami so close together as to be

which

through

impenetrable,

almosl

the peasants are constantly wandering,

plucking the dead twigs from the

shrubs ami picking up windfalls in a
pathetic efforl to reduce their fuel expensi

hawkbrightly
well

a.-

is

it

ami

birds

colored
all

surprising that

not

and

woodpeckers,
are

the

scarce,

as

woodland species of retiring

habits.

The

scarcity of large rivers ami the

canalization
Mile-

have

of

nearly

made

all

all

the -mailer

water birds

nor-

mally occurring inland very local. To

make a broad statement, water birds
are relatively much more abundanl
along the coasts than in the United
States,

gards

merous

ami are -career inland.

land

birds,

they

are

As

mosl

specifically in southern

re-

nu-

France,
411

NATURAL HISTORY

412

mosi abundant individually in western

France, and scarcest in eastern France.

The migration phenomenon is most

marked along the coasts, and especially
Eastern
the delta of the Rhone.
France is much more broken in character, with a large proportion of woodAs a
land, and a much colder winter.
in

many

result,

of the rarer local species

very fair

occur here, so that

summer

can

residents

he

number

without, however, any great

individuals.

of
of

Water birds are uniformly

scarce even in migration.

bird

list

obtained,

life is relatively

The winter

While most of the families of birds

in France are the same as in the United
States, naturally enough the species are
In fact, the little bank swaldifferent.
low has the unique distinction of being
the only small land bird which is absolutely identical in the two continents.
Even where the families are cpiite distinct, as the flycatchers and the oriole,
is

Even so. I feel quite conits cousins.

vinced that rooks alone are more numerous than crows in this country. An
old castle, a

cliff,

or a cathedral spire

sure to provide a

pretty

home

is

for a

Should the given

some high mountains,
such as the Alps, it would be possible
to add the raven, a chough and a nut-

colony of jackdaws.
locality include

cracker.

To

those accustomed to our somber

little

chickadee, the European titmice

very poor.

The Birds of France and of America

there

and dunes along the seashore. In the

crow occurs with the
rook, while in winter the northern
hooded crow with a gray mantle joins

fields the carrion

furnish another surprise.

Five species
cannot be missed by the observer almost
anywhere in France, while two others
are possibilities.

Among

the five com-

mon

ones some are by no means content

with

a staid

blue,

seems

and Quaker-like garb, and

and yellow titmouse
remarkable to American

green,

cpiite

until extreme familiarity breeds

eyes,

contempt.

often a surprising superficial

third notable feature of the land-

abundance of the wood

resemblance in appearance and habits.

One group, at least, of the European
wa riders, reminds one of our own puzzling Vermivoras; indeed, the chiff chaff
could do duty very well as an orange-

spicuous white wing patches a true

pigeon (Columba) with a short, square
tail.
Considering its conspicuousness

crowned warbler. In migration time

mixed flocks of birds roam over the

it

countryside just as
kinglets, warblers,

in

this

country:

and titmice in the

woods; buntings replacing sparrows in

the fields, and swallows overhead. The
wealth of species

is,

however, entirely

lacking.

But the greatest outstanding impression

is

the difference in the relative

representation of the same families of

birds.

The crow family is the best illusOne can count on blue jays in

tration.

the woods and crows in the fields almost anywhere in New York or New
England. The European jay and the

rook may appropriately he regarded as

homologues.
But magpies are absolutely everywhere, even in salt marshes

scape

is

the

pigeon, a large blue-gray bird with con-

and the fact that it must be good to eat,

is certainly amazing how it manages

to exist in such

numbers in

so settled

a country.

wariness

is

for out

in

one good
the open

reason at

Its
least,

country I have never been able to get

within gunshot range of it. Where the
chances for persecution are absolutely
eliminated, however, it is quick to
seize the opportunity; and today it is
a common bird even in the smaller gardens of Paris, such as the Tuileries and
In the late fall
the Pare Monceaux.

and early winter, especially in places

where food is abundant, it gathers in
large flocks, and a flight of several hundred birds streaming across the fields in
the crispness of

dawn

sight in the bird world.

is

a very fine

WAR IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH

War Study

.1

made

of Birds in

also

Circumstances prevented any indularrived at

gence of m\ hobby until
Ihaumont, the American Greal EeadThe
September 1.
quarters, aboul

it.-

here

succession

is

of

steep

clad with evergreen and decidu-

hills,

ous woods with open valleys between.

The town is on the top of one of these

long

To

hills.

while,

land,

in

Manic

infant

the south

the

open farm

is

below,

valley

the

flows peacefully through

The buildings occumeadows.

Americans were at the end

green

pied by the

which strikingly rescinUe

notes,

wire

skylarks

an

with

occasional

tree

<

and

about,

flying

of

phrase

their

wandered
and linnet-,

roldfinches

looking for thistle-,

pipit-

the fields

In

restlessly

matchless song.
about

not

eye.-

his

general color, hul

ii>

those of our yellow lens.

country

American rub

the

only because of

Eastern France

MM

LIFE

HI HI*

buntings were

yellow

constantly rising from the ground and

dashing off in all directions. The latter

is one of the few common birds of Kurope with

however,

an

dash of brighl color.

i-.

It

an-

constantly

alarmist,

noying the ornithologist by it.- strident

chirp of alarm from lie nearest bush or
t

of
a

long boulevard bordered with trees,

and a park. Swalhouse martins flew up and

few small gardens,

lows and

down

the

streets.

telegraph wire, continued long after

imaginary danger

trill

in

sang

Chaffinches
the park, and

it-

h- song

mice of four kinds wandered through

the gardens.

In the pine

slope of the hills were

titmice and kinglets.

<

Is

mixed

on the

flocks of

Ireepers plodded

patiently up the trunk-, and tiny wrens

world

for all the

like

our w inter wren,

and scolded among the wind-

bobbed
falls.
I

"\\

11

in

the river valley itself, jays

squawked and magpies chuckled. Rooks

and carrion crovi - \'^A in the meadows
wood pigeons or stockdoves occasionally
crossed high overhead, and over the hilltops soared the buzzard, screaming very

much like our own red-shouldered

hawk. The fishing rights of the river
were ami' ably di\ ided between a pair
dipper-

of

and

some kingfishers, the

which

so

much

gave

a- a

sharp

In all about
ity.
were seen around
>n

Ictober

fully in the rushes.

tin'

'-anal

In the

the green

shade trees

woodpecker

incon-

species of birds

Ihaumont.

the writer was -cut in

2,

truck to the Vosges sector to deliver

some

dispatches

full

to

divisional

head-

The autumn migration was

quarters.
in

fifty
(

swing

and birds of

this time,

at

various kind- roamed over the country

in

magpies, rook-, and

were everj where, and the
crow of the season was

Jays,

flocks.

carrion crow

hooded

Larks,

chaffinches,

served

and
few

every

starlings,

buntings,

goldfinches

wen- ob-

Very few
however, and onlj
was seen, the very

minutes.

we

along

found the

ami yellow striped head stuck

down,

however, to
search for humbler food on the hank-.
while tip' sedge warbler nested peace-

rill,

gruously enough on a dingy body, and

with an apparently colorless personal-

one house martin

last of the d\ ing year as

permitted,

to

black, green

squeaks by way of relieving it> feelings.

The gray and the white wagtails, with
long tail- constantly going up and

were

fails

little hii of bread and

Occasionally with the

rarer cirl bunting, with

first

ream like nothing

..iinie bumblebee, and

monotonous

common yellow-hammer was

noted.

-i

"A

ch-e-e-s-e."

latter a tiny feathered beauty, turquoise

ii

as

imEnglish country folk claim that

the bird says,

blue and chest nut. u hich darted up and

d'.u

he

make

specie- to

practice

incessant

prove.

no

-low

i- a

ami acting

past,

common

a signal to less
oil',

their simple

is

-wallow- vvere

proceeded

higher

and

left,

east

the

it

proved.

hills

\-

became

until we plunged
Vosges Mountain-, rising
and twisting through the spruce forests
he headqua rters of one of
to Saint-1 Me.

higher

fairly into the

NATURAL HISTORY

11

he divisions.

with

plain

the

The town
German

tops of the hills

was

in plain sighl

flaged, but, even so.

spicuous

in

ruins, so

prised

when

an open
on

the

little

valley road

one

Pell

quite con-

The country had

ruck.

every house was

was not particularly sur-

been heavily shelled

in

in

Lines

more than a
which
was carefully camou-

The

kilometer away.

is

did

nol

note

single

Saint-Die itself was partly in

ruins, and was considered an unhealthful spot due to constant bombing, shelling, and gassing the Las1 apparently
bird.

the

favorite

method

of

annoyance.

Everybody carried a gas mask at all

and had picked a cellar into
which to retire rapidly when a yearning
for seclusion seized him. It was astontimes,

the

hills

to

the

northwest.

There.

where the flower of young French manhood had died by the tens of thousands, there was nothing but a succesThe trenches were
sion of shell holes.
partly fallen in, the barbed wire entanglements were just as they had keen
left at the last triumphant advance, and
here and there a few Masted tree trunks
Vegetal ion even
did duty for a wood.
was scant. A kestrel hovered over the
dreary

waste,

flock

of

goldfinches

twittered around a thistle, and a great

gray shrike had taken up his quarters

in a barbed wire entanglement.
As dusk fell we descended into a
steep little valley to the ruined village
of Fremoneville,

night in

the

and elected

one of the

to spend
few houses

That

ishing, therefore, to see the full quota

which

house sparrows quarreling on the

roof tops, the swallows flying up and

night the artillery

down

Allied heavy guns were concealed in the

of

the

main

street.

They had no

gas masks, and it is hardly likely that

they descended to cellars.
Just what

they did was a mystery.

ered,

As dusk gath-

the guns began to thunder and

rumble a scant mile away. In the garden of the old chateau which did duty
as Headquarters, was a mountain ash
Here by the
tree laden with fruit.
light of the setting sun, with the air
pulsating with sound, three beautiful
bullfinches were peacefully feeding on
the crimson berries, heedless of three
Fokkers which droned directly overhead.
Unperturbed and unhurried
they finished their meal, and then dis-

appeared in the gathering gloom, leaving behind an impression so strong by

its sharp contrast that it is graven
deeply on my memory.
The end of October I was ordered to

Army Sector. The hills northwest of Verdun had been selected as an

excellent sending station for a certain
type of balloon, and I was sent there on

the First

Xovember

2 to start a station.

As we

approached Verdun the country appeared more and more wrecked until it
could be described as totallv ruined in

to

intensity

the

bills

boasted of a roof.

slid

along

south of

fire at

of

the front rose

drum

fire.

The

lying a mile or two

These joined merrily in

a line

us.

morning
The approach

the chorus. sO that in the early

the ground fairly shook.
of

dawn brought

brief cat nap.

and

quiet,
T

permitting a

was astonished

to

wren singing in the rafters near

woke up. A bird hunt in this
by, as
ruined village and its outskirts started
immediately. Wrens were common, the
smashed roofs and torn rafters furnishing them an abundance of hiding places
among which they ducked and bobbed.
Robin redbreasts were also common,
singing sweetly in every bush that remained. Along the little brook flowing
through the village was a solitary white
wagtail, and a great tit kept it some sort
of company in a willow bush near by.
House sparrows were chattering around
the church, and a flock of tree sparrows
were feeding around the horse pond.
hear

Add

flock of rooks flying past over-

head and
a

pair of yellow buntings in

held just outside the village, and

we

have quite a list for such a locality.

Later on a few scattered shells burst
on a hillside about a quarter of a mile

WAR IMPRESSIONS OF FRENCH BIRD LIFE

away,
paid

which the birds

t"

Somewhat

the

later

rudely interrupted

which

shell

illage

he

illage.

hospital on

field

The scream

bush.

A second
plumped

back into our respective

minute- after the

particular

this

had fallen

shell

lasl

ily

Five

rel reats.

was singing
the top branches of its

from

sweetly

of the nexl shell was

the signal for hoi h of us to dive hasl

hum was

bird

1-inch high explosive,

the scream of

l>\

near

Eel]

the outskirts of
shell,

the

in

the slightesl attention.

ii"!

LI

bush, joined

l>\

redbreasl

several other- in

vari-

through the roof of the church. This

was the la>t straw for the sparrows of
both species, which flew away in a

ous parts of the village, in marked contrast with the solemn-faced and quiel

mixed flock protesting harshly, their

example being followed by the wagtail
which departed in a differenl direction.
The w rens and the redbreasts had all
disappeared, and my men and
soughl

scattered

the

bird

men who emerged some^

The

of

kepi

shells

hour. Inn after

apparent

the

dugout.

nearesl

falling

for

an

aboul

became
they were coming with
shorl while

thai

clocklike regularity ever]

it

four or

five

So after each bursl

would
go to the door of the dugoul to lookaround and see what new damage had
minutes.

been done.

me was a bush on each

which masonry was piled in such

Righl opposite
side of

way thai down among the roots there

was quite a little pit, an excellent re-

from

treat

bird's

point

of

robin redbreasl had Keen singing

bush

morning, and

all

discover

in this

was pleased

to

anion-- the roots, apparently

it

and

alive

iew.

well, in spite of the fact that

high-powered -hell had bursl only a

hundred feel away.
me mighl think
that the concussion alone would have
a

<

killed

small

so

enough jar
in--

bird, il

human

i-

frame.

had

Know-

more aboul shells than the

would appear immediately after

possibly

bird,

the

to the

piece

lasl

down

The

of

masonry had

fallen

down among

bird would he

damage done,

the

and the wounded who Heeded

immediate at tent ion.
i>. of course, obvious that a small
ha- an infinitely better chance of

It

being

not
a

man.

by

hit
f.

fragmenl than

-hell

therefore,

resistance to

it-

shell-shock and concussion

equal to thai of

were about

man we would have

partial explanation of the existence of

bird
it

life

in

the

war

/.one.

Although

highly improbable that

i>

bird

is

equally resistant, nevertheless we musl

not overlook that besl of prevenl ives, a

And

harrier.
that

here

i-

it

again

ol,\

tree trunk, a brick, or a

ious

rafter,

would serve a- an excellenl deflector of

concussion and sound waves for a bird
crouched behind it. whereas the objects

mentioned would
man.

totally

fail

to

help a

After all. the account-, chiefly by

English observers, of the existence of
bird life in the war /one are too well
substantiated to he questioned.
Some
explanation m u-t he forthcoming, and
is

probably along the

lines

indicated

Perhaps, too. the extraordinary

powers of adaptability which account

above.

for

the existence of

Prance,

from

not

an aid

from

lives lo-t.

the roots,

>till a- a mouse, and would

Bhow any signs of life for aboul a
minute, when it would begin to workup very cant iously toward he top of the

hat later

over the hillside

all

take stock of the

to

seclusion

dugouts

to

countr}

totally

birds

in

altered

original

it-

in

condil ion. are again

helping any given individual

endure

perience

common
so

;|-

-o

utterly

-hell-lire.

abnormal an ex-

Conserving Our Natural Resources of Sugar

By

E. F.

PHILLIPS

Apiculturist, United States

THE

people of the United States

Department of Agriculture

but

small,

the

number

flowers in a year exceeds the

are produced within the boundaries of

all

the United States several thousand tons

of cane sugar and about twice as much

from the sugar

beet.

From our

out-

more than the

total sugar produced on the mainland
and we also import great quantities
from other countries. We go to much
trouble and expense to get this sugar
supply and if the quantity is reduced,
as it was during the war, we feel that
lying islands

it

is

we

get

There is another source of sugar

supply which the people of the United
The
sadly
neglected.
States have
amount of nectar secreted by the multitude of flowers is large beyond our
This is secreted thai
comprehension.
insects and other pollinizing agents

may

be attracted to bring about the

cross pollination of the flowers, and to
this end this sweet liquid is poured out

The per cent

of sugar in this

nectar varies in the different species of

flowers and is also influenced by en-

vironmental factors.
it

is

Whether or not
amount of

a thick solution, the

sugar in each individual flower at any

one moment of time is exceedingly
416

is

tinue to secrete nectar for some time,

so that it is quite conservative to state

that the total sugar secreted by these

amount

of

sugars annually consumed by the

American people. If only we could get
it

war and rumors

all,

of

war would

not affect our sugar markets

Unless collected, however, this nectar, from its very nature, soon disappears as the flowers wither, and
to

human

Any method

use.

is

lost

for con-

serving a portion of this abundant resource must be through some agency

that

ever on the alert for each fresh

is

Some

supply.

a great hardship.

freely.

flowers

secreting

of

stupendous, and they con-

consume enormous quantities of

sugar made from cane and sugar
beets, the average individual consumption during times of plenty being more
There
than eighty pounds annually.

of the flowers which se-

crete nectar are of such size and shape

that only birds or moths can reach this

nectar,

man

and what they

use.

Then

get

is

lost to

hu-

there are thousands of

which seek out the necimmediate use, and while

species of insects
tar for their

many

of these species are economically

valuable,

Of

all

man

does not get the sugar.

these nectar-seeking species,

the honeybee alone

used by

man

as

is

capable of being

an instrument for

col-

some of this vast sugar supply

in such form that it can lie used as human food. In spite of all that we can
do, most of this sugar will be lost, but
far more of it might be saved if this
insect could be put more widely into

lecting

CONSERVING
the sen ice for which

instincts

its

colony organization so well

these iisefu]

tit

eannol

insects

NATURAL RESOURCES OF SUGAR

"11!

it.

and
Even

be consid-

from the truth

far
total

assume

to

good colony of bees

four hundred

is

ered as examples of brillianl efficiencj

pounds during the entire

when

will

from man's

iewed solely

point of new, for they use

own purpose Ear more than

selfish

for

their
bee-

the

the

that

honey used by

unit of ripened

41

This

year.

vary enormously, for in lean years

many young and

the bees do not rear so

thus their consumption more nearly

tit>

keeper can take away. There are proaboul

250,000,
however,
duced,

their income, while in the

pounds of honey annually

as the bee-

care, they carry on brood-rearing to the

keeping industry is now developed.

The worker bees gather the nectar,

capacity of the queen, the colonies he-

take

to the

it

remove the excess

hive,

nectar,

anally

store

it

use honey, as

They

product, for their

we

own

for

future

call

the finisbfed

food, to

use.

the

Assuming, then,
have

throughout the

plus"

summer

secreted

nol

season

mosl

in

places,

but

comes periodically with the blooming of

the

various

being

periods

Then

in

lowers,

of

species

honey-flows.

the

called

these

winter, after the

first

killing

frost, there is the Long period during

which the adult bees must be fed, for
the honeybee is unique among insects
of the temperate /one in that it passes
the winter as an adult and si ill does nol

honey used by an
average colony of bees to maintain its
existence during the year is large. The
strength of the colony varies from

amount

I'i

of

about 15,000 individuals

of

again

the close of

at

perhaps 100,
prosperity ami then

winter

may

at

decreases a-

the peak

number

winter approaches.
he

These bees musl

the

not

fed,

only as

adult- hut as larvae, and hej use great

quantities of food during the period of
bee larva
era]

When we

may

increase

hundred per

that there m;i\

realize that

cent in 2

he

weight

in

.'.'..iiiiii

sei

a
-

hour-, and

of these hun-

gry larvae in the hive at one time, i1

will he clear that the colonj musl maintain a

plentiful

family needs.

larder to care for the

It

will,

perhaps, not he

every colony must

pounds,

is

it

an\ honey which the beekeeper

i-

human

for

usually called "surbeekeepers and this is literally

l\

is

name.

correct

it.-

The honey removed

use

In years of plenty

much

the task'Of finding SO

nectar

an

is

easy one and under such circumstances

there

surplus

i>

for

every

beekeeper.

Unfortunately in mosl seasons nature

doe- not supply this SUgar SO freely.
and only the beekeepers who manage
t

hew

bees properly gel

surplus.

It

is

purpose of this article to tell

what the beekeeper may do to increasi
not

he

amount

of

honey gathered by the

for this has been so well cov-

colonies,

and it i- so long a
musl pass on to the
broader problem of planning to gel
more nectar by the promotion of the

ered in

lice

literature

we

that

-i<>r\

Perhaps,

industry.

in

the average sea-

-on ami with the fairly good beekeeper

amount

the

of surplus honey

for each

colon} will scarcely exceed fifty pounds.

The honey removed

development.

the sake of a

for

hundred

take away.

the

hibernate.

four

its

-till

clear that this musl he gathered before

there

is

given the proper room and

if

definite figure, that

developing brood, and to provide stores

for periods of the year w hen not enough
nectar is available to keep them in food.

Nectar

years of

come stronger, and they gather

more nectar.

moisture, change the sugar chemically,

and

fat

represents,
oid\

according

for
to

human
our

use

figures,

one ninth of the nectar gathered

In such an average season

by the bees.
an apiary of one hundred colonic- may

gather nectar equivalent to -j-.''., tons

of honey, whereas the honey crop, or
taken

that

he

1 1

_.

off

by

tons.

the

beekeeper,

That the worker

from one hundred colonies can

will
I

find nee

NATURAL

418

give

sonic

produce 22 ]

to

tar sufficient

honey within

idea

>

of sugar at

where
would

the

stupendous

the

of

amounl

sec

tons of

radius of two miles will

hand

in

region

individual
unsuspecting
Of
no sugar production.

course the bees arc not able

gel

fco

many

surplus

may

colonies

obtained.

is

Prom

fifty

really

It

with

kept

be

where more than

profit or

appeal-

where more than one

locations

hundred

There are

it.

pound
would

study of these figures

that the chief end of nature

is

pour

to

beekeeper

invests

one

his

in

busi-

major

the

he Leaves out

1'

ness.

money

of

part

and nine parts of brains

in-

vestment, failure is sure to follow, and

this most necessary article is not on
sale by the dealers in hives.

The

all

the nectar during rapid secretion, and

places there are not enough
in most

bees to get one tenth of

IIISToin'

in

the

brighl side of the picture

even

is

seen

throughout

nercial apiaries

though their numwhere the bees

are properly housed in good hives,
where swarming is controlled, where

the country

ber he relatively small

the bees are given just the right

amount

room for storage at just the right

time, and where they receive adequate
The
protection and care in winter.
of

number

out sugar syrup.

In the face of these

Tacts

many

grettable that so
the United States

Tail

it

is

re-

beekeepers in

to get even the

of such apiaries is increasing

an encouraging manner throughout
the country, hut there is still room for
more. Beekeepers who take the proper
in

which belongs to
There are parts of the United
States where nearly 90 per cent of all

care of their bees receive an adequate

colonies of bees are kept in hollow logs

available crop,

combs canThere are few places

where the box hive is not found and

to study

small

percentage

them.

or plain boxes, in which the

not he handled.

probably one third of the bees of the

country are so housed. Such beekeeping is almost as bad as no beekeeping
at all, for bees in such hives cannot be
handled and, without the contribution

made by an

intelligent beekeeper, the

surplus honey of a colony

is

usually ex-

In this case both the

ceedingly small.

equipment and the management

are

It is not

enough

for

the

to

buy good

greater

hives.

number

of

those beekeepers

who have

such hives

get their full share of

the crop.

who

beekeeper
it

may

fail to

By

their bees in

failing to give the bees

proper attention during the winter, by

providing insufficient room for storage
of honey (a mistake which is well-nigh
impossible to understand and yet one
which is most common), and by failure
to control swarming, the crop is often
reduced one half or more. The equipment is good hut the management is
poor.
It is a common saying that the

it

gets

is

all

only
the

safely be stated

honey crop is chiefly traceable

and care. Many beekeepers in
almost all parts of the country receive
a good living from their bees and have
incomes equal to those of the good
farmers in other lines of agriculture,
resulting from the proper directing of
the energy of the bees.
As it is only the good beekeeper who
that th<'

much

helps the bees to conserve

vast sugar supply of

made

earlier,

it

will

is

most

desirable

of the

which mention was

he clear that from

the standpoint of national

poor.

however,

return for their labor and. as

the

to

economy

it

encourage more

such beekeepers to go into the business.

It will

be equally clear that

it

is a

detri-

have those take up the business

who will not or cannot make the major
investment that of brains. We do not

ment

to

want

in

the

bee

those

who

is little

dan-

business

have no brains, but there

The class which

ger from that class.
may do actual harm, and which is perhaps the greatest handicap to beekeeping as an industry, consists of those

who have the necessary brains but who

do not intend to make the investment.

CONSERVING OUR NATURAL RESOURCES OF SUGAR

Obviously,

refer to those

work

thai "bees

owning

few

granted
nothing and board

colonies of bees, w ho take

for

for

ii

who

territory
occupy
which mighl better be occupied by commercial beekeepers, who, through lack

themselves/'

of care, often allow

their bees to be a

menace

bees

to

the

nil

them

about

through the dissemination of disease

in short, who desire to be merely amateur

The amateur

beekeepers.

bee-

have

;i

may

way that
community

that

making an

are

induce more people

to

pi take

up

beekeeping a- their vocation, and are

more or less openly discouraging tin'

amateur.

We

who goes
day make

in

start

-mall one.

realize that everyone

beekeeping must one
the -tart, and usually this

i.-

about

beekeeping of the country. He ma} gel

inn- for his own use
little honey at
and, if he has
little more than he

State-

United

the

in

effort

few colonies,

i-

ing to build up the beekeeping indust ry

group

rarely of benefit to the

it

the agencies which are honestly try-

all

keeper, usually the suburbanite with a

is

why

ried to indicate

L9

all

lor

<

amateur-

of

Toil. (Kin

of the great

Mil

there

now

are

must come the

professional beekeepers of tomorrow.
There is, however, an adequate supply
of material on which to work in trying
of

them

few

make better beekeepers of those who

now have bees, ami
i- unnecessarv to
try to make more beekeepers.
A- time
goes on. some of those who now make
a business of beekeeping may he driven

oi

out by the inroads of bee disease, unless

beekeeping, would study his bees, ami

they are able to invest enough brains to

needs, he

sell

in

it

he >poil> the market

such
hi-

in

;i

honey produced by a
beekeeper who makes his living through
the

for

sale

the bees.

"I'

the beekeeper with

colonies would

study the problems

throughout the work that

enthusiasm with which he began, he
w ould he a hel|> and uol a hindrance to
the development of beekeeping.
really retain

'The <>nl\ class of beekeepers who do

more harm than the amateurs is that
group usually spoken of in beekeeping

Then

i-

"farmer-beekeepers/
no reason why a good farmer
the

a-

circles

cannol he

for he

beekeeper,

to make the investment

money and brains. The great

able

i-

that

demand

just

at

the

ime

i-

of both
difficulty

hen the bees

attention, the general

farmer

busy with other work.

Usually the bees hack in the orchard
are neglected from one year to the next,
an easy prey to disease, never properly
i-

exceedingly

)iaeked

I'm'

the owner.

winter, and of do profit to

Whenever you

see

lew

to

it

make
not

make

stated,

this invest

We will want some improvement in he personnel of beekeeping, and it may well he that there arc
persons who now know nothing about
bees w ho might make our very best
t

The

keepers.

age amateur
result,

i-

no profit here,

'Hose hi- religion" in trying to induce

the ,,w ner to dean no the wreckage.

aver-

too great to run and. as

i-

almost

in

Beekeeping offers opportunity a- a

commercial enterprise for thousands of
people.
alert
The work of the beekeeper, while not

at

all

not so hard a- that of

for recreation

he sure that there

making an

risk of

every person engaged

helping beekeeping in this count r\
shudders a hit when anyone suggests
taking up bees.
a

unpainted hives or behind the barn in

sorts and conditions of boxes, von

may

before

for. as

brains from the

hive dealer.

of activity

and probably when the apian inspector

comes along for bee diseases he will

of our present

ment

hc\ cannot gei

colonies of bees back in the orchard in

all

Some

the fight.

beekeepers engaged commercially can-

the

ing

i-

brains.

sinecure,

other

lin

i-

there are abundant periods

ami study especially durand the return- are

w inter,

A- has been

:.

ment

many

stated, the

invest-

one part money and nine pan There i- no branch of agricul-

ture in which

proportion

to

lie

the

ret u

rn

is

financial

so large in

investment

NATURAL

120

beekeeping, but

as in

if

the

money

is

invested without putting in the Larger

invest incut, there is no hope of success.
The prospective beekeeper may be sure
thai

he

people
care

and

repaid for

To
have

be associated with good

work which demands such
study and he will be well
his work and study.

will

in

the pei-son
a

who fondly hopes

to

few colonies of bees just hack of

the two apple trees to the rear of the

suburban home, the best advice is to

buy any honey needed at the top of the

market, put money into W. S. S. instead of into bees and hives, and read
.Maeterlinck for the beekeeping experiIt will be found more profitable
ence.
than the plan which he has had in
mind. He may, if he wishes, still look
forward to the time when lie buys his
farm and can keep bees on that, but
most suburbanites do not buy the farms
The best
to which they look forward.

way

to

conserve

the

vast

sources of the United States

nectar reis

to leave

Til

STORY

still remain- one of the great joys

which have their origin in beekeeping;
Comb-honey
there is the honey to eat.
is of course a pure product just as
made by the bees and it is not glucose

there

in paraffin cells, as the

the ingenuity of the Connecticut

Extracted honey, that is,
Yankee.
honey in liquid form, separated from the
comb, is also pure for, since the passage
tray

Pure Food Act of 1906, honej

There is
is indeed rare.
probably no food product on the market more free from contamination than
of the

adulteration

either

comb

or extracted honey.

an assurance of

dietetic

chemical purity.

It

taste of fine honey.

Its beneficial

but the attractiveness of honey, the rea-

save

nectar-secreting

keeping or who may feel that this discussion has barred them from a pursuit
to which thev have looked forward.

prop-

and its value as a food for children and invalids are quite explainable,

erties

quite beyond words.

in bee-

and

together a group of English

words which describe adequately the

beekeepers, for they and they alone can

for us.

fitness

not possible to

is

string

son we eat

it

put in words

It is quite possible to

the production of honey to professional

For those who do not engage

sensational press

periodically asserts in an effort to por-

it.

lies in its flavor,

Each

flower

which

is

species of

gives

forth

supply of characteristic flavor so there

is

abundant variety and

each

taste.

It

is

flavor for

the nectar of the gods

and the very name

is

sweet.

It is a conservative estimate that the sugar secreted by the flowers of this country each year exceeds
amount of sugar consumed annually by the American people. Of all the nectar feeding insects,
however, the honeybee alone can be used by man for saving nature's vast output of sugar. Each colony
requires about 400 pounds for its own living, this leaves the fairly good beekeeper a surplus of about 15
pounds.
Hope for the industry lies in commercial apiaries, but only the thoroughly informed, experienced, "good beekeeper," should be encouraged to enter the work

the total

The

Especially th story of

evolution,

tin

By
in

from fish

bones around

ill,

EARLY
Cuvier.

ILLI

A M

the nineteenth cent ur\

the famous French com-

parative anatomist, and his col-

GREGO

ural
cnt

the

croco-

of

skull:-

and alligators there are four bones

around the orbits or eye sockets, and
that two of them respectively correspond in position t-o the lacrymal or
tear bone of the human skull, ami the
nthei- two to the jugal
malar) or cheek
bone.

that

in

tlie

fishes

huno around

same time
also

was noted

it

there

L818

in

Julius Victor Carus sought to identify

the human lacrymal with the firsi sub-

hone of fishes.
These identiby Cuvier and Carus were
further studied and accepted by Sir

orbital

tions

down

i"

1|

uf lower vertebrates,

the real homologue of the

mammalian

which was

human ami

lacrymal.

stages in the evolution of the eye-, nose,

tention

evolution, from

many

directions,

have closely ex-

amined tl
vidence cited h\ Gaupp,
and during the las! few years
have
studied the bones around the orbits in
all classes of recenl and extincl verteI

brates from fishes to

however, that

mammals.
conGaupp was miI

taken, and thai Cuvier and Carus were

Tin-

i- one of the conclusions

on the evolution of th,.
lacrymal bone of vertebrates, compris;i

upon the
man. of the bony

chiefly

fish to

around

the

or

orbits

eye

sockets.

the

In

earliesl

whole

the

fishlike

vertebrates

head

was covered with a

tough -kin surrounding the eyes, the
nose and the jaw- and covering the
roof of the skull and the region of the
gills.

of

In the stage represented by

our series

already acquired
preserved

tough

Fig.

had
bony base which is

tin-

many

in

Devonian and

-kin

reporl

Continued from

later

ancient

fishes

ages and

i.-

of
-till

retained

by the gar pike and other

form- of living fishes.
At that
time the eyes were surrounded by a

lowly

nil- of aboul live Hat skin-bones

the

respectively

prefrontal
the

(po.f),

named

(pf), the
postorbital

the jugal (/') and the lacrymal

These were grooved on the surface by a branch of the "lateral line"
</<).
i

i"

In the presenl article at-

centered

is

postfrontal

A- the problems thus raised ramify

right.

magazine
main

the

was the so-called "prefrontal" or front

Upper element of the ci |VI1 lofhi al

clude,

summarize

to

E.

llul-

largely based.

i>

endeavored

anatomists

later

our own time in L910, howGaupp, of Freiburg, casl serious doubl upon them, holding that it

in

article

and month.

Owen and

Richard
ever,

ring of

is

the orbits, ami

the

in

American Museum of NatEistory, and upon which the pres-

elements

About

which

figures,

published

In an earlier article in this

diles

he

shortly

letin of the

observed

in

of

R V

two hundred

ing aboul
will

mi,

socket

eyt

K.

Face

man, of th lacrymgl bone as

to

tin

league, the elder Geofifroy Saint-Hilaire,

that

Human

Evolution of the

/).

canal encircling the orbit.

Between
evolution

this

there

and the next stage of

a greal gap in the
is

palaeontological record.
lative

evidence

Bui the cumu-

of

comparative anatomy and embryology indicate- that

the oldesl know n four-footed animal-,
known on|\ from certain footprints in
the

Upper

>e\onian ami Lower

Joi RK m.,

<

tctober,

larbon-

1917
121

EIGHT STAGES
To show

x/it

'dally

lli<

volution "J

IN
tin

THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN HEAD

lacrymal

>/

'
'

tear" limn as one of the hunts around the eye socket

Stafft

tive

-Head

Devonian
the

bones of the
circumorbital

five

(After

Goodrich

Stage
most

S.

!'..

Head

~'

the

of

known

primitive

Seymouria, from

reptile,

the

of

showing

age.

primitive
series

of a primi-

Osteolepte,

fish,

Permian

Texas.

of

The primitive upper jawbone (ma;) is comparatively

slender and lies
below the lacry-

entirely

mal. which extends from

the

orbit

(After

Stage

the

to

S.

nostril

W. WiUiston)

Head

of

primitive

later

reptile.

Mycterosaurus, from the

Permian of Texas. The
mx) has
upper jawbone
(

grown up over
rymal /) and is

the

lac-

wide

in

contact with the nasal

Stage -/Head of
higher reptile, the

still

mam-

Ictidopsis

mal-like

Triassic

of

South

age,

The upper jawbone (mx) is still larger

and the whole head is
very mammal-like, except

Africa.

"N

the

that

frontal

pre-

reptilian

(/'/)

and postor-

bital (po) bones are

present

Stage .5 Head of

Vir-

opossum represent-

ginia

ing

still

the

primitive

mam-

The upper jawhas

now(mx)
bone
grown upward around
mals.

thus
lacrymal
(0
reaching the frontal (/).
the

The prefrontal and

orbital

bones

are

post-

no

longer present

In

all

eight

po, post orbital

eg, squamosal.

422

drawings the abbreviations are

/,

lacrymal;

n,

as follows: f, frontal;
nasal; mx, maxillary; pmx, premaxillary

/</.
;

/,

prefontal
po.f, postfrontal;
jugal (cheek); pa, parietal;
:

Stafft

Head

prim-

of a

Primate A otharctus
Eocene age, Wj oming.

iti\ e

pmx

of

The

lacrymal

pushed
wall

(I)

the

of

is

inner

the

tci

orbit.

new rim behind

the orbil

formed bj outgrowths
and
from the frontal </
jugal, j)
cheekl one
i-

Head

an

of

ma

Old World monke)

caque), showing tl

ward

direction

orbits,

the retreat

bone

lacrymal

the

of
of

the
the

to

inner wall of the orbit,

the formation of a bonj
partition behind the or
bit, the beginning of the
expansion of the brain
ase and of the shorteni

ing

the face

ot'

Head

showing

the

man,

of a

stage

final

The

on

lac-

rymal bone remains much

as it was in the preced
ige,
\

forward,
i^

the

greatlj

but

the

directed
the

ej es

wholly

brain

case

expanded and

face extremel>

shorl

ened and deepened

12J

SAT URAL HISTORY

424

iferous recks, were the descendants of

progressive "lobe-finned"

verj

eertaii]

begun

or rhipidistian fishes, which had

use their fore and hind

tn

paddles as

st

through the upgrowth of the

ricted

maxilla, which acquires a wide contact

with the nasal.

Here,

also,

we have

the beginning of the temporal fossa or

Limbs, crawling aboul

the margins of
swamps, and developing such

opening for the jaw muscles behind the

pools and

orbit.

incipient

lungs

found

are

as

creatures

transitional

the

Consequently

and

numerous

disappeared, along with

the gills themselves, so that in the old-

known four-footed animals (Stage

est

there

is

repre-

the Triassic age found in South Africa.

called the opercular series

(op, Stage 1)

i>

were

skin-bones covering the gill-chamber in

fishes

1)

sented by the mammal-like reptiles of

gills

the

stage (Stage

In these

probably used only in the larval aquatic

stage and gradually disappeared in the
adults.

The fourth

the

in

lungfishes of the present day.

a great notch at the back

In these wonderful saurians there

reptilian

around the eye

is

very mammal-like.

The upper jaw bone

much

is

larger

than in earlier stages and the lacrymal

is

>till

arch

and

of the skull on each side, representing

is

more

Age

temporal

fossa.

which was attained

half of the Mesozoic era

fifth stage,

in the latter

or

The zygomatic

restricted.

extremely mammal-like in form

so is the

The

the outer part of the primitive gill-

chamber.
Thus, after an interval of millions of
years during the emergence of the

is

mammalian and
characteristics.
The region

surprising mixture of

of Eeptiles,

is

preserved even at

the present time in the

opossum (Stage

stage bf this line of evolution, repre-

5), one of the most primitive of existing mammals. In this stage the upper
jaw bone (maxilla) has grown upward

sented by the reptiles and amphibians

around

four-footed vertebrates from fishes, the

rocks

reveal

to

us

the

second great

Coal Measures and succeeding

In these animals (Stage 2) we

of the
ages.

same ring of five bones around

the orbit which was first developed in
find the

the fishes, but

of this

series

now

the several elements

more

are

differentiated

one from the other. The lacrymal bone

(I),

at the lower front corner of the

orbit, is pierced

by

duct correspond-

ing to our tear duct, which

lieved

is

it

modified remnant

is

of

be-

the

The jugal (/') or

bone beneath the orbit now suggests
lateral

line canal.

changes

mammals

the nostril, and the maxilla

or tipper jaw

element which

is

Ik

me

is

slender

widely separated from

the nasal (n) by the lacrymal.

In the third stage (Stage 3), represented in certain reptiles from the Per-

mian

of

Texas,

the

lacrymal

is

re-

the

region

in

greatest

primitive

are the loss of the prefrontal,

very

ancient Primates from the Eocene of

Wyoming, here represented by of It a reThe lacrymal
ins osborni (Stage 6).

has

now

in

to

reptiles

this

now fully mammalian in form.

The sixth stage is found in the

At this
cheek bone of higher types.
stage the lacrymal extends from the
m.r)

in

which exposes the frontal, and of the

which makes the orbit
postorbital.
widely continuous with the temporal
fossa.
The stout zygomatic arch is

drawn

which is now
As compared with

lacrymal,

ancestral

the

the beginning of the zygomatic arch or

orbit

the

further restricted.

greatly

dwindled and with-

to the inner wall of the orbit as

many

existing Primates, this reduc-

tion and retreat within the orbit being

probably associated with the reduction

of the parts of the nasal cavity which

the lacrymal covers.

The

orbit

is

now

guarded in the rear by a bony rim,

which is. however, by no means the
same as that in reptiles (Stages 2-5),
since it is now formed, not by the

THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FACE

has been

bul

lost,

(po), which

bone

postorbital

original

by

new bony

out-

growth or postorbital process from the

frontal hone, which meets a similar
new extension from the jugal. At this
stage the face is somewhal shorter
than it was in primitive mammals and
reptiles,

eyes

the

bill

look

still

out-

The seventh
served

presents only an emphasis of the feature- already noted

Stage 7) in the
monkeys, and is already attained in the
higher anthropoid ape- see drawing on

in

stage (Stage 7)

is

pre-

the monkeys, especially those

These

eyes

advanced

have

tially the

same

dud

part-

played

from the temporal fossa by a new partition growing

out
from the above-mentioned postorbital process of the frontal and jugal
bones.
This greal change is associated
partly with the forward pointing of the
orbits, which also causes the lacrymal
bone to be pressed tightly against the

hone- following the

is

qow shul

off

The

inner wall of the eye.

large open-

the

by

first

loss

this evolution

the

opercular

loss

of

the gills;

secondly, by the development of a temporal fossa and of a zygomatic arch in

more efficienl
the
connection
with
functioning of the jaws; thirdly, by
the

forward shifting

obtain
final

better

vision;

by

the

shortened and deepened and the

expanded.
or human stage (Stage 8)

The

final

is

-i/t/

Thus
nian

fourthly,

in

fish

the course of

many

millions

has been refashioned into the

voluminous

brain

case

and

forward-

looking face of man.

as

on page 122)
'" Ash has

large

l>r;ii

11

,;!-.

young chimpanzee showing subhuman character

of the bones
[as, alisphenoid; /'. palatine; other abbreviations
higher
the
anthropoid apes, as in man, the lowly head of the
refashioned, during th< coursi of many millions of years, into the

especially the lacrymal

orbit,

Thus
1

ii

in

and the very

different

forward

Icmkim.'

and

lowly head of the Devo-

~u^y

Forepart of the skull of

the jaws

pmx

around the

to

by the

of

retraction

of year- the

is

the orbits

ei

expansion of the brain case

fifthly,

beneath the brain case.

face

larger.

in

qow between the lacrymal and the

upper jawbone or maxilla.
The bony
w hole brain case

si ill

of

ing of the lacrymal canal or tear duet

is

is

whole shows the dom-

series as a

inating

are essen-

lacrymal

e\,ept that the tear

The

is

as in the preceding stage

at

in-hit

look directly

enormously
expanded and the face greatly shortened and deepened. The position and

the primitive Primates in the fact thai

the

now

forward, the brain case

of the Old World, such as the

macaque.
widely beyond

The

this page).

characters of the

ward.

425

WEATHERED OUTPOSTS OF THE FOREST

Glassy spicules of ice and sharp unworn sand grains grind at the windward side of the trunks,
On the leeward side the trees put forth their toughened
sometimes" eating almost to the heart.
branches and needles. The limber pines stand alone and take the punishment of the winds in unprocannot live
their
neighbors,
the
spruces,
where
tecfced spots

426

atal divide in Colorado is one of the

tl
In the immediate vicinity of Longs Peak it feeds the Grand River on the
"Eternal -now" li.-* all along the Front Range and
west and tributaries of the Platte on the east.
from it- border there flows a sheet of icy water during the summer days

A Bnowstorm

at

timber-line.The Bnowfall along

heaviest of the country.

The Wars

of the

Wind

Timber-line

at

THE FOREST RANKS IN THE DRY WIND-SWEPT BIGE ALTITUDES

OP THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS A.RE BEING DRIVEN
DOWN THE SLOPES
By

Illustrations

NOS

M ILI.s

a.

from photographs

the high, dry, winter

had blown ou1 of the west
across the Continental Divide.
Down the eastern slope these winds

ages

FOR
wind

Author

the

bj

cliff

crashed and

last

wedged

down

rolled

-wept roaring againsl the ragged, battered upper ranks of the foresl

The

Mountain

down

National

rland
wide treeless
moraines of huge
They dashed so fiercely against

across

between two
size.

the

tim-

one place in the Rocky

Park they came

A;

ber-line.

al

forest

front

that

the

aggressive

had never been allowed to do

more than peep over th< edge of the inclined
r.
Again and again an adventurous seedling had dared the treespace only to I"' blown to pieces
-

before

Ml-

it

could gei

day Ear up

g
a

roothold.

mountain-side a

far

A
on

out

formed
few hundred feet

largest stone

break

the forest's ind-battered

In

due

sought

time
start

to

few

grew

cluster they

in

few of the

up.

moor.

tin's

small wind-

advance of

<-i\<j:v.

daring

tree oul post

They succeeded.

shelter.

with great

slope

to pieces.

leaps,

lateral

ice had at
plunged and

It

steep

and went
pieces tumbled

The

fell.

off.

it

In

When

seeds
in

this

close

they rose

above the upper surface of the rock the

terrific winter wind cut them off with
sand blasts and the cutting edges of
glassy

New

sleet.

time found

trees

from time

the stone's pioneer tree cluster.

a

line of

to

foothold to the leeward of

rees

gradually extended

Thus
in

127

NATURAL HISTORY

L28

row,

wind-battered

long

thick

as

hedge, to the trout ranks of the forest.

The wind did not allow a tree to start
or a

to

linili

extend

tered edges of

tin

beyond the

shel-

timber-line of which this wind-

The

a pari stretches along the eastern or Atlantic slope of the high Oon-

row was

tinental

ide for

>i\

hundreds

The Engelmann spruce and

<>f

miles.

the Arctic

willow represent the tree growth in the

moister places, while it falls to the lot

some variety of the limber pine to

maintain the forest front on the dry
wind slopes and rock ridges.
of

Timber-line, like the shore line of

Here a
sea, bends and curves.
mountain-side canon causes it to sweep
back like a bay of the sea, and there it
the

thrusts itself out around a peninsula-

headland.

like

raphy causes

it

In places the topogto extend for a mile or

Xext it comes
in a straight line.
an end upon an out-cropping of
barren rock which offers it no soil; and

more
to

places

in

holds

it

drift

of

"eternal

snow''

bay; while on slopes and

at

ridges the dry and devitalizing winds

"Thus far and no farther."

The winds and gales that strike and

say,

heat

of

and break against the front ranks

the forest, roar as

intensely as a

storming sea upon the shore, and with

all

terrible eloquence.

its

Wind

the strongest factor in the

is

This is
shown in their attitudes and shapes.
Standing trees are tilted toward the
these timber-line trees.

life of

east,

the

crawling trees are

and those standing with

vinelike,

headed east,
banners and pennants of long, tattered
limbs and foliage, extend their arms
All proclaim.
only toward the east.

"Out

of the west

direct us.'*

come the

forces that

At timber-line, wind, the

sculptor, has carved for himself a thou-

sand graphic tree statues that proclaim

and his power.
The stone on the moor continued to

his presence

the windrow at timber-line.

Each winter around the stone the vio-

shelter

al-

it

During the summer

months the wind rarely blew.
Then

most incessantly.

(lowers

brilliant

and

stood

thickly

in

snow drift-dotted Alpine

scene. But with the coming of autumn
the wind again Came pouring out of the
west across the peak-broken heights.
Through the long winter it commonly
blew from the same quarter.
As it poured around the stormward
coiners of the stone, the wind gradually blew the earth away.
Then along

green

stone.

winds raged, and pounded

lent

stormward front of the stone

the

it

connected these corner erosions with a

channel.
Finally it began to undermine this immovable wind-defying
piece of granite.
Each spring and
summer the water from the winter
snows and from the rains carried for-

ward the eroding, undermining work

of the wind.

Occasionally an accident came to a

two in the windrow and a slight

tree or

opening was left, between the grizzled

edges of which a man might squeeze
through.
One day a bowlder rolled
down and smashed a larger opening.
But most of the trees in this long, narrow hedge interlaced still more closely

new limits. The wind did not allow them to extend their tops upward
with

arms outward beyond the line

determined and sheltered by the stone.
Each winter the hundreds of tiny adventurous twigs that had during summer grown beyond the side or the top
lines were clipped off by the w ind.
A long, long time the stone remained. Upon it many a white ptar-

or their

migan

alighted

upon

it,

the

too,

crested noisy jay, the quiet camp-bird,

and the curious magpie often

look

upon the

scene.

the bighorn sheep.

Around

Beside
once dug for a chipmunk.

On

it

sat
it

to

lived

grizzly

moor here and there a

embedded rock fragment sheltered a tiny persistent tree. Here and
there a bowlder that had rolled down
from one of the moraines sheltered
partly

the wide

NATURAL HISTORY

130

somewhat Larger growing

trees.

pile

of debris thai a Landslide had brought

down
feet

sheltered

grove almost twelve

by he,-i\\ snow and crushed down and

held so long that it never regains its

upright position.

There are acres of

from the effect

trees prostrate, chiefly

high.

on

of high winds, but perhaps incidentally

the moor.

Dust and trash accumulated

beneath the trees in its shelter, as under any hedge, and formed a barrier
which blocked the water coming down
This cut a
the slope of the moraine.
small channel alongside the tree row.
This water joined the wearing, under-

A
from the weight of winter snow.
combination of wind and snow causes
many a tree, at a foot or less above the
earth, to abandon the growth of its top
and give all of its energy in sending
out and maintaining long limbs which

mining forces of the wind that ever

worked beneath the stormward founda-

long, storm-tempered limbs are nearly

tion of the protecting stone.

may

Immovable the stone continued to lie

through the wonder summers amid
Alpine flowers, and through the roaring windy winters, while invisible
chemistry tinted it with many hues
and the lichens came to color it. But
at last the wash of water and the sweep
of winds dug a great hole in front and
beneath the stone. Early one summer
as the frost was vanishing from the
soggy earth the stone settled forward
and rolled over into the hole on its side,

In other places trees grow along the

to the leeward with a few flattened limbs streaming out parallel to
The few scattered erect ones
the top.
possess limbs on only the leeward quarLimbs on the stormward side have
ter.
Many
never been allowed to grow.

[mmovable the great

stone

lay

leaving the windrow of trees to the

This was only a few years ago,

but today those trees arc only a memwinds.
ory.

Most of the

forest front

While

windbreak.

is

ridges,

without a
landslide

radiate in all directions.

as tough as steel.

The

Many

of the

smaller limbs

be knotted without breaking.

ground

trees thus are standing,

worn away

to

the heart on the stormward side, the

naked bones showing, while on the leeward there is the green bark and long
out-streaming limbs.

Many

dwarfed ancient looktwo feet high.

Yet they are two and three centuries
old and look as old as the mountains.
Some are two or three feet in diameter
and less than eight feet high. Numbers of trees, although at least a

ing

of these

little

trees are not

are but small grizzled

In places a number of these

and bowlders here and there afford protection, the main timber-line
If one
ivasts the wind unsheltered.
follows along this strange boundary

century

he will see in
have been
struck by lightning, others mowed by

dwarfed flowers. flowers with stalk

and bloom perfectly formed but less
than one inch in height. Like the trees
themselves, many of these dwarfed
plants have a strange and extensive

debris,

line,

some

the

timber-line,

places

trees

which

snowslides and in places crushed, and

in still other places trees protected by

shrubs.

old,

may be growing together in a beautiful

wild-flower garden composed chiefly of

bowlders or landslides that have come

down from the treeless heights above.

root system, while others, like

Trees that have grown up to the leeward of a shelter are quickly trimmed
and markedly changed shortly after

ward quarter.

the sheltering barrier

is

removed.

be forced out of plumb

by prevailing winds and then be caught
tree

may

many

of

the trees, are growing on only the lee-

Areas of
with

"block"" or

more

are cov-

matted growths as
smooth and unbroken as the trimmed

ered

low

surface of a hedge.
off

almost a> level as

They
a

are clipped

lawn, with the

3 E
- -

Limber pines grow in exposed spots among the forests of Engelmann spruce. The spruces stand
and true wherever they are found, but the pine develops a stunted, gnarled, and weathered appearance as a result of its rigorous warfare with the winds. As is the case with all plant forms at the

straight

limits of vegetation, the pines increase very little in size in a single season so that a veteran of many
(Photograph taken at an altitude of 11,200 feet, on
decades may have developed but a small stature.
the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies)

numerous twigs

interlacing.

there in

growths

these

trunk, badly battered,

a tattered flag or

Here and
single

may

banner.

tree

moraine nearly 12,000

level I once saw in the

tance

tree

of

striking

feet six

height

bowlders thirty or forty feet up the

above sea
a

total

dis-

in the

pines.
a

The

appearance.

Even

wind-swept groves one may see.

waved far aloft, the plume of one or

On

trunk was three

was seven feet nine inches.

For two feet it was limbless, then came
A few of these
a great whorl of limbs.
at the base were nearly a foot in diameter. Apparently the tree had been
shielded and its form and height determined by the presence of a few large

stand like

worst

more

Its substantia]

inches in diameter.

feet

of the tree

The spruces form the regular heavy growth of the upper forests where they are associated with
balsam fir. On the higher and more exposed localities the fir is replaced by foxtail and limber pines.
Flowers in profusion, full of color although not highly varied, blossom on the mossy floor of the forest
and in the Alpine meadows above. The spruce-fir forests are chiefly important as conservers of the
water supply on which the surrounding country relies for irrigation their value as lumber is slight,
although the spruces may be employed for mine timbers
;

4:;2

giant of the timber-line, although not eight feet high, has a trunk three and one
diameter.
Such tabular forms are frequently assumed at both the mountain and polar tree
limit--.
The height of the tree beyond which upward growth ceases is determined by the average depth
of the snow, for twi^s that project above the drifts throughout the winter arc usually cropped bj the
Beyond the tree limit the same conditions reduce the tree growth to mere ground
drj Alpine blasts.
(Compare with page 4H1)
mats of shrubs.

squattj

This

half feet

in

The annual

slope.

rings in

this

r<

are exceedingly thin and the probable

aboul

two thousand years.

age

is

was

killed by a fores!

wood

is

so

tough, that

given

it

by

dense,

fire in

It

1900.

fine-grained,

rts

and

the preservative treatment

the

lire

should

enable

i1

endure for a cent ury or longer.

Dry winds are the deadly ones.
Trees on wind-swepi beaches, the ven
to

front

ranks of the

the

at

foresl

shore, are also greatlj exposed, bu1

air here

is

damp.

Sometimes

in

seat

lie

winter

in the Rockies extremely dry winds

f
their
blow for days in succession.
coming has been preceded by a droughl
I

they have
the

much

trees.

of the

from the

mosl devitalizing effect on

Apparently

they

moisture the

trees,

and as

verj

absorb
life

result the fol-

The prevailing winter winds which bring the heavj snowstorms blow from the west so that the
istward ami tend, after years ;>; pressure, i" i"it out then- branches and point their
permanently in this direction. The winds, sweeping the high ranges, sometimes blow more than
hundred miles an hour with great regularity in direction. Onlj where the direction and strength are

continuous and persistent, a- on high mountains and along some stretches

ontortion of trees in

of

seacoast,

is

such direct

133

i:;i

VTURAL HISTORY
rees

the aggressive work of the hardy trees

the arid climate of the east-

which time has developed, the forest

ranks in the dry wind-swept height -

lowing summer he needles of the

turn brown. They arc dead.

i-

in

front

ern

winds
trees

of

are

exposed

in

Rockies

the

most

eroded away.

places

The

Lack

high

that

destructive.

arc

Dead
literally

of grass

and

other vegetation on the surface of the

enables the wind to obtain

down

are being driven

moist

places

In

the slopes.

timber-line

is

slowly

creeping np the heights, while in the

drier regions, especially in the Rocky

Mountain-,

it

i<

losing ground.

The

becoming
few regions

drier.

ground

surface of the earth

tools

These cut
of -and and gravel.
sandpaper or powdered glass.
Timber-line as seen in the life of the
individual man is a fixed, permanent
line, but in reality, in the general view of
time timber-line is not fixed. Despite

This condition in a

like

vorable to trees, but over

many wide

and wind-swept stretches

is

favorable.

is

One may

it

travel

is

fa-

most unfor miles

along the forest frontier without seeing

a single young tree in advance of the
old front rank of the forest.

Here and there along the timber-line

in the Rockies

is

sand-eroded snag

bleaching log or a

all

that remains of

former tree colony.

Its nearest living representative^ are several hundred

feet down the slope, where there is
a

more moisture and more

The

shelter.

front ranks of the forest

forest frontier

are

the

fighting the winds

on all of the high mountains of the

world; in the forest's farthest north
near the Arctic Circle, the timber-line
lies low. only a \\'\v feet above the level
of the iceberg-dotted sea: in the Alps
is more than a mile above the sea
under the warm equator its ranks
climb high into the mountainous sky:
and in the Rocky Mountains they are
d war feil and broken by battles with the
winds on the dry heights more than
two mile- above the shore line of the
it

sea.

The

lot

of a tree

tropical jungle, on

may

be cast in

the ocean's shore,

alone out in the plains, or in a favored

clime as where the unrivaled Sequoias
of small pirn- trees, although at least
are but short grizzled shrubs, contorted out of all resemblance to their kind in the
among the spruces the limber
forest.
pines grow taller than at timber-line, sometimes
a- high as thirty feet in northern Colorado and
Owing to the
fifty feet in southern Colorado.
compact annual growth of the Alpine form, it is
very difficult to tell the tree's age without the
The most potent factor in
assistance of a lens.

Numbers

century

old.

Down

-Minting of tree growth is not the cold but

rather the desiccation caused by persistent icy
The winds in winter rob the tissues of
their stored-up water which they are unable to
replace from the frozen soil
ili i-

winds.

Every tree tastes adventures

and looks upon. many stirring pageants.
but none lives a more intense life than
that tree whose shadows fall upon
mountain snows the tree which faces
the winds of the high plateaus, bravely
struggles for existence, and lives its

grow.

vigilant and exacting life

peaks and passes.

among high

In places the trees grow along the ground to the leeward with a few Battened limbs streaming out parallel
This condition i- undoubtedly caused by the combined action of wind and snow, for the trees,
while bent over in a blizzard, are buried under the great weight of snow, which bears down t)i. ir branches and
permanently alters their growth. Snow falls to a great depth on the high ranges and lies late into the summer
Beason, drifts of "perpetual snow" being found down to the tree limit in protected spots
to the trunk.

Protected from the \\n

ill

the

-!art

ami

persist

protection,

feature in such growth

is

in

its

howevei
frequently

the bowlders and with roots crowded into cracks among the rocks
vegetation.
Seldom does its head
lonely growth on the verj frii
The most astonishing
reeps eastward awaj from the blasting winds.
the minimum amount of soil which the tree requires for ii^ n

COMPOUND STELLATE SNOW CRYSTALS FOR THE JEWELRY DESIGNER

The

intricate

and branching forms

of

this

group suggest jewelry designs in gold or enamel and

These most complex snow crystals are probably formed in

patterns for lace or machine embroidery.
intense cold such as is found in the high altitudes from which the snow falls during general storms or
The central usually hexagonal ice crystals act as nucleus for the
during local storms in zero weather.
intricate branches whose ribs are for the most part hollow tubes.
imperfect or asymmetrical growth from an imperfect nucleus

436

The upper left-hand

crystal

shows

Art Motives

in

Snow

Crystals

BOREAL STUDIOS CONTINUALLY MAKING NEW DESIGNS

HE

Bv

WITH

R B E R T

of
resumption
manufacture upon a peace
the

basis,

being
States

for

express

will

growing demand

is

United
the
throughout
American products which

fell

American

distinctly

Manufacturers
have voiced the opinion that an added
impulse to applied arl in this period

new designs.

in

spirit

reconstruction

of

trade

of

with the introduction

of

come

will

motives

arl

which are not only striking but novel.

The forms

kingdom

of the inorganic

have a- yet played

little part

in

the de-

velopment of art motives which have.

up t<> now, been dependent mainly
upon geometric patterns ami upOn

more

or

conventionally

less

treated

Ami yet it
plant or animal forms.
would seem that at least some of the
mineral forms could he successfully
substituted for those more stiffly geowhich
have
been
metric
patterns
handed down through the centuries as
pan of ''in- art heritage.
Snow crystals, combining, a- they
do. n wonderful symmetry of form with
a
-

inexhaustible

practically

variety

-symmetric outline-, offer

field

for the designer.

tals

illustrated

are only

\'<'\v

in

fertile

The >m>w
four

these

example:

of

crys-

pages

chosen from

WHITLOC K

P.

many

years

been

past,

successfully

photographed and studied by M r. \V. A.

Bent le\ of Jericho, Vermont, and the
photographs here reproduced have been
selected from In- extensive collection.
A- a basis for art motives, it would
seem that the range of uses to which
.

he-e natural geometric forms could he

applied
ef

graved glass
with

their

nearly

in

in

The

plications.

Many

comprehensive.

fairly

i-

them suggest designs

great

for cut

ami en-

variety of ap-

stellate types, repeated

extremities

in

contact,

or

contact, develop into allover

pattern- applicable to hook- covers, oilwall paper, or textile designs.

cloth,

Some

of the more delicately branching

forms are strongly suggestive of jew-

elry designs, a- applied to brooches

and

pendants, either a- settings for stones

or enameled.
The designer of stained

windows may find in some of

compound tabular form- inspira-

glass rose

the

unique patterns.
Lace and drawn work, rosettes in
fresco, tailpiece- for hook- and maga-

tion tor

and medallions for the center- of

china plate-, are some of the suggested
zines,

uses

which

crystal

he

might

In

motives.

geometric designs
tive art- could

in

well

made
fact

of

the

snow

user of

any of the decoraprofit

by the con-

the intricacy and

sideration of these varied and beautiful

beauty of nature's geometrical designs

combinations of six-sided symmetry

turned out of nature"- studio.
Nor i- there any limit to the supply
of new motives, derivable from this
source.
With every fall of -now. in

many hundreds of
a- expressed in

these tiny jewel- of the

The magnified photographs,

air.

larged
eter-,

en-

about fifteen or twenty diamwere obtained by the simple

method of catching the

temperate and

boreal

regions, under
more combina-

falling snowflakes on a black screen, which could he

immediately introduced on the stage of
a low power miscroseope fitted with a

already photographed, constituting an

photographic apparatus.

ever growing portfolio of designs, and

-cure the

best

results the

In order to
photograph-

ing of the snow crystals should he con-

ducted
i-

in

falling.

tl

pen air w hile the sno\*

Sn.iu

crvstals

have,

for

the
t

right

condition-,

added

ion- arc being

to the

thousands

presenting every degree of complexit}

from

tricate,

pound

simple hexagonal out line to inbranching form- of the comstellate

pe.

437

TABULAR DESIGNS FOR CUT AND ETCHED GLASS

The simple variations of the hexagon shown in this group of snow crystals suggest designs which
They could
could be used for cut and etched glass as applied to electroliers, bowls, and table glass.
These types of
also be used as the centers of designs for china decoration in raised gold or color.
crystals are probably formed in relatively high temperatures and are found especially in local storms

438

STELLATE SNOW CRYSTALS SUGGESTIVE TO THE TEXTILE DESIGNER

This type suggests close repeated 'li'-igns in oilcloth nr tl
onventional wall paper as well :i> in
Buch as print fabrics and heavj curtains.
These six-pointed stars are apparently a combination
nt the tabular and stellate types.
The small tabular hexagons acquire branches in their journey through
the cloud- and become otherwise modified bj the varying temperature and atmospheric pressure strata
through which they fall.
The lower right hand crystal is interesting ;i^ an illustration of the not infrequent change from
triangular to
hexagonal form or vice versa. The more elaborate forms of this
are shown on
and are Busceptible of
similar gold and enamel applications
;i

439

-11(1

ART MOTIVES

IN

SNOW CRYSTALS

COMPOUND TABULAR SNOW CRYSTALS SUGGESTIVE OF WORK

IN

FRESCO AND STAINED GLASS

This group of very modified crystals would furnish admirable designs for isolated rosettes in fresco.
All of the above forms are
in stained glass and Saracenic lattice work.
has
but illustrative examples of the many thousands of microphotographs which Mr. W. A. Bentley
taken during the last thirty five years in Jericho. Vermont, and from which an infinite number of
artistic designs adapted to different purposes might be selected

They even suggest rose windows

Cinema-microscopy an Essential to Modern

Science and Education
C

By
(Department

ANY

subjects

in

A R LE

II

various

the

branches of biology which are

discussed

book belong

to a

inaccessible

to

student.

the

in

modern

text-

region of observation
reader

general

the

They can

be

or

approached only

by means of refined techniques applied

to special objects nol ordinarily available for practical study or demonstra-

A knowledge

tion.

of

subjects

these

must, therefore, in most cases be acfrom textbooks in which illus-

quired

trations
object.

take
I

place

the

'raw Lngs

or

of

living

the

pictures,

si ill

however excellent, cannot always convey an accurate mental

living object.

even

in

carefully

specimen the exad

real object.
tier

difficult

skillful technician to rep-

for the mosl

resent

picture of the

extremely

is

It

The

preserved

appearance of the
ive and stain ren-

some measure more

and embody a consid-

ic

F.

E R

II

Museum

Natural Histor;

of

production

of

and disease, the

and the many activities relating to personal and public hygiene, especially
as hardly anything ha- been dene in
cinematographic represental ion along
these line-.

Cinematographs of this sorl would

undoubtedly he a mosl importanl adjunct

to

and

wearisome method of
study by memorizing textbooks can he
materially moderated by the adaptation of the motion picture.
These pictures can he arranged so logically, so
clearly,
and so free from puzzling
questions

the

Cinema-microscopy
of

the

its

he microscope or before

it -

lens

contain- no subjective element save

that involved in the focusing of the init

strument, and hence conveys a true

mental picture a picture Dearest to

nature

tried,

proved, and

resull

that

aid.

an

The

it

Hut

at
I>

accepted,

with the

ha- become an essentia]

biologist,

particularly,

immeasurable opportunity

for

introduce

to

where

presenl

how

and

films of such

on

microscopical

strictly

and

it>

re-

as because they

to get

terfilms

need

greal

colleges

i1

lecture or experiment.

are

charac-

subjects,

educational,

qualities,

and

having technical
produced by specialists

ju-t as texl books arc w ritten

by specialists

and edited

Cinema-microsco'py
Problem
Educational Institutions
</

The production

itself.

There i- no field of endeavor in

which the cinematograph has no1 been

complicated

no other device equals

that

conveying

scl

i-

many

future;

schools ar- eager

for

whatever

mosl

subjects.

realize

cinematograph,

imme-

can

students

thai

absorb

diately

tion.

The

The

educational effort.

real

arduous

sults in their class

shortcomings, gives an absolutely faithful represental ion of what appears un-

show biologic

function in health
action of parasites,

a-

erable subjective elemenl of interpreta-

The Cinematograph Faithful

to Nature

to

films

phenomena such

ii\;it

the subjects in

or less schema!

Physiology, American

of

of a film textbook of

or

zoology,

physiology,

contain-

hundreds

subjects,

scientifically

of

botany
short
correct,

which

reels

or

up

to

the highest

has

standard of learning, correlating with the approved textbooks,

the

ha- -o far not

been

commercial suc441

NATURAL HISTORY

442

due perhaps to the lack of specialthe Large expense involved, and

cess,
ists,

The

certain limitations of the subject.

undoubtedly

public

interested; the

is

and

schools

secondary

would

colleges

kind

and

it
rewelcome aid
mains for some large educational institutions to establish a micro-cinema

6f

Laboratory
uegal

for

this

the production of such

well

On

other hand, cinematography

widen the teaching power of any
single experiment or demonstration,
and become the greatest of all teachthe

will

ers.

When an experiment is well executed

and recorded on the film, and then
shown to a large audience of students,
each individual can follow

ives.

The producer
be

greater advantage in original research.

such films, if he
acquainted with the various
of

and

precisely

it

By varying

in all its details.

the

rapidity of the exposure the cinemato-

branches of science, can devise interng and original experiments to suit

any stage of knowledge. He can vary
the experiments so as to bring the pupil
face to face with something which can

graph can quicken or retard the move-

never be illustrated by diagrams in a

He can lead the pupil step
textbook.

senting a scientific truth, and from this

e>ti

by step, and the more deeply he plunges

into the particular branch of science,
the wider will be his scope in the portrayal of scientific

phenomena by

fasci-

As

ments.

possibility

Each

record any

number

reproduced

for

and

Cinema-biology a Demonstrator of
Yitat Life Factors
the cinematograph gives

the scientist an opportunity to illustrate at will

and repeatedly the

results

experiments.
In
medical schools, and
even in certain classes of high schools,
it is important to demonstrate the livof

the

many

ing

laboratory

phenomena

as closely as possible;

or still photographs do not show the different movements and the results of experiments;
they do not show the technique of the
experimenter or the accompanying react ions of the organism such as the

wall

of copies can be

the

different

charts,

schools

The dem-

colleges of the country.

onstration by cinematograph possesses

marked advantages over the

certain

number

of

teacher to

it

reaches

si-

and equally a greater

spectators;

it

enables the

demonstrate an important

leisurely

fact

mits the

and repeatedly;

student to

it

per-

interrogate

and

thus accurately crystallize his deductions from the experiment.

colleges, in

sketches,

document repre-

film becomes a

multaneously

all,

great advantage for

demonstration.

laboratory experiment

nating experiments.

Above

easily understood, ihi>

is

offers

cinematographic

apparatus

for

taking and exhibiting scientific motion

pictures has been installed by the Faculties of Medicine in Paris, Lyons,

Bordeaux,
Paris and

museums.

at the

Pasteur Institute in

Lille,

and even in certain

Eecords of the

techniques

gical

esses necessitated

in

this

and

many

biological

sur-

proc-

by the great war have

way not only been

visually

the blood, and the acceleration of respi-

preserved but have also been actually

used for disseminating the knowledge

ration.

gained.

But by means of the cinematograph

the most delicate operation can be recorded and all its details reproduced
with the utmost precision. At the same
time this wonderful instrument will

But the auditorium and the class

room should not be the only places in

beating of the heart, the circulation of

save

many hours

routine

of tedious laboratory

which could be used

to

far

which to exhibit
tures

lished

scientific

motion pic-

a corporation should be estab-

through whose agency certain

scientific subjects

the public.

could be exhibited to

Every day there are hap-

 s "

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a -c z - zi

NATURAL HISTORY

441

penings of interest and importance in

the scientific world of which the people
large have only a hazy understand-

;ii

make discoveries which

dark phenomena of ordi-

illumine the

nary

life

inventors create new wonders

mankind but

about
these things the people for whose

for the benefit of

all

benefit

mind of
know little

creative

the

entist really works,

Many

ing.

the scior noth-

of these subjects could be

tertaining and at the same time would

give

which

kind of picture
instructive, which demon-

public

the
is

the

Films Showing Circulation of Blood

My

the Chicle

interest

in this

Embryo
work

lias

arisen

through laboratory researches on living

tissue in the department of physiology
at the American Museum of Natural
History.
In collaboration with Mr.
Alessandro

Fabbri,

physiology

research

the

in

associate

American

Mu-

seum, who is much interested in biological cinematography, there has been

prepared a microscopical film 1200 feet
long, on the physiology of the heart

and the circulation of the blood in the

chick embryo. This work was done in
The private laboratory of Mr. Fabbri,
a laboratory completely equipped with
all

facilities

for the highest grade of

cinematography.
The physiology of the heart and the
circulation of the blood have attracted
the

In the film

from
Far back in 1616
studied them. William Har-

attention

iirst

of

of

marking on the

carefully

tlie

shell

egg the date and hour when

of

it

i-

placed in the laboratory incubator, in

order to obtain an embryo of known

A constant temperature of 103
age.
decrees Fahrenheit

The second

maintained.
how. after

is

illustrates

forty-eight hours, the egg is removed

from the incubator and. after being

carefully opened.

i>

placed in a glass

embryo and vascular area uppermost. The vascular area, with its embryo, is now dissected from the yolk
and transferred to a large culture
chamber, which is sealed with a cover
glass by means of hot paraffin ami
under the
micro-cinematoplaced
dish,

strates vital factors in life.

in

phenomenon.
which has been made, the
scene demonstrates the necessity

the finer detail- of this

they would be en-

rearranged so that

in

it

Scientists

ing.

modern physiologists, has

been possible publicly to demonstrate

attention of

investigators

graphic apparatus.

We

see

forty-eight

the

The

the

entire

hours

circulation

old.

the

in

embryo,
demonstrating

living

vascular

area.

system of the young

circulatory

chick consists of branching tubes, the

arteries
is

now

into a

coming from the

which
Dividing

heart,

outside of the body.

hue network of capillaries

in the

vascular area, these vessels reunite into

a

vein

large

hack

which carries the blood

to the heart at the opposite side.

The

shows the heart as a

organ which rhythmically
contract-, decreasing its volume, and
thereby driving out the blood which
picture

muscular

during the period of

very early times.

has flowed into

relaxation.
In

scientists

there are two separate circulations: the

vey was the

the

first to

grasp the fact that

force

pump

heart acted
drive the blood in a circle through the
blood vessels and hack. Since the time
as

to

of Harvey, however, physiological tech-

nique has been remarkably improved.

Many methods have been discovered to
demonstrate the general function of
the heart and vascular system. But not
until cinema-microscopy attracted the

it

mammals and

birds

two pumps are combined side by side.

the right auricle and ventricle form
one pump, while the left auricle and
ventricle form the other.
Tlie

of the

subject

fourth scene

is

embryo thirtythree hours old. showing its first rhythmical activity and the course of the
the heart

of

living

blood in the transparent heart cavity

during contraction.

NATURAL HISTORY

446

The

next picture shows as

living

embryo

with body

heart of

transparent enough to

still

demonstrate

hours old,

thirty-six

action

the

the

of

heart

In the following picture we see

valves.

an embryo magnified 150 times, and

we observe the circulation of the blood
in the right and left mesenteric artery

and the contraction of

area

vascular

the

its walls.

seen

is

in

Xext
detail

where the blood vessels, as they become

farther removed from the embryo, divide into smaller branches, and there is
evidence that an increased internal
friction results which causes considerable resistance to the flow of the blood.

high pressure

in the

main

is

through the small

mesenteric

the

therefore required

arteries to drive the blood

Xext we

vessels.

we follow

the arterial flow of blood;

the blood vessel until

branches,

several

it

which

divides into
in

turn

bryo

are

head of a pin, and each

and
quickly imbedded in a drop of blood
The cover glass is then inplasma.
verted over a hollow ground slide and
piece transferred to a cover glass

sealed with hot paraffin to prevent dry-

ing; the prepared slide

en

in

is

then rein-

ted.

In the picture we see the transplanted heart of an embryo eight days

old, which is still beating rhythmically after six days of transplantation;
a section of heart muscle fifty
times magnified showing its rhythmical activity ten days after transplan-

also

tation.

Scientific authorities agree that one

of

most valuable

the

encouraging

tion,

the arterioles in fore- and mid-brain

and the capillaries in the hind-brain

original thought,

then we see the capillaries of the poste-

for the production of these films

vitelline

area,

the posterior car-

dinal vein, the capillaries of the anterior

hack to the
mesenteric venous system and reaching
the embryo again at the right mesenteric vein, where the even flow of
venous blood is nicely demonstrated.
Another film has also been constructed in collaboration with Mr.
Fabbri, emphasizing the behavior of
vitelline vein, all leading

Many extransplanted heart muscle.

periments have been made in transmuscles into a tissue
determine the conditions
which will prolong their life and func-

planting heart
culture

tion.

to

The

heart of a chick

embryo

will

beat rhythmically from six to ten days

after having been removed from the

and transplanted in blood

But if tissues are retransplanted from time to time into a fresh

animal
plasma.

culture,

it

will live for

In order

is

known

that the muscles

more than
to obtain

sixty days.

such culture- for

of

possibilities

such films lies in the fact that they

bring within the comprehension of the
student mind a wide range of informa-

often connected by anastomosis; then

rior

em-

dissected into small pieces about

is

the size of the

see

demonstrating

artery

the motion picture the heart of an

thereby

reflection,

and research.

The cinematographic apparatus used

special

and rigid

table,

and

is

Debri

camera. The source of light should be

automatic, as it otherwise would be difficult to keep a subject properly illuminated for a certain length of time. The
condenser and cooling trough are attached in front of the arc between the
micro-cope and the light.
The vertically arranged camera has attached
to it a handle by which it can also be

swung

in

horizontal position

when

This
detached from the microscope.
camera is provided with a direct focus
tube through which the image on the

watched during exposure.

This arrangement is of extraordinary
importance, because it is absolutely
necessary to watch the living subject
while under the camera in order to

film can be

pictures.
The mechanism for moving the film is worked
by a small electric motor which is connected by pulleys and a leather belt to

obtain the best

the shaft of the camera.

The micro-

CINEMA-MICROSCOPY
scope used

strumenl

and

Zeiss No.

of

excellent

is
is

supplied

is

with

This

l.

in-

construction

an

Abbe con-

denser, a dark-field illuminator, and

rotating

special

chanical

ments

and

centering

ordinary stage
mos< of the work.

movemenl

preferable

Here the

The substage

removable.

by rack ami pinion, hut does

justmenl
meiit

i-

fitted

very

practical

with lateral

and

movemenl
focused

is

nm

The Berger

centering screw.

for

vertical

into the stage

huiit

i-

is

the bar carrying the Lateral

i-

me-

with very slow movemicro-cinematography; hut

the

carry

line

ad-

arrange-

milled

heads.

The body tube i- 50 mm. wide. The

diameter of the body tube i> quite importanl for cinematographic purpi
for in

erns

working without eyepiece

the

area

of

the

it

projected

iii

gov-

idie.

'Idle

interior of the tubes

he dead black, so as not to cause

-t

1
1

1;

reflections.

The

;i

stage

for

draw

difficuH

tnosl

cinema-microscopy
Sunlighl would he

is

problem

in

the illumination.

ideal for the purbecause of the uncertainties

pose,

hut

of

availability recourse musl he had

its

to artificial lights, of

which the

elect ric

lamp i> the mosl useful.

Arc lamps are made to work with almost any current, direct or alternating,
from
to mi amperes or upward, giv-

arc

ing

lighi

varies correspondingly

that

candle power. T .
mbsl useful lamps for the purpose under con-iderat ion are the smaller types

from 300

in. iiiiii

to

taking L0 amperes or

less.

The Bausch and Lomb 10-ampere

lamp is very well adapted for cinema-

and. within the covering power of the

microscopy.
dering ahout

objective, the size of the specimen that

carbons are regulated by milled heads

The ordinary

which work very smoothly, and despite

i>

to

be

photographed.

disk

microscopes generall} carry a tube 3<

nun. in diameter, hut tor the reasons
jusl mentioned, a 50 mm. tube is much
to

he

preferred.

To

utilize

the wide

to full advantage arrangements

must he made for the removal of the

tube

constant

attention

the arc in
this

reliable

necessary

to

keep

working condition.

lamp has proved perfectly >at isThe an- is adjustable to dif-

factory.
ferent

can he

heights on
t

ilted

Microphotograph of a hydroid, Gonothyrcea (enlargement about

branching coli
two kinds "t members of the
appe
oduction polyps

in

i- a hand-fed arc renL500 candle power: the

It

if

suitable pillar, and

required.

100 diameters), showing growth

eding polyps (flower-like in

^5?'

v
:

A MASTERPIECE OF ASSYRIAN
This

and

flu

The foundation

LOW

was laid from twenty to thirty thousand years or more

Cro-Magnon race. Their sculptures on the walls of caves,

for low relief

-.:

RELIEF

examples of Assyrian sculpture following, from copyrighted photographs of

in llit British Museum, <u-i reproduced through the courtesy of
W. A. Mansell $ Co., of London

in southern France, by the

ts~
iris

the originals

ago, before historic times,

in

low or in high

relief,

or in drawings incised or painted, challenge our admiration today by firmness of touch and surei
line, and by what some of us in this twentieth century a.D. should take to heart the restraint which

cautions against unnecessary detail.

Low relief in relation to architecture had

its foundation in early historic tunes as a developEgyptians discovered that conventionalism and simplicity even to the extent
They,
of stiffness of the lines and figures brought harmony of the sculpture with the building.
however, did not use animal sculpture to a great extent, whereas the Assyrians did: therefore, the direct line of tradition of architectonic principles in animal sculpture comes to
us by way of the Assyrians for instance, through the beautiful sculptured friezes of
Nineveh. The above low relief of the head of a horse is a masterpiece in which accuracy of drawing is combined with simplicity of modeling

ment

448

in

Egyptian

art..

lup of wild asses

from the Palace

Nineveh

of

Zoological Sculpture in Relation

to Architecture
to development from th Cro-Magnon* through Egypt, Assyria, Greece,
and France. Whether in high or low relief or in th round, the ii*tun us well as
vast
the planes, tin lights and tlu shades, should carry the lines of th architecture.
futun h>r modern architecture lies in tin lessons of tlu past "i> animal scnlpturt

With especial referent*

I.'imu.

By

S.

B R E

('

I'

A R K M A X T

E recenl discovery of animal

paintings ami sculptures on the
walls iif the caverns in south-

Ti

extinct

moth,

I'.

1)

<J

the reindeer, the rhinoceros, ami es

whose majestic ami im-

cially the bison,

the prologue of the history of art ami

posing form seems particularly

same time makes an important

the

mam-

horge, the cave bear, the wolf,

western France and the Pyrenees writes

at

'

Europe, such a- the

in
tlie

appealed

the

t<>

have

fancy of the artists.

contribution i" the science of zoology.

Their

works of art, executed in the

Aurignacian ami Magdalenian periods,
that i>. abou twenty or thirty thousand

qualified admiration.

Paintings, incised

drawings, sculptures

in

years ago, give striking evidence of

of

Cro-Magnon

tin

ion

science

i<-<

race to

in tin-

curate representation of
ber of animal-,
ointed
orator,

b;

great

some of hem Ions

Roosevelt

vice president,
\>-u fori

i-,

whom

their

Their value to
truthful and ac-

attributed.

n ~i ~t -

tin'

developmenl

high state of intellectual

num-

relief

artistic

qualities

abound, ami

all

challenge
low or

high

in

are characterized

by firmness of touch, sureness of

ami by admirable
sion

<>f

line.

restraint in the omis-

unnecessary detail.

sculpture had for its

background the bold ami rugged rock
wall- of the caverns ami shelters, ami
Prehistoric

never erred

in

too great

refinement of

Co
h>' was
President, as chairman of the v
and trustee American Academj in Rome; member Trowbridge and

when
i

un-

Art-:
I

From "Men

of the Old
of the Author

Stone Age" through courtesy

and Charles Scribner's Sons

Part of a frieze of six horses, each horse relief seven feet long;, found sculptured in the limestone
under the sheltering cliff at Cap-Blanc (in Dordogne, France). Cro-Magnon artists invented low relief
a conventional method of representation of the round in a series of very flat planes by a proportionate reTheir subjects were many European animals now extinct, especial predilection
duction of thickness.
being shown for mammoth, bison, reindeer, and wild horse. To view their work today, in comparison
with modern sculpture, is to recognize the "unity of purpose, the sincerity, the restraint, the appreciation
of plane and shadow combined with truthful and accurate delineation." which place it not as an effort of
savages but as a work of true art by a highly developed human race

From "Men

of the Old
of the Author

Stone Age" through courtesy

and Charles Scribner's Sons

From the Cro-Magnon painting of the Celtic horse from the ceiling of Altamira, in northern SpainThis ceiling of ancient paintings, now so famous throughout the world, was discovered in 1879 by the
The
little daughter of the Spanish archaeologist, Sautuola, who was hunting flints on the cavern floor.
paintings are polychromes, ochreous brown in color, the outlines etched in the stone, given strong contour
paintings
ceiling
the
are
placed
in
lines in black, and often a second series in red.
On the Altamira
groups, often on bosses of the limestone, the Cro-Magnon artist having had sufficient creative genius thusto adapt his work to the surface of the rock.
(This painting of the Celtic horse may be seen in color as a*
mural in the American Museum and is reproduced in color in the American Museum Journal for December, 1912, in connection with articles by Professor H. F. Osborn and Dr. Clark Wissler)
450

(Above) The Wounded Lioness from Nineveh

This Assyrian relief is remarkable not only for truthful
drawing and modeling bnl for the suppression of everj unnecessary detail and the emphasis of everj pari neees-;ir>

t<i

the impression of unbeaten courage which the

'''ill.

inimals

composed group
with

;irti>t

wished

t<>

of wild as

Ll ro

Hagnon

convej

Nineveh.
horse on

Compare

the

drawing

of

4ol

Palace of Nineveh, the groups of which are conspicuous for their excellence in comwe find first in historic times animal sculpture as such. Their work proves
that they had love and knowledge of animal life and that they sought to express the characters of the wild
Assyrian sculptures followed rather closely in artistic quality the cave sculptures of Cro-Magnon man.
beasts.
Part

of a frieze in the

position.

Among

the Assyrians

notwithstanding 15.000 or more years' separation in time and the entire lack of knowledge of the early
among the Assyrians

artists

Another group from the frieze in the Palace of Nineveh. Here at least six planes of surface are expressed
Xo country has ever equaled Assyria in the amount of animal sculpture used as a
the slight projection.
decorative feature in building, although to the Greeks belongs the credit of bringing such work to its highest
in

expression

452

of the mane recalls the cuneiform in

Assyrian sculpture connected with architecture passed on ;i^
heritage to mediaeval architecture, but the development there entered the fie!d <>t human figure representation

Lions from the same Nineveh frieze.

The spirit of conventionalism

scriptions.

The conventional treatment

in

the ti^-ur.-- of this frieze, in

treatment of detail, show verj
irmonize perfectly with their architectural Bel

All

t-

;i

distinct

architectonic qualities

in

that

153

Q.

o
cc

(3

a
LU
CO

O
D.

o
o
>i
_1
Z>
u.

1-

D
<
LU
CD

X
LU
>
LU
z

=
~

C
o

;=

CO

<

2.

.a

? 1

111

CO
CO

II
~

DC
C3

"S

<

t
"

NATURAL HISTORY

!.-,<;

Whether

detail.

in

or low

flat

relief

we

sand years

long, carved on the wall of the rock

shelter at Cap-Blanc, on the River

decoration.

Beune in Dordogne, these sculptures

always show the unity of purpose, the
sincerity,

the

the

restraint,

apprecia-

many

once again after

find

or whether in bold relief, as in the case

of a frieze of six horses, each seven feet

mals as the

thou-

return to the use of aniprincipal motive of wall

Like their forerunners of

.Magdalenian times, love and knowledge
of nature led the Assyrian artists to
express the emotions and characters of
the wild beasts.

With no

possibility of

and shadow combined

with truthful and accurate delineation,
which characterize all the work of the
Crd-Ma^noii artists and place them not

any knowledge of even the existence of

the earlier ait and with a separation
of about fifteen thousand years between
them, it is interesting to note how

among

closely

plane

of

tion

the primitive efforts of savages

but in the realm of true art.

from the Magdalenian

one
cannot look upon the former without
feeling that both are inspired by the
same impulse and that underlying both
far i-vv

is a

It

art to that of the present day. but

are the same basic principles, so that

we may justly attribute to the Cro-

Magnon

inauguration of the
great traditions of art which have come
down to us through the ages.
After a long gap of approximately

thousand years, sterile in art as

our knowledge goes, we come

fifteen

far

race the

as

more familiar ground of hisAs the architecture of

Egypt developed and finally crystallized

into the

times.

toric

into a definite style, sculptural decora-

tion

followed

necessarily

the

general

ami became highly convention-

trend

In order to produce unity,

of surface,

of line,

shadow

in their

harmony

and of light and

architecture. Egyptian

artists discovered

that

in

their sculp-

ture simplicity of modeling, firmness of

outline and

restfulness,

of pose, were essential,

even

and

to

stiffness

them we

owe the tradition of those architectonic

qualities which are so necessary to make
of sculpture an integral part of a
building.

Although there are many very beautiful examples of animal sculpture in

Egypt, they arc generally found grouped
with human figures, and are more or
less

subordinate or incidental to the

In Assyria, however.

scenes presented.

quality,

in

the

es-

The lion hunt from the palace in

Nineveh is but one of many groups
adorning the palace walls which display not only great artistic quality in
the individual figures but also a very

marked ability in composition

and "the wounded lioness."
individual

these

sculptures,

is

as well;

one of
one of

most exquisite sculptures in exiswhich sincerity and simplicity

and
salient
characteristics
the
are
which, as an expression of unbroken
courage and unconquered spirit, is unthe

tence, in

All

rivaled.

these animal figures are

necessarily stylized, or conventionalized

degree necessary to conform to

to the

the architectural setting, but in artistic

feeling

and

truthful

alized.

artistic

in

sence of characterization, the Assyrian

sculptures resemble the Cro-Magnon.

in technique, as well as in

interpretation,

they

arc

un-

surpassed:

As

in

Egypt conventionalism made

possible the depiction of mythological

forms such as the gryphon and the

sphinx, so in Assyrian caryatid figures.
where required for the portals of the
palace,

use

of

heads.

conventionalism permitted the

the great bulls with human

In the use of animal sculpture

as a decorative feature of architecture,

no country has equaled Assyria.

Another recent discovery has added
one more chapter to the history of art
and illustrates again the principles laid
down by our Cro-Magnon forerunners.
No enumeration of the great animal
sculptures of the past would be com-

ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE

plete without at least a

sculptured bulls of

To

find,

<

menl

ion of the

principle

The

Irete.

however, the highest expresanimal sculpture

architectonic

<>(

men

horses and

relief,

contour, simple

we must, of course, turn to Greece.

As the Parthenon has no equal in it

point,

architectural

the

perfection,

are which adorns

its
is

beaut}

is

the

sculp-

unparalleled

in

A- We Should expect, there

and sculptural

detail.

The

frieze

picting the Procession from Eleusis

the
Panathenaic Festival, with

long

of

line

horsemen,

of

illustration

the

,:

"' ,r ""'

"

ll

"

Jture,

""
1

application

-J

'

i-

Panathenai,

and the proportionate

different

parts

The

posture

ticularly

the

at

supposed

to

is

relief

preserved

point

of

each

of

h'

in

motion,

momentary

i-

par-

that

at

which indi-

rest

cates the completion of one

of

and the beginning of the next.

Process^

The

drawing, and modeling, and

the

Parthenoi Pi
which this

frieze of

Lmong

is

thi

Greeks

small pari

wn

is

are

all

movement
-i\

mr

to highest development.

of

with-

figure,

though

horses,

perfect

the

and

line

shadow.

de-

its

in

modeling, restrained
detail, conventional to just the right
in

out confusion or the loss of a uecessarj

blending of architectural

perfect

;i

it

so

in

sculpture.

are rendered in low

vigorous and clean

siou of architectural

t51

archifc

peri

without confusion

ing

NATURAL

458

the impression of progress to the whole

procession without violating the canon
that ihf

the

The
ally

medium

of sculpture precludes

ranslation of actual
later

into a

1/ J

STORY
Gothic figure sculpture, aided

setting,

by the use of lines of draperies, not

only melts into and blends with the

mass and the detail of the building,

movement.

Greek sculpture fell gradurealism which marked its

Rome, however, revived to

some extent the early Greek spirit and
produced some notable animal sculpThe very beautiful relief which
ture.
decadence.

adorns the rostra in the Roman Forum.

as a single example, is sufficient to showthat the Roman artists wore still influ-

but in the cathedrals and churches

also

the

spiritual

is

means of proclaiming the

and religious feeling of the

architecture.

The

very

rigidity

of

the figures, carried sometimes even to

the point of awkwardness, typifies the

mysticism and religious fervor of the

Nothing could better illustrate

age.

the

meaning

the

of

"architectonic

enced by the early Greek spirit, and

understood the necessity of conventionalism in architectural sculpture.
although
architecture.
Mediaeval

quality" than the portals of the great

abounding in sculpture, has

tion of the crocket-like figures in the

little

to

animals
if we except the grotesques, but in the
use of the human figure it is unsurpassed and teaches a wonderful lesson
in architectonic ornament.
Quite different in character but equal
to the Greek sculpture in its adapta-

offer in the representation of

tion

to

the lines of

its

architectural

French cathedrals.

The pose

of the

figures, the lines of the draperies, the

quality of the modeling, the introducarches, all

harmonize with and are a

part of the architecture.

The

saints of the portal of the Ca-

thedral of Notre

Frontispiece)
grotesque,

Dame

when

stiff,

in

Paris (see

seen apart appear

and uncouth, but

in

their proper setting, with the straight

lines carrying

up the

vertical lines of the

Rostra, in the. Forum of Rome. The treatment differs materially from that in the Parthenon
Harmony with the architecture has been preserved, but a decline in the art of relief is noticeable in that there is an attempt to produce the actual roundness of the figures, violating the essential
principle of low relief

frieze.

ZOOLOGICAL SCULPTURE
and

architecture,

with

the

adaptation of planes and

acme

are the very

wonderful

angles, they

of architectonic art.

imagine these figGreek temple or the frieze of

the Parthenon on a Gothic church, yel
It

is

impossible to

ures in

each in

proper place

its

fection as the art of

as near per-

is

man

has been able

In later Gothic times the

attain.
tendency to realism again marked a
as sculpture
decline and a decadence
to

became more perfecl

of nature

in

losl

it

imitation

the

in

architectonic quality

power of expression.
The Renaissance, in which one may
include our own times, has given few
greal examples of animal sculpture as
applied to architecture. For three hundred years sculpture has shown a tendency to fall more and more into
and, as

result, in

realism with a resultanl

The

tectural value.

been

marked

sculpture

1>\

both

I"-- of archi-

history of art has

in

succession

and

painting

simplicity

of

A number
grees

of incessanl effort,

of schools of various de-

extravagance

of

have appeared,

the cubists and the modernists, but in

necessary to pro-

is

duce the qualities which enable men to

express
and
thoughts
greal
noble
through the medium of dead immutable materials.

The error into which we have fallen

and that into which the modern schools
would lead us are the same, hibothcases
it
<\w to the negled of the greal
is
radition which has come down to us in
an unbroken line from the( !ro-Magnons,
t

through Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome,

and France,

that,

ture, as in all

the art

in

of sculp-

there musl

art,

be sin-

and truth, accuracy in delineaand fidelity in modeling, and the

cerity
ion

suppression of every detail unnecessary

to

The

expression.

which
that

should always appeal

the subjeel

and

higher

the

to

quality of beauty,

very essence "( art, implies

is tlie

nol

baser

the

to

emotii

W here

sculpture, whether of

animals,

used

is

in

men

architecture,

or

the

treatment should he architectonic in

order that it may he an integral part
of the

Whether

building.

low relief or

ion.

159

Work, hard work, through years

way.

of alternate

and complicated
realism.
We seem now to be coming
to the end of a phase of the latter and
there are unmistakable signs of a reacwaves

ARCHITECTURE

\ RELATION TO

in

high or

in

the round, the posture

a- well as the plane-, the lights

-hade-,

carry

should

the

lines

and the
of

the

imitation,
and
have
graphic
they
broken the spell which seem- to have

These are the lessons of

the past.
The ability to carry them
out depend- upon greal technical skill,
which can be reached only by infinite
pains and a lifetime of labor and study.
Advocates of new styles in architec-

bound n-

ture

have

passing

they

doubted

service.

notified the world thai art

for

is

un-

an

rendered

They have

at

leasl

nol photo-

nearly three centuries

architecture.

who

are constantly <r\ ing for

new

but they, like children groping in the

dark, have nol found the way. Whether

mighl do well to consider the

possibilil ies of animal sculpture. There

lack

through deficient education or through

of reasoning power, they have
tried to persuade the world thai artis-

pathos,

tic

work,

emotions through the medium of the

dumb animal-, ami by an endless
variety of form- nature ha- provided

lineation are unnecessary or harmful:

whereas the exact contrary i- true.

The whole experience of mankind.
the whole history of art from the
M -non- to this day. teaches thai there

far

expression can be reached without

that accuracy and skill in de-

i-

no shorl cut, thai there

is

no eas

mol

ives

peculiar

i-

fertile tield

hack

soughl

it.-

plain- ami
tation

cannot

an

expression

for the

the

a-

Old

appealing

human

of

imagination.
St.

me Age

art

inspiration in the forests and

left

which
he

charm,

the

in

tradition.

,.|'

experience

neglected

with

interpre-

ha-

shown

impunity.

ON VIEW AT THE FIRST EXHIBITION OF ANIMAL PAINTING AND SCULPTURE

IN

THIS

COUNTRY

This bronze, the black rhinoceros with tick birds on its back, was modeled by James L. Clark in 1914 shortly after
his return from a trip with A. Radclyffe Dugmore to Africa, where they followed the big game over the African
plains and obtained a famous collection of photographs.
Mr. Clark has studied his animals in the field at close range
and is interested in them as individuals. He shows in the arrangement of his subjects a familiarity with their inner
psychology as well as with their external anatomy.
The love of the animal for its own sake marks the true animal
painter or sculptor.
This rhinoceros bronze (which stands about two feet high) takes on additional interest because it
is a duplicate of one which formed the centerpiece on the library table of the late Colonel Roosevelt's trophy room,
at Oyster Bay

460

Wild

CHAB

Illustrations from the

Livingston

Brooklyn

the

the

first

Museum

holding

of

credit

whal

exhibition

mean an

exhibil

shown

in

Carl

belongs
is

E.

L. Chirk.

Charles

Akeley, unci others'

and therefore regarded by artists and

h>*

men

probably
paint-

M\

NIGH

R.

Bungius, James

of Carl

Bull,

of animal

L E S

work

ing and sculpture in this country.

I

SCULPTURE, PAINT-

IN

BLACK AND WHITE, DEALING WITH ANIMAL LIFE

By

Tn

Johnson

Jfoti

Life in Art

WORK OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ARTISTS

ING, ANT)

aci

lay-

a- a true art expression along the lines

selected

the sculptors and

bj

painters

who

The purpose of those who

had the exhibition in charge was to include

took part

this

picture gallery

in

if.

That our eountrj is young and has, to date, been developing commercially rather than in the
evidenced in the lack of local encouragement of art.
We have great centers like New York Citj
where the painter or sculptor is recognized, finds some small chance for study, inspiration from the atti'',
iio the besl thai is in him, and also the verj
oecessarj commercial market for his
canvases or bronzes.
Bui there is an emphatically disadvantageous situation in this eountrj as a whole
for the artist
perl
cularlj for the animal artist.
young artist h America has to go to 8 gr<
\
fork to sell his work. Hi- towns
in the West, or the South, or the North, would -.Mom think of buying it. or even of holding him
in the high esteem his work deserves.
As a people we are nol yel educated to it. The only art seen in
many places is bj means of the circuit system of sending pictures from citj to city, and these of course
do not reach the small to
Even in New York an artist must hire a place himself if he wishes his work exhibited. The American
art-

of

is

this

inimal sculptures of A. Phimister Proctor the reader is referred to pp. 170 17>;
for further illustrations of the work of Carl E. Akeli
Lmebii \\ M
April, 1913, ]i|>. 172 17-. and May, 1914, pp. IT.". 1-7. for thai ot Louis \_.i--i/ Fuertes
roUENAL for May, 1915, pp. 220 224
Charles R. Knight is illustrated in the

magazine;

i.

for

>

''or

ii

March,

Eiorsfall'

1914, pp 32 98
"California Condor" o

We

Mist Grace Mott Johnson a]

tudio models rather than wild
an interesting insistei

rej

his

have not been able

notable

to give a

irelj

as a sculptor.

led with a suggestion of

planes of the muscular -art.

lifi

reproduction of

an\ ases

II

movement and

4;l

NATURAL IUXTOIIY

k;-j

works having both decorative and

with

character,

the

result

that

realistic

many

dif-

ferent styles of design were presented at the

same

time.

lent

idea,

This seems to

my

only

regret

me

a very excel-

being that the

necessarily limited space forbade the assem-

and more comprehenwas with much pleasure,

therefore, that I was privileged to spend
several hours wandering about the alcoves
bling of a

sive

set

larger

still

exhibit.

It

apart for the purpose.

On

entering the main hall a bronze

first

statuette

of

rhinoceros

caught

my

eye.

work of James L. Clark, at one

time connected with the American Museum
This

is

the

of Natural History.

Mr. Clark made

this

model, which represents a black rhinoceros

with several small tick birds on

its

back,

from a collecting
The character of
trip in Africa in 1913.
the great beast is very well expressed and
one is impressed by the fact that Mr. Clark
loves animals for their own sake and strives
shortly

to

after

his

return

depict not merely their outer form, but

their inner psychology as well.

This

is

most important point and always marks the

true animal painter or sculptor as the case
may be. Miss Grace Johnson, on the other
hand, to judge by her models such as those
of elephants and lions has evidently studied

modeling in the schools, as her work shows

an insistence on the planes of the muscular

art museum seldom holds an exhibition of the work of American artists, except perhaps of such men as
Whistler and Sargent. It buys mostly foreign pictures or bronzes, yet and here is the crux of the whole
matter of comparison of conditions in America and Europe not many European paintings or bronzes
and never any European wild life art is seen for sale in America, because if there is any cleverness in
that kind of work in Europe, it is kept in the particular home town of the artist as a special possession.
In Europe artists do not have to flock to the great centers to find encouragement or market for their
work. In France and various other European countries there are many art galleries scattered in many
towns, and there is a well developed general appreciation of art by the people.
It will take time to educate ourselves to a similar spirit in America, but this is what we must accomCan we doubt that obligation
plish if art in America is to become at all comparable with art in Europe.
responsibility for the result rests upon the great centers, especially upon New York
C. R. Knight.

'.

The famous bronze, "The Wounded Comrade," represents two elephants assisting a wounded bull to
The subject of the bronze and
It is perhaps Mr. Carl E. Akeley's best known group.
Mr. Akeley, noted as a hunter of African
its sympathetic treatment make a strong emotional appeal.
elephants, has studied intimately the animals he portrays, and he gives to his sculptures the true form
and character of wilderness life, which animals living in captivity do not possess. (An illustrated description of the clay model of "The Wounded Comrade" appeared in the Journal for April. 1913)
a place of safety.

ildren of the Sage," a canvas showing the pronghorn antelopes in their wilderness home, by Carl
The artist is a hunter and traveler who has lived much among the western game, painting
limals as he found them in their natural surroundings.
This picture sets forth well the life of
the pronghorn antelope, one of our mosl graceful ruminants and once the commonest large animal of the
Mr. Rungius has been making a large series of paintings of western big game for the New
Plain*.
York Zoological Society
A.11 of these arc
from sketches and observations in the field and arc valuable
I

ius.

North American wild

records of our disappearing

surfaces,-

good point, but one which may

She is vastly more

one of these panels

this study than in the real char-

punj

easily be carried too far.

interested

in

acter of the animal ami

her work

in

therefore mention

eye

this

reason,

general

movemenl

in

her work,

she approaches the subjed

little

elit itieS,

no other,

for

it'

one.

bad

very

granted the general public's

its

knowledge on the subject

She has an exami a

proporl

for

hum' head and

fear that work of this sorl

of

that

feel

body.

rather takes

interest

w hich

lie

who regards them

relj

can

beauty

Tun

point- of view apparently prevail

in

any collection of paintings or sculpture con

necte.l

with

gives a

subject:

animal a-

portrayal of

.lone

is

this

with

the

in

exact

its

portrait,

one

living

whi.h

character a^

merely

iv-

garding the animal as a piece of color or

ami treating it accordingly.
Both
seem logical ami
suppose are really cor-

pattern

as

related,

in

most

other

fields

of

artistic

endeavor.

Mr.
in

Moorepark's interesting composil

pastel,

for example,

ami decorative
are often

the

tiner

line, but

quite lacking

show

love of color

the birds themselves

in

construction and

drawing which should accompany

in art.
The condor in

every serious attempt

full

They are

withal so vigorous
that

seems

it

living

as

spots of color

of

living

the

and
and construction
do them full jus-

so fine, so graceful,
in

line

a pity not to

creature ami

ther

tl

deals

creatures.

the

is

deplored, as no one

purely as a sculptor ami not as a lover of

grasp

and for

practice

his subjects as

in

to

iS

he

Moorepark evidently has

Mr.

animal

life.

grotesque

absolutely

is

proportions, with

its

lack

certain suggestion of
el

in

this connection as diametrically

Opposite that of Mr. ('lark.

cellent

life

,,i'
wild ducks and
work of an artist who.
am not mistaken, began life as a figure
if
They show what one would expect,
painter.

Mr.

geese

-indies

Benson's

represent

the

knowledge of composition ami values es

in the work of a serious painter.
understand that Mr. Benson has had great

sential

success

with

sometimes

enough drawn
for

in

to be

pictllies.

but

convincing.

drawn

they

et

that

not

One

a re

well

panel,

of SWanS or

flight

the individuals

carelessly

handling and

example, presents a

geese,
so

these

trivial

the group are

in

their

real

identity
163

"The Mountaineers," an

oil

Copyright by Carl Rungius

painting of bighorn sheep, by Carl Rungius, portrays magnificent speci-

mens of an animal in many ways the most picturesque of the Rocky Mountain fauna. Mountain sheep
are now so nearlj extinct that to attain his sketch Mr. Rungius must have spent many difficult weeks
or months among the wilds of the Rockies.
This canvas is one of the series belonging to the New
YorTc Zoological Society

is

This seems unnecessary

rather a mystery.

ami in no way adds to the artistic effect.

In other pictures the character of the birds
is most accurately indicated and one gets an
impression of life and atmosphere which is
very charming. Taken as a whole, the work
is interesting and a departure from the more

The picture was loaned by the Metropolitan

of Art, and will repay careful

Museum

study on the part of the observer.

Carl Rungius, rather meagerly represented
in

this

exhibit

big

in the

mention a drawing of a partridge done by

Gerald G. Thayer.
This is an elaborately

each year.

tective

coloration in

The picture

is

birds of this species.

unique in

its

way, as the

values of the bird against its background

have been most painstakingly indicated, with

the result that the creature
ible

is

almost invis-

it merge
was painted under

at first sight, so closely does

into its surroundings.

It

the personal guidance of the artist's father,

Abbott H. Thayer, and exemplifies many of

the points so carefully brought out by the
celebrated painter in regard to what we now
call

"camouflage,"

cealing an
color

4G4

or

the

science

of

con-

object by means of masses of

artfully

distributed over its surface.

picture and

his bighorn

a man who has

game

hackneyed paintings of game birds. As a

complete contrast with the above, one may

painted work illustrating the value of pro-

by

studies of pronghorn antelope,

is

a hunter of

lived for

months

mountains of the great West, shooting

and painting during a considerable part of
All his studies are

made

in the

and the animals he depicts are rarely

seen in our zoological parks where they are
represented at best by a few sickly individuals not at all comparable with the magnificent creatures so ably portrayed by the
artist.
Mr. Rungius has endured hunger
and privation in his search for the various
species of big game, and he has been working for some years on a series of pictures
for the New York Zoological Society. These
pictures, which include the moose, elk, caribou, antelope, and musk ox, have all been
painted in
the
true
environment from
sketches made on the spot, and should prove
field,

a valuable record of our rapidly vanishing

big game animals.

WILD LIFE IS ART

I

to,

ii

;i

made

the work of the artists already n

more or
to

beautiful

less

portray
|

serious attempl

some

definite

hase of animal

A VALUABLE

life

t65

ratively or realistically, bul

has

such intention on the

and withal
either deco

Rather do
a

trifling

see in

with

all

'-an

deted qo

pan of Mr. Nadelman.

examples of

tin-

that

makes

bis

work

for un^l

art

PERMANENT RECORD OF ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS

OF AFRICAN BIG GAME

This Btudy in Knin/r about two feel h trli

of the African buffalo, bj James L, Clark, is an excellent
le not
onlj of fine modeling i">t also of natural pose and expression,
It
is
a duplicate of the
bronze presented by the men
lub of Ami
robi Club, in
meraorj of the late Frederick Courtenay Selous, thi
Prue Sportsman, and Gallant Soldier" who u;is kaii
m German East Africa, January 3 L917 One " thi most idventuresome
torj he liked best to tell, was
when he nearly h>-t hi- life
irging African lmtTalo
i

>

NATURAL HISTORY

Hi.;

and

The

energy.

misdirected

generally

Mr. Nadelman knows better and he presumes upon our

good nature when he presents to us as works
of art the distorted lumps of bronze which
he is pleased to call animal sculpture. When
work of this sort is excavated from some
irritating part of

prehistoric grave

ment of

it.

all is that

it

we

are lenient in our judg-

but there can be no excuse for

in our day ami time.

from work of this character,
let us turn to that of a sincere student and
As
lover of animals, Mr. Carl E. Akeley.
a hunter, taxidermist, and inventor, Mr.
Akeley is well known. lie has collected for
many years in Africa and his groups of

such monstrosities

As a

relief

mounted animals
Natural

in

the

Field

and

Chicago,

History,

Museum

of

elsewhere

is

best

known by

and makes one long for some totally

be,

In the work of Bruce Horsfall we find a

decided contrast to the

flat

decorative panels

so characteristic of Mr. Bull's method,

a return

to

and

the strictly realistic point of

Mr. Horsfall is a trained and compainter who, while not primarily a

lover of animal life, is nevertheless capable
view.

petent

of conveying to our minds some very pleas-

impressions

ing

animal

of

"California Condor"

His

nature.

a scholarly piece of
work, well painted, well drawn, and withal
excellent in character.
It depicts the great
is

ungainly bird standing on a rocky ledge,

with outstretched wings poised for

The sunlight

strikes

sharply

on

tesquely wrinkled head and neck,

flight.

the

and

As

strong shadow upon the glaring yellow

in the

The picture

background.

is

gro-

cast- a

his

deserve all the praise accorded to them.

a sculptor Mr. Akeley

may

different conception of the subject at hand.

cliff

interest-

group "The Wounded Comrade," which shows

a wounded bull elephant being assisted to a
The
place of safety by two companions.
work makes a strong human appeal and the
sentiment is excellent. "The Elephant Herd
Charging" while less dramatic gives one a

ing and convincing, and illustrates what can

good idea of a herd of swiftly moving

pachyderms. Mr. Akeley is a close student,
a keen observer, and above all a seriousminded man who believes in trying to present (as does Mr. Rungius) the actual form
and character of animals seldom seen at

"Giraffe,"

their best in captivity.

Mr. Charles L. Bull, whose numerous

trations are well

known

current magazines,

is

to

illus-

readers of our

a firm believer in the

qualities of animal form and

His work while based primarily upon

decorative
color.

that of the Japanese is nevertheless original

in

conception and treatment.

is

perhaps Mr. Bull's strongest point,

though he shows a

many

Composition
al-

fine feeling for color in

of his pictures.

His work includes a

wide range of subjects but the treatment

substantially the same in

He

is

a
which grows
rather monotonous at times, although the
lack of roundness in his animal forms is not
evident to most people. He shows excellent
taste in his arrangements of light and dark
surfaces and altogether his work occupies a
rather unique place in the field of animal
art.
If one might criticise work of this
flat

delineation

sort, I

of

all.

affects

surfaces

should say that the constant reitera-

scheme of treatment grows

rather tiresome no matter how pleasing it

tion of a certain

be done in the portrayal of a wild creature

and observing man.

was with great regret that I learned
of the untimely death of Mr. Rembrandt

by a

skillful

It

Bugatti. shortly after the completion of the

a bronze model loaned to the

Brooklyn exhibition by Mrs. H. P. Whitney.

much

Just how

this talented

young man knew

or cared about animals I cannot say, but the

bronze

certainly the work of a clever

and one who, had he lived, might

is

sculptor

have made a name for himself along these

lines.
The ungainly body and long awk-

ward legs of the giraffe are nicely indicated,

and the modeling itself is thoroughly well
done.

Miss Anna Hyatt

is

represented by sev-

minor pieces which show, nevertheless,

her ability to catch and preserve a difficult
Her "Jaguar Tearing a Piece of
pose.
Meat" is well composed and the main action
good, but the muscular anatomy of the
shoulders is not well understood and the
It is
statuette loses something thereby.
eral

such a small exhibit to represent

adequately the work of any one artist and I
difficult in

much regret that Miss Hyatt could not

have shown at least a small study of her
"Joan of Arc," the bronze original of which
very

now

occupies a splendid site on Riverside

Drive,

New York

City.

This

is

most

cer-

tainly Miss Hyatt's supreme effort thus far,

and
in

to
this

my mind
country.

the best equestrian statue

The

sculptor's

love

of

horses has stood her in good stead in this

"PEACOCK AND PANTHER" STUDY

work
related
his

profound

who wish

tn

oi

in

Charles Livingston Bull, well

treatment in Japanese arl

belief

in thi
analyze fine 1111111111-1111111

qualities
in

known
II

of

IN

ANIMAL FORM AND COLOR

public, always
work covers a verj wide
animal form ami color.
u<

the

animal painting and

to

shows originality .if conception although

range ol subjects ai
His canvases are recommended to those

develop appreciation of

fine

color
4117

NATURAL HISTORY

4G8

wrought

carefully

later

ette,

statu-

enlarged

for

one of the buildings at

Princeton,

Like

New

Jersey.

of Mr. Proctor's

all

work, great care has been

taken with the superficial

finish of the pieces but
as a
]

work of

art I

much

refer the buffalo to the

great feline, the former

being much better understood in every way. Few

men are able to grasp the
characters of

salient

animals

of

types

all

with

equal facility, and I feel

that Mr. Proctor's feline

rather

are

types

lack-

ing in this regard.

standing

"Puma"

His

for ex-

ample (made some years

ago)

decidedly off an-

is

atomically,

and certainly

does not give one the impression

of a great

standing in an

He

of attention.
ever,

cat

attitude
is,

how-

much more happy

in his delineation of the

and

horse,

and
a

his

Horse,"

"Indian
unfortu-

Miss Eugenie F. Shonnard at work on the excellent model of Dinah

nately not shown here,

young

a most excellent piece of

gorilla lately

instance

Orleans

ami
is

the

on view

figure

at

of

Bronx Park
the

Maid

of

both graceful and statuesque in

pose.

H. Pritchard strikes a new note in his

made on the Tahiti reefs.
The artist took no end of trouble to obtain
Z.

paintings of fishes

is

work.
A number of the
animals and birds decorating the buildings
in the New York Zoological Park are the
work of Mr. Proctor, and he has executed
many other large and successful commissions

throughout the country.

Mr. Julius Rolshoven contributes a large

been so inclined.
The color is interesting
but not very convincing as a suggestion of
a watery medium.

and ambitious panel in pastel and tempera

"Sun Arrow," and several smaller studies.
The subject of the panel is an Indian chief
mounted on a most extraordinary looking
horse, which at first sight seems to have
stepped from the canvas of some old Dutch
painter.
The anachronism leaves a bad impression on the mind of the spectator and

known

discloses a lack of close study on the part

these pictures, actually going below the sur-

face of the water to observe his effects.

The

results are interesting, yet one feels that

Mr.

Pritchard could have done

much more from

the art standpoint with his subjects had he

A. P. Proctor, long and favorably

as an animal sculptor, shows several small

of the artist.

works which are mostly studies for his large

bronzes.
His "Buffalo Bull" is the scale
model for the heroic statue recently set up
on one of the new bridges in Washington,

rode such a horse as this, and where Mr.

D. C, while his "Princeton Tiger"

is

also a

Rolshoven

With

Surely no Indian brave ever

found

him,

can't

imagine.

and flashy technique the picture leaves one cold and unimpressed.
The smaller studies of Indians,
all

its brilliant

color

WILD LIFE IN ART

charming

very

are

however,

and

color

in

The small models of birds by Miss Shon

nard are very well done and have a certain
quality
about them
[ue
style and
most

pleasanl

An

see.

to

on view

lately

in

unfortunately not shown in

is

Barvey

Eli

small

one

has

and

large

several

They are

exhibition.

on

pieces

all

characterized by this serious sculptor's usual

attention

The

large

lent

as

and
good

detail

to

shows

Cutis**

very

roaring

to

character

"Menelik"

lion

attitude

indeed.
is

hind

the

bul

and

"Lioness

his

excel-

quarters

animal

ild

regard to the depicl ion

a-

life

to

op] OSed

he

mestic forms have been cast aside ami hence-

we may hope

forth

held

the

in

to see similar

exhibitions

center- throughout

various ait

country. Surely there is no good

wh\ the magnificenl wild animal life

rea-oli

wot

to

tin-

goo

exhibit.

bust of

excellent

Dinah (the young gorilla

Bronx Part

bound prejudici
Of

decidedly interesting.

469

about

id
I

ii-

should

relegated

the

in

he

graces of men who paint only what are

known

a- "s] orting" picture-.

the exhibition jusl

We

trust that

over will direct the eyes

of both artist ami layman alike to the vast

untrodden
this

fields

direction,

which are open to them

and that

may

type- of wild things

the

all

in

magnificent

tin-

Ke fully utiliz

reproduction of beautiful ami inte

seem small and weak for the general physique

ing work- of art.

of the

ate as well the great opportunities offered to

ast.

Paul Herzel also shows a number of small

models of feline types.

and cubs

lioness

young artist strikes me as being

particularly good in composition and attitude, but I cannot say as much for the
tiger and python model, even though the
by this

latter did get

prize

;i

numerous museums ami ZOOlog

us by the

gardens

in

our great

serious student

derive so

Let US learn to appreci

in

cities,

this

from which the

branch of

much pleasure ami

art

may

profit.

a school exhibition.

in

group while very violent

i- decidedly false and unpleasant
in conception, and the work is a good example of
what not to do in an effor.t to obtain a

The action

dramatic

this

in

No

effect.

tiger,

would or could assu

group and

this

poor.

lly

shown

in

snake

is

seems

It

convinced,

of

pose

the

am

the attitude

the

to the writer that all

such attempt-- at super-action are distinctly

bad

and should be condemned as such.

art

Carve, the celebrated French sculptor, loved

for

in

tin

it-

own

sake, but

ami

animals,

hi-

therefore

always interesting ami

we

will,

trust,

in

the

made
are

--tick

more

work ami

direct

future

the

results

Mr. Eerzel

artistic.

closely to actualities in his

his

he never

mistake of overdoing the movement of

undoubted ability into more

realistic

ami

beautiful channels.

The very charming

Roth are

little

of lite an.

full

ami

fountain

models by Mr.
Mr. Rock-

action.

group give evidence of thoughtful care ami study, while

Mi-- Crittenden's little pastels are charming
well's

in

color.

as

but

had
feel

rhino

Unfortunately,
I

-ure

Mr.

Chandler's

removed before my
that

their

brilliant

visit,

color

schemes and fanciful arrangements of fishes

and b
teres! ing.
The exhibition as a whole is a eonvim

A Paradise crane in plaster bj Mi-- Shonnard.

Shonnard's small models of birds have a
certain style ami statuesque qualitj which arc
very pleasing.
The advantage ' arl is
a lows empha
il
form, or
bj
keeping the detail subdued in din

illustration of the tact that at

which

lasl

the hide-

would

1ft
MAJESTY OF THE POWER OF BRAIN AND BRAWN EVOLVED

IN

WILD ANIMALS

United States shows its youthfulness in the lack of art works in the cities and towns, and is likely in the coming decade to reveal the advancing years of its civilization by a great development in communal art and architecture.
Much
of this is certain to be carried out in a record of wild animal life.
No nation more than the American people has shown
fine sentiment toward the preservation of wild birds and animals, but with all this the big game is rapidly becoming
extinct.
Zoological statuary of the highest order will not only set up before us the greatest beauty and power, outside of man, that the earth has evolved, but also will preserve in imperishable stone and metal great races which
are vanishing from the ranks of life.
The giant Bengal tigers by the sculptor, A. Phimister Proctor, which
mark the termination of the Sixteenth Street Bridge, crossing Piney Branch, Washington, are examples of
the best animal sculpture to be found in our national capital.
Washington was laid out on a predetermined plan and therefore possesses generous opportunities for the use of municipal statuary. Such
statues as have been erected, however, are largely war memorials, with few zoological subjects, although a number of lions and more or less conventionalized eagles embellish or disfigure certain
public monuments.
We value highly as subjects for our statues the Old World species tigers,
lions, elephants
for are not these the forms we know from our ancestry, from our literature
and traditions?
But notwithstanding this cosmopolitan interest, as Americans we should
like to see immortalized our native American fauna, in connection with which the pioneer history of the United States has developed

'he

170

Zoological Statuary at the National Capital

By

modern

all

INof

cities of the civilized

we

world

tlit'

find

in

nations

parks,

public

and buildings, statues which,

places,

in

main, are devoted to distinguished per-

tlic

sonages of

"lie

nation or another, to

alle-

and to general designs,

ii\
exemplifying the stage of development attained in that branch of the fine arts
subjects,

gorical

time of their erection;

the

at

ELD

W. SHI) F

R.

Union, honorary member Royal Australasian Ornithologists'

member Zoological Society of London, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
and many other scientific societies of Europe and America

Union,

American Ornithologists'

Fellow

statues are the

the

or else

materialization of the con-

With

conflict.

has

these

present

the

nor

uothing to do;

is

my

it

article

purpose

take into consideration those groups in

which horses form a part.
Although they
are, in a way, zoological, they are nut of
to

the ferine class which

t

have

in

mind for

reatment.

Taking animals

may

pointed

be

natural

in

out

that

sequence,

and

fish

it

reptiles

ceptions of some of the noted sculptors "t

but rarelj enter into sculpture of the class

under consideration; still, some nondescript

Often these statues an- of greal

animals of the latter group are to be seen

the period.

merit, lending a peculiar dignity to the city

ami

to

decree tending to exert, through

their presence, an elevating

and refining

the minds of the

fluence upon

in-

members of

the community.

have turned

mv

attention recently to a

department of

special

this particular activ-

with the view of making a study of the

ity,

Washington as are
in design, and of
which animals have Keen employed

merits of such statues

in

in

the great fountain in the Botanical Gar-

and a more elaborate representation

form is found in the famous
Hinton Perry fountain of the Congressional
Library, where we see on the primal base at
the foot of Neptune, certain frogs, hawksbill

dens,

of a similar

and an

turtles,

have

to

which seems
the famous

eel-like creature

modeled

been

after

Japanese shark. Chlamydost lachus anguirn

us

purely of a zoological type

the

those

named and described by the late Samuel

The fore-flippers of the turtles
Garman.
(Caretta imbricata) are too long and too
narrow for adult examples, and it would
appear that the distinguished sculptor of
this group selected rather young specimens
As we know, the limbs
for his models.

in

in allegorical pier,- or groups.*

surprising how very few animal

we find in the city of Washington.
the mure to be wondered at because no

It

is

statues
Ir

i-

other

city

Letter

to

the

in

world

the exhibition

today

lends

itself

of this branch of

Washington's streets and avenues

art.

are.

the main, generously laid out, with greal

in

width between the broad sidewalks; they are

abundantly

lit

are ever tidy

in

intersections at

night by electricity ami

appearance; their numerous

at

common

points are often the

chosen sites for "circles" or parks of various

dimensions.
for

statues,

These are admirable locations

pieces,

or groups, and are usu-

Many

available for such purposes.

ally

them have already been Utilized in

ner, and we find, in not a few

this

of

man-

install.--.

bronze statue- of heroes of our Civil War,

commanders of
1

the

Federal troops

in

that

In pursuing this study

I
have been assisted in
matter of obtaining data by <'ol. William \V.
Hart-. Cur).- of Engineers, United States Army,
in charge of public buildings and grounds at ilunational capital, and by Daniel J. Donovan

the

retarj

to the

lumbia,
extend

my

t.,

Commissioners

both of
thanks.

whom

it

of the
affords

District

me

pleasure to

Illustrations from

iddest

type

existing

especially the forepair

are

much narrower and longer

animal than

Among
that

birds, the eagle

ha-

been

so far as

been used

selected

proportionately
in

is

the only species

for

representation,

is

doubtless due to the tact that

to

he the

United state- of America.

known
rally

me

to
in

emblem
In

of the

no instance

the eagle represented natu-

is

any piece of sculpture, or

metal reproduction,
ton.

the subadult

have observed; ami that this has

happens

the eagle

vertebrate,

matured specimen.

the

in

of

that

is.

so

the city of

in

far

groups

as

place- are concerned.

in any
Washing

in

public

Scores of these birds

are to be found, either as single piece- or in

groups; but they are

all

more

or less

ideal-

and performing some feat that makes

them appear ridiculous, from whatever view
ized,

point we may select.

number of the feathers

'I

he
in

arrangement ami
nm^v and tail

the

photographs by the Author

171

the four concrete lions, modeled by a New York sculptor in 1909, for the Connecticut Avenue Bridge,
This figure is on the southwest end of the bridge and measures nine feet in height and twelve feet
Here was an opportunity to model the great "King of Beasts" so that the majesty of his creation would aplong.
Instead we have what appear to be "sick lions unwillingly pulled
peal to all observers through generations to come.
from some passing menagerie, to pose just as death was overtaking them"

One

of

Washington.

One
stance

172

""

Columbus Memorial, Washington, modeled by a Chicago sculptor.

where the sculptured marble brings little pride to American art of the twentieth century

of a pair of lions on the

This also

is

an

in-

ZOOLOGICAL STATUARY AT THE NATIONAL CAPITAL

arc invariably incorrect; other parts are doI
in

flue

much

proportion,

The

natural.

less

eagles at the base of the MEcClellan statue,

opposite "The Highlands," are support]
heavy wreath in the most unnatural way

and

the

sighl

down

the

spine of any

imaginable,
send

chills

at

everj

angle of the

handsome production

tine,

base of this

metal,

bronze or other suitable

eagle,

adult

of

birds

in

the big, out-door eagle cage at

National Zoological
utes'

for this work.

fifteen

in

my

least,

pose

a-

it

any

is

in

as

just

other

to

zoological gardens;

important
serve

as

an

am

not
to

considering.

pur-

excuse

Especially

present

at

is

All of the entrances

reservation

great

for

public ex

tin'

of captive animal-

hibition

this true of

i-

which

sculpture,

represented there.
this

first

introduce some work of the da

mammalian

from

all

[.arts

of the world, mi' singularly unattractive and

primitive

in

character, an.

gree a disgrace to such

trance

one of the purposes for which we keep

certainly an opportunity of the

is

order to

this

opinion, this

these

of

Speaking of the National Zoological Park,

here

the

min-

prisoners

life

creatures.

live

have selected as models

Indeed,

wild animals confined

at

not

all

walk from this MH'lelhin statue, that

the sculptor might

is

Park,

in

natural

normal proportions, and perfecl in

her respects.
There arc plenty of

size,
.it

to

well-in-

There could doI have

opportunity to have

formed ornithologist.
l.een
a more fitting
placed

sufficient

is

making

our

for

4T3

applies

on

particularly
the

little

de

country a- ours;
to

main enAvenue side.

the

Connecticut

Apart from
there,

a few simple signboards placed

nothing indicates to the visitor that

he

about

is

National

to

enter

the

of

confines

the

Zoological

Park

state- of

America.

For example, we find

nothing

correspond to the

at

to

the Girard

logical

of

the

tine

Avenue entrance

lion

to

Gardens of Philadelphia, or

''i"!

United

group

the Zoo
to simi-

marble pedestals of the unfinished Grant Memorial in the Botanical Gar

game fauna i- large antelope,
buffalo, musk ox. mounDd Bheep, severs
and Ml the bears.
Anj of these would appear with
strength and beauty and dignitj in our municipal or national statuary; and so fasl are thej becoming
exterminated it will be as if onlj tomorrow in the storj of the earth's history that ;ill have disap]
dens,

Washii

native big

NATURAL HISTORY

474

other parts of the world.

time that a suitable sum be
appropriated for this purpose. Let us trust
that, when it <loes come about, when the prolar

groups

Surely

it

in

is

tural license in the modeling of the animal

pieces

points

are to occupy various salient

throughout the city.
There is no

that

excuse for such unscientific and often ghastly

can be properly financed,

animal statues worthy of the name will be
selected by the authorities having this im-

work.

portant matter in charge.

practical zoology that can have only an un-

enterprise

posed

It is a miserable, misdirected expen-

diture of funds, and publicly perpetuates a

bunch of errors

in

comparative anatomy and

have an unusual number

upon the mind of the popuand young, as it passes down the

Take for example the four
ages to come.
concrete lions that occupy the terminating
pedestals of the Connecticut Avenue bridge,
one upon either hand at the entrances.
Here was an unusual opportunity to place
a couple of pieces that would have been

of

not only a credit to the nation but also a

upon the highroad to extinction;

among these I may mention the antelope,
the elk, the buffalo, the musk ox, the moun-

source of inspiration and education to the

am

Personally, I

distinctly opposed to the

choosing of non-indigenous animals for proIn Washington, foreign

jects of this kind.

animals have been employed altogether too

often as subjects for statues of this class.

There are lions here, lions there, lions everywhere, and several of them very impossible

We

lions at that.

of large

mammals

in

country,

this

all

wh'ich are

tain goat

and

all

and sheep, several species of

of the bears.

deer,

Comparatively speak-

when the greater

number of these animals will be exterminated; we shall know them only through
preserved skins, mounted museum specimens,
and pictures of various kinds all of which
are more or less perishable in their nature.
What would form at this time a desirable
addition to the National Zoological Park
would be two life-size statues of famous
American mammals in bronze, placed upon
suitable pedestals at the main entrance on
ing, the time is not far off

desirable effect

lace,

old

But what
The sculptures present the ap-

people for generations to come.

have we?

pearance of sick

lions,

unwillingly pulled

from some passing menagerie, to pose just

as death was overtaking them. No lion living ever possessed such a form as has been
given to any one of these by the sculptor.
Their musculature

is

absolutely incorrect in

every particular, and idealism has been carried to the point of the ridiculous

pear like starved, dead

lions,

they ap-

with impos-

Perhaps none better

manes, and morphology, bolup in cadaveric poses.

Even more impossible leonine pieces are
those on the Columbus Memorial, in front of
These lions are hideous
the Union Station.

could be selected for this particular purpose

in their facial expressions, terrible in their

than an adult, antlered, bull

unnatural proportions, and passing strange

Connecticut Avenue.

elk, in

a char-

upon the one hand, and, on

the other, an old, male moose, modeled after
as fine a specimen as the northern wilds can
furnish.
The work should be placed in the
hands of a sculptor familiar with the superacteristic pose,

ficial

mals,

or topographical
as

well

as

anatomy of these

ani-

with their characteristic

In time, similar statues

could be placed at the remaining entrances
to this Park, in keeping with their importance and in harmony with their surroundposes in nature.

ings.

Finally, at suitable points within the

Park, another piece or two

perhaps three

could be placed to good advantage.

One

of

these might be an extinct animal form, for

example, the ponderous Stegosaurus stenops,

the ancient herbivore so successfully mod-

eled recently

by Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, of

the United States National Museum.

Personally, I

am much

averse to

sculp-

sible muscles,

stered

in

their

superficial

anatomy.

Muscles are

shown that have no existence in nature and

are absurd from any point from which we
may study or view them. They are pitiable
examples of the cheap, American sculptural
work of the twentieth century, and they
years to come, furnish food for
laughter and ridicule for students of correct
lines in animal contours and normal poses

will, in the

of the big carnivores of the present time.

No

lion

ever looked the least bit like the

two that confront one on this celebrated

Columbus Memorial in Washington.
Better lions are those upon the marble
pedestals which form a part of the Grant
Memorial in the Botanical Gardens, oppoThis elaborate and long
site the Capitol.
unfinished piece of work was intended to
commemorate the deeds of a great American military hero

but

it

stands

now as

t-

<

LU

- '

jS

Bengal tiger on the Sixteenth Street Bridge, Washington (see front view of the same figure, page 470). This
great cat, ten feet long in the bronze, by Proctor, 1911, has been given a pose characteristically feline, and the anatomical detail, where indicated, is perfect, giving a result altogether pleasing both to the zoologist and the artist

Bridge is an object of admiration in the eyes of all visitors to Washington, and the bronze
It is suggested that at the entrances
lend an appreciable dignity and elegance to the highway.
moose,
of the National Zoological Park the addition of life-size statues of American big game, especially of elk and
would fill a great present need

The Sixteenth

tigers

476

of heroic

Street

size

ZOOLOGICAL STATU
though evidence of an ease

among

country's great

produced
tives

of

parts

nt'

on

The

and

representa-

mammalian fauna

the

eertain

<>t'

Sixteenth

Branch,

pose, which

superb

subtle

meaning that

1^11

work.

natural, and with a certain

of

1 i

cros

of

pieces

the mimic in each animal,

is

is full

<

Bridge,

Street

are

not only eharacteris

is

tically feline, but especially

appropriate for

does imt allow the just principles of eonvenin sculpture ami modeling to over-

prominent position

ton

is

in

one of the

to

of a

ment; and Proctor's great, tigerine cats

objects of admiration

lie

them

in

besl

modern city. Washingbe congratulated upon this achieve-

known avenues

for

all

should

will

who view

their

famous -pans

(crossing

Rock Creek

between

Twenty-third

enterprises nt that character.

in'

line

of

will

in-

at
nt'

once observed

animal

fish
tin-

base,

at

poses,

that

Mr.

or reptiles in

all

lei

it

is

to

it

prove to

will

1"'

an exposition

zoological

anatomical

and

tacts

as

we

that this knowledge will be

employed, in any particular instance, to perpetuate the normal and the real in such of
our big

in

as

especially

we may
as

these

select

for the

creatures

are

being as rapidly exterminated upon this continent as they are n the wilds of other parts

his

of the world.

Proctor

statuary inn

mammals

purpose,

be

awksbill turtles and frogs on

ft

Neptune, in the famous Hinton

As shown in the photograph n very young
the great

Ami

that constitutes a correct concept ion

the

the feet of

as moilcl. indicated bj

nt'

St

ompleted.
It

series

American

know them, ami

four years after his bronze tigers

idealization

of

and
Twenty-fifth
work which was finished July 22,

1915,

in

Street

bridge at

be fervently hoped when Washington comes

tn repeat such work in other parts nt' the
will bear the
city, that each achievement
stamp nt' a similar knowledge of require-

ot'

niie nt' a

history

the

in

all

Their very presence at

mire stamps the latter as

ment-: thai

the

purpose for

grandeur ami naturalness impress

the entrances to the above-nai

model and erect four bronze American bisons

of

the

I'm-

he

beholders favorably.

the ages to co

terminal-

represented

is

lmffalo

American

are sculptured or easl so close to nature that

Of

the

I"'

be natural.

to

the

how

of

employed it. most emphatically

stands for tin-. These four splendid bisons

which

Proctor was also given the opportunity to

at

what we recognize

conception

pieces of this character, occupying, as they

do, a

\::

tionalism
rule

civilization.

India, the four bronze Bengal tigers

the

Piney

forgetting our

in

glorifying

their

AT THE NATIONAL CAPITAL

the warriors she has

her history

Ld

Apart from

I/;)'

-i

im<

<

onal

Library,

awksbill must have been used

ANIMAL POPULATION FOUND ON MUD BOTTOM OF ONEIDA LAKE

environment to plant
Oneida Lake, New York, illustrates the relation of physical
bowlder graveL and
genera! types of' lake bottom could be definitely dtatog^hed:
in turn serve
v, Inch
vegetation
and mud. These different soils support varied types of
sandy
food tor various species of fish. Although
as food for different animal groups, which in their turn serve as
A.

ant

biological survey of

Si!

life
clay, clay,

four of

478

its

legs]

sS

Studies in Aquiculture or Fresh-water Farming

By

RANK COLLINS

Museum

Curator,

TEE

of

war thai has but recently

shown in a must
forceful manner the intimate relationship between the food supply and the
Food shortwell-being of the human race.
age has caused our people more or less willingly to economize food supplies and to
increase food production, and to submit
great

come

to a close lias

murmur

almost without a

peace tinier would

in

Perhaps

ated.

to restrictions that

ha\e

not

'

other

Dothing

than

this

world tragedy could have turned the attention of the nation

to the

intensivelj

-.,,

study

Yields of wheat and of

of increase,! crops.

corn have risen to onthought-of proportions

an.

the

spirit

of the American

meeting the problems of decrease,!

pie in

numlier of home gardens at-

vast

the magnificenl

test

while the Ian,

is

being made to give

up an ever increasing share of

the

waters are being

products,

its

and experi-

studied

ments carried on to demonstrate the posof water culture.

But the watei

sibilities

has

no such careful study as the

received

are

immense,

land;

yet

known

possibilities in the

there

productions

These

way

almost

un-

of feed crop

our inland lakes am! rivers.

in

possibilities

are

being

in

realize,!

seme places and extensive ami far-reaching

studies have

made, principally

been

New

in

the

York, and Wisconsin.

state-

,,f

From

these studies, and from others carried

mi

Illinois.

by the

has

been

aquatic

and

Federal

Bureau of

lake

food of

lislies

waters

Illinois

in

epoch-making, likens a pond or

a microcosm or miniature world.

to

all of the processes ,,f |,fe go on alindependently of the lam! around it.
But within this microcosm all are interde-

In

it

most

pendent,

the

large

upon

feeding

fish

smaller organisms, and

these

in

the

upon

turn

those

still smaller, ami agencies that affect

any one group of animals or plants inllu
ence in a more or less marked degree the

whole

life of tin' pond.

Furthermore, in
studying any one organism in this micro-

cosm

necessary to include

is

it

till

organisms,

as well as all physical agencies, that are related

to

life

come
we wish

or that

it

For example,

contact with

in

it.

understand the
history of our black bass, one of our
if

to

game (ishes, we must

we can concerning this
fish, but also what it feeds upon, what the
food supply tee, Is upon, and finally the general character of the environment, whether

that
crops of
animals ran be raised
artificial

snipes

tl

ami

ami

fish
in

ponds
that

natural,

not only learn what

value the land crops pro-

Much has been

duced from the -ante area.
done for agriculture through the vai

or unfavorable.

ta\ orable
a

natural

complete

pond

life

is

In

history

necessary

other winds.

survey

of

understand

to

Realizing

poverty

the

of

the

conditions,

fish

and

supply

State College of

Fniversitv sought
a

in

inland lake.

ogy, College of

relates to

it

Accordingly, Dr.

Forestry, established

conduct

lo

<

'.

C.

Departmenl of Forest Zool-

atories mi the lake, and the writer

ileged

to

measure, by carry-

Oneida Fake. New York's

ing on studies in

the

knowledge

our
as

general ecological

New York

this defect,

Adams, of

of

life

to

Syracuse

Forestry at

largest

fish,

lish.

on the subject
the

the
fully

the history and value of this beautiful

or of any

remedy

Fisherii

shown

stream~.

rival or

of the

ies

ha\e been

most valued food .ami

food supply.

And

ER

B A K

Natural History. Universitj of Illinois

labor-

was

priv-

beaiillg on

studies

tins.

conditions governing the production of ani-

problems during 1915, 1916, and L917.

These studies included examinations of the
stomach contents of lish to ascertain the

mals ami plants living

kind and quantity "f

organized

i,s

problems.

for

solution

the

of

its

A.quiculture, or the study of 'he

in

water,

fresh

lias

eaten: an inten-

received no such extended investigation ami

sive

study of the animal and plant

we are

the

lak,

st,||

ignoranl

of

many important

facts which are necessary before aquiculture

i-

,,n

he

same sound basis

Professoi 8. A.

:i

Forbes, win-'

iculture.

early stud-

biota

tain

the

to

studies to
the

fish

tish

find

fauna

the

fauna:

out.
thai

if

relation

of
the

and quantitative

possible,

the

life

of

lake

the size of

was able

to
4 7! I

Sand bottom in Oneida Lake is usually found in lagoons and other spots protected from the direct action of the waves.
In such places the bulrushes nourish and here are found the best conditions for the growth of the small clams, snails, and insects which form an important element of the
food of fish.
This photograph of the sand bottom area of the lagoon east of the steamboat landing.
Lower South Bay, was taken from a mud bottom habitat in the foreground where the vegetation
is more dense but less favorable for mollusks, and illustrates the close relation between the lake
fauna and flora and the type of lake bottom.
The lagoon is one of the best habitats for the filamentous

alga

known

as

Cladophora

The invertebrate population of

The bivalve mollusk (Sphcerium)

a sixteen-inch square of sand bottom under four feet of water.

at the left, the pond snails
(Lymncea) below the center, and
small snails (Amnicola) in the lower right-hand corner are in notable predominance.
Only five animals other than mollusks were found here, although over the sand bottom as a whole the latter
make up only about 50 per cent of the invertebrate life. The mollusks of this lake serve as food
i. illy
for the pumpkin seed and the common sucker and indirectly for the bass and pike which
eat mollusk-eating fish

480

STUDIES IX AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING

support with the amount of the biota presThe investigations, in a way, paralent.
those carried on

leled

problems,

cultural

this

tl

nvironments of the

tion

objects studied Ix'iny quite different.

Fully realizing the significance of the fact
thai the lake

is

microcosm, the problem

re-

solved itself into a study of the relation of

tlif

fauna

fish

physical char-

to the general

acteristics of the environment,

as a whole,
fish

and

to

fauna present

the biota

members of the
The data for

ther

tl

to

the lake.

in

of samples were collected (up-

When

ward of 800).

the study of agri-

in

number

large

material gave

animals

of

!M

sorted and

identified

clear idea of the rela-

the

to

kinds of

different

bottom, to the vegetation, and to each other.

A feature of the investigation worthy of

mention

is

five

ialists,

s]

fad

the

more than twentj

thai

of them

many

front

the

in

rank of America's biologists, cooperated

in

the identification of the different groups of

animals and plant-.

results

of

In

way only can

this

dependable

ob-

be

character

solving such a problem ran be obtained only

tained.

by making an intensive and exhaustive surdt' the body of water.

To accomplish

large plant and animal popbody of water mu-t provide varied

and suitable Conditions, and these are found
Detailed
in Oneida
Lake in abundance.

vey

it was decided
known extenl and

this result

to select a limited

area of

to

study this from

Oneida Lake is 21 miles long

and more than five miles wide ami has a maximum depth of 55 feet which occurs near the
There are several
east end of the lake.

To support a

ulation a

several angles.

indicate thai there are three primary

es

type- or kinds of these habitats which are

more

The

or less distinct.

first

includes the

large bays or indentations which providi

One
mirable localities for habitat studies.

headlands or points and some portions of the

-lime which are shallow and have been -wpt
clean of fine sand ami clay, leaving the

of these, Lower South Bay, situated aear the

st

southwest end of the lake, was selected for

ment, the -tone- ranging

carrying on
This bay

is

ami about

intensive

the

one and

five

planned.

studies

eighths miles long

wide and

gravel to huge bowlders several feet

881

nient

sand

mile

surface water.

the larger lake,

it

contains

It

is

protected on the west

i-

and SOUth sides by the land which rises mole

iii
less abruptly from the shore; on the north
a

long point and several shallow- protect

from the rough water.

however,

it

is

At

the

it

end,

east

open to the storms from this

direction which have a

more

or less

marked

influence upon the baj

f

our aims, and

perhaps the chief aim, was to ascertain as

definitely as possible the actual
life

that

amount, nuon the

lived

bottom or on the vegetation at this time of

July
the year
To accomplish this result
dredges were constructed to take up a por.

tion of the

bottom measuring approximately

tour inches square or sixteen square inches.

<

in

rocky shore a

number of bowlders were

carefully removed from the watei and

the

life,

moved

to

both animal ami

vials

to

be

vegetal,

sorted

all

of

was

and

Vegetation was carefully taken

water and the attached animal- re
moved. To minimize the liability of error a

gravel

between
insert

live

live

the

in

for a

stones,

the

multitude of snails which

which

di-

in

habitat affords lodg

and for crawfish,

on the rock-,

ami leeches

larvae,

under, and between the rocks.

live on,

The vegetation of such habitats consists of

water willow and bulrush.

The second kind of habitat

sheltered bays ami

found

is

what arrested.
of

bur

few

mus>els
life

li\e

here,

made up

is

.and

sects,

such

reed,

pondweeds

i-

weed,

pickerel

loosestrife,
a

The bottom

-and: the vegetation

line

the

swamp

bulrush,

water

and

lilies,

Many
(Potamogeton).
but the most important

of small clams, snails,

third kind of habitat

is

found
is

in.

form

other -mall animals which

protected bays, where there

well

i-

composed of
abundant, coni-

large proportion of the food of

The

in

other partly protected

in

Spots where the fon-e of the wave-

fish.

in

the

mass

of vegetation consisting of submerged plants

such a- pondweeds, hornworts, milfoil-,

lilies.

tn ,|

the emergent

erel weeds, cal tail-,

tom

later.

the

ty|

many mussels which

for

or

sisting

In this investigation oi

merically, of animal

This

ameter.

comparatively shallow body of water, ranging from

a foot or two in depth at the west end to
nineteen foot at the oa-t end where it enteracres of

and small bowlders as a rocky pavein size from large

ton.

and bur
lay

reeds.

or

i-

usually of tine

le

-nail- a- well a- insect

this kind of habitat

tor fish

plants such a- pick-

mud.

The

bot-

Many

larva' inhaliit

which provide- excellent

and other

a.|iiat ic

animal-.

NATURAL HISTORY

L82

The striking feature of the plant life in

habitats, which was constantly forced
upon our attention, was the presence of

many

quantities of the water plants

known

as filamentous alga?, which covered the bottom as well as the higher plants like a thick
blanket,

and greatly modified the natural

character of the bottom.

It

seems probable

that the great wealth of animal life in parts

of this lake

is

largely due to the presence of

this lowly plant,

which provides a rich food

supply for the invertebrate animals.

In the bays and the shallow areas bordering the shores of this beautiful lake, the
floor is carpeted with a great variety of

many

plants,

which,

of

like

feathery

the

sponges which look

like

patches of green

afford

places

resting

grounds for many

vel-

The higher plants

vet through the water.

well

as

foraging

as

aphids or plant

snails,

some beetles, and numerous hydras.

The study of this rich storehouse of animal life by the unit area method brought
out many facts of interest and importance
lice,

concerning the distribution of

in

life

this

There are several diverse

body of water.
habitats and the animal and plant life show
a corresponding variation. Dividing the bay
into three areas, each separated by a con-

tour line at

life

12,

6,

greatest

the

and 18

feet,

development

of

we

find that

invertebrate

Of
Lower

occurs within the six foot contour.

water milfoil (Myriophyllum) , form minia-

the 1161 acres of

The rocks, the plants,

ture aquatic forests.
and the whole bottom in many places are

South Bay and vicinity. 205- acres occur between the shore and the six-foot contour and
959 acres lie beyond this line in deeper
water.
Careful computations indicate that
88 per cent of the total individual animal
life lives in water six feet or less in depth,
and that but 12 per cent lives in the deeper
water of the area sun-eyed. When reduced
to actual figures, which in a measure are
comprehend, the result shows
difficult to
that upward of 6786 million individuals
live in 205 acres in water six feet or less in
depth, while but one million individuals live
in 959 acres in water deeper than six feet.
When we consider this animal life in re-

covered with masses of the delicate green

water plants, the filamentous algae.
Among this wealth of plant growth mankinds of animals live in great abundance.

The

alga?

are

of

larva?

related

to

inhabited by the young or

flies,

the

and small jointed worms

earthworms (01igocha?ta),

whose bodies are as green as the color of

the alga? which they have eaten. Myriads of
little crustaceans, called scuds or water fleas
(amphipods and Cladocera), dart about and
thousands of fresh-water sow bugs (isopods)
The
crawl over the filmy masses of alga?.
little

tively

spider-like

(hydrachnids)

mites

ac-

search the alga? and weeds to prey

The young or
upon the smaller animals.
nymphs of dragon flies (Odonata) lie in ambush among the alga? or bury themselves in
the muddy bottom; the young of May flies,
with their feathery
side of the body,

gills

attached to the out-

and the caddis

fly larva?,

with their curious houses or cases

made of

lation

to

bottom examined

in

acres the results are clearer

and

can better be compared with acreage productions of land crops.

To

the acre, the in-

vertebrate animals within the six-foot contour

yond
acre

number 33

million individuals, while be-

this line in deeper

is

water the

life

per

but one million individuals, the shal-

lower water being 33 times as productive of

life as the

deeper acres of the bay.

These

grains of sand, snail shells, bits of sticks,

figures, of course, do not include the plank-

and plants, crawl over the bottom, dragging

after them the houses that protect their soft
bodies. Water bugs, water boatmen, beetles,
both adult and young, and many kinds of

ton, or floating population, only those ani-

complete the variety of this wealth

results, but it was only with the bottom

fauna that these studies were concerned.
The population of the 6-12 and 12-lS-foot
contours does not show such a marked drop
in individuals, the water deeper than 12 feet

snails

of animal life on the bottom.

The rocky shores afford good foraging

ground for many snails, with which are associated the young of May flies (Hexaia),

the

flat,

(Psephenus),

the

disklike larva? of a beetle

spiral

caddis

fly

(Heli-

mals that cling to some support, the bottom

The addition of this population would greatly increase the numerical
or the vegetation.

containing 59 per cent of the population of

the deeper areas.

copsyche), that resembles a snail, and other

fish life,

worms and leeches.

The stones on many points are covered with

life, is

small animals, such as

When we remember

that

as well as other aquatic vertebrate

more abundant in water six feet or less

and that here the greater number

in depth,

On

the clay and sand] bottomed portion of Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake the shore is bordered
typical growth of cat-tails, surrounded on the lake side by American bulrushes.
The lake
onlj about one foot and a half to four feet deep and well protected from waves, which have a
marked effect on vegetation. Tn all parts of the bay large quantities of vegetable debris are found
floating in the water and covering the bottom.
Even the "dust-fine detritus" is probably a valuable
source of food for many of the mollusks and crustaceans, a< well as for the bottom mud-eatii
The bay. with it- abundance of vegetation, affords excellent breeding grounds for the fish of the lake,
particularly those species which build nests, such as black bass and rock bass

with
here

tlie

is

(J

*%* -

K
f(

ted on sixteen square inches of claj bottom from the

of the bay.
.upper right-hand corner), the snails, Amnicola, the
Agraylea mi.iI r
bow
(lower right-hand corner
II
and scude
conspic
'"nnv These are food for crawt_- which are in turn eaten l.v pickerel and
re notably absent from clay bottoms and altogether in this area there are
only half as man;
When the -and
aes intermixed with the clay, how-

Anii

Caddis

larvae,

flj

it'

<

e\ er,

'

increase in frequencj

183

4
*

Lower South Bay

Oneida Lake looking wesl from Shorl Point.

This shows a transition from

shallow bowldery point in the Foreground, with it- scanty vegetation of water willow, to the
protected bay in the background with
n
claj bottom and it- abundant vegetation oi catwater lilies, pickerel weed, and a number of pond weeds.
tail, willow, lake bulrush,
In general,
bowlders and gravel cover the floor of exposed points, while shallow bays have sandy bottoms and
those of the deeper bays and the main floor of the pond are composed of clay and mud.
By far the
greater part of plant and animal life of the lake i- found where the water i- less than -ix feet deep;
below a depth of twelve feel there is little or no vegetation
of

the

bj approximately 768 square inches of mud bottom under

falling otT in numbers with increased depth, especially of
snail Bhells (An
flies
//
ire the principal animals; the caddis fl
pty.
The larva ar.- of great impc
""1 supplj of
of
including other nymphs and larva;; the Maj flies
illj
mussels which were taken in this Brea are not Bhown in the photograph

ded

illusti

:i rki-<l

ten feel of water,

mollusks
and the nj n
I

are practithe larger species

left)

bj

pickerel

The

NATURAL HISTORY

486

young

of

adult

and

live

fish

the

breed,

fish

sig-

nificance of this rich store

of animal and plant life in

water

shallow

once

at

is

apparent

and the impor-

tance

studies

of

such

in

areas bordering the shores

is

at once recognized.

is

in

It

such situations that

fish culture

can be carried

on most successfully.

The kind of bottom was

found to play a large
part in the abundance or

also

scarcity of animal

In

life.

Oneida Lake six kinds of

bottom are found, depending upon the physical condition of the shore: bowlgravel,

der,
clay,

devoid of vegetation.-From Long

A rocky
exposed gravel bowlder
Point north side of Lower South Bay, an
Mollusks easily obtain
bottom extends into the lake on all sides.
among the gravel. Crawfish msec
a foothold on the bowlders and
and between the rocks, and
larva;, and leeches also live on, under,
many small fishes feed hereabouts

wind-swept

shore

1^

these

Of

kinds

different

sand

bottom,

sandy

sand,

and mud.

clay,

of

supported

the greatest

number of

dividuals.

If

in-

sand

the

bottom be valued at 100

per cent, the relative values
of the other kinds of bot-

><$

tom,

related

as

num-

to

ber of individual animals,

stand

as

sandy

follows:

87

clay,

per

cent

clay,

66 per cent; gravel, 57 per

cent

mud, 42 per cent

bowlder, 36 per cent.

will

be

that

not

It

therefore,

noted,

depth acts

only

as a controlling factor in
the density of the fauna,

but also the character of

the bottom material.

One of
in

the chief factors

providing

favorable

environment for the development of animal life

is the presence of an abundant and varied flora. In
Oneida Lake the vegetation fully measures up to
the maximum requirements
in water
This group of invertebrates, taken from a small bowlder
caddis, fly
20 inches deep, consists mostly of insect larva; (beetle,
Bowlder bottoms have
and May fly) and of snails (Goniobasis)
water areas, althe smallest' percentage of the plant life of shallow
and young
though they afford good feeding grounds for minnows
Most fish vary their
even in water only a few inches deep.
.

fish,

food with age, at first taking only the smallest insects

and

larvae

in

this

respect as has

ready been indicated.

al-

The

value of this abundance of

vegetation

is

fullv realized

perhaps not
by many fish

STUDIES IX AQUICULTURE OR FRESH-WATER FARMING

may

It

eulturists.

be said without

correspondingly

In'

There
which

has

received

C.

This

Danish

has called

eulturist,

fish

the

Petersen,

Joh.

<;.

by
is

Dr.

biologist

dust-fine

de-

This material is composed of the

comminuted fragments of vegetation,
together with diatoms, desmids, and other
used by
is
largely
biotic material, and
many of the invertebrate animals and by
some fish as food. It is believed bj Petersen and other Danish workers on fish food

twenty-five

higher

or

classes

ami great variety.

The mollusks,

supply

covering of the bottom which

fine

and

culture.

fish

life

by

resented

groups, forming a microcosm of larga size

absent.

attention

little

American students of
the

or

rare

also another source of

is

flora

wanting the animal

or

insufficient

is

will

fear of

when the

successful contradiction thai

\>:

Dumber of

in

species,

forming 35 per cent of the

mollusks

the

and clams, and the

snails

are aboul equal

ts

When

entire nuinlier of species represented.

number of individuals of

the

mollusks and

the two groups,

other associated

the

animal-.

found that the former are

per cent greater in number.
This pre-

are compared,

is

it

tritus.

.'Hi

finely

ponderance of mollusks over associated animal- has also been noted by -indents conducting marine investigations.
million

Of

the 7766

individuals of invertebrate animals

calculated

be present on

to

Lower South

and

l'.a\

the

bottom of
million

1704

vicinity,

and 3062 million are associated

animals. The mollusks or shellfish form a

problems thai this is of greater value than

the plankton organisms which are so abundant in most of our fresh water lakes. It is

are mollusks

known

that

marine animals use

the sturgeon, sheepshead, suckers, red horse,

extent

Init

its

to a large

it

proportionate use by the

in-

habitants of fresh-water ponds and streams

is

not definitely known.

if

not great value,

When we

That

of some,

is

it

highly probable.

is

consider the sources of food of

we

find

the herbivorous animals, those thai live

that

Of

animals

the

that

have

carnivorous

habits and prey upon the other animals pres-

Dividing the population of the area

ent.

Lower South Bay

of

ing

on

cents

per

of

the

million

and

herbivorous and

individuals thai

detritus
that

against

are

23

carnivorous.

means that
make up but
-"

entire

astound-

the

find

the

this

animals

orous
cent

plants

individuals

million
In

of 7743

result

feed

into

we

animals

carnivorous

carniv-

of

per

This fact

population.

is of great
importance, for the herbivorous
animals are producers of fish food and the
carnivorous animal- are consumers of fish

While the carnivorous animal- are of

some fund value to fish, it i- the great mass
of herbivorous animal- that is transforming
plants and debris into animal flesh, that
food.

forms the principal food supply of our

and game fishes.

One

of

the

most

interesting

features of

of animal

invertebrate animals

tic

Protozoa

not considered for obvious reasons

species of

as

bullheads.
inhabit-

fish

New

York.

4<i

are

are rep-

Of

the classes

all

of food, insects are by far the most valu-

about 40 per cent of the food of

being of this group of animals.

able,
fishes

One of

all

the results hoped for in the Oneida

Lake investigations was

knowledge of the

fauna that the natural

size of the fish

of the lake could support.

To find this
was necessary to know the amount of f
aten

in

hour-.

period of time, as

Studies on marine

plaice)

that

indicated

was emptied
These marine

Once

fish

the

(notably the
canal

digestive

twenty-four

in

it

twenty-four

in

hour-.

however, are not strictly

fish,

comparable with the fresh-water

in

fish

this

L917,astudy of fish caught in trap

nets and allowed to remain in these net- for a
In

respect.

period of 24,
the

Is.

ami

cent

had

val,

13

full

were empty

all

it

i-

of

the

in

be

emptied

caught,

ot)

in

per

the 24-hour inter-

the 72-hour interval.

known that
become slower
that

in

li-h

the ts hour interval, and

in

i-

probable

mighl

stomachs

per cent

hours, indicated that

7l!

tract

digestive

about -I hour-,

fish

Lake investigation was the van

life found on the bottom of
Lower Smith Bay. Seven of the ten phyla

of

and

seed,

different

l'lT)

greater or less degree;

fo d

the Oneida
etj

the

ing the waters of Illinois and

On plant- and detritus, greatly predominate

over

pumpkin

whitefish,

li-h

or about one fifth are eaters of shellfish to a

the invertebrate population of this bay, as

well as other bodies of fresh water,

of the food of Such valuable

large part

the digestive powers of a

in

COld

between

weather, and

it

November and

March fish cat about two third- or less of

amount id' too, eaten during warmer
months in spring, summer, ami fall. In the
the

examination of the stomach ami intestines

of Oneida bake fish it wa- found that on the

NATURAL HISTORY

L88
average
about

a fish with a full

stomach contained

115 invertebrate animals.

If

we

as-

sume thai this amount is a daily average,

and that fish eat this amount for nine
months of the year, then the invertebrate
animal life on the bottom of the 1164 acres
examined in Lower South Bay and vicinity
calculated

is

to

bottom-feeding

furnish

tish.

food

Predatory

pike perch consume a large

By

for

337,500

fish like

number of

the
fish.

New York

using data from Illinois and

form the food of

into waters

there will be no insurmountable difficulties

will

be cultivated to the extent that the land

areas are

now worked,

in parts of

food.

that there are

supply these

fish

with food.

It also follows

number of invertebrate animals

as well as an abundance of vegetation for
the smaller animals to feed upon is necesthat a large

sary to provide food for these small

fish.

It

been shown by these investigations that

Oneida Lake meets, in full measure, all of
the conditions and requirements favorable to
fish and these provide the essentials for a
large and varied population of food and
lias

game fish.
The studies

shellfish,

as has been the case

Europe, where ponds have been

artificially

When we remember

The fresh waters

to hinder this procedure.

their

hundreds of individuals of the pike perch,

as well as other predatory fish, in Oneida
Lake, it is at once realized that the number
nt' small tish in this lake must be very great to

If the en-

vironment and other factors are favorable

made

year.

in the not

where they were previously want-

ing or insufficient in number.

single fish of this

was estimated that a

will lead

of these animals, as well as needed plants,

species will eat 250 to 600 small fish in a

it

fish,

future to the artificial introduction

distant

and stocked with fishes and

Food in the form of plants,
insects, crustaceans, and the like,

will be introduced

where needed before the

are planted, paralleling in a

fish

way

the

preparation of the land before the crop

is

whose life history and natural history are known, it is

sown.

Given a species of

fish

comparatively easy to prepare the right kind

of habitat and the natural and suitable food.

Thus

in the course of time

we may hope

to

have a flourishing water culture or aquiculture, so that our streams and lakes may be
made productive to the same relative degree

now

that the fields and forests

are.

Water

culture has the additional advantage of af-

fording healthful recreation to a degree not

shared by any branch of agriculture. 1

carried on at Oneida

Lake and

elsewhere have shown that there are great

possibilities in the production of

animal

life

1
Those who may be interested in the details of
the studies carried out on Oneida Lake are
referred to the following technical papers, published by the New York State College of Forestry
Publication No. 4.
at Syracuse University, N. Y.
:

of a useful character to

man from

the fresh-

water streams and bodies of water in our

country.
shellfish

The recognition of the value of

and other associated animals which

The Relation

of Mollusks to Fish in Oneida Lake.

Publication No. 9.
The Productivity of
Invertebrate Fish Food on the Bottom of Oneida
Lake, with Special Reference to Mollusks.
1918;
Circular No. 21. The Relation of Shellfish to Fish
in Oneida Lake.
1918.

1916;

Between Dunham and Frenchman islands in the distance lies a sandy shoal where the water is
for the most pari less than five feet deep.
On this hard, smooth bottom a greater average number of
animals was found than in any other part of the lake. This photograph of Oneida Lake is taken from
Norcross Point looking northwest

Quest of the Ancestry

Two

have

institutions

founded

human

of man's antiquity,

and

cultural

been

recently

investigate the problems

to

development

the

ancestry,

Paris

in

in

undertakings

its scientific

have also

named an Administrative Council who

control
"1

de

[nstitul

PalSontologie Humaine, founded

direct

Man

of

must add thai

mony of

will

financial resources.

its

the uew

do not limit the patri-

institute to the building to

Paris: the collections which

V.iln.

be erected

tablished

have installed at Monaco, although destined

to remain their SO long a- my wishes fur

and the Galton Society, recentlj es

United states with rooms
in the
tli'
American Museum of Natural His-

at

founding the [nstitul de Paleontologie

Tii

Humaine

L910,

in

tin'

Prince of Monaco ad-

dressed the Minister of Public Enstruction as

follows

my

"In the course of

often regretted that

in

laborious

life

have

the intellectual activi-

our epoch a more important place

>f

lias

been given to the study of the mystery

The more

-hum.!- the origin of man.

that

my

inin.

has been

stimulated

study, the more ardently

by scientific

accessary to uncover the

tive traces left by our ancestors in the

the earth

dt"

sion

lit'

of

And

an.

less

lie

ethics

uncertain

human

of

society

view of the history

in

written

generations,

pasl

thought that the

in

their

own

had finished establish-

ing the pursuit "f Oceanography

stitutions
a

<ii"

my

part of

Monaco ami of

effort to the search

the in-

in

Paris,

for

means

which would further the development of Human Palaeontology. And, after tin- foundaof

tion

Monaco

tin'

Museum

Anthropology of
i, which was

nt

Musee anthropologique

enriched with veritable treasures; after

the publication of the marvels found
rns

of Spain;

resolved

near some university center

tion

fur studies

Imi

tion.
tal of

based

liately

Prance, where

Oceanographic

the

in

the

establish

t>>

strong founda-

methodic excava

"ii

made choice of the capimy earlier foundation,

Institute,

ha.

already

been so largely developed.

"I

for

fur

tin-

ditions

make

request

recognize

prove

have selected
In-titute of

site

for the building of

Human

Palaeontology, ami

have selected the

first

scientists

it

advancement uf Science,
the French Government to
a- a public utility ami to apI

to

statutes."

ii-

The

In-titute

ami

cal

from the techni-

directed,

i-

scientific side,

by a "Comite de Per-

levelopfectionnement"
(Committee uf
ment), composed uf twelve members, either

French

who

will

foreigners.

or

The

members

are

chosen without distinction uf nationality ami

without observing any especial proportion in

the

uf

representation

from among those

field

different

countries,

scientists best qualified to

Henry FairIt
is to thi- body that
Osborn uf the American Museum has

recently been elected.

The Founder, ami. after

devoted

Palaeontology, to which

working endowment, the

sum uf sixteen hundred thousand francs.
"Being anxious that this foundation should
survive me under the most favorable conhave given,

serve.

remains.

"Therefore, when

Human

cart to the In-

bosom

during an incalculable succes

centuries.

philosophy

would

in-

my

conditional donation mi

stitute of

have desired to see

established on methodic foundations the

vestigations

become

their conservation are followed, will

tory.

net

at

Comite

his

Perfectionnement,

de

decease,

the

designates

members or outside them

to w hom it delegates a
portion of it- powers, ami who ha- the title
Mr
of Technical Director of the In-titute.
either
a

among

I'm

eh

it-

scientisl

receives compensation mi account of hi- re-

The

sponsibilities.

three year- at

r is appointed for
ami with the possibil-

Direct*

most

The Administrative
upon the Director to :it

"f reappointment.

ity

may

Council

call

tend any of their meetings

capacity.

Thi-

office

an advisory

in

ha- been held since the

beginning by Marcellin Boule, who i- also

head of the palaeontology of the Museum of
the Jardin des Plantes,

Paris.

The 'mini- le Perfectionnement fixes the

program of work to be undertaken upon the
i

nmendations of the Technical Director,

Iii-titut

Paleontologie Humaine, Fondation

'rince de Monaco.
Statul -. p 5
Highness the Prince of Mo
'
Public InBtructio
ili-

nts to the

w ho

and w ho

Administrat

may
will

ive

'

louncil

be attached to the

form

it-

scientific pei
-

X.

490
nel, assigns to these their

[TUBAL HISTORY

undertakings, and

des upon the proper distribution of the

results of excavations

among

those scientific

establishments best qualified to receive them.

After consultation with the Administrative
Council

regard to ways and means,

in

it

decides upon the various publications of the

Institute

and determines the regulations for

the laboratories and libraries.

Under the

original

stitute selected a

organization the

number of

its explorations and carry on its researches.

With a personnel including such experts as
Marcellin Boule in palaeontology, Yerneau
in anatomy, and Cartailhac and Breuil in

archaeology, no surprise can be felt at the

which are already the fruit

so that the problems to be considered

might be studied from widely diverse lines

of approach.

In addition to the

Henry Fairfield Osborn, John C. Merriam,

Edward L. Thorndike, William K. Gregory,
Charles B. Davenport, George S. Huntington,
J.

Howard McGregor, and Edwin

Natural History

ports of the latest

work of the

re-

Institute.

an exaggeration to say that the

It is not

and publications

researches

of

the

years elapsing since its foundation

new epoch

will

and

in

anthropology.

On

eight

mark a

the anatomi-

Boule in a masterly manner has

described the Neanderthaloid characteristics
in his monograph on La Chapelle-a/ux-Saints
Yerneau has studied the skeletal remains of
the Cro-Magnon artists in a very complete
cal

side,

way, although there

is still

much

to

be done

G. Conklin,

there have been added at subsequent meetings

following

the

United

Miller,

Eaymond

Ernest

fellows:

Peabody Museum

Hooton,

States

Gerrit

National

A.

Smith

Museum;

Food AdminAmerican Museum

Pearl, United States

istration; L. R. Sullivan,

College

ardor and wise judgment of the

to time publish abstracts

original

charter members, comprising Madison Grant,

of Natural History

from time

importance

ists,

have passed since the inception of the Institut de Paleontologie Humaine through the
Prince of Monaco.

laid on the

of cooperative effort on the part of special-

of their labors during the few years that

scientific

was outlined

the object of the Society

In-

the most dis-

tinguished scientists in France to conduct

brilliant results

when

and especial emphasis

Frederick Tilney, Columbia University; Harris H. Wilder, Smith

;

Museum

Clark Wissler, American

of

Natural History; and Nels C. Nelson, American Museum of Natural History.

Two
patrons were elected Mrs. E. H. Harriman
:

and Mr. M. Taylor Pyne, New York.

At the five meetings so far held significant
addresses have been contributed by Professor McGregor, Dr. Wissler, Dr. Sullivan, Professor Davenport, Professor Merriam, and
Professor Huntington and the opportunity
afforded for informal mutual discussion of
;

the problems presented already justifies the

its founders that the Galton Society
might constitute a symposium of specialists

hopes of

and evolution

qualified to consider the origin

man from

widely different points of view.

on this race; Breuil has covered the marvel-

of

ous field of palaeolithic art of France and

The Society has resolved to establish a laboratory to be known as the Galton Laboratory,

Spain and has firmly established the connection between the stages of its development
anil the respective stages of the flint indus-

try;

the relatively

Aurignacian

unknown period of

the

been fully
studied, and Breuil and Obermaier have connected the art of Spain with that of France,
and the Aurignacian and "Capsian" culture
flint

culture

has

of Spain with that of Africa.

The Galton Society for the Study of the

Origin and Evolution of

meeting

in

New York

Man

held

on April

its first

17,

1918,

in

furtherance of

mittee
ject.

is

Many

engaged
field

now

of

its

objects,

and a com-

considering plans for this proof the

members

are at present

in special investigations within the

the

Society's

interests

and

it

is

planned that a suitable medium of publication for the scientific and educational documents of the Society shall be secured. A
special object of the Society is to encourage
the establishment of courses in anthropology
in universities, colleges, and other centers of

education.

Letter from John Burroughs

Willi

TO

the Editor of N
\V. I). Matthew
pamphlet

litrlr

like

lizards in size, appearance,

adds

in

footnote that

Palaeozoic

late

the modern
and habitat; he

animals

small

were

time

Dinosaurs^

the
in

"sonic vast catas-

Lf

trophe should today blot out

mam-

the

all

pahvoutologisl on evolution

condition-

admirable

his

in

on

progenitors

their

tin

\itkai. Eisto

Dr.

thinks

question for

ii

Mammals

dinosaurs covered about nine million years

and it- end i- now at Im-t three million
life

the

in

course of geologic periods to evolve into a

great and varied land

fauna

in the Age of
The Age of tin'

unthinkable.

is

years behind

plants,

tin'

Distance, could ever reappear

malian races including man. and the birds,

sun iving, with the lower animals ami

we might well expect the lizards

to

and cut no figure in tin' life of

That the hue.- Brontosaurus, for

but leave the lizards and other reptiles

still

return

have reptile- lmt they are

-till

insignificant

the globe.

again

never

.-an

We

earth.

of

and

dental

Can we

us.

the

believe that

different

periods

unrelated

a-

tin'

a-

w;i-

Doctor

acci-

Matthew's

statement would seem to imply!

Might not one a- well declare that were

the Dino-

saurs of the Mesozoic Era."

our deciduous trees and plants and all exogens -wept away, the mosses and ferns ami

I- not this an astonishing statement?

If
Mesozoic time-, could be brought back anil

horsetails and ground pines would again

produce the tremendous growth of cryptoya-

earth, air. an.

th<-

as they were
lmt, in

my

like

waters be

opinion, not otherwise.

the

evolutionary

Can

or will

impulse

repeat

it

run

itself.'

way

every

in

happen

that era, thi- mighl

in

Does not

itIt

i-

had

era

typical

it-

The dinosaurs appeared

the world in the same

Each

life-form-.

to

meet

special

Dinosavrs.
eember, I'M"..

and

conditions,

W.

Bj

'

I).

the

have

in

others.

i-

I.

net'

has

developed

certain

be

it-

criticism

-how- that

It

fascination,

the

he.

to...

find-

it

in poetry.

is

and

ripened,

hanging like fruit on the great sidereal tree,

and can no more repeat the stages it has
passed through, than can any other fruit or
growing thing.
[Signed

JOHK BURROUGHS.

New

of

Prom
cepts

the

of

W. D. Matthew

are

that

believe

standpoint

cosmic

objections

Fork.

and

of

the

geologic

undoubtedly

the

earth

older

his

If

we

valid.

has

con-

history

gradually

l.een

cooling off during geologic lime, the atmos

-uni

and
same was with
Burroughs ha- picked it
lowly position for comment and
a

out from

ter* -t.

it

known about dinosaurs.

might
That Mr.
it

no place

before

chiefly because such speculations

me

for

thought

out

cut

was
speculative ami fanciful -up
had

that

tuary of what
left

manuscript

Whitman, and
it

De-

Burroughs

came very mar being

printed, a- a

wa-

earth

lepido-

one of the earth's words,"

science as

in

Burroughs by Dr.

footnote to which Mr.

On

The

as true

thess

Matthew, Ph.D.

to Mr.

TIM-!
refers
'

is

is

sigillarias,

of the cosmos.

Riverby, West Park,

Reply
of

"Amelioration
Says OUr poet
it

giant

high,

feet

part of

calamites

high, lycopods sixty to

feet

dendrons, and others.'

thew says, and "the cutting olf of the Dinosaur dynasty was nearly, if not quite simultaneous the world over."
These monsters
of the primeval world were highly specialized

thirty or torn

another

Doctor Mat-

a-

era,

producing

measures,

ninety

different parts of

in

coal

course!

world today, from surface to center.

igic

plant- that gave us the main

inoii-

our

in-

becoming

phere
loaded

with

warm,
acid

the climate changing

.ooler.

tropical
drier,

less

carbonic

uniform

zonal

condition

climates

that

raised,

from

the

prevail

undoubtedly one would

whatever were the ultimate
I

the

to

then

supposititious case

humid,
gas,

it

and
seas

moist,

col

coii, -hide

result

i.

today.

of

that
the

would not be
49]

NATURAL HISTORY

I'.fJ

volution of lizards into a

tl

vertebrates prevents the lizards or any lower

fauna paral-

from expanding into a varied

fauna of large land animals as were the
dinosaurs. They are unable to compete with

vertebrates

leling the dinosaurs.

But

with

reconciled

evidence

the

be

cannot

concepts

geologic

these

of

glacial

periods in the Permian, in the pre-Cambrian,

and even farther back in geologic time, nor

the higher types save in certain special fields

The
with various other lines of evidence.
geologic theory, which I outlined briefly in

My

the introductory pages of the Dinosaur hand-

tebrates, leaving a free field for the lizards

earth's

surface

passing through

as

such as was open to the lizard-like ancestors

It

to

tical to condition substantially similar

by the competing animal

types

the

fauna

and

flora,

condition the trend and

of

evolution

Probably this objection is valid

some extent, and certainly as to any detailed correspondence.
But I do not think
it would prevent a marked general correspondence. For the dinosaurs in fact passed
through two distinct periods of evolution
and expansion, the first in the early Meso-

any

group.

one

which

scope of

This

has

way, since
there are certain factors in adaptation and
specialization which operate independently
of changing physical environment,

upward

zoic,

certain

steps that, once attained under its

circumstances.

late

The physical environ-

from what they now are; whether

tations occur in

There

"

dinosaurs arose.

The animals and plants are widely different.

The presence of higher types of

car-

little

many

cases of different races.

correspondence in detail: yet

and there

is

was sub-

a great deal

of parallelism in their adaptations.

We do not

any of the gigantic Sauropoda, Brontosaurus and its allies, in this later fauna.
But their place as an amphibious adaptation
was taken by the wading and swimming
trachodonts. The armored dinosaurs of the

find
i

vironment does substantially correspond at

the present time to that under which the

is

stantially the same,

same or not, makes no difference

The physical enthe problem in hand.

to

and small

the place they occupied in nature

the outlines of the continents were substantially the

types, great

adaptations; but similar or equivalent adap-

and probably cold

The atmospheric and

conditions cannot have been very

they include

nivorous forms, terrestrial and amphibious

arid

different

These two dinosaur faunas

and quadrupedal

and

climatic

(angiosperms)

the second with a flora

armored and unarmored dinosaurs, bipedal

as they do now,

climates at the poles.

was correlated with a

correspond in a broad way;

climates prevailed widely through their interior

upper

baceous perennials being the most significant

element lacking.

widespread as that from which we have just

emerged. The continents were extended to
present limits,

the

in

very like that of the present day, the her-

just passed through a glacial

their

evolution

now dominant, but

The physical conditions at the beginning

of the Mesozoic when the dinosaurs arose,
were much like those of the present day.

beyond

first

flora lacking the higher plants

climatic change.

even

the late Jurassic

culminating

Mesozoic

The

but the biotic evolution moves

in
a spiral, reaching corresponding but
higher points wdth each recurrent cycle of

period, believed to be quite as intense

in

Cretaceous dinosaurs.

cyclic,

The earth had

which culminated

dinosaurian fauna, and the second in the

stimulus, are retained as advantageous under

or

prevalent

to

in a generally progressive

changed

is

The higher

types.

now

life

dinosaurs.

equally

ment

of

supposititious case than occurred with the

adap-

of course different with the biotic

is

environment,

all

plant

would
bring about a different trend and scope of
evolutionary progress among lizards in our

tations.

It

well be objected that the evolu-

tion of the dinosaurs

which life is
adapted, but without any very fundamental
permanent change during geologic time. The
recurring cycles bring about a recurrence of
the physical environment sufficiently idenenvironment

may

was conditioned by the

nature of the vegetation quite as much as

raphy, and other factors that constitute the

physical

higher ver-

all

of the dinosaurs.

of cyclic changes in climate, topog-

scries

are not well adapted.

last

supposition involved the removal of this

competition by extinction of

book, conceives of the physical condition of

the

which these

to

'

Cretaceous are like those of the Jurassic

only in the fact that they were gigantic and
heavily

armor-clad.

The unarmored

her-

bivorous drv-land dwellers were even more

NOTES
contrasted

Only

detail.

in

rous dinosaurs

in

the carnivo-

any near correspond-

there

is

ence and relationship.

It would seem therefore that the evolution
of dinosaurian types of specialization is not
tied to the

more ancient

far as this objection

flora,

and that

concerned

is

so

would

it

l'.<:

though probably not at all like a Brontosaur

in appearance.
It would seem equally true that under our
modern tenets we must be prepared to believe that were all the higher plants swept
out of existence the lower plants would pro
ceed under physical environment corre-

prevent the lizards from evolving in the

absence of higher animal types into a varied

sponding to that of the

fauna of large land animals paralleling the

retaceous dinosaurs in a broad way, al-

era! resemblance to the

though doubtless as different from them

sigillarias,

in

it

Palaeozoic to

late

evolve into specializations with a broad gen

They would not

Carboniferous

flora.

and

calamites

reproduce

detail as they are

but they would produce something to take their place, probably no less

saurs.

gigantic and impressive.

further geologic periods give rise to higher

types corresponding as to their place in na-

many

in

from the Jurassic dinoThat they or some other group of

Lower vertebrates might in the course of

ture to birds,
able,

but

mammals and man

too

is

discussion.

for

speculative

conceiv-

Their limitations in brain, in circulation of

the blood, etc., would first haw to I"- over-

come, and so far as palaeontology can teach

us this is a vastly slower progress than the
evolution

expansive

into

specialized

large

This aspect of adaptive evolution receives

illustrations from the fauna and flora

of oceanic islands and isolated continent-,

where, in the absence of certain higher types
of animals or plants, certain lower types are
evolved and specialized to take their place.
of

The adaptive evolution

marsupials

in

mammals

of

Australia or of the Tertiary

South America, affords notable instances.

Such adaptive parallelism sometimes results

and varied faunal adaptations.

Certainly such an expansive evolution of

in a curiously close imitation or correspond-

the lizards with their higher competitors removed would not cause the huge BrontoBut it might
>
to reappear on earth.

correspondence

if

we

a.-rcp i

the

bring

lem theorj

of

geo

about the appearance

of gigantic wading or amphibious repl
equally huge and equally innocuous, alhistory

ence

particular

of

more often

types;

the

habits and in position

in

in

economy of nature leads to a resem

blance only in certain parts and a wide difthe

ference

in

other parts of the animal.

[Signed]

YV.

D.

MATTHEW.

American Museum of Natural History.

New York City.

Notes
It

with profound regret that the

i-

Museum
of

>f

Trustees, Augustus

its

Amer

records the death, on April 25,

I

Juilliard.

Mr. Juilliard, who was senior member of A.

I).
Juilliard and Company, has been before
the

public

art

aid

tor

the work

to carry mi

personally
the

many years
Ho left

science.

in

as a patron of

American Museum

:i

gift

to

of one hundred thou

to the lateness in

publication ami

especially to the very greatly increased cosl

engraving and printing still effective

from war time-, the American Museum iof
combining it- last two -pi
-

Natural Historv

in

this

will

in

re.

somewhal the numbei

luce

the three fall issues, ami will omit

statements

of

the

work

institution's

membership, ami advertisement of

lications

.an

which he ha- been

sand dollars.

Owing

it

pages

except

in

so

fai

pubmatter

its

such

:i-

carried on the inside cover pages.

l.e

several bequests

including

interested,

tion,

number.

Also, !

cause of the prohibitive expense of prepara

ace nmt of the library of the Dhiverof Louvain ami of the sack of

sitj

tin'

city

ami the wanton destruction of this aii>

collection of manuscripts ami books was
written ami partly printed during the early
days of the German occupation, by Ed.
Moreau.

,|e

German

the
The-

library,

scripts,

nu.

but

S.J.,

publication

it

after

police

with

has
lying

four ami
its

incunabula, ami

scientific collections

only

hidden
a

treasures
literary,

utly

from

half

year-.

of

manu-

historical,

which wet

NATURAL HISTO.RY

!!!

incendiary

the

in

had

versity

fire

was founded

itself

the next century ranked

most

in

:is

1914,

25,

The uni1425 and in

one of the fore-

institutions of

scientific

during

i-essed

March

of

glorious history.

long and

Europe

Revolution.

French

the

until

L913, 2855 students attended The univei

In

was reported that the library at

and be120,000 and 230,000 volumes (M.

and

sitj

it

that time contained 250 incunabula

tween

latter figure as too low)

Moreau quotes the

addition

in

of

scripts

to

number of manuand mediaeval authors.

a larger

ancient

A movement

universities

world's

brary, but, as M.

to

among

way

under

is

rehabilitate

Moreau

says,

the

Sir William,
out

according to Nature, pointed

necessity of a well-rounded

tin'

which would

in

vision of the present classical instruction at

English universities which

the

aim

should

some of the

to inspire in the student

spirit

of the classics rather than to raise up a race

of philologists.

Sir William also opened at Oxford a loan

"The library

ments illustrating the

The

Oxford.

earliest

scientific

history

of

were two Persian and

dated A.D. 977 and

Moorish astrolabes
There are exhibited a microscope of
1067.
1693, and a slide rule dated 1635 which is
existence.

in

of Frederick Courtenay Selous,

D.S.O., ('apt..

~'-~>tl<

Dr. Pattox

Royal Fusiliers, who, acof

been written by J. G. Millais. Mr. Millais

is himself a noted author, artist, and naturalist, and brings to his task a personal

was

of the work of Selous.

appreciation

The

enriched with a beautiful set of

illustrative drawings.

in

number

his article in this

Natural History (page 405) on

Thomas Jefferson, the great statesman, who

cording to Roosevelt, was "the greatest of

the world's big-game hunters," has recently

is

be

exhibition of ancient manuscripts ami instru-

history cannot be restored to it."

Lif<

volume

educa-

found a union of
There is, howscience and the humanities.
ever, he pointed out, a marked need of re-

tion

probably the oldest

Th<

Association

Classical

li-

sociation with the history of the University,

this

the

(England) delivered by Sir William Osier,

regius professor of medicine at Oxford.

the

of Louvain cannot be restored, for the library was formed day by day in intimate as-

ami

before

address

also the advocate of science

and friend

of naturalists, makes us admire the force

of Meriwether Lewis, the young leader of

an expedition across the western plains and

mountains

the

to

Pacific.

James

Lane

Allen (page 397) brings to our understand-

Selous went to Africa at the early age of

ing and sympathy young Alexander Wilson

nineteen, where he resided for the most part

of the same period of pioneer life in Amer-

until

1897, hunting big

game and

fighting

His later years he

spent lecturing, writing, collecting in Europe and America, and elephant hunting in
in

the Matebele Wars.

Africa.

In 1915 Selous took part with the

Royal Fusiliers in the invasion of German

East Africa where he lost his life while leading an attack against the German fort at

Behobeho on January 4, 1917. Roosevelt

said of him: "No other hunter alive has had
the experience of Selous, and, so far as I

now

recall,

no hunter of anything

like his

experience has ever also possessed his gift

of penetrating observation joined to his

power of vivid and accurate narration."

The biographer has faithfully scanned the
public and private writings of the great
hunter,

especially

his

correspondence with

Roosevelt, for notes on African natural history.

ica

but

we gain no

young men. If we follow the young naturalist and the young explorer only a few
years

creased

Wilson

keenly

desired

is

not de-

to

go as
letter

Jefferson

thology
of

regarding the distribution

(1808)
blue

the

jay on

the

Missouri.

Lewis

returned in honor and became governor of

Louisiana. Wilson, at his own expense and

made

Science" was the subject of the presidential

Orleans,

on

the

matter-of-fact

and that of his naturalist

friend, William Bartram, for some unknown
reason did not bring response. The expediand Wilson retion
proceeded
(1805)
Wilson quoted
mained in Philadelphia.
Lewis in his first volume of American Orni-

to

the

and

through the unknown West, but his

through

Humanities

just

ornithologist on the expedition with Lewis

alone,

Old

with

further,

statement of events, our interest

New

"The

hint of the interlock-

ing of the interests and lives of the two

his

most

southern

which

he

difficult

expedition

country
contracted

to

New
disease

NOTES

L95

At the
which soon was to cause hi- death.
last white man*- house, on the border of the

exile

Indian country, he came

sentence, and

the
In

cu murdered there but

and

buried

left

monej

beside

from

(1810),
few

tad

ho

\\

days before

common

the

his

the story of

u]

Lewis

end of

ragic

lie

path.

small store to build a

the

Tenness

He

rected the

returned

successful

in

volumes;

L813

in

1848.

In

North mosl enthusiastic and

his work; he worked harder

By

than ever.

monument

1!

he

he had

published
the

finished

died with

incomplete,

it

in

the

impervious
pio\

i;

\ti\

in

i:

Thomas

even

in

Jefferson

examples,

specialist

to

take

to

is

it

well

heart

re

everj

for

certain

recent

and editorials in the A'< w Yorl

Times.
For instance, Dr. W. W. Seen, of
Philadelphia, under date of July 31, writes
apropos Stewart's axiom. "No human letters
without natural science and do science withletters

out

human

letters."

In

connection

this

gives a brief history of oui

American

he

I'hil-

other
the

in

mines of the

gold

of w hich Tchil

ti"

to

north

the pro^

in

L801,

in

i-

Kouznetso^

museum

I'otro

housand yea
hair were in
and its flesh wa-

skm ami

long

condition

good

in

of the opinion that

is

than two

less

It-

ice.

mammoths,
known skeleton

of these

the well

the zoological

in

Dr.

fairly

preserved intact by the

One

crevices.

up

the

the

in

mammoth-

of

had -toed

it

day of specialization many

this

markable

clay

imbedded

Yakutsk the famous discoveries were

taken out

105

p.

will

mammoth and

the

Farthei

iii

-et

man. of which we have

of

Transbaikalia

in.-e

grad.

and the all-round

Bolshevik!

Many bones

nice of

August, L813.

the

by

extinct animals are found

seventh;

but

he

in

capital.

whole,

intt Hi-

all

America.

cold

of

he Survives

if

in

made

perfecting

hopes

Russia a democracy patterned after that

lasl

and

he

annihilati

see

he worked indefatigable

revision

the oldest political

i-

having served a fifty-year

that

threatened

five

on the eig*hth and

volume because he eagerlj -aw ahead a

he

that

Siberia,

in

gentsia

fence about the grave where the legislature

oi

message

hi-

in

eaten by the does of the party.

iiots,,\
rep. ei- thai the natives

Dr. Koll/.-

Yakutsk

,,t'

Province are selling every year two thousand

pounds of mammoth tu-k-

for

used

lie

t.i

ivory imitation.

THE

report

for

Institution**

"Explora
Smithsonian

the

the

id'

extensive

reveals

of

L918

Field-Work

and

tions

work,

in

osophical Societj of which we a- Americans

-pite of the war, in the Held- of anthropol

are proud:

ogy,

"The policy of the American Philosophical

Society, 'held at Philadelphia, to promote

ami astrophysics.

iinstructive.
most
knowledge,'
Founded by Franklin on the model of the
Royal Society, which until a relatively tew
years ago, embraced both the humanities
ami science, the American society has adhered to the broad original scope, ami still
Among
embraces both letters and science.
our members we include philologists, hislawyers,
torians, archaeologists, statesmen,
etc..
well
a- astronomers,
aphysicists,
From tin- ranks
chemists physicians, etc
of the society have been chosen eight presi
dents of the United states, and Thomas
Jefferson was our presi. lent during all his
President of the United
eight years aState-, and
for ten
additional years
unique record as a society."

useful

mammoth han pre

to the American Museum bj Dr. A.
Kouznetsov, Director of the Museum of

Tin. tooth of a

K.

the Russian Geographical Societj

at

Tchita,

Kouznetsov, who extended this

expression of cordiality through Mr. FrankSiberia.

Dr.

lin

Clarkin on the occasion of the retirement

of

American agents from that

district,

says

The

records

collecting

botany,

geology,

archaeology,

of

institution

the

zoology,
rapidlv

is

cus-

languages,

toms, and tradition- of the American Indian

The astrophysical

tribes.

Mount

Wilson

ments

of

tinned.

on

radiation

solar
\

observations

accurate

the

station

have

at

measurebeen

con

was also established

at

Calama, Chile, a- the most cloudless spot on

simultaneous observations.
for
the earth

By

this

tion

for

work
the

is

it

hoped

application

lay

to

of

founda-

such

accurate

measurements to the forecasting of terres

Botanical ex
temperature changes.
ploration was carried on in Ecuador and in
the southwestern United states; and other

trial

expeditions tor general collecting were sent

to
<

French Congo,

the

and

Borneo ami

to

lelebes.

Two
what

initial

will

lie

"Monographs

volumes
a

on

most

have

appeared

notable

Experimental
.

s,

Ties

of
,,t

Biology,"
,

Vol. 70

NATURAL HISTORY

4'.m;

head of the department of experimental biology in the Rockefeller Institute, T. H. Morgan, professor of
experimental zoology in Columbia Univeredited by Jacques Loeb,

and W. J. V. Osterhout, professor of

The two
botany in Harvard University.
volumes which have so far appeared are
Forced Movements, Tropisms, and Animal
Conduct, by Dr. Loeb, and The Elementary
Nt rvous System, by G. H. Parker, professor
of zoology in Harvard.

rings,

and that accordingly these remains

in-

dicate migration northward along the east-

ern coast.

The Fisheries of the North Sea 1 has been

written to inspire a greater appreciation of
"our magnificent heritage of the sea."

It

gives a sketch of the history of the fishing

industry of these northern waters from the

time of primitive bone hooks to the modern

The book contains much
steam trawler.
useful information on the industry in Scandinavia, Holland, Germany, France, Russia,

In connection with the illustration of

mastodon bones collected by Thomas Jefferson at Shawangunk, Ulster County, New
York (see page 407), it is interesting to recall that both Ulster and Orange counties
have been prolific in mastodon remains.

and America. We are all fully awake after

the late war to the economic and naval im-

After the recession of the transcontinental

glacier, large marshes were left in this
region where these huge animals frequently

tion

51

seconds

The most perfect skeleton

so far unearthed, the "Warren mastodon"
now in the American Museum, was taken
This skeleton
out near Newburg, in 1845.
together with the "Shawangunk skull" was
purchased and described by Professor John
Collins Warren, of Harvard, in his famous
memoir, The Mastodon Giganteus of North
America (1852). Farmers in these counties
are frequently turning up bones in a greater

South America, and in the French and Belgian Congo, and Mozambique, Africa.

became mired.

or less state of decay, which they not infrequently take for pieces of tree stump.

portance of the subject.

The

eclipse

eclipse

total

curred on

May

of the sun

which

29 was notable for

its

oc-

dura-

minutes in Brazil, and 6 minutes

The
on the Atlantic Ocean.

was

visible

in

Bolivia and Brazil,

More than one thousand

contributions

for the Roosevelt Memorial Bird Fountain

to be erected

of

Audubon

by

the National Association

Societies of the United States,

had aggregated $11,684.19 on

May

It is

1.

estimated that $100,000 will be needed to

make the memorial a fitting monument to

the memory of the great naturalist president.

Remains of mastodon hair also have been

reported from Ulster County, "of dark,

logical

golden brown color, long, dense and shaggy."

chusetts,

The summer

course of the Marine Bio-

Laboratory,
enters

on

Woods
its

Hole,

Massa-

thirty-second

year.

A
Recently

preliminary

reports

on

the

work of Rasmussen's Second Thule

Expedition have been printed by the Danish

scientific

Geographical Society.

An

ancient

folded

range (probably palaeozoic) was discovered

extending from Robeson Channel along the

new department, Protozoology, is added,

and Professor Gary N. Calkins, of Columbia
University,

offers

a formal course in this

The faculty

subject for advanced students.

of the investigation branch of the botany

department has also been expanded by the

addition of

Edward M.

East, professor of

whole north coast of Greenland into Peary

Land, probably continuous southward with
It was found
the range in Grinnell Land.

experimental plant morphology in Harvard,

Robert M. Harper, professor of botany in
Columbia University, E. Newton Harvey, as-

that the great ice-free highlands of the in-

sistant professor of physiology in Princeton

land ice belt, which the expedition crossed

University, and Winthrop J. V. Osterhout,

on

its

return journey, are entirely devoid

of higher forms of vegetation.

With

professor of botany in Harvard.

refer-

ence to the evidences of Eskimo occupation,

especially at Independence Bay, Mr. Rasmussen is of the opinion that it would never
have been possible for Eskimo to migrate

from the west along the northern coast to

the point where the expedition found tent

The summer courses at the Cold Spring

Harbor Biological Laboratory are adapted
to both elementary and advanced students,
and facilities are granted as usual to stu1
The Fisheries
London, Methuen

of the North Sea,

& Co., 1918.

by Neal Green.

XOTKS
wishing to undertake original in
Associated with Dr. Charles B.
tigations.

dents

Davenport, director of the laboratory,

is

large staff, including Professors Eerbert E.

Walter, field zoology, Henry S. Pratt, com-

!!:

Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Har

Long Island, founded by Mrs. E. 11.
This office has been serving as
llairiman.

bor,

repository for eugen-

clearing house and

for

training school

ical

records and

parative

field

workers

plant

course given at the Harbor by the Brooklyn

A large
Institute of Arts and Sciences.

anatomy, John W. Harshberger,

geography and ecology, and Harris

Hawthorn.' Wilder, physical anthropology.

for

both

the

Institution

and

for

the

tion

the

many

staff,

drawn from
government

as

an

whom

of

organiza-

members of

individual

service.

tasks the Institution

Most of the big war

had in hand were still

confidential at the time President

Woodward

submitted his yearly report and so are not

included, with the exception of the organiza-

an optical glass industry by the

Most of the high

of

tion

Geophysical Laboratory.
grade optical glass used
fore

country be-

in this

war had been imported from

Not only was this supply cut off,

the

Europe.
but the entrance of the United States into
active military participation entailed an increased

demand for all sorts of optical

The Geophysical Laboratory

in-

government undertook

to

struments.

the request of the

investigate

underlying

processes

the

establishments built for manufacturing the

As a result of their work the output
glass.
of

optical glass in the country

uncut

increased

to one

from one

was

hundred tons a

the

office

nearly 52,000 pages of

first

had accumulated
hand manuscript

data before coming under the control of the

I

iarnegie Institution.
is

It

of

interesting to note that 372 volumes

scientific

researches

have

so

far

to

mention the many

printed elsewhere by

its

no1

books

and

article-

published by the Carnegie Institution.

investigators.

Color patterns of fishes with reference to

and environment of the species

the habits

have been the subject of intensive studies

conducted during the past year in the

Hawaiian Islands by Professor William II.

Longley under the auspices of the department of marine biologv of the Carneeie
Professor Longley made mosl
Institution.
of his observations under water by means of
an equipment of diving-hood and submarine
cameras,

this

and

published

at

industry and then assumed the direction of

summer

connection with the

subjects of heredity and eugenics had been

were temporarily

their regular duties for special

bulletins and several memoir- on

number of
Carnegie Institution of Washington
repents for the year 1918 a transference of
ninny of its activities into war channels

The

in

as

remaining

at

considerable depths

for as long as four or five hours at a time.

Also he has been carrying on experiments

in
submarine color photography, and reports that he is convinced of it- possibility,
although a special color screen
to stop

more of the shorter

is

required

waves than

light

the customary screen.

month.

The continuation of the regular scientific

work of the Institution, however, was not

Even the menace of

keep the nonmag-

entirely

interrupted.

German

raiders did not

netic ship "Carnegie" in port throughout the

year.

The magnetic surveys of the "Car-

negie"

have carried her over

189,176 nau-

One

of the

first

result-

of

the

war.

in

England and America at least, is exaltation

of what is national, and one of the earliest
reactions

is

turning to peaceful out

door sports and

travel.

icans

quiet

country

It is safe to prophesy
will

now know America

living
thai

far

of-

and

Ajner
better

the

than ever before, and will understand and

circumference of the earth. The service of

tin- Burvey to navigators cannot be overesti

appreciate as never before the fundamental

fart- of the natural history of America,

miles,

tical

mate,

|.

for

more

even

than

slight

errors

bearing may prove disastrous

ing on an erroneous chart,
the

South

Pacific,

compass

in

to a ship rely

rrors

tl

times

eight

[n

mag

variations of the best chart- were discovered

to

be a-

much

as

16

the beginning

d< g

there

was

and of COUrSe Of plant and animal

There promises to be available a most
remarkable abundance of authentic litera,.

life.

pla

in

especially of physiography, geology, archse

At
of 1918
corporated into the Carnegie [nstitution the
in

ture on natural history subjects.

Probably the greatest movemenl on fool

America along this line results from the
organization of the "National Parks Asso-

GRAND CANON, THE WORLD'S GREATEST EXAMPLE OF STREAM EROSION

Model ofpart of the Bright Angel section prepared

at the American Museum. Horizontal scale, 1000 feet to the inch;

500 feet to the inch.
This exaggeration counteracts the flattening effect which result* from
having the eye of the visitor (standing before the low model) at a comparatively ureal altitude,
as if looking from an aeroplane about 24,000 feet above the famous El Tovar Hold.

vertical,

Method

Preparation. The primary object was

topography and geology, purely artistic results were secondary in importance.

The topographical map of the United States Geological Survey was enlarged by photography four diameters. The chosen contour lines of the map were then transferred by means of impression paper to
boards of the proper thickness to give vertical distances of 100 feet between contours.
These boards were then
sawed along the contour lines, and the resulting pieces glued and nailed one on top of another in the proper order,
forming a reproduction of the map in relief. The core thus built up was coated with a modeling composition which
could be moulded and carved into shape to represent the actual surfaces of ground and cliffs as nearly as possible.
During the progress of the task the modeler made a special trip to the Grand Canon to gain first hand data, including
color sketches for surface and sky.
When the modeling on the core had been completed a plaster cast was made, the
surface was retouched, and the whole colored in accordance with the studies from nature. The background was then
painted, with "flies" similar to those used in theatrical scenery to heighten the pictorial effect.
The preparation of the model, begun under the direction of Chester A. Reeds and completed under that of E. O.
Hovey, was carried o'it by P. B. Hill, E. J. Foyles, A. Brickner, and A. Latzko. Modeling, coloring, and background
are by Morgan Brothers

498

of

to .show

NOTES
,

mi, ,>n."

It

outside of the United Stal

is

independent

Government,

of

the

,,,,.

is

tory

appreciation.

National

fore

will

The Association
function

to

trj

there

interpreter,

as

Park Service; it will work in cooperation

with tlif Government l>ut "untrammeled by

medium through which scientific knowledge

may he made available to the general public,

precedents and politics"

and

the people

long

will

ool

will cooperate by sending classes

and instructors to the parks, allowing credits
toward a degree as in regular course work.

quotation of

permil

representatives

of

lists

of

The

travel

clubs and scientific societies, of universities,

and

of

results

the

in

couraging

in

included

authors,

bul

individuals,

influential

interested

these

to

one

publicists,

twenty

artists,

universities

are

be

Finest

tance

as

utilized

"People's

where

University

"I

or

tain-,

more

attendance may study the natural

in

of

historj

country

ou)

half

and

million

physical characteristics.

Park"

Our national parks

should

grandeur

conspicuous

for

beauty, but

ard

of

it

be

out-of-door

living

emphasized

has

wurk

this

nt'

geysers,

want

to see

park

books

in

objects

his-

trout.

DM

vi

SHAD

by

l'l

.s U

in

in

want

elapse
ries

of

ol

vast period of exposure

sedimentarj rocks above

in

land;

the

the

school

referring

features

to

trulj

in

our

rather than to similar

lands."

-150"

sNOMCml

50 r

section as

applied

of the
it-

t.
the groups
Vishnu gneiss and
>

approximate!]

and eros
onto Bhale
which form the principal features ol
i

to see text-

made more

subjects

foreign

STOfcl

the

canons
in

pictures of na

placed

Grand Cation model in the American Museum, showing tl

The names appearing on the !"<!- of rock are tln>-' which have
ts
who have made Bpecial studies
bed
base is of Archaean age. the oldest in the geological series, and

at

the

impor-

the

and

Detail of the
it-

oul

<>t'

it-

the beautiful

scenes

national park system

u,

on

into the

annual rep >rt, es

wide extension.

his

glaciers,

certain

in

American

stand-

and natural

coopera

Education.

The Director

views of historic places;

majestic

should also represent

in

houses with portraits of national heroes and

trade-mark

and

Service

tional

its

have been viewed largely as scenic wonders:

"National

carrying

every classroom of geography

formative

the

have given the continent

processes thai

Edu

want to see pictures of American moun

of

Science,"

De

the
it-

introduced

pressing his desire to see

to

Natural

been

Commissioner of

the

public exhibition.

for

Association by their presidents.

America's numerous national parks are

has

Publications have been

the

in

of

through

schools and cme series of pictures senl

Aboul

represented

Committee

with

tion

educators,

etc.

Service

Interior

preliminary work of this nature

geographers, geologists, explorers, conserva

tionists,

Park

of the

cational

the national importance of the

journalists,

National

partment

are en-

lists

greatly hoped that the various uni-

is

it

versities

enjoyment of the

the higher

for

Space

parks.
tlic

the Service to de

Association to educate

pelop the parks, the

am

rl.it

top

Photograph by Trevor Kincaid

Puget Sound Biological Station, connected with the University of
Washington, is situated just above high tide at Friday Harbor. Pipes laid deep in the channel supply
fresh and sea water at a constant temperature to all individual research rooms.
The tides rise about
twelve feet at this point, rushing through the channels of Puget Sound, thus keeping the local water
well aerated for marine life.
For facts regarding the work in fisheries at the University of Washington, see the article, in this number, by Dr. Hugh M. Smith, United States Commissioner of Fisheries

The summer laboratory

notable

course

natural

out-of-door

offered this

is

of the

summer

the University of California, in the

Le

the

Memorial

Conte

history

of 1919, by

Lectures

form of

The

the

be
delivered in localities in the valley which
illustrate the physiographic subjects under

As

Yosemite Valley.

These

lectures

will

They include three series covering the botany, geology, and ethnology of
the region. A fourth series, on John Muir,
will be given by Professor W. F. Bade.
discussion.

Away and Long Ago* by W. H. Hud-

Far

holding for

Biological

Station

on Flathead Lake.

in previous years the students

by the

the lake in tents provided

camp

at

university.

Outdoor, laboratory, and lecture courses are

and opportunity afforded for indiMorton J. Elrod, professor of biology, Paul W. Graff, assistant
professor of botany, and Roy Wilson, instructor in geology, all from the state unioffered

vidual research.

versity, constitute the scientific staff.

the British and South American nat-

son,

and author, gives us a glimpse into

uralist

his early life on the

pampas of Argentine

where he spent his boyhood, keenly observing the wild things of the plains.
Mr.
Hudson writes in a reminiscent spirit more
to express the joy he found in living in the
great outdoors than to give an autobiog-

"When

raphy.

I hear people say," he writes,

"they have not found the world and

agreeable or

interesting as to

am

life so

be in love

have
with
clear vision the world they think so meanly

with

it

been

never

of.

is

courses in geology, botany, and zoology at

the

in

University of Montana

the nineteenth season its six weeks' outdoor

apt

properly

to

think

alive

nor

they

seen

"
.

field course in anthropology

for

six

weeks

during

the route cannot be excelled

is

being

and
August by the University of Arizona. The
work will take the students over the Navajo
Reservation and the homes of the Pahut
and the Hopi Indians, and visits will be
made to the Grand Canon of the Colorado,
the Painted Desert, Monument Park, and
the Nonnezoshie (Rainbow) natural arch.
Students undertaking this work must be able
to ride horseback and will have to be prepared to spend most of the time tramping
and camping on the desert. As a scenic trip
offered

it is

July

also one of

the best localities of the country in which to

1

Far

500

A History of My
W. H. Hudson. London and

Away and Long Ago

Early Life.
By
Toronto, 1918.

study both the ruins of the

and contemporary Indian

cliff

tribes.

dwellings

501

NOTES
A department

at

established

,,

forest

of

New York

the

has

recreation

star.'

ege of Forestry to undertake investigause of the

tion and instruction in the proper
Prof.
forest reserves for recreation.
public

fork Zoological Society, New York;

Rocky Mountain
Prairie Club, Chicago;
Climbers Club, Boulder, Colorado; Sagel.rush and Pine Club, Yakima, Washington;
Sierra Club, San Francisco and Los An-

n.u

Benry R. Francis has accepted this chair

and will give his attention to the forest

geles;

and pari areas of the state with reference

This is
to their playground possibilities.
estabbe
kind
to
the
of
department
the first

ica,

lished

The

a school or

cllege in this country.

N-w

the

Ranger School of

State

Tramp and

Trail Club,

New

Y'ork

Wild Flower Preservation Society of Amer-

New York.
The current

the

of

bulletin

Bureau an-

aounces an International Congress of Alpinists, .-ailed by Baron F. Gabet, vice president

of the French Alpine Club, to meet in

May

Monaco,

The proceed-

1920.

10-16,

York State College of Forestry undertakes

to train men to fill positions in the field of

ings of this congress, to which the National

Park Service will contribute, are to be pub-

work between that of the lumberman an.l

The school is
the professional forester.

lished.

Wanakena

at

locate.)

in

Adirondack*.

the

emphasized and a
aursery is maintained where many thousands
of trees are produced annually.

work

forest

Practical

The Bureau

is

Mountain-

of the Associated

eering Clubs of North America in

bulletin

its

recent

for 1919 proclaims a wide interest

outdoor recreation among

TwentyAmerica's forests and mountains.

in the pleasures of

clubs, societies, and institucompose the Bureau, comprising most

the organizations of this country and

nine

different

tions
..t

\r the annual meeting of the American

IDirectors' Association and the

Camp

League of America, held at Greenkill

Camp Dear Kingston, New fork, in Max.
Prof. George L. Meylan, of Columbia University, gave a vivid account of his work

craft

abroad in introducing athletic games in our

armies and in those of France. Demonstrations in woodcraft were in charge of Ernest Thompson Seton, and of campcraft in
charge of Dillon Wallace, the Labrador
Bird study was conducted bj Dr.
explorer.
i;. Clyde
Fisher, representing the American

Canada which are actively interested in the

protection ami development of the scenic
They are: American
treasures of America.
Alpine Club, Philadelphia and New York:
American Forestry Association. Washing-

Museum.

American Game Protective Association. New York; American Museum of Natural History. New York: Adirondack ('amp
and Trail Club, Lake Placid Club, X. Y.
Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston and

tion

ton:

New York: Boone

an.l

Crockett Club,

Neyi

Mountaineering
Columbia
Club, Vancouver; Colorado Mountain Club,
Denver; Field and Forest Club, Boston;

York:

Service,

F.

S.

Dept.

Agriculture,
N'-

Washington; Fresh Air Club,

Geographi.
tain

Admiral

"Roosevelt."

made

possible

North Pole,
with

Hawkins.

is

called

Peary's

ship

the

discovery

of

mind

connec-

to

in

recent death of Eugene D.

was Mr. Hawkins who in 1904

the
It

Peary's projects to his

favorably presented

George

late

the

client,

his

with

Crocker,

the

prompt subscription of $50,000

for the ship and expedition.

result of a

British

Forest

ical

The
which

Society of Chicago;

Society of
Club,

Philadelphia

Rutland,

Green

Vermont;

York;

Geograph-

Moun

Hawaiian

Trail and Mountain Club, Honolulu; Klahhane Club, For; Angeles, Wash.; Mazamas,
Mountaineers, Seattle
Oregon;
Portland,
and Tacoma; National Association \
dubon Societies, New York: National Parks
Washington; National Park
Association,
ice,

C.

S.

Dept

Interior,

\\

One New York

recent

impression of the

artist's

exhibition

at

the

Brooklyn

Museum
Long

of relics of the whaling industry on

Uiand

is

contained

as follows:

many

with this once

"The

little

collection

instructive things connected

flourishing

industry.

Chief

the artist's point of view-

among them from

were the numerous pic marker artistically

wrought from pieces of sperm whale teeth
or

bone.

rough

The ingenuity displayed by the

made these little tools

whalers who

for the kit. hen

itic

is

side of the

notice.

One

truly remarkable, but the

work

sees

is

here

even more worthy

how

successfully

NATURAL HISTORY

502

may combine usefulness

charming object lesson to

such homely objects

beauty:

student? of design

The American Society

of

tin

Instiiut

de Paleontologie

Director

Boule

Marcellin

"II a voulu reconnaitre ainsi,

llu

les

vous avez

le

eminents services que vous avez rendus

la Science, niais encore la sympathie que

montree

tios

la

pierre

suis

re

en

prehistoriens

ecrivant votre bel ouvrage sur les

de

writes:

non seulen

heureux

Sommi

d'avoir

privilege de vous annoncer cette nomina-

ne pent que resserrer

Elle

tion.

les

liens

d'amitie qui unissent votre pays au notre, et

in

L. Britton, director of the

honor of Dr. X.

Xew York

by the managers of the GarThe organization of the

den on May 7.
work twenty-three years ago and its subsequent success were reviewed, and Dr. Britton was presented with a loving cup on
behalf of the board of managers.

A PLAN is being carried out for the improvement and development from a scenic
standpoint of the forests and open lands
along the Du Pont Road in Delaware. This
road, which forms a part of the Lincoln
Highway, extends throughout the length of
Delaware and in its improved form will be a
great asset to the state. It is two hundred
The
feet wide, with roadbed of cement.
Mr. E.

way was presented

C.

Du

by

to the state

Pont, who also financed the

undertaking of its development.

The upkeep and control of the road, forty miles of

which
opened

already
to

have

travel,

been

completed

and

are in the hands of the

State Board of Agriculture.

Mr. George B.
Sudworth, dendrologist of the United States
Forest Service, recommended the plan

making the highway

scenically attractive

for

by

planting forest trees along the roadway to

supplement and improve natural woodland

effects.

At

be devoted to the general

in the

study of mammals,

and life histories,

and anatomical
studies.
Mure than two hundred and fifty
were enrolled as charter members.
The
as

well

as

following

systematic

to

wen'

officers

Merriam, president;

elected:

Hart

C.

E. YV. Xelson, first vice

president; Wilfred H. Osgood, second

vice

president; H. H. Lane, recording secretary;

Hartley

11.

retary;

Walter

Jackson, con esponding

T.

Taylor,

P.

Hollister,

editor.

Anderson,

J.

treasurer:

Glover M. Allen, R.

X.
M.

M. W. Lyon, W. D.
Merriam, Gerrit S. Miller,
Palmer, Edward A. Preble ami
Grinnell,

T. S.

C.

Witmer Stone were

elected councilors.

Dr. J. A. Allex, curator of the department of mammalogy and ornithology at the

American Museum, has been elected the first
honorary member of the newly formed
American Society of Mammalogists.

The history of science in England and in

America has been reviewed in two recent
books 1 by notable scientists of the two counThe work on American science by
tries.
Professor Dana, and by other members of
the Yale faculty, for the most part was
published to commemorate the one hundredth anniversary of the founding' of the

du riant Journal of Science.

progress

of

science

through

in

chapters

fields.

The

first

fessor

Dana,

is

century,

by the Journal,

especially as illustrated

depicted

The general
the

devoted

chapter, written

is

special

to

by Pro-

an account of the Jour mil

itself and its various vicissitudes in the

hands of Professor Silliman and his sucIn its inception the American
cessors.
Journal of Science, as the first American
scientific magazine, aimed at a very comprehensive program "to advance the interests of this rising empire by exciting and
American effort,
concentrating
original
both in the sciences and in the arts." No

several places cleared lands are

and various
and agricultural projects will

to be planted with fruit trees,

horticultural

Washington.

Bo-

tanical Garden,

right of

Mam malm-

of
in

their evolution, behavior,

Jr.,

DINNER was given

organized

will

Matthew, John

qui nous unissent personnellement."

been

has

problems involved

maine of Paris, as a member of the Conseil

In announcing his
ile
Perfectionnement.
election,

gists

The. Society

recently been elected to one of the trustee

-

it
possible to carry harvested
crops easily and quickly to markets.

household furnishing."

in

President Henry Fairfield Osborn 1ms

1

way make-

be undertaken as object lessons in practical

farming.
Incidentally the excellent road-

'.1

Century

reference

to

1818-1918.
Britain*

of

the

Science

in

American

By Edward

America with special

Journal of Science

Salisbury Dana,

Heritage of Science.
Bv
Schuster. F.R.S.. and Arthur E. Shipley,
London, 1918.

et al.

Arthur
F.R.S.,

503

NOTES

Britain, uamely: A. S. Woodward, C. W.

Andrews, and H. Woodward, of the British
Irich, of Oxford,
Museum; also by E. S. G

means of measuring the scientific ailvan. < of the century and the country could
better

,und than tin' pages of this Journal

which has been the fortunate publisher of
some of the most ootable scientific discoveries of

Oldfield

volume

pari of the

is

there are

addition chapters on

in

and

Cambridge undertakes
Bacon

Roger

The

present.

the

to

authors have treated their subject as a

of biographies presenting the main

concerning the

the work does not

living

first

Both volumes

Botany,

Dr. W. D. Matthew, curator of verl

brate palaeontology of the American Museum,
has recently been elected a Fellow of tin'

bis election

these

num.

rat.'.

vision

/.'<

of

Phytogeny

tomeryx and

o)

American

tin

Carnivora and Inst ctivora

1909); Phylogeny of
of tin Bridger Basin
/.'' vision
Lowt r
o] th<
tin
F> lida
1910
Wasatch "ml Wind Eiver Faunas
Eoceni
Bull, and Memoirs, Amer. Mus,
1915 L6 i,
ii"
\ ,t. Hist.
Certain Theoretical
,,/

[908

little

who

the de-

for

as

well

the

will

the

in

and

botanist,

professional

even

volumes

to

always prove valu-

field.

come

gTeat change which has

The

literature

in

the

of Chile since the begin

art

ning of the twentieth century was em] hasized by Sr. Enrique Molina, director of

Conception High School,

has

cially

in

lecture at

become both more national and

country

the

throughout

appreciated

better

Co

Chilean literature espe

University.

lumbia

so

that

his

possible for an author to

now

i-

ii

by

live

Chile has

profession.

made

during

advances

educational

table

do-

recent

years and particular attention to the building of schools is being given by the present

government under President Sanfuentes.

A \ki^ valuable exhibition

man

Tertiary

th,

the

soi

scai

thi

Fossil Mum/mils of
1897
190]
of N. W. Colorado
Hypothetical Outlines o) tht Continents in
Osteology o) /'
L906
Tertiary Times

Tuerco Fauna

as

who wishes

able guidebooks

By geological research in The field he has

helped largely in the more exacl determination of the relative ages of the fossils occurring in the Tertiary rocks of western North
He has also done much to popuAmerica.
larize vertebrate palaeontology and to spread
Author of
general interest in the subject.
num. 'i. hi- memoirs and papers, among which
1

out-of-doors,

logist

the amateur or

Canadian palaeontologist distinguished

for his valuable contributions to our know!
it'
the fossil mammals of North America, and his philosophical discussions of the
modern results of vertebrate palaeontology.

mav

to

WinU

leaf

determine the
habitat of certain larvae, for the mycologist
identifying the host of his fungus specimens, for the gardener in winter, and for

as follows:

is

of

lights

ent

Thecitation

Royal Society of Great Britain.

introduction

an

wish.'-

uliarities

volume,

For

differences.

bud

and

by the old
i

manner on

similar

in

based his

he says, "in

as

and other

position

the

of

pari

used

of foliage," and the second

are illustrated with numerous portraits;

accompanying

mil...

differences

on

part

herbalists,

have

exceptions

certain cases.

in

accounts of

to include

although

scientists,

made

aim

Mot,

Plant

k.

large

greater

Trelease has

Professoi

but

year,

British scientists.

tinguished

been

facts

the

throughout

plant-

si

and discoveries of disOn the whole

lives

shrubs,

s,

and flower characters for the basis of their

keys, making it impossible to identify the

count of Britain's great heritage of science,"

from

com-

Illinois,

and woody climbers in eastern United States

and north. urn Europe during both winter and
Most of our manual- use fruit
summer.

plain ac-

give a

"to

of

prising admirable keys to the

of

vice-chancellor

the

William Tre-

Professoi

by

University

the

of

lease,

chemistry, physics, zoology, and botany.

The British work by the secretary of the
Society

two years

last

Royal

Museum,

British

the

of

Smith, the anatomist.

Two handy pockel manuals of common

woody plants have been published during the

devoted

geology, mineralogy, and palaeontologj to

n especially de
which the Journal has
l.n!

una-,

time.

tlic

The greater

voted,

'I'll.

Elliot

late spring

in

.
i

lotion

l'.'l

Climatt
\.-u

and

eminent

Geol.

Evolution

Y..rk Acad.

This citation
most

ting
Bull.

I'huUnti

SeL
is

and

nit

Ajner.

Soc.

1915

York,
ii-.-.

by

three

palaeontologists

of

of

the

Great

in

anf

Museum

Metropolitan

plant

illustrated

Annals,

."

signed

the

at

<

design, and
\t,,i.

1917

.,,

....

/'.

..-

,i

inf.

forms

called

Art,

of

Mew

historically

attention to the

Botany,

ibid.,

ning,
191 8.

[Jr

NATURAL HISTORY

504
possibilities

the use of

in

new

subjects for

ideas in

American plant
design.

col-

and exotic objects of art,

wood carving, and architecture was arranged in connection with
examples of living plant forms which contributed their dominant motives, such as
acanthus and papyrus, lotus, grape, cypress,
and almond.
lection of native

tapestries,

china,

The American Museum was

represented

annual meeting of the

fourteenth

the

at

American Association of Museums, held in

Philadelphia in May, by Messrs. E. O.
Hovey, Herbert J. Spinden, and Roy VY.
Dr. Spinden addressed the session
Minor.
with reference to the utilization of mu-

He exseum material in industrial art.

plained the extensive adaptations by textile
manufacturers of decorative motives found

Xorth and South American Indians and the more primitive peoples in

among

of

parts

other

make

collections

ical

Anthropolog-

world.

the

available

modern

ideas that can be put to

many

old

The

use.

commercial success along this line of development has already been great. For the
first

time American houses have been able to

market

and ribbons

silks

both Paris and

in

European deThe problem before America is to

signers.
develop an everyday art that properly ex-

London

in

competition with

our

presses

Dr.

nationality.

Spinden's

paper aroused a lively discussion.

President H. F. OsAmerican Museum, brought the

the attention of members of the

for public libraries.

born, of the
situation to

Board of Education at a conference held in

the Museum on February 18, 1919, at which
President Arthur S. Somers, Mrs. Ruth F.
Russell, and Dr. Gustave Straubenmiiller represented the Board of Education, Professor
Stephen P. Duggan, the College of the City
of Xew York, and President Henry Fairfield
Osborn, Director Frederic A. Lucas, Mr.
George H. Sherwood and Dr. G. Clyde
Fisher, the American Museum. As a result
of

conference,

this

which the

at

various

phases of the Museum's activities with the

schools were presented and discussed, the
Board of Education, at the request of President Somers, made a special appropriation

Museum

of $4,100 to enable the

its full-time service to

During

to

resume

the schools.

the past winter and

spring the

auditorium and other assembly halls of the

American Museum have been

use

for

lectures

or

in almost daily

meetings of

scientific

autumn course for members Mr. Branson M. DeCou lectured on the

Colorado, Yellowstone, and Glacier National

At

societies.

the

Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson on the United

Mr. Charles Crawford Gorst on bird music and Mr. Graham
Lusk on the food supply of the Allies. For
the spring course Mr. Carl E. Akeley lectured
on Africa Mr. George D. Pratt on the forests and wild life of Xew York; Professor
Herbert E. Gregory on Australia; and Dr.
G. Clyde Fisher on a naturalist's rambles in
Florida. The children's course included two
series of four lectures each on wild birds
and animals, the Eskimo, Indian stories, and
Parks

States bird reservations

The
the
lic

value of the educational work which

American Museum

doing for the pubis emphasized

is

New York

schools of

City

by the recent action of the Board of Education in providing a special appropriation

which will enable the institution to extend

full-time service to the schools during the

its

This service to the schools

current year.

is

the winds.

For the children of the public

schools four courses of six lectures each were

provided for in the letter of the contract.

by members of the Museum staff

industries of the United State-.
natural history, early history of America,
and geography respectively.
In addition to these regular courses a
number of special lectures have been delivered at the Museum from time to time.

Under the limited program provided, the

Museum was obliged to discontinue supply-

Professor S. A. Mitchell spoke in December

on "The Result of the Eclipse of 1918": Dr.

ing nature-study collections to the schools

Lindley M. Keasbey in January gave three

and

lectures on "Wealth and its Ways": and Mr.

John Kendrick Bangs lectured on ''Light
and Shade in the Land of Valor." On Feb-

quite outside the terms of the contract be-

tween

the

quently,

the
the

Museum and

when

the

the

City:

conse-

Board of Estimate reduced

appropriation for the maintenance of

Museum

in 1919, the trustees

were com-

pelled to suspend activities which were not

of

the

Bronx,

Brooklyn,

Queens,

to

reduce

children

to

half

the

the

Richmond,

lectures

for

number, and

school
to

dis-

continue entirely the circulating collections

offered

on

the

ruary

5,

Sir

Arthur

Pearson,

the

blind

0.

2S

CO

D
u
CO
D

tig*

3
z:
cc
LU

LU

CO

3
0-

5 -

lal-

tx

E s

_:

5*>i

L\

>

" =

NATURAL HISTORY

506
St.

and

dressed
E.
I

Dunstan's

London,

Hostel,

hundred New ^" -k blind

This spring a special
their friends.
of travel lectures was arranged for
soldiers and sailors who were ad
j

addressed

seven

<

on three occasions by

Akeley, George

II.

>

Messrs. Carl

Sherwood, and James

The small assembly rooms of the Museum

have served as meeting places and
halls for the

The

New York Aca

lecture

lemv of Sciences

following persons were elected

mem-

American Museum during the

months of April and May:
of

affiliated

organizations,

which include

New York, the New

<'lul>,
New York En-

the Lin mean Society of

York

Mineralogical

tomological Society, Torrey Botanical Club,

N'-w York Microscopical Society, and the

American Ethnological Society.

tures were arranged

Special

lec-

by the educational

de-

partment of the Museum for several of the

'.aines.

bers

and

the

Patron,

Mrs.

Henry Fairfield Osborn.

Fellow, Mr. S. N. Bond.

Life Mi rubers, Mrs. Harold F. McCormh'K, Misses E. M. Kittredge, Isobel H.

Lenman, Dr. Pearce Bailey, Messrs.

John Edward Aldred, Joseph C. Baldwin-. Jr., Edmund G. Buckner, C. L. Carpenter, Walter S. Case, Francis B.
Cullinan, Heyward
Cutting, William du Pont, W. Cameron
Forbes, Henry S. Hall, Jr., Reynold Janxey, Fairfax S. Landstreet, John M.
Morehead, Howard Phipps, Herbert L.
Pratt, Daniel G. Reid, Francis Beach
White, William Whitmax and George

Crowninshield,

J. S.

Wood.
Sustaining Members, Mrs. Carl Ferenbach, Messrs. R. J. Caldwell, Wallace de

Witt, William B. Goodwin, Elox Huxtixgton Hooker, G. B. McCann and Edward Milligan.

Annual Members,

Mesdames Hezekiah

A. Brayton, S. B. Browxell, C. N. Edge,

Herbert Spencer Greims, Clement Acton

Griscom,
Hardixge,
Franklin S.
H.
Hexry, Robert I. Jenks, Wolcott H.
Johnson, Leo Lorexz, F. Maurice Newtox, James F. Shaw, Fayette Smith,
Misses Axxe Hampton Barxes, Mary F.
Bartlett, Ida M. Harris, Bessie Nathan,
Martha R. White, Rear Admiral C.
McR. Winslow, U.S.N., Doctors Alice G.
Bryant, Robert Good, Thomas Howard
Grosvenor, Samuel Swift, Fraxcis W.
White, J. Sherman Wight, Messrs. William Appletox Aikex, Hexry A. Alker,
B. I. Ashmux, Edward S. Avery, Woodward Babcock, Charles Chaxey Baker,
Harry S. Baxdler, C. D. Barnes, Robt.

city's

high

School,

art

schools,
(lasses,

the

Ethical

Culture

School

Nature

the

League, and the Boy Scouts.

Barr, Edward R. Barton, II. C. Bei kmax, Sidxey Forbes Be< kwith, E. R. T.
Berggrex, Johx D. Brown, Howard Sumxer Candee, Hexry B. Cannon, Theodore W. Case, C. II. B. Chapix, George
Chase, W. H. Clark, James Lide Coker,
Hexry A. Colgate, Russell Colgate,
I.

Hexry

E.

Cooper,

Wyllys

R.

C.

Davis,

E.

De

Dowd, Jr., Robert

I). Emmerich, Jacksox Evans, S. J. Feldmax, Fraxk B. Foster, Leo Freedmax,
Golyer,

E.

John H. Fultox, George R. E. Gilchrist,

W. E. Glyx, Wm. E. S. Griswold, John
Harris Guttersox, Sidney Harrison, William Holabird, Charles C. Homer, Jr.,
Frank T. Hulswit, Arthur M. Hunter,
c. L. Hutcheson, Walter N. Kahn, G. H.
Kent, Emil L. Kieger, Herbert T. King,
Allan F. Kitchel, W. M. Ladd, Alfred Le
Blanc, Percival Manchester, Samuel G.
M'
lure, Charles McKxight, Edward J.
Nally, James C. O'Conxor, William Taft
Pitkin, Sherburne Prescott, George W.
Raynes, Wt m. S. Scarborough, E. H. Scott,
William Paixe Sheffield, Fraxk R.
Shull, I. Sibberxsen, Chas. H. Simmons,
B. Herbert Smith, Isaac Sterx, Frederick
'hi li p Stieff, Jr., Frederick M. P. Taylor, George F. Titus, H. O. Underwood,
Fred Yogel, Jr., Justus vox Lengerke,
Roger B. Williams, Jr., H. Leonard Wilton, .1. Walter Wood and T. B. Yuille.
Mesdames A. S.
Associate Members,
Pierce, Frederick Sundt, Misses Abigail
H. Bishop, Lilian Gillette Cook, Colonel
Charles K. Wixxe, U.S.A., Messrs. W.
L. Chambers, P. R. Cluff, Hexry W.
Corning, Walter L. Dunham, Charles W.
Farxham, Richard A. Feiss, Arthur L.
A. HlMMELSTEIX, EDWIX HOYT, HOWARD F.
Marston, F. C. McMath, Benjamin F.
Myers, F. B. Ray, Craige McComb Snader
and Samuel F. Wadswortk.
<

ATURAL
II
THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY,

EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

THROUGH THE MUSEUM

DECEMBER,
Volume

XIX,

1919

number

CONTENTS FOR DECEMBER

Volume XIX

Frontispiece, The Last Bust of Roosevelt

By Sigurd Neandross, Sculptor

A Geographer

at the Front

and

at the

NuMBER

Modeled from Life

510

Peace

Douglas W. Johnson

Conference

511

The nature of the terrain influenced tin strategy of the World War, and the geography of
Europe was fundamental in the settlement of boundary problems at the Peace Conference
With photographs of famous strategic positions in France

Five

Land Features

Knowledge

of Porto Rico

of the geological formation of

K. Lobeck

\.

Porto Rico

is of

523

value to the tourist bent on study

or adventure

"Theodore Roosevelt's Letters

to

His Children" ..-.. Hermann Hagedorn

5-11

Frank Owen Payne

543

Sculptures of the Late Theodore Roosevelt

Including reproductions of most of the notable likenesses
marble

Roosevelt in bronze, clay, and

of

C. Gordon Hewitt
of the Bison
Under Government and private protection bison have increased to many thousand head
With photographs from Buffalo Park, Alberta, and reproductions of old and famous pictures

The Coming Back

of the bison

hunt

Boulenger. the

Man and His Work

The Honorable Position

Relative to the

The Love

of

553

work

of Naturalist

Thomas Barbour

567

Clyde Fisher

568

Cockerell

571

G.

of Gilbert White, of Selborne

Nature

T. D. A.

With the American naturalist and

review of Field and Study by John Burroughs.
author, we enter into sympathy with the beauty and meaning of the natural world
and
scenes from his favorite haunts
Previously unpublished portraits of John Burroughs

Bird Photographs of Unusual Distinction

Work

of

583

noted bird photographers and naturalists, published in honor of John Burroughs

Sequoia the Auld Lang Syne

of Trees

Henry Fairfield Osborn

599

Among

the many natural beauties and resources of the country which have fallen before industry the redwoods have suffered in an especial degree because of their great value for
timber.
If a remnant is to be saved for our own generation and the delight and use of
posterity, it is imperative that the Government immediately acquire redwood reservations

Read

614

George Longford

621

Photographs of Llewellyn Glacier, British Columbia

The Dawn

of

Art

A Poem

Herbert

Creating a National Art

National art an embodiment of the

L. C.

common

J.

Spinden

622

cultural traits of a united country

from the First Exhibition of American Textiles,

Costumes, and Mechanical Processes
Held at the American Museum of Natural History, November 12 to December 1, 1919
Charles T. Simpson
An "Old Tramp" Anion- tlie Florida Keys
Series of Photographs

Army

Intelligence Tests

657

Van Name

665

Arps

671

Willard G.
George

Island Animals and Plants

631

F.

possible a rapid classification of the millions of recruits taken into our Army during the war, a Psychological Division was established in the Medical Department which gave
intelligence tests in the army and reported on the mental abilities and disabilities of the men

To render

The

M. R. Trabue

Intelligence of Negro Recruits

serious educational problem, calling for a radical departure

policy

M.

C.

680

from our current educational

Dickerson, Editor

Published monthly from October to May, by the American Museum of Natural History,
York, N. Y. Subscription price, $2.00 a year.
Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St.
and Central Park West, New York City.
Natural History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges
of membership.
Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York,

New

under the Act of August 24, 1912.

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918.

in Section 1103,

Act of

CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
The

I"

Man

Races of

srm

Louis R. Sullivan

Probably not surviving primitive types

independently

Nomad Dwarfs and

Mr

Lang traveled and

man, but aberranl groups which have developed

of

Civilization
lived among the Pygmies

Herbert Lang
of

691

Central Africa where he collected valu-

able anthropological data

With reproductions
photograph

of

of the

photographs

Pygmy group

oi

in

the

in

the

author and of

American Museum

Real El Dorado

William

J.

LaVarre

715

Brooks

723

Adams

726

British Guiana, a country of rich natural resouri

Birds and

Wilderness

\i.i.w

The New York State Wild

Life

Memorial

to

Charles

Theodore Roosevelt
The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station opens
for study of our game animals

to the field

Samuel Garman, of the Agassiz Museum

C.

naturalist opportunities

John

Nichols

730

Lutz

731

E. W. Nelson
an ideal locality for a bird reservation

734

T.

Scientific Zoological Publications of the

American Museum
3

tnmary of

t'.:e

work on

A Region

Frane

fossil

E.

mammals

Irops
too Alkaline for
The Klamath Lake district of California and Oregon
<

is

but useless for agriculture

dnited States Biological Surveys of States

Latest Conservation

News from

the

735

Pacific Coasl

Frank M. Chapman

William Brewster: In Memoriam

-i

Conservation

in

New York

Kxtracts from a Report bj the Stat* of

Adam Hermann,

736

State
New York Conservation Commission

W.

Preparator

T38
739

D.

Matthew

14

745

Including brief

ence, exploration, and conservation news, personal mention of

various men of the scientific world, and activities of the Red Cross
Rockefeller Foundation,
International Research Council, and several scientific department- of the United States
'

eminent

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

MEMBERSHIP
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its collections, for scientific research and

and for publication?, the American Museum of Natural
ry is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the generosity of friends.
More than 4000 friends are now enrolled who
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The various classes
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THE LAST BUST OF ROOSEVELT MODELED FROM

LIFE

The work of Sigurd Neandross

sj* ec

The work
?
Mr. Xeandross aimed to make a faithful life portrait of the older Roosevelt.
"!f ht-eiore
just
made at Mr. Roosevelt's New York office and at the American Museum ot Natural History
completed
.,...
Roosevelt was taken to the hospital prior to his death, and the bust was never
from the press ot Doubleday,
At the close of a new single-volume edition of Rudyard Kipling's verse, just
Page & Company, are these lines on Roosevelt:
Of whom o'er both oceans
"Concerning brave Captains
Both peoples may say.
Our age hath made known
'Our realm is diminished
For all men to honor,
n
With Great-Heart away.
One standeth alone,
studies

510

NATURAL HIST
DECEMBER,

Volume XIX

Number

1919

Geographer at the Front and

Peace Conference
By

DOUGLAS

Columbia University;
States Army, and Chief of Divisii

Prof<'s>or of Physiography,

tommission

t..

at the

JOHNSON

W.

Major, Military

latelj

[ntelligi

nited

aphy, American
N< got iate

From stenographic notes of an address delivered on >U< occasion of tin annual dinner of tin Xew Fork
Academy of Sciences, December to, 1919. Illustrations from photographs by tin speaker

1IIA1)
tion

opportunity,

the

with

connec-

in

cooperative

undertak-

ing by the American Geographical

and the authorities of the

United States Army, to visit tin- battlefronts from Belgium to Saloniki durSociety

operations,

military

the

the

for

purpose of studj mi: on the ground the

influence of the terrain upon military
h will be possible
strategy and tactics,
in the few minutes this evening to pick

from my interesting experiences

during that trip only a few exam

"in

of

very

the

raphy has
show how

evidenl

"ii

we

and

then

to

geographical

applied

not only of

ledge

topog-

influence

strategy,

mat-

strategic

other territorial ques-

so of

ing the

problems of the

slopes face toward Germany,

and have been called the natural deh was no accident
fenses of Paris,
thai the main German offensive came
nol from the east, across the low plains
dominated i>\ high escarpments, but
instead from the uorth to take the nat-

steeper

ural defensive lines in the flank. 1

and

region of low

Belgium

plain,

above

which there are occasional low

phical eminences, which played

topography had

striking pari
of the

<

rreal

in

irea easl of

Farther southeast,

Paris, the land

is

in

made

having
al
slope westward toward the
-in. and a
somewhai rag
pmenl overlooki

of a series of plateaus, each

where the

Verdun region and the St.-Mihiel

sa-

and finally in the vicinity of

Xaiu-v. where the topography was ably

lienl

utilized

General de Castelnau in his

l>\

magnifieenl defense of that

we

city.

Belgian coast,

the battle-fronl ended

only

nol

the

to

firsl

find thai

erally

at

barbed

the

the military operations

War.

area,

very striking influ-

ence on the local fighting; then in the

few typi-

the Belgian coasl and the Mi.

at

rlemmel-Vimy Ridge

Turning

France

orthern

we have

describe

to

areas in the northern plain, begin-

ning

onference.

<

am going

cal

the sea, but

wire

in

lit-

the

entanglemi

crossing the line of dunes which sepa'\\ land

rates the
of Belgium from the
I

-.a

and extending

into the water in

"tit

order t" prevenl

local

ments.

lowland

In

that

ensive areas

i-

flanking movethe surface

below the level

Hi nrj

lower plain

to

tl

astward.

Holl &

<

...

511

NATURAL HISTORY

By opening
bide.
was possible to admit
waters of the sea at high tide and
This means
flood large tracts of land.
the

sea

at

the tide gates,

of

topographic

the

ii

gives a perfect

defense

was

utilized,

remember, in the greal

battle for the Channel ports, and with
sin h success that an inferior number
of Allied troops were able to stop the
great German drive in one of the big
bids which Germany made for success
as

you

will

in the war.

ment

On

every railroad embank-

or other slight elevation above the

low-lying- waste of waters

sible to

Yet that

high

construct a series

was posof sandbag

it

hill.

elevation

slight

command

of every road

and of every obstacle capable of concealing a gun, over a broad stretch of

country.
possible

From Mt. Hemmel it was

on a clear day to see north-

westward clear

to the line of

dunes

at

the sea; then to sweep the entire pano-

rama of the battle-front north, east,

it
faded away on the

and south, until

horizon

south of

Vimy

Ridge.

not difficult to understand

why

It

is

there

were such bitter struggles for so coma point of observation.

manding

Southwest of

Lille,

and not

far

from

protections to serve as lines of resis-

the town of Arras, there rises above

Germans always
had to advance across submerged areas.
The danger of these submerged areas
lay not merely in the fact that maneuvers in the water were difficult and
the footing very insecure and uncertain, and that concealed beneath the
waters were deep ditches and trenches
where a man might suddenly drop into

the plain a ridge which has a gentle

tance against which the

depths far over his head, but also in

southwestern slope and a steep northescarpment.

This is the
famous Vimy Ridge. In the early days
of the war the Germans made a point
east-facing

of seizing this ridge.

enthetically that

it

may

say par-

was the testimony

of officers all along the western front

Germans showed unusual skill

and seizing topographifavorable points, and that as a

that the
in

selecting

the fact that in such a flooded region

cally

wounded man is a dead man.

When he falls from his wound, he falls

result the Allies were, at the beginning

every

of the war, usually at a topographic

compared

not on the battlefield to be carried off

disadvantage

to a hospital,

but into the water to be

drowned. Hence it was that the German losses in killed were unusually

enemy.

heavy in the battle for the Channel

What was the peculiar value of Vimy

Ridge that such a terrible price should
be paid for its recapture by the Allied
armies? It was a question of observation.
So long as the Germans held the

ports.

Some distance southeast of the Belgian coast and just northwest of Lille
low hills rising only a few
score of feet above the general level of
the flat plain. Mt. Kemmel forms the
easternmost member of these hills.
When one of the German commuis a

series of

niques stated that their best mountain

troops had been able to scale the
heights of Mt.

Kemmel,

the world

may

have imagined that the climb was a

difficult one.
I think, however, that
the most corpulent of individuals could
easily

reach the summit in a ten or

fifteen

minute walk from the base of

as

with

the

southwestern slope of the ridge they

could see every movement within the
Allied lines for a great distance north
and south whereas, the Allies themselves, facing up hill against the Ger:

man

lines,

could see nothing but the

The Ger-

obstacle of the rising ridge.

mans could

carry on their maneuvers

on the plain behind the ridge unhampered by enemy observation except such
as was possible by means of aeroplane
and balloon. Continuous and easy observation direct from the ground has
great advantages over the more uncer-

A GEOGRAPHER AT THE FRONT

tain observation from he air. where the
observer is subjected to great annoyance and danger if he flies low, and
l

~ii

tiers

from

restricted vision

if lie

flies

high.

The

Allies lost

many

tens of thou-

numbers
sands of killed and still
hundred
few
a
gain
in wounded, to
larger

yards of this valuable terrain.

It

worth the price, for with that gain the

roles of the two armies were reversed.
The tier mans were on the defensive,
their back areas under perfect observation, and the possibility of their planning a surprise attack greatly reduced,
while the Allies enjoyed the protection
from direct terrestrial observation

which the enemy formerly enjoyed.

The path to victory was being prepared. 1

even less chance of success than

an advance down the valley.

offer

During the battle of the St.-Mihiel

the American troops pressing
north across the plain of the Woevre
salient,

were aided by troops sweeping down

from the plateau on the west, and by
rvers posted on the plateau crest in
order to observe and direct the progress
The American troops
of operations.
occupied,
ation-,

at

across

the beginning of the oper-

running east and west

Facing them
low plain.

line

the

were the Germans in a very strong poselected with such skill that,
while the Americans on taking over

sition

this part of the French line found

themselves down in the marshes and
mud. the enemy stood high and dry on
the projecting spur of the plateau

Montsec

forming

Now

513

and

adjoining

its

us pass far eastward to the

It is in the topogregion of Verdun.
raphy of this region that we find an
explanation for the direction of the

ridge.

German attack, which was from the

north down the valley of the Meuse, in

ing the face of a plateau scarp

spite

let

of

the

fact

thai

spurs, projecting into the

ley,

gave

the

winding

val-

series of positions very dif-

The high plateau

take.
escarpment facing eastward and overlooking the low plain of the Woevre,
was even more difficult, however, for
the French troops on the plateau crest
possessed a truly wonderful command
of the whole low country to the east
over which any German attack from this
direction would be compelled to move.
The plain of the Woevre is dotted with
marshes and ponds, roads are few, and
are in full view of observers on the
ficult

to

heights above.
relatively

Artillery control of the

few approaches to the

cliffs

leading up to the plateau was so perfect that an attack from the east would
1
The full significance of Vimy Ridge, and its
place in the fighting of several campaigns, cannot
be told in a few moments but will be fully described in a large monograph to be published by
the American Geographical Society in 1920.

In the battle of Nancy the Germans

did attempt the difficult task of attack-

from the

low plain to the east of it. The scarp

in question lies next east of that near

Verdun, and is known in part as the

Grand Couronne. North of Nancy the
-carp is high and forbidding, while to
the south

The

it

appears less formidable.

Nancy was divided into

battle of

three phases.

The Germans,

the

of

difficulty

north of Nancy,

scaling
first

realizing

the

heights

marched

their

armies southward and attacked the esThe

carpment where it was lowest.
attack failed because the French, even

on the lower escarpment, had a command of the low plain in front which

made

it

impossible for the

Germans

to

attempt any movement of surprise,

and which enabled the French artillery
to decimate the attacking columns as
they moved into position. The second
attack was against the city of Nancy
itself

north

and that part of the plateau just

;

but although the Germans were

able to cross the plain toward

Nancy

NATURAL HISTORY

514
for

considerable distance, on twelve

successive days the} were beaten back

by the artillery fire controlled from ad-

observation

igeous

attempt

final

The

points.

was a drive southward

from the direction of Metz, against a

projection of the plateau at Ste.-Genewith the hope of passing down
.

Valley to reach Nancy.

After the attacking forces had succeeded in reaching the crest of the
the

Moselle

plateau at one point they were pushed

and tell where the geographic

work came in.
The question of language interested

ference,

many

of us, particularly

saw the

when we

first

Conference begin its

English and French were

Peace

operation-.

on an equal footing as the official languages of the conference, and the proceedings of the Supreme Council and of
the Big Four were carried on in both.
Only in some of the commissions where
everyone spoke French, was French

back into the plain and held there for

the remainder of the war.

alone employed, in order to reduce by

These studies were carried on in part

for the purpose of making the Amer-

preme

half the time required for such com-

missions to do their work. In the SuCouncil and other more im-

portant meetings the translating was

done by the wonderful Mantoux, a man

an authority on
certain English economic problems,

Government acquainted with the

importance and significance of strategic frontiers.
We knew that when

of high distinction as

the Peace Conference convened certain

possessing perfect

countries were going to press extensive

ber of different languages, and gifted

claims for strategic annexations of ter-

with a most remarkable memory and a

power of mimicry which enabled him to
reproduce not alone the words but also

ican

might have
and we
know from ob-

ritory in order that they

good,

defensible

thought

it

frontiers;

advisable to

modern conditions of
warfare just what was the value of topography in defensive and offensive
servation under

warfare.

It

is

interesting

to

record

that the testimony of the officers with

whom

talked,

including both com-

manders-in-chief and generals of le>s<T

along the fronts from Bel-

rank

all

gium

to the Balkans,

that

topography not only

movements

much

as

was

to the effect
affects

the

of military forces today as

it

did in the past, but that

under modern conditions of warfare

the control of topography is even more
effective than ever before.
As Marshal
Haig expressed it, one would not be
exaggerating to say that the entire war
has been a struggle

for

topographic

position.

may

perhaps interest you if I

moment the kind of organization we had at the Peace ConIt

sketch for a

command

of a

num-

the thought and spirit of those whose

words he translated. Inasmuch as he

probably the one man who was present at most of the important meetings
is

from the days of the Supreme War

Council to the close of the Peace Conference, his memoirs, if ever published,
should prove a valuable and fascinating document.
I shall never forget the first time I
saw this remarkable man at work. It
at a meeting of the Supreme Counand the representative of a smaller
power was presenting his country s
claim to certain territory. As the presentation proceeded, Mantoux, sitting
to the right of and slightly behind

was
cil,

Clemenceau, jotted down hasty notes

on large sheets of paper lying on the
small table before him. I waited, with
growing surprise, the moment when
the speaker would cease and allow the
translation to begin.

ten

minutes

But five minutes,

and still the
and still Mantoux

passed,

speaker continued

GEOGRAPHER AT THE FRONT

calmly jotted down his notes. The door

opened, a Liveried porter slipped into
the room, and laid a letter on ManNote taking erased. Mantoux's table.
toux read the letter, wrote a reply, and
handed it to the porter. All this time
the delegate of the power in question

continued the earnesl argument

fa-

in

What a
vor of his country's demands.
thought, that the translator

shame,

should be missing a vital pari of that

And made a mental not<
argumenl
of the points which would escape the
1

knowledge of those who did not unpresentation

original

in

derstand

the

French.

Finally, after a lapse of time

which seemed

to

me

almost intermina-

speaker paused, and bowi] g

Mantoux, intimated that the first sec-

ble, the

now be
A moment's

tion of his address mighl

dered into English.

renhesi-

during which he glanced hastily

tation,

over his several pages of notes as

if

to

visualize the whole

argumenl in its enIn clear

tirety, and Mantoux began.
tones and a forceful manner, the translator now reproduced with remarkable
emphasis of
Nothing was

very

phraseo
the

original

Foreign

Nex1

Affairs.

below

there

commissions including
the territorial commissions compos
of two delegates from each of in four
greal western powers. There were such
commissions to consider the territorial
demands of Greece, Roumania, the

cam.,

series of

Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slovaks, and so

The appropriate

on.

com-

territorial

would give a hearing to any

-mall power which desired to present
its
case, or to two or more powerwhere there were conflicting claims to
territory.
After hearing both sides

mission

of

the

case,

members

the

of

these

commissions and their associated geographical, economic, historical, military, ami other experts would debate
the issues at length, and decide what
was just in each claim and what was
unjust, and where the new boundary
lines should he drawn, striving to fix
the frontiers as nearly a- possible along
lines of racial division hut taking into

due account
nomic, ami

the

geographic, the eco-

some extent, the

to

stra-

breathlessly awaited the hiatus

and most permanent settlement of the

standing figures of the Peace

infer-

<

complicated

various
lem-.

nio-i

think'

cases

i-

it

was made

sincere effort

by the disinterested technical

men

of

powers to lay down

the different greal

the

prob-

territorial

just to say that in

frontiers

of

Europe

in

the

way

would

be

fairest

to

all

con-

which

Ami

cerned.

while political considera-

sometimes influenced the representatives of this or that nation, and

tions

ence.

With the Supreme

<

luxation
familiar.
i

!'.

Five

tegic factor-, in order to -vt the wisest

lacking,

which should mark that portion of the

address losl during hi- preoccupation.
Mantoux calmly reproduced it all. not
a sentence missing.
Hi- mind had recorded cadi word even while it seemed
otherwise engaged, ami now gave hack
in another tongue all it had received.
Assuredly Mantoux was one of the out-

Five

Big

not

questions
t

of

politics

the

imes caused

the

experts

to

or

some-

policy

recommendatioi
be

sel

aside

by

the

Mr.
an

utative

it-

hour and the |; _

Four being Mi-. Wilson,

Orlando,

ami M.

alr<

Big

tli,.

th.

and

are

Supreme Council
Big Ten
broke

Later, tin-

into

'ouncil

you

popularly called the

up

matters of the western world

were concerned I, and the
_
cm -i -tin.: of the Ministers of

and

speaker.

while

the

thought,

the

fidelity

the

where
only

515

Lloyd

Gi

the Japanese rep-

participating

actively

higher authority of the Supreme Council

or

ti,,

frontiers of the

hour, nevertheless, the

new Europe

hem on the map

part, drawn in the

as

you

will

were, for the mosl

territorial

com-

.\

nii;

missions

by

li

^interested

/v/;.i/,

geographic

and other experts.

Now. the kind of problems which
constantly

came before the

territorial

commissions can best be illustrated by

inking one which did not come before
such a commission; for then I will reveal no commission secrets by referring
I will select a problem in which
to it.
you are very much interested at the
present time; namely, the Adriatic
problem. We have here an issue which
is fundamentally based on great questions of political, physical, economic,
It was the
strategic geography.
duty of the different geographic, economic, historical, and other experts
to know all phases of this and other
to say, for exterritorial problems
ample, that the linguistic and racial
boundary between the Jugo-Slavs and
the Italians lay far over on the western

and

edge of the Istrian peninsula, and that

if a decision were made on the basis of
nationality alone, not only Fiume but

most of

Istria

Jugoslavia.

It

would have to go to
was also for them to say

that the natural or geographic frontier

mountain ridge forming the backbone of Istria and located

lay on the high

close to its eastern shore; that all eco-

nomic relations of the people west of

that divide may lie most naturally
with the Italian side of the mountain;
and, hence, that

it

may

be wisest to

push the new international boundary

away from the racial boundary and on
up the western slope of the mountain
until its crest

is

reached, in order to se-

nisronv
a solid block of 370,000 Jugoslavs must be put under Italian rule
against their very strong protests.
ing,

On

the other hand, the geographer

and economist must point out the

Adriatic runs a high barren mountain

populated and across

time there is not
a single standard gauge railroad south
of Fiume; that no commercial intercourse of great importance can ever
belt,

very

which

little

at the present

take place across that barrier; that

power
which controls Fiume holds in the hollow of its hand the entire economic life
of a nation.
It is the duty of the
of these peculiar conditions, any

higher political authorities to balance

the claim of an isolated group of Ital-

ians constituting a minority of the total population of Fiume, against this

claim to economic life of a whole nation, and against the further fact that
if the frontier of Italy is brought far
enough eastward to include the few

Fiume, a vastly greater num-

Italians of

ber of Jugo-Slavs must be sacrificed.

In conclusion I can assure you that
the

work of supplying such

acting,

all

is

strategically

defensi-

these reasons there

may

num-

ber of vitally important problems taxed

to the utmost the capacities of the scientific advisors.

For

a variety of

technical information on a large

natural geographic frontier, but also a

ble.

if

one takes a map of the standard gauge

railway system of the new Jugo-Slav
nation he will find that it is almost entirely concentrated in the northern
part of the country, and that its one
and only natural outlet is the port of
Fiume; and to point out that because

cure not only a good economic and a

frontier that

fact

that along the whole eastern coast of the

it is

If the

work was

a satisfaction to

know

ex-

that

the advice of the territorial experts was

frequently sought and extensively used,

be very just grounds for giving to Italy

a part of the territory she desires to

and that

annex, despite the fact that in so do-

of Europe.

it

played no inconsiderable

role in establishing the

new

frontiers

GEOGR IPHER AT THE FR0N1

Kemmel

as

seen from the plain at

its

base.

In

the foreground

17

ie

one of the mudd;

former village. Monl Kemmel

typical of the Flanders plain beside which are the ruins of a
a
Prom its Bummil could be obtai
ernmosl of a number of low lulls just northwest of Lille.
north to the horizon sou
view of the battle-front from the dunes of the Belgian coast on the
1

ramie

Vimy Ridge near Arras. According the army which possessed the hill held command over
eminem
road and gun position available to the enemy. It is easy to understand why such small
of the war
the northern lowland were the centers for some of the most severe struggles
.

.uthcast

while

at

of

Verdun,

the left

This illustrates the nature

'ward from Paris.

whi-i.

oi

and west

possible

it

'

its

higher,

dominated by the

Bemi-circular plal
these

commanding

heights

could

Verdun were from the north down

of

topographs

made

Artillery tire from

fully be faced, therefore the great attacl

Meusi

upland,

plateau

the low plain of

is

the

of the

proved equally effective oh-

Me

defenses

not

the vallej

oi

Verd

idem

fortifications

thai

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SC-S

COCONUT PALMS,
The

common

A STRAIGHT ROAD,

AND A LEVEL COUNTRY

uncommon. But this photograph is charnorthwestern part of the island.

Coconut palms are universal along
the coasts of Porto Rico and may be readily distinguished from their upright relative, the royal palm, by a flexible appearance and a thinner trunk.
Compare with the royal palms shown on page 531
first

as

a sight in Porto Rico as the other two are

acteristic of the limestone plateau in the

San Juan is the mooring place for sailing vessels which frequent the coast and ply
near by. notably to Saint Thomas. In the distance the even sky line of the upland (upper
Nearer to the
peneplane), broken by the notches of the Plata and Bayamon rivers, is easily seen.
foreground are the fantastic limestone hills which border the coast

The

port of

to inlands

Land Features

Five

'>>

in

ili'

raveler

in

K L

new coun-

try,

the conditions of brave! and

tlic

comforts

which

him

await

places where he stops are often

tin-

more important

molding his impressions than are the charms <>t' the

in

country itself.
The traveler win.
Porto Rico from the magnificent automobile route between San Juan and
Ponce will return with glowing memof

ory

pictures of

landscapes,

idyllic

ged mountain grandeur, tumultuous

waves

"I,

rock}

coasts, broad plains of

waving

ami
sugar cane,
Ear-away
views over the sparkling
laribbean
with its wealth of exploits in the days
of Spanish glory.
<

Br
-

thf

man who

the

over

nat ive

ih''

smaller towns,

steps

trails or stops

more the romance of

taking,

ably

with

will

nevertheless,

have hithe

of

under-

hi-

hum-,

the

probtil

inconven-

iences ami hardships to which he was

subjected.

This

is

true

nol

onlv of

(
'

of Sciences

it
would be the same anyMost of thf show places of
America, our national parks, our

Porto Rico,

where.

places of scenic interest, arc beautiful

otherwise to us according as we
have seen them in comfort or misery.
Porto Pico deserves to make herself
hospitably comfortable for the tourist,
she deserves a setting among these
or

-mns

other

of

deserves to be

Thr charm

natural

known

in

beauty.
all

her parts.

of her scenery, the variety

of her features, ami the peculiarity

her
,-i-

pie place her in

retreal for

She can add

terests

to

Look
-

ai

American

rial

are lovers.

new sel
those already known
Porto

standpoint.

novel position

a distinctly

national parks and

in

ma\

he

thoughts often

memory

ami

aside

although

B E

New York Academy

Fellow of the

MI

Rico

Story of Cause and Effect

I

Fi

of Porto

of inin

our

monumei
Rico from the tourWhat doc- she have

and what doc- she lack? She has an

unexcelled system of automobile roads
encircling the island and crossing it in
Hut she ha- only two
several places.
cities,
San Juan and Ponce, which
provide thai
degree of comfort to

52

NATURAL HISTORY

which

the

traveler

accustomed.

is

The ninety-mile ride a five-hour trip

rland from San Juan to Ponce
n

tollable night at the Hotel Melia,

and the return next day

rary of the tourist.

is

the usual

It leaves

with

annoyances which few are willing to

endure.

Of even greater interest and still

more venturesome is the trip to Mona
Island, fifty miles to the west of Porto

The trip is made by sailboat

from Mayaguez in less than twentyEico.

him a delightful panorama of things

tropical and a good idea of Porto
Bican geography. No other towns in

place with only a lighthouse and occa-

the island provide comfortable hotels.

sionally a little colony of workers

At some

come

places like Arecibo, Manati,

and Yauco, the

ftTayaguez,

little

hotels

four hours, but

On

the sea in bold

never leave a satisfactory impression

may

upon the

traveler.

Now, what parts

most worth seeing,

most repay the efforts
of visiting, what parts can we look forward to as most likely to have, some
day, the facilities to attract and entertain the tourist bent on study or

is

this little plateau,

are reasonably good, but they would

see

Island

a wild

who

guano from the

extract the

to

caves.

Mona

on

cliffs

facing

all sides,

one

how forbidding nature can

be

and yet subtly lure one on in quest of

The jagged limestone

of Porto Eico are

strange sights.

what parts

and covered
with a thick growth of cactus, is thoroughly inhospitable, but there is no
reason why some day a little boulevard trail may not be cut through it
and a place constructed to accommodate

adventure

will

all there is the Luquillo

National Forest with its virgin timber,
open and parklike, its quiet
trails, its streams and bold cataracts.
From Mameyes to Naguabo is a twodays' tramp through the mountains, a
journey of supreme interest, but at

First

of

neither end of

it

are there any real

comforts to be found.
visitors

to

occasional

this

men

So the only

garden spot are the

of

who come
find.
Some

science

surface, devoid of water

visitors whose tastes carry them to the

unusual and unique places of the earth.

fourth region of exceptional atin Porto Eico is the

tractiveness

stretch of the northwest coast in the

vicinity of Isabela

bold

peculiar

of the waves

trade winds.

try

is

the bold haystack hill region be-

this place one of

upon the
times ten feet or more

with American beds and

preparing meals.

distinctly different type of coun-

make

sustained interest and

that roll in

the

life.

The waves

coast are some-

in height under
impulse of the steady northeast

These, then, are some of the attractions of Porto Eico, so different from
those of our homeland, and so acces-

we can confidently look

tween Lares and the north coast. Deep

sink holes without outlets, streams
plunging underground to follow their

made

subterranean channels for many miles,

sharp and picturesque limestone cliffs
and pinnacles, overgrown with a

more profitable the time spent

ing and studying a country,

tangled network of vines and tropical

plants, are easily seen by trail; but
here again the traveler must be will-

ing to accept the hotel accommodations

as he finds them and to put up with

The

water's edge, and the incessant activity

prepared for what they

day it will have its little chalets, not
very elaborate but at least provided
facilities for

and Camuy.

the high sand dunes, the

platforms and reefs at the

cliffs,

sible that

ward

for-

the time when they will be

more hospitable to the stranger.
to

If a certain degree of comfort makes

in visitso

also

does a slight previous knowledge of the

Landof the things seen.

not unlike music, it is not unTike a written composition, it is not
unlike anything else which is organ-

meaning
scape

is

Morro Castle and

the entrance to San

to the precipitating action of the sea

Juan Harbor.The

reefs in the foreground

owe

their stepped character

water

^^S^
The

city of

Guayama

is

one of the largest towns on the BOUth side

Ber<

with sugar cane front the Caribbean in the distance.

While the northern side of the island is

;de is deficient in rainfall.
It consequently draws a large supply
from the northern side of the watershed where large collectii
-

?es

Government.

of

the

Broad

island.

alluvial

plains

Bervice of
abundantl] provided with water, the si
is

located

the

irrigation

for irrigation bj

mean-

built

of

the

deep tunnels

The trees show the effect of the incessant heavy trade winds which blow against the north coast of Porto
Along a roadway near San Juan not only have the branches been forced to grow in one direction but
trunks as well show a marked inclination awav from the wind

Rieo.
the

forest of cactus.

The

surface of

Mona

Island, several square miles in area,

is

densely covered with vcire

Herds of wild goats, pigs, and cattle, escaped from domestication, roam over it and eke
out a difficult living.
The animals have taken on characteristics in keeping with the harsh conditions of life to
which they are now subjected. For instance, the pigs have apparently reverted to a type of boar with prominent tusks two or three inches long
tation of this character.

526

FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO

The

ized.

pleasure

various

may

parts

themselves.

in

we enjoy hill, valley, stream,

and beach each on its <>\\

narily,

merits without regard to the fad that

they are

only parts of an organized

all

whole and

music

they

that

Some

lated.

are

people

better

do

they

if

interre-

all

profess

enjoy

to

under-

ool

which underlies the

composition of its parts. They would
rather listen to it in a dreamy and
languid way.
There may be some
people, too, who would rather enjoy
But obserscenery in the same way.
vations upon the usual traveler will
show him quite eager to know how the
thf

stand

features

secrel

of

the

came

earth

Such
awakens in him
they are.

to

knowledge

a
a

much

thf things that

Eor

In-

only

deeper

-co-,

also

bul

same knowledge helps him

remember these things because it

troducetionship

logical

I'oiio

of

almost

forms

land

Of course, land

Rico.

nature.

in

infinite variety,

bul

if

we confine ourselves to the five mosl

important type-, we can obtain a thoroughly satisfactory picture of the
island and have a framework upon
which to add any other types we may
discover.

in

lie

discriminately.
the

to

San

amon

rivers.

interior,

a-

Juan and

When we

into

we find thai
upon this rolling

Ponce,

pari of the course lie-

upland surface.

travel

on the route between

The streams

flow

in

below tin- upland level

E
and when the road run- along the bot-

he valley or along the side "(

the gorge the aspeel of the country on

rugged and mountainous,

and not until we have climbed oul of

all

sides

is

found

because

beds, for they are

conclusion that

in-

come

Geologists have

surface like

which plane- across the structure

this

an

represents

worn-down

old

land

worn down during

many ages of time to sea level and

surface,

surface

then later bodily uplifted to

ein

height.

i-

It

the

that

pres-

it-

because of this later

have had their

rivers

much renewed, and

activity

conse-

in

quence have cut deep gorges or canons

below the upland surface.

Examples like this are rather common. t,,o. our of the besl known being
the upland of southern New England,
Massachusetts aboul
sea level and. like
Porto Rico, ha\ in-- deep gorges cut hein

thous
low

et abovi

-urface.

ii-

The name

'-pen,. plane"

has been assigned to such a land -urface,

a

term which mean- "almost

although

it

uplifted

mu.-t

an-

plane."

noted

be

peneplanes

that

rugged

very

the} have been much disstream- and only the even

sky line beveling their complex struc-

regions

for

by

sected

tion,

the

i-

it

so not

is

apparently "plane-" across the beds

of Porto Rico,

only by the uotches of the Plata and

ni-

intensely folded ami the upland surface

central

of the island, interrupted

level

if

to the attitude of

that this level surface

the ro,-k-

do we real-

And

is.

it

the rock- in the road cut-,

A- we approach Porto Rico by b

from the north we are impressed by
the remarkably even sky line over the
part

sea level,

,-i-

standing

types

forms, like everything else

in

rela-

among them.

Five differenl

make up

and coherenl

to
in-

above

feel

how level-topped
dation is made

ize

uplift

b<

nol

this

exisl

thousand

plain,

cliff,

two

the valley on to the upland, aboul

Indeed, ordi-

ture reveals their true identity.

then,

i-

This,

the explanation of the upland

tin-

central rugged por-

mountainous

in

aspeel

when

from

viewed

below hut even-topped

when viewed from a distance or from a

upon

knoll

of

the

form-

five
in

it-

surface.

important

This

the

i-

types

of

first

land

Porto Rico.

A second type i- exemplified in the

two mountain masses, the Luquillo
Mountains ami the lordillera 'mitral.
They stand a- groups of peaks ab
(

the

upland

<

-urface.
Their present
ascribed to the fact that they
are made up of harder or more resis-

heighl

is

05

<
JJ
Q
LU z
UJ
U.
o <
Li-

js

o ^
u

c8

r <
P.

cs

r*

CJ

'

'

IB
r.

(O

a>

.i_,a;<iJai^t_,

05

!>

IB

ih

.2

d
o w a

"S
.~

05

t5

.;

*2

s-i

a Jw =

.2 "^ +a

UJil-sJ

Q5

s s ; a 5 - 5
agg
M .2'S_e|S:=s>isg'

" 2

s
n

Tj

.a S

T3 T3
j,

05

_=

p3

Photograph by A. K. Lobeck
In the background rugged haystack hills form the margin of the limestone country. In the forevolcanic
tuffs
and
shales,
give
rise
formations,
mainly
to a more flowing topogground the underlying
raphy, often thickly covered with trees. The forests, however, are not a virgin stand, but are planted
Thus, throughout the central upland much of the
to serve as a screen to the coffee plants beneath.
region that is apparently wild forest is actually planted in coffee and does not at
visitor a true conception of the thorough use that is actually made of it

rocks which were not worn all

way down to the level of the upland when the peneplane was formed.

first

also conceivable that the

give to the

pounding

tant

is

the

of the waves against the north side of

These mountains are "residuals" or

"monadnocks," a name derived from
Mount Monadnock in southern New
England^ the type example of such a
form.

The third

distinctive

land feature

a rolling lowland belt ten

miles or so in width along the north
side of the island, and separated from
occurs

as

the upland level on the south by an

abrupt and rugged escarpment a thousand feet or more in height. In origin

it is similar to the higher upland
that is, it represents a land surface
worn down during long ages of time
so

as

ultimately

country.

may

to

form a

rolling

It also is a "peneplane,"

and

the island eventually cut this platform

to sea level

tion

and that

its

present eleva-

due to a later uplift.

fourth land feature of Porto Eico

is

new idea and new rocks.

Whereas the rocks underlying all the
upland peneplane and the lower peneplane as well as the two mountain
masses are of a complex nature, someintroduces a

very much folded, oftentimes

quite resistant and apparently of great
age, the rocks making up the limestone

times

plateaus and hills on the north and

south sides of the island are in reality
quite soft,

and they

zontal beds.

lie

in almost hori-

And

moreover, they are

with the remains of

abundantly filled
marine organisms,

corals

especially,

peneplane.

oyster shells a foot long, sharks' teeth,

It was formed during the period following the uplift of the higher peneplane.
Presumably much of the rock
was worn away by streams, but it

and parts of crabs and sea urchins.

These beds represent accumulations of
limestone and chalk, deposited under

532

be

called

the

lower

the sea

upon the

flanks of the

much

FIVE LAND FEATURES OF PORTO RICO

older land region, and later the uplift

of

the old land has brought

A.s
er deposits far above sea level.
result of this exposure to the rain
I

.Hid to

streams the original smooth sur-

worn down irregularly

many places to form fantastic lulls
known as "haystacks." Elsewhere, be-

face has been

in

cause of the solvent nature of the limestone, thr-e streams have dissolved

out underground courses, a condition

Camuv and
where the\ low beneath
limestone plateau between Lares

which

true of parts of

is

Tallinn;] rivers

the

Finally,

there

bottom

of

are

land,

flat

or

"pla;

which fringe much of the coast and

extend inland along the rivers some-

many

These alluvial
plains represent deposits of fine materia] carried down l>\ the streams and

times for

spread

miles.

along the coast

out

deltas or alluvial fans as

side of the

quiet,

which deeply indent the coast on

The seaward
margin of these plains is formed by
beautiful
curving beaches of white
sand which swing like arcs between
the promontories on each side, sometimes for a stretch of two or three
miles.
With their groves of waving
coconut palms >ilhouetted against the
ocean and the sky, they add just that
touch of picturesqueness which _
-<> much charm
to the coasts of Porto
-

the east and west ends.

Rico.

With these

five

types of

relief

fea-

tures in mind, the central upland, the

and AivriKo.
tracts

533

island

either

where the water

or as a filling of

as

on the south
the

si

is

allow

mountain- rising above it, the lower

rolling plat form <>n the north side, the
limestone plateau-, and hills, and the
ilat

land-,

playa

comparatively

is

it

easy to see the different parts of Porto

I;

...

even

ments of
a!-.

io

,1

add

their

in

to

these

already known.

them
live

a-

ele-

It is possible

many new and

feature-, placing

relation

diversity,

larger unit.

in

some

smaller
definite

important ones

Similarly other obser-

Porto

Rii o

ires

miniatun
intrii
...i

vertii b1.

Tl b

barefoot boy with his

of

DIPPING BEDS

IN

THE LIMESTONE COUNTRY (UPPER PHOTOGRAPH

The limestone region on the north side of the island of Porto Rico, known technically as the coastal
is made up of beds of limestone altogether several hundred feet in thickness, sloping gently northward
toward the sea. This view provides a transverse or cross section of the beds in the valley of the Manati
River and shows small sloping terraces in the valley sides formed by differential erosion or the wearing
away of the less resistant layers

plain,

534

Photographs by

CAYEY VALLEY, PORTO RICO

.I,

which

lies

in

skj

the

line of

the

LOWLAND

upland form- the entire

the lowland,

tobacco district of Porto Rico

A LOCAL

The

are

whiti

IN

Ground the town

hi

numerous plantations
patches are no!

.1.

A'.

Lobeck

THE UPLAND 'LOWER PICTURE)

of

of

Cayey,

tobacco, this being the most important

snow, or water, bul tobacco

fields

covered with

loth

535

"~

*.''.'

t: ;:-:.':';;:"'

.-

V:~

'

Photograph by A. K. Lobeck
So-called tidal deltas are formed when the ocean waves break upon the beach to such a height that they
The sand that is carried over is deposited in the fanpour over the narrow bar into the adjoining lagoon.
shaped mass which is a miniature delta, but oddly enough it is formed not by a stream entering the ocean but
by the ocean entering the stream

Photograph by A. K. Lobeck
Sand dunes along the beach west of Arecibo. Where the sand is kept moist by the spray from the waves
it has become quite compact and solid through the deposition of lime in its interstices.
All stages may be noted
from loose sand on the landward side of the dunes to a hard coating over the seaward side, and finally to consolidated rock at the water's edge where the waves are continually breaking.
Even the flat beach is hard and
firm like a pavement, except where loose sand has just drifted upon it

536

FIVE LAM)

//;.

17T ///;.< OF FOL'FO FIFO

vations such as those upon the location

of towns, the agricultural pursuits of
the people, the character of the vege-

may

tation,

best

made with

be

topography as a background.

we may note

stance,

the

For

in-

certain geograph-

with regard to each one of

these topographical areas.
ical facts

537

On the rolling lower peneplane, because of the greater ease of movement

and because of the proximity
ping

fruit

ports,

to ship-

and

raising

the

growing of some sugar cane arc practised.

The Limestone regions of the north

and south sides of the island, both the

Photograph by

.1

K.

Ragged cliffs mark the limit of the limestone plateau against which the waves of the Atlantic
pound incessantly. After each rush of the waves the retreating water pours out of the hollows and
irregularities of the rock and, by depositing a thin film of lime around the edge, gradually develops a
At first they
series of terraces like those of the Mammoth Hot Springs, and for a similar reason.
platform uplifted a few feet, but the random disposition of the small terraci
thick pinkish deposit of lime around the margin of the pockets indicate their true
the pri
;t

origin

Because of its elevation and its

rugged character the central upland is
not densely populated and has practically
is

no

largi

towns.

Coffee growing

the chief indusl ry there because

quires almost

the crop

is

it

no culture, and because

of small bulk

and

transported over the rough

In the higher mountains

easily

is

trails.
tl

xl

reme

ruggedness and the numerous

posures

re-

preclude

cultural pursuits.

practically

aj

sti

usually too dry and bar-

ren, because of the subterranean drain-

age,

to

crops.

permit the raising of large

Locally anion-- the haystack hills

there are Sal spaces developed upon the

more clayey beds of the limestone.
The
[lent for fruit raising

and

easily

is

reason
all

ected ha\

Hat plati
hill areas, are

not

cultivated.

little

region between Sun

riven

over

to

For

this

of the north coast

Juan and Manati

the

cultivation

of

NATURAL HISTORY

538
citrus fruits

and pineapples. Many of

Americans who have made Porto
Rico their home are engaged in this

other

the

coffee,

work.

Separated more or less from its

neighbors by the hilly promontories
which extend down from the uplands to
the sea, it seems like a little world of itown. The chief town lies in its center.

the great playa lands

is

chiefly

of

Each

of

a unit in

it-

self.

far

I;

most valuable lands of

the

Porto Rico are the great alluvial plains

The word "playa" really

playas.
mean- "shore," but in Porto Pico it is

or

used

exports made up
fruits, and tobacco.

to

designate

the

whole expanse

of flat land bordering the rivers along

their

lower

fcensive

Here are the

Extremely rich, ex-

courses.

sugar cane lands.

in area, easily cultivated, well

Here

is

located

the

sugar

mill

or

which all of the cane of

the neighborhood is brought for grinding.
The towns of Humacao, Maunabo, Yabucoa, Fajardo, and Naguabo
"central,"' to

watered, readily served with roads and

near the east coast, are especially rep-

small railroads, close to the shipping-

resentative in this respect.

centers along the coast, they have the

Intimately related with the topogis the interesting climate

of the country. In a small area Porto

combination of desirable attributes which have caused the sugar

crop of Porto Pico to be worth each
war three times the total of all her
ideal

raphy, too,

Rico

Lying

offers

some

as

does

it

striking

contrasts.

within the tropics

The native huts in Lares are typical of the whole island. They are usually roofed with the fiat
bark of the banana tree of which a grove is seen in the right of the picture. It is becoming
especially among the more pretentious individuals, to use corrugated zinc or sheet
iron, which, however, is not so picturesque, but is more durable and somewhat more satisfactory
during the moments of a torrential downpour.
The general use of the automobile in Porto Rico

pliable

common, however,

with the introduction of the common square five-gallon tin containers for gasoline has solved many
a native's problem for weatherboarding, but unfortunately a building sheathed in this convenient
material does not appear in this view

Growing tobacco under cheesecloth produces leaves oi finer and thinner texture more suitable tor cigar
wrappers than those grown in the open, and the leaves are al-o much freer from holes, as the cheesecloth
The cloth is -tret. led over poles and wire about ten feet above the ground. Such
out many biting insects.
plantings ;ir. extensive and are followed mostly by large companies, the small planter being unable to invest
in the enormous supply of cloth necessary

A pineappli

field

in

the limestone country

plateau ar.- charactei

ionallj

more

-mk
'

holes or depressions without outlets.

in the horizontally bedded line -ton.

coasl
The haystack hills resulting from the wearBetween the "haystacks" there are
Elsewhere there are bread flat areas opened out upon a
These flat areas provide the principal fruit-raising lands

539

VAT URAL HISTORY

540

and directly under the belt of trade

winds which blow from the northeast,
i" their influence which is
is subjecl

are

Trade
expressed in opposite ways.
winds are recognized as producers of

or

it

deserl conditions.

u(

the

world

Lie

Most of the deserts

in

trade-wind zones.

Around Porto Rico the islands which

pronounced barriers

The average annual

uplands

is

to

progress.

rainfall over the

between 80 and 90 inches,

more than twice that

of the vicinity

New

York.
Unlike the precipitation of middle latitudes, where the
duration is to be measured in hours
and even days and the amount in hun-

of

arc not of sufficient size or height to

dredths or tenths of an inch, the aver-

induce precipitation are very dry and

age

support abundant growths of cactus.

This is especially true of the small
islands Culebra, Desecheo, and Mona.
Even on Porto Rico, the northeast tip

Rico

of the island has a similar aspect because of the drying influence of the

trade winds.

But when these winds,

with the great quantity of moisture

which they have accumulated, are
forced to rise over the mountainous in-

Porto Rico, their capacity for

retaining moisture is diminished and
excessively heavy downpours result.
From out of the brilliant sky dense
cloud masses form with great rapidity
over the uplands and throughout most
of the year several downpours may
But when the
be expected every day.
winds reach the lower lands of the
southern coast they not only have
lost a large part of their moisture,
but also in their downward journey
terior of

they have been transformed into drying winds again, with the result that
this whole coastal area is almost barren

and parts of it experience months and

Thereeven years without rainfall.
fore irrigation

vation

of

is

large

southwestern

essential for the culti-

crops,

corner

and

of

the

in

the

island

where there occur the longest periods

are

duration
is

minutes for a short period,

result

over the uplands is a significant

factor in the development of the sharp
cucliillo, or knife-edge divides, comfall

mon

Because of their
very steep slopes, often of twentyfive to thirty degrees, and even of forty
to

in the interior.

forty-five

degrees, the valley walls

There

may

sug-

must

from the accumulation and rungreat a volume of water in so

off of so

brief a period of time.

An
is

interesting phase of the situation

the impervious character of the soil

throughout the "oldland portion*' of

Porto Rico that is, the region made
up of the volcanic rocks. The soil which
develops from the decay of these rocks
is

red clay or mud, excessively unctu-

ous and tenacious, and exasperatingly

It acts as an impervious
slippery.

mantle which prevents the penetration

of water into the ground, thus causing: it either to accumulate in all of
the little pockets

and

irregularities of

the surface, or immediately to run off

The exceedand flood the streams.

ingly rapid run-off

mediately

areas

Porto

in

gest that important consequences

densely covered with cactus.

The torrential character of the rain-

considerable

shower

numerous instances of successive

from the

drought,

showers which totaled 10 inches rainfall

in twelve hours, while amounts of from
4 to 5 inches in twenty-four hours are
of frequent occurrence. A record of 23
inches for twenty-four hours, as an example of an extended period of heavy
precipitation, and of 1 inch in nine

are

of

of

ten or twelve minutes.

fact that
rise

15

may be appreciated
many streams imto

20

feet

after

In one case, the Plata

River, twenty-five minutes after it
began to rise, poured over the dam

heavy showers.

near Comer io in a sheet 15

feet

or

more in thickness throughout the entire length of the dam, about 575 feet,
the flood continuing all day at 10 feet
above the dam.

"Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children"

By

HE

R M A X X

II

DORN

Poet and Playwright: Author of Boys' Life of Theodore Roosevelt; Secretary of the
Roosevt-lt

TO

who were

Memorial Association

comer of
Around
-cochere came

privileged to

lying in her crib in a shaded

know Theodore Koosevelt in his

ries
intimate relationships,

the porch, dreamily content.

ami astonishment
that have greeted the volume of ieti
which lie wrote to his children, have

the Colonel, espied the baby,

those

of mingled

delight

themselves brought

shock of surprise.

How perfectly extraordinary/' exTom to Dick ami Harry, "these

claims

letters arc

tender

"Amazing,"

!"

was

real father, a wonderful father! In the

midst of that uoisy, busy lit'.' of his, he
actually had time every day for his

children."
-

helplessly,

"Who

would ever have imagined it!"

All of which goes to show that the
most

discussed

man

and with
chuckle of delight lifted her out of

the crib and

surd, joyoi

Suddenly

of

his

time,

the

have

of his con-

together was actually

whose hero

millions

idol he was.
They thought of him
terms of the Big Stick of the swash-

ami
in

ab-

back he heard

a -oft.

"Now. Theodore.** pro-

buckler of the cartoons,

tl

Lpostle of

Strenuosity, the Man-eating Lion, the

her the

to hold

hold her

of the after-

rest

And

"I'll

!"

hold her he did. rocking hack

and forth

hi- favorite rocking-chair

in

afternoon, as he carried on his po-

all

velt

the

at his

noon."
-All right" cried the Colonel.

more books than any dozen

to

making

her.

Mrs Roosevelt, "do you know

what you've don.-: That baby was perNow someone will
fectly happy there.

litical

unknown

hugged

familiar voice.

man who tilled more newspaper columns and more magazine pages and
temporaries out

tested

"he

hick,

cries

And Harr

from

the corner

conferei
ose

who knew Theodore Eoose-

the intimate and

in

mosphere of Sagamore

friendly at-

book
no revhut it furnishes perhaps an
elation
even keener delight to them than it
Hill, this

of his letter- t" his children

is

furnidies to those startled others, since

it gives a- possibly no other written rec-

Thunder-god before whose word parties

died and parties came to birth that
was Roosevelt to them. One wonders in

ord

bewilderment what these millions imagined concerning him in his capacity

of husband and father.
A tyrant unquestionably they thought him. domineering over hi- family, thundering
laws from Sinai, stamping through the
house like an elephant trumpeting
down the slopes of K.mia. One won-

mor, who was the master, and the per-

could,

reflection

boyish, so

vasive
letter.-,

full

spirit,

the

of

Sagamore.

wise,

so gay,

so

ami huIn these

of the cartoons gives

way

to the sympathetic father, the

playmate without peer, the hoy who
never grew up.

The

begins with thi

Spanish War. although hidsome drawer somewhere, there

collection

riod of the

den

lished notion of what "T. K." ought to

must he similar

would have said if they could have

him on a certain summer's day
during the last year of his life.
It was at Sagamore.
The day was
warm and the youngest grandchild was

that

of tenderness

man

der- what these folk- with their estabhe.

of

warm-hearted human being,

in

letters written during

ranching days, for lie began sending illustrated communications to his
children from the time the oldesl
them was scarcely more than a year
The great affairs of this world

his

ph Bucklin Bishop

Charles Scribner's

541

XATI'h'AL
touched
touched on.

here and there, but only

"ii

"Tomorrow
meets/

tion

June

lie

shall

Less

he does

to

"and barring a catabe nominated."

But he

interested

human

greal

ConvenKermit ou

National

writes

I'.mu.

2.1,

clysm
seems

the

in

currents

the little

surge of

in

the

at

Chicago than

matters of daily

which make the world of his children. On that same day

the day preceding also the transmission of the
famous ultimatum, "We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead'" he wrote
from the White House to each of his
four younger children.
"The garden here is lovely," he tells
Ethel.
"A pair of warbling vireos
life

have built in a linden and sing

The magnolias

time.

are

in

the
bloom,

all

and the jasmine on the porch."

Archikins" receives word
the same day concerning Bill the Lizard. "The other day when Mother and
I were walking down the steps of the
big south porch," writes his father, "we
too.

"Blessed

saw

movement among

the

honey-

and there was Bill the Lizard

your lizard that you brought home
from Mount Vernon. We have seen
him several times since and he is evisuckles

dently

home

The
White House seems big and empty
entirely

at

here.

without any of you children puttering

around it, and I think the ushers miss
you very much.''

But

it is

ceives that

"Dear Quentyquee" who reday the most weighty com-;

m ideation of all. "The other day

when out riding what should I see in
the road ahead of

me

but a real B'rer

Terrapin and B'rer Rabbit.

They
were sitting solemnly beside one another and looked just as if they had
come out of a book; but as my horse
walked along B'rer Babbit went lippity
lippity lippity off into the bushes and
B'rer Terrapin drew in his head and
Legs till I

On

passed."

day following
Convention was opening
the

(while
its

the

delibera-

HISTORY
and the chancelleries of Europe

tions

were beginning to mutter and flutter

and hold
their metaphorical hands
j

>

the Moroccan
ultimatum), the President was writing
and elaborately illustrating a letter to
at

the

implications of

Ethel, including
art

picture

among

of

other works of
policeman and a

which bore this caption: "A

feeding a squirrel with
\\^\ two with bread this afterbread;
noon." What after all were presidential
nominations and ultimatums in comparison with matters of such import ?
Roosevelt was and remained, among
his children's companions, the best
beloved and most eagerly sought after.
His sympathetic understanding enabled him to meet them always on the
level of development on which they
stood.
As they grew he seemed to
grow with them.
Imperceptibly almost, as the years go on, the letters
squirrel

idee policeman
1

deepen, and in place of the stories of

and

come analyses of
Japanese and
American methods of wrestling and

lizards

the

rabbits,

relative

merits

of

bits of sage advice given almost apol-

ogetically

concerning studies or ath-

letics or the choice of a career.

Theodore Jr's arrival in college drew

from the President a series of indignant and sympathetic letters concerning "the newspaper men, camera
creatures and idiots generally" who beset the path of one whose home address happened to be the White House.
To Kermit he wrote largely of books.
Through all the letters runs the delight
of living, the joy in beauty of color and
sound and fragrance, the quiet contentment of a happy home.
Books will be written without number in the years to come concerning
Theodore Roosevelt, and many will tell
of the things he did and many will
paint or attempt to paint the man that
he was.
But this book of his own
letters to his children will always stand
alone, for in

ever the very

it

lives

man

and breathes

himself.

for-

SCULPTURES OF THE LATE THEODORE ROOSEVELT

BY FRANK OWEN PAYNE

THE MAN OF LETTERS

Roosevelt Bust, recently executed by John

Ettl

Tins portrait bust ia Intended to depicl Theodore Roosevell as lie appeared in later life as the lover of books,
is based on the death mask and on one of his best known
the contributing -i
>r
It
the creative man of letters.
photographs of r>

'Contributor on

1 <

sculptural

subjects

to

Art and Archeology, International Studio, Architectural Record,

etc.

THEY GLADLY FOLLOWED WHERE HE LED

Bronze statuette by James E. Kelly

A sculptor's portrayal of Theodore Roosevelt as a military leader of his regiment of Roughriders. Roosevelt
later on learnrefused a sitting for this, when urged by the sculptor, after returning from Cuba; but granted it
For that inspiring bronze was then in his own
ing that the sculptor was the author of "Sheridan's Ride."
had been so imstudy: he had seen it one day in Tiffany's window, when he was just out of Harvard, and
Replicas of this portrait of Roosevelt, sent to
pressed by its spirit that he sacrificed other things to buy it.
grammar schools, for the boys of America to see daily, would be well worth the monetary cost

\i

A PORTRAIT

THAT WILL ALWAYS LIVE

"The Senate Bust," by Janus

l'..

Fraser

would not "waste

United States.
Roosevelt
His subject was not easy to
time" in sittings, so Mr. Fraser did the work at the regular Cabinet meetings.
was absorbed in business of state, his pose never constant, and his expression conmodel, for B
ivell
tinually changing,
The bust which was executed in marble for the United States Senate chamber is represented with the conventional vesture "f the chief Executive, rather than with the Etoughrider trarb of the
(John Burroughs, .'ifter touring and camping through the West with Roosevelt
sculptor's original work.
when ho was President in 1003, reports that he said all he cared about being President was just "the big
work.'
Our California redwoods need the big uork of just SUCh a man as he '
sculptor's

portrayal

of

Roosevelt

as

President

of

the

THE DEATH MASK

By James

E. Frasi

Immediately after death came, the sculptor who had modeled the living Senate Bust was called to
the last record of the head and features of Theodore Roosevelt.
This record, in the white plaster,
gives the authoritative form for all sculptures of the future, and without the fire and the spirit, still carries
the nobility and heroic sincerity and strength which molded the face of the Roosevelt we knew

make

>7

THE VAN OF MENTAL GRASP AND PRODIGIOUS MEMORY

-

It

IS

the head

the

work

of

.Iph

Weinman

Theodore Roo..

of his

hand

re the worl
!

m^lal bearing
the two
.,f

IN

WAR

A FIGURE OF UNRIVALED ARDOR

AND DARING

Eoosevelt, in the statuette by Frederick MacMonni-es

Modeled and executed in MacMonnies' Paris studio soon after the war with Spain and presented by the sculptor
Roosevelt when he was President.
The photograph reproduced here is from the original statue, the property of
the Roosevelt family, who have always set high value on it because of its truthful portrayal of Roosevelt's enthusiasm.
So far as known, this is the only copy in America.
Today, at the close of 1919, when the great personal Roosevelt of our time is passing into the Roosevelt of history and memory, we are beginning to see him in his permanent proportions and are united in desire to do honor
to him in gTeat and unique ways.
Representative of his "spirit of youth and swift strength and mounting joy of
life," an American flag was carried by relays of young American boys from station to station across New York State
&nd through the city of his birth, stars were sewed on by young American girls at each stop, and the completed flag
to

finally

brought

to his

grave at Sagamore Hill

>

AT THE BEGINNING OF HIS CAREER AS STATESMAN

Bronze Bust, by

Massey Ehind

J.

Within the imposing memorial structure at Niles, Ohio, which marks the birthplace of the
martyred President McKinley, are portrait busts of the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, and
many important men of McKinley's administration Klihu Runt. Mark llaiina, John Hay, and
This Roosevelt portrait stands at the right of that of McKinley and in the expression there
Others.
seems to be foreshadowed the dread moment when the shocking uews of the assassination of
McKinley came. Mr. Rhind's work slmws the young statesman (without quite the characteristic
look of the man, largely because of lack of the eyeglasses he habitually wore) who was soon to

step into the duties

and

responsibilities of

President

PORTRAIT FROM A FAMILIAR PHOTOGRAPH

A medal

Subscribers

of

every

lie

all

political

religious

with

sented

The

fund

Roosevelt

Anna Vaughn Hyatt

of

Me-

representa-

Association,

morial
tive

to

Woman's

the

>>t/

parties

faith,

copy

and

are

pre-

of

this

Association

has
purchased the house in which
Theodore Roosevelt was born,
East
Twentieth
No.
28
at
medal.

Street,

make

-New York City, and will

together with the house

it,

which adjoins it, into a permanent memorial, with the aim of

continual promulgation of the
principles of

Americanism

On October
the

birth

Wood,

Leonard

in

Memorial

Roosev?lt

service

in

Major General

speaking

war

stood

as

the

for

Association,

Roosevelt

"Theodor-3
versal

the anniversary of

27,

Roosevelt,

of

said:

uni-

for

well

as

in

each one wherever

Theodore Roosehe could best serve.
velt stood
for the square deal, one
flag, one language, and one loyalty
peace,

service

loyalty

the

to

for

American

people

for

and private morality, for a strong and vigorous America, charitable and helpful,
industrial

justice,

for

public

ever ready to do her duty to civilizaand humanity, but an America

always under the dictates of her own
rather
than
under
conscience
the

tion

direction

of

others"

'J'/

FOR ALL TIME A LEADER AMONG AMERICANS

The Roosevelt who will always stand for that "intense Americanism" which will make us use our
strength not only for ourselves but also for the less fortunate, "well-behaved" small nations of ih>
Bust by James
earth.
Fraser (compare with profile view
/-'.

a
promise that the
of Nations embodies the intense Americanism Roosevell preached
United States, Ciivat Britain, and Franre, will not abandon the small peoples <>f the earth, proclaimed free at the
Peace ('(inference in I'arix.
Never before in all the course of history has any other nation enjoyed the profound
admiration given to the people of the United States
because our spirit of Americanism, both in the World War
is the pleasure of the -.'lent, as we]]
It
and at the Peace Conference, stood lirm as a rock for the rights of others.
ms their sacred duty, to protect the weak

Article

of

the

League

BISON

HERD WENDING

ITS

WAY TO

A WATERING PLACE ON THE UPPER MISSOURI

In the days when the bison grazed at will over the continent and herds numbering thousands moved
together through the hills to their watering places, they made trails which were masterpieces of engineering.
Many of these well-worn pathways remain as conspicuous monuments of the bison's former numbers,
and mark out the routes now followed by automobile road or railway.
This illustration shows a section of a picture by Bodner. the artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian
on his famous trip through central United States in 1832-34

The Coming Back

By C. GORDON
Consulting Zoologisl

to

the

Commission

E disappearance of the American bison i" ihf verge of extermination constitutes one of the

Tl

of the Bison

and mosl striking catastrophes

our wild life thai have occurred in the
experience of modern man. The manner

greatesl
to

which the total Loss of this magnificenl animal as a member of our fauna
has been prevented should fill all \\ ho
are endeavoring to conserve our wild
Life on this and other continents with
confidence and hope.
There has always remained in my
in

T T

II

of

Conservation, Ottawa

"wood bison" now to he found

Athabaska region of Canada.
That it- disappearance was an inevitable resull of the development of the

called

the

in

count

doe- qoI diminish the character

r\

The

of the tragedy.

bison

the great-

is

our American animal- and undoubtedly the mosl noble of it- family
in any pari of the world.
Now it has
practically disappeared from the face of
of

e-l

all

he conl inenl and only by the foresighl

when, as a studenl of zoology, the tragedy of Lie American bison was brough.1

the Canadian and United Stategovernments has it been prevented from

becoming
exterminated.
completely
The historj of its disappearance and
the mosl complete account we have of

home

this noble

mind

the impression

w hich

received

to

me

by

Litl Le

colored chart in

Manchester University Museum

showing the pasl and presenl distribution of this animal and its gradual dein
Evers
numbers.
Frank
crease
Beddard's excellenl volume on '"Mammalia" in The Cambridge Natural
History had recently been published,
and the sad history was summarized
in these words
"The Bison of Amerthe

ica,

formerly presenl

in

such numbers

that the prairies were black with countLess herds,

a
at

has now diminished to aboul

thousand head.'
thai time thai

Little did

think

should later become

directly interested in the bringing back

of the bison.

The

extent of the desl ruction of the

immensity when
we consider the character of the animal.
It
would seem inconceivable thai this,
the Largesl of the wild fauna of our
continent, should have been reduced
within the Limits of the la-t century
from countless millions to the poinl of
extermination.
Formerly ranging over
bison appalls us by

aboul
it

ha-

its

'>ne third of the

entire continenl

n practically

wiped out of ex-

istence excepl

for a

-mall Land of

of

member

have been given

T.

[ornadaj

of our Dative fauna

in a

memoir by Dr. W.
New York

director of the

Park. 3

Zoological

It- former range in North America

according to [ornaday, was as follow -t
at
"Starting al
tide-water on the
I

Atlantic

coast,

through

vasl

extended westward
of dense forest,

it

trad

Mountain system
along the Mississippi,
and southward to the Delta of that
-real
Although the great
stream.
plains countr\ of the Wesl was the
aero-- the Alleghany
the

to

prairies

natural

home

of the species,

flourished

mosl

wandered

south

where

abundantly,
aero--

it

it

also

Texas to the

burning plain- of northeastern Mexico.

westward aero-- the Rocky Mountains
into
Mexico, 'tah. and Idaho, and
aorthward across a vasl treeless waste
he bleak and inhospitable shores of
to
the Greal Slave hake it-elf.'* The vasl
herds of bison seemed to clothe the

Ww

prairie- in

thick

a-

a-

coal of limw n.

the

Leaves

in

They were
the

forest.

These immense herd- greeted the ad1

W.

T.

Hornaday, The Extermination

Washington, iss9.

of

the

Photograph by C. Gordon Hewitt

These serve not only as watering places for the
In time the bison ranges should support
bison, but also as sanctuaries for large numbers of waterfowl.
herd? of elk also, of deer, and antelope, natural neighbors which live together in the greatest harmony.
The bison, when given a chance by protection against hunters, increases so rapidly that already the
problem has arisen as to what disposition should be made of the surplus animals. It is hopsd that new
ranges will be established and possibly that domestication for commercial purposes may be inaugurated
Jamieson Lake

is

one of several in Buffalo Park.

vanee guards of civilization and that

process spelled their doom.

The

history of the bison

Various methods of slaughter were

followed.

is

an

illus-

The extraordinary stupidity

made them an easy prey

of the animals

Still-hunting was

tration on the largest possible scale of

for the still-hunters.

the history of every species of wild ani-

conducted on business lines and was

highly profitable when more than a
hundred animals could be killed from
one stand and the robes were worth $2
and $4 each. The practice of hunting
on horseback provided an exciting sport

mal when man invades

its natural
haunts with an unrestrained desire to
kill.
No part of our wild life can with-

stand the destructive influence of

man

armed with modern guns; the only

salvation for any species is the restriction by law of the number that may be

and when the hunters, white, halfand Indian, went out in armies

breed,

These considerations, however,

had no part in the early days with the
bison. It was faced by men armed with

the results were disastrous to the herds,

powerful firearms who killed without

any regard for the future, and there
was a complete absence of any restrictions on the part of all the governments
concerned.
The Indians who had always regarded the bison as the source of
their meat supply had their point of
view entirely changed so far as the
number of animals to be killed was concerned.
Their passion for killing was
inflamed by the example of the white
hunters with serious economic results

their

killed.

when
out.
554

their source of

meat was wiped

particularly as the cows were especially

chosen owing to the superior value of

skins.

favorite

method em-

ployed by the Indians was that of impounding or killing the animals in pens
This
into which they were driven.

method was commonly practiced among

the Plains-Cree in the South Saskatchewan country. The terrible scenes
that attended these wholesale slaugh-

beyond description.
Other methods of slaughter on a large
scale were surrounding, decoying, and
driving the animals, and all tended toward the same end complete extermination of the herds. As the animals

ters of the herds are

THE COMING
became scarce the half-breeds and

B U
In-

dians vied with the white hunters in

destroying them. Far more bison were

could

than

destroyed

possibly

be

utilized.
this could not long continue
longer did the prairies thunder with
the sound of thousands of galloping
hoofs.
The greal herds were driven

Bui

OF THE BISON

perhaps 3,000,000 bison.

was the destruction that he
prophesied their extermination within
eighl or ten years.
Fremont about the
same time also bore witness to the appalling desl met ion.
2,

Xo

Indian- who
formerly merely cut out the tongues of
their victims, if they took any part of

The death

at

want of food.

for

In 1857 the Plainsaround

Ou'Appelle
the
of

headwaters

the

starved

the country

inhabiting

Cree

now almosl

all.

River decided that on account of the

rapid destruction of the bison by the

men and

white

half-breeds thej

would

permit them to hunt in their coun-

not

try or tra\d through

it

except for the

purpose of trading for their dried meat,

pemmican, or

robes.

some idea of the

enormous numbers of bison that
Catlin 1

killed

has given

during the

first

half of the nine-

In 1832 he stated that

150 ;
to 200,000 robes were marl
r of
annually, which meant a
teenth century.

ami

Georsi'

Catlin.

Illustrations

o)

litions

thi

dians, London,

1 c

not

of

"

Ma

North Ameri-

knell

was struck when the

construction of the Union Pacific Kail-

way was

farther and farther afield.

the carcass

,000 or

So greal

Previous

begun
to

at

the

railway

transcontinental
of

Omaha

in

advent of the
the

1866.
first

difficul-

marketing the results of the

slaughter served as a slight check on

^termination for, although

i

he bison were being killed out at a rate

itly

in

excess of

their natural in-

would have existed for

some years longer than the coming of
the railroads and additional -warms of
white hunter- rendered possible. This
railroad divided the original great body
of bison into southern and northern
herds.
That was the beginning of the
end.
Although the range of the northern herd was about twice as extensive
Lse,

the\

as that of the southern, the latter con-

tained

probably twice as

many

bison.

Hornaday estimates that in 1871 the

southern herd contained 3,000,000 animal-, although

most

higher total than

estimates give a

this.

rdon Hewitt
Phoi
always show respect for a fence; consequently the enclosure must be given genuine
th

nized steel
Buffalo Park is compc
-trip
On either Bide of tl
upright wires at one foot intervals.
u-ii anl
and Bimilar guards against prairie fires are cut
kept plowi
t.ain. jouri
adred miles throughout the year,
rmanently broken up

~ J=

5
-

i
_=

VTURAL HISTORY

558

herd

so tthern
-

and readied

From 1871

to

1872

ligious.

Tlie

marketed bore no inthe

enormous
_

slaughter.
-

ped out of existence, and

to

exist,

time the destruction of the

northern herd began

in

the

Canada had already become

very scarce. The remnants of our former
herds were assiduously hunted by the
Indians as they constituted their main
supply of food. As Hornaday states:
".
the herds of British America had
in

exterminated by the
time the final slaughter of our northern
herd was inaugurated by the opening
-

northern herd began

in

earnest in

and became universal over the entire

heig

it-

"tally

range four years

buffalo country

The

fourths.

By

later.

this

time

export of robes from the

the annual

had diminished three

construction

of

the

Northern Pacific Railway hastened the

extermination of the herd. White and
[ndian hunters killed so long as there
were buffaloes to kill.
The hunting
;on which began in 1882 and ended
in February. L883, completed the annihilation of the great northern herd
and only a few thousand head were left.
broken into straggling bands. The last
shipment of robes was sent out from
>akota Territory in 1884. In 1
Hornaday. on the basis of all available

data, estimated that the

number

of buf-

had

running wild and unprotected was

635 animals Was the destruction of an
animal ever so completely brought
about? It furnishes what is undoubtedly the most striking and appalling
example of the fate of an animal exist-

half-breeds

ing in apparently inexhaustible ntira-

Manitoba,
the
Plains-Oive
of
Qu'Appelle, and the Blackfeet of the
Smith Saskatchewan country swept bare

slaughter, and should be a serious lesion to the people of this continent and

of

Northern

the

1880.

Pacific

The Canadian

Railway in

Pacific Railway

played no part whatever in the extermination of the Bison in the Briti>h

Possessions, fur that extermination

already taken place;

The

falo

of

great belt of country stretching

-.

when

left

exposed to unrestricted

of the world for all time.

That

in the

and wot between the Rocky Mountains

and Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific
Railway found only bleaching bones in
the country through which it passed.
The buffalo had disappeared from that
entire region before 1879 and left the
Black fee t Indians on the verge of
starvation.
A few thousand buffaloes
still remained in the country around

face of advancing civilization the buf-

the headwaters of the Battle River, be-

continent.

tween the North and Smith Saskatchewan, but they were surrounded and

became important highways. As

A. B. Hulbert in his Historic Highnerica has pointed out. the
ways
d selected the route through the Alleghanies by which the white man entered and took possession of the Mi
They found the best
sippi Valley.
route- across the continent and "human
intercourse will move constantly on
paths first marked by the buffalo." It
is interesting that the bison found the
through the
strategic
passageways
mountains: it is also interesting that

attacked from

all sides,

and their num-

bers diminished very rapidly until all

were killed."

The main part of the northern herd

was to lie found in the United Sta
Here the Indians of the northwestern
territories were waging a relentless war
on the animals. Hornaday computes
-

number of bison slaughtered

annually by those tribes must have been
about 375,000. The destruction of the
that the

falo

had

cupied

It octo go was inevitable.

lands that were to furnish

homes and occupation for millions

of immigrants and that now produce
large

so

part of the world's staple

crop.

Time; however,

will

not efface the

traces of the bisons' occupation of the

They blazed the

later

trails that

THE COMING BACK OF THE BISON

they marked out the most practical
paths between the heads of our ri

paths thai are closely followed today

by the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and
Ohio, Chesapeake and Ohio. Wabash,

and other greal

period

finally

In

brighter

when

1889,

their lowesl

they

had

there

were

level,

256 buffalo in capt ivii

300 protected by the United States Government in the Yellow stone Park, and 635
running wild, of which number 550
onl]

were estimated
region of the
ritories

to be

li

it.

realizing the importa

quiring so valuable a herd of what

had formerly been the most abundant

of "in- large nat ive

mammals.

For

its

reception and maintenance a special na-

park was established at Wainin Al

This reservation
covers an area of about 160 square
tional

r>

the history of the bison in

in

America.
reached

r;i

came

there

l'.ni

purchased

559

in

the

Athabaska

lanadian Northwest Tei

the whole bison populat ion at

wrighi

the whole of which

niih'-.

special

in a

is

wire fence aboul

end1'>

miles

Judging by the abundance

bison wallows it evidently formed

in length.

of old
a

favorite place for bison in years

i-

Several lake-, the largest of which

by.

Jamieson

long,

i' \

aboul seven miles

an ample water supply.

Lake,

ide

The

difficull ies

involved in the capture

was estimated to be L091

head.
An attempt was aov made in
tin' United States to protecl the remnant and by 1903, according to he census of thf American Bison Society, they
had increased to
53 head. These were

Pahlo herd of bison and the

transportation of the animals in the
Buffalo Park at Wainwright, Alberta,
.an better he imagined than described.

chiefly confined in the national reserva-

steadily

time

that

tions and

parks of the

eminent
vate

United

States

some were owned by

individuals.

The

largest

pri-

pr

owner appears to have been Michael

Pablo, of Montana, who had a herd of
ahiuit

700 animals in

which he

906, the value of

fully appreciated.

1907 the Canadian Government

learned that tin- Pablo herd was for
sale and with commendable foresight
In

Indian Inn

of the

From

the date of the receipt of the lasl

animals

in

numbered
three

known
in

1909 they have increi

ar until in 1918 they
3711 head, or more than

imes the total

i"

lie

living in

number

of bison

North America

L8

United States Government also

took steps i" proteel and increase the
'Idle

herds of bison remaining. A national

bison ranee was established in Montana; and in the Yellowstone National
Park and other national reservations

NATURAL HISTORY

560
bison

the

were

protected,

carefully

There are now eight herds protected

nr comUnited States Goveri
The
prising altogether 891 animals.
Largesl number is contained in the YelNational Park, Wyoming,
lowstone
where there were on January 1, 1919,
In the Montana National
i:>; animals.
Bison Range there were 242 animals
mi the same date, and the third largest
herd is to be found in the Wichita
National Forest and Game Reserve in
Oklahoma where there are ahout 100
by the

The

total

number

of captive bison in

United States in January, 1919,

according to a statement kindly furme by Mr. M. S. Garretson,

nished to

American Bison So-

secretary of the
ciety,

was 3048 head.

It

is

estimated

that there are also about 70 wild bison,

making

about 3118 bison in

a total of

Canada the

ment

Canadian

Govern-

bison in three of the national

In 1918 the numbers of bison
in these reservations were as follows:
in Buffalo National Park, Wainwright,
Alberta. 3520 animals; in Elk Island
Park. Alberta. 183 ; and in the Rocky
Mountains Park, Banff. Alberta. 8;
making a total of 3711 bead. In addition it is estimated that there are
about 500 wild bison, or wood bison,
in the Athabaska region where they are
now protected. Scattered throughout
lias

parks.

the

Dominion

and private

public

in

parks there are approximately 40 ad-

The

ditional bison.

Canada

bison in

total

at the

number

of

beginning of

1919, therefore, was about 4250 animals.

From

the above estimates

it

will be

we have now approximately

7360 bison in the United States and
Canada, as compared with 1091 in
1889.
These figures show that the
bison are coming back, and that they
are doing so rapidly.
The rapid increase of the bison in our

seen that

national reservations raises the question

"What

shall

we do with our

sur-

at

Wain-

is

much range as is capable of sustainThe natural answer to this

ing them.

question

to create additional

is

reserva-

which policy undoubtedly will be

followed, particularly in the United
State- where much additional range

tions,

suitable for bison but less suitable for

agricultural purposes

addition provision

donation

the

of

municipalities,

organizations,

But cannot we go a

and consider the

farther

In

available.

being made for

surplus animals to

public

institutions.

step

is

is

desir-

encouraging farmers to purchase surplus animals from the government ami to maintain them? Anyone who has visited the bison in our
ability of

national reservations will agree that

if

they were maintained in a semidomesticated state they could be treated in

the

the United State-.

In

Park

becomserious one as they will soon occupy

ing a
as

and

bison.

the

In the Buffalo

plus?"

wright, Alberta, ibis question

with successful results.

same manner

as

range cattle, pro-

vided they were enclosed. The cost of

building suitable fencing might prove
an obstacle in many cases, but it should

not prove insuperable in view of the

high price of beef. As a beef animal
the value of the bison is well worth the
careful consideration of our agricultural

In addition it provides a
proven value in more northerly

authorities.

robe

<>f

and provinces.

states

Not the

least of

the advantages of the bison over domestic

cattle

for

their

is

themselves

in

"rustle"

ability

to

winter

and under

climatic conditions which prove a hardship to our introduced cattle.

The proposal to utilize the bison in

manner suggested may appear impracticable, but how many of our ideas

the

as to

what was possible and what was

impossible have, in the course of time,

proved unfounded? The future alone
will

In the meantime

show.

all

who

are interested in the conservation of our

be encouraged to further
by the story of the manner in
which the bison was rescued from the
fate which has befallen less magnificent
wild

life will

efforts

members
fauna.

of

the

world's

mammalian

and wasteful method of killing employed bj the Assiniboin, Plains-Cree,

Impounding bison b
and other Indian tribes of the Northwest, a method which allowed all members of the tribe, even the women and
The pound was constructed of logs and its gate placed under a ledge down which
children, to be in at the death.
From this gate a fan-shaped runwaj sevthe bison could jump bul which was too high for them to climb again.
eral miles out into the plain was constructed by means of bunches of branches and bushes, known as "dead men,"
lined up fiftj feel apart.
Behind these "dead men' the Indians hid and frightened back the herd whenever it
showed - lt - of departing from the track.
After the bison had been stampeded into the pen the tribe gathered
to slay the fright maddened animals which charged wildly about crushing and tossing one another,
hundred might be killed by this method in a single foray. The illustration is from a cut .-iiu-rax eel from a photo1 1

graph)

in

Hind's Narrativi

in

<

1..

>!<

.1'

Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition

of

1857

Li

Washington, by J. II. Mbser, 1888.With the

tie- National Museum,
ating
Hunt
Fron
an increased demand for buffalo robe-, the butcher; of th<
coming of the railroads through thi
ust kill hundreds of bison in order
Other methods were too slow for the comn
hunt" began,
The -till hunter approached the herd to within one
to realize on pelts worth but from
piece.
hundred to two hundred and fiftj yards and proceeded with great deliberation to shoot down the animals without
'el then tie- others slaughtered one
stampeding them. Their leader, usually the oldest cow, was first d
individual of the herd which attempted to lead oil' tie- others was promptly stopped bj the hidden
bul even with a mark of that size and employing a high
'I'd.rifle.
one death on! of about
ional hunter- were usually Buch poor -hot- that tl
power rifle,
to two -hot- a minute eould be
oken legs and collar boi
on.'
thai
from
one
hunter
was
ount for from
"stand" so
bison killed
I

-and head

season
7,CA

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yv-

All American zoologists pay tribute to the work of Dr. George Albert Boulenger
and voice thanks for the fundamental assistance that his work has been to
He has been in charge of the collections of amphibians and reptiles, departthem.
ment of zoology, in the British Museum, since 1882, and besides a constant yearly
output of technical papers in English and French scientific journals, he is author of
works on African fresh-water fishes in four volumes and on the world's reptiles and

amphibians in nine volumes. He is associate, corresponding, or honorary member of

most of the great scientific societies of the world, and by his indefatigable personal
effort in scientific research he has brought honor to the British Museum for all time

566

Man and His Work

Boulenger, the

THOMAS liARBOT

By

Museum

Associate Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians,

Comparative Zoology, Barvard

BOTTLE \'<;K1{ what

awakened by
courtesy,

and

of his birth

mens

flashes

caused when

firsl

memories

flaming Love for Belgium

his adoption, a son

during the horrors

the Euphrates

of

later

to send his father speci-

many more were

Yes, these and

which

impression

this

had the pleasure of seeing

amazement

more matter of

fact,

it.

photograph
It

recalled

the wealth of treas-

at

ures in his care, and cups of tea before

be

cheery blaze.

however,

George Albert

Dr.

which he

ha-

Boulenger

has

profited, to

become entirely familiar with mosl of the

amphibians, and

had

opportunity,

ii"t

by

fixing types

and of

While the common British

ool

drawing up descriptions

from specifically indicated specimens rath,

in this

country ye1

richly
fishes,

the world; probably more familiar

r<

than anyone who has ever lived.

custom of

be

who paused

yel

delightful chats and visits,

To

may

Unfailing candor, erudition,

England the land of

favorite genus.

of a

natural

of

charming

nam.'!

simple dignity,

for

wounded at Gallipoli
of the campaign on
-the

<

Lents

Dr. Boulenger's writing- have been

more

widely used and of more genera] service than those of any

predecessor or contemporary.

Proud to be numbered among the systematists in a day

when iiiaii) seeking an easier highway to recognition speak
of them with scorn, he has tared afield as well, and his contributions to our knowledge of the ha

European amphibians are

e\an
lefl

well

iecially

of the

worthy of careful stud

painstaking observation, well recorded, and then

entirely unadvertised.

some of the capitalized

dinned into our patient

if

The} stand

in

dignified contrast

"new discoveries" we of! have

somewhal skeptical ear-, though

happily nol by American herpetolog

565

The Honorable
By
iti

greal

LYDE FISHER

urator of the Department of Public Education, American

Earned

1\

(r.

Position of Naturalist

village

of

England, looks much

today as it did a century and a
when Gilbert White was
half ago
humble curate, aaturalist, and fellow
Today, as then, it has a
citizen there.
Selborne,

T|

picturesque and strag"lovely landscapes and

beechen groves," and everywhere invitHere a path leads
ing footpaths.
across a pasture, through a wicket gate,
meandering on beneath the shade of
bosky trees, and through undergrowth
tangled with dog-rose and meadowYonder on the right hand of
sweet.
the village street footpaths cross the
village green, the "Plestor," with its
central sycamore tree, still the focus of
village life on summer evenings; and
here, most wonderful, a footpath zigsingle

street,

gling,

sel

in

zag- up a steep beech-grown hillside,

the "Hanger." curving hack and forth
upon itself until it reaches the summit
at a great "Wishing Stone."
the "Outlet" back of Gilbert
White's house are many interlacing

and stops

And

in

font pat

lis

which

lead

about

garden,

hedge, and meadow.

Gilberi White gave to Selborne vilWhat he did
lage the fame it bears.
unusual was to hold a great and true

sympathy with nature, in consequence

of which he was led to observe, through
very many years until he was sure
of bi- facts, and to describe, simply
and truthfully, the wild flowers, inmany other living
sects, birds, and
things of the fields about his native
village.
He wandered daily through
the footpaths of his "Outlet" and the
byway- of Selborne; he made new
paths and planted new trees; with his
brother's help he built the steep "Zigzag." and placed the "Wishing Stone."
Finally, in the Natural History of Selborne, he described the countryside in
a
way so simple and alluring that
everyone who read -a\\ Selborne with
it- walk- and loved it.
568

White

Gilbert
tv|

is

Museum
very

much

the

we need throughout
The importance of the

uatiirali-t

America today.

position of naturalisl
has been enhanced by the war in a new valuation
-et on all original investigation along
scientific lines.
Any man. if he be a

sincere studenl in natural history, will

be more or less a leader in his locality
a leader in study, appreciation,
and protection of local birds, of wild
flowers or of insects, of woodlands, of

scenic beauty.

There

Selborne a

in

is

suggestion

America.
If we
walk in the country is it not mosl often
in the middle of the dusty or muddy
for each

village

roadway?

Even

of

in

Xew England how

often are there paths along the edges

of fields where the stone wall is covered
with bittersweet and clematis and the
chipmunk wanders and the bobwhite
calls, or across the meadow where the

bobolink starts up from the grass, or

across pasture land, through the wood
lot, around the hill, along the river
or anywhere except where dread busiWe have no smallest
ness takes us?
chance to get close eye views of the
world of wonderful small life forms
that call our countryside their home.
venture that one great step toward
developing a love and knowledge of naI

ture in America would lie to make and

open up inviting paths over and
through the farm land for the use of
members of one's family and for

friends

and. for the use of

all

in the

community, similar footpaths and byways about the environs of the village.
Even the most weary will return again
and again to the refreshment of a
shaded path to some vantage point of
view or rest, and it is by such frequent
and leisurely wandering over the same
way. until it is as familiar as the house.
the garden, or the village street, that

we come

to

know and

abundant wild

life

about

appreciate the
us.

JZf

Phntoftrnjth

bit

Frank M. Chapman

THE HOME OF GILBERT WHITE'S "NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE,"

1788

sununer of 1919 from the beech-wood hill known as the "Hanger," the most
countryside, remaining unchanged from the eighteenth century until today.
Sell* rne village and countryside. Hampshire County, England, will remain famous ;iv long s the story
of English literature is told, for here was written a book, through a long period of twenty years, which
..n> so delightfully readable and so tilled with interesting i;nd true observations that it soon gained an
assured fame and has since been listed with such classics as Bacon's Essays, Defoe's Robinson Crusoe,
Walton's The Oompleat Angler, and Banyan's rii<iri,,,'K l'r<-

Photographed

beautiful

feature

in

of

the

the

Photograph by Laura Mackay

BOOKS AND NATURE

flowers, trees and rocks-can be suppleFirst-hand observation of the living world-of birds and
thought, or with historic incidents in which
mented from early years with what others have seen and
association
Thus, enjoyment of life is manifolded in an
these objects have played some interesting part.
Burroughs rates high "the pleasure of knowledge
of knowledge of nature, literature, and history.
representing sympathy with all phases
The work of John Burroughs, our American nature essayist,
America through its entrance into the school life of
of country life, has become an influence for good in
various teachers have explained, city
Children like Burroughs' plant and animal stories, and as
children.
literature from the woods and hills
children especially are benefited by the gentle influences of this

The Love

Nature

of

CONTEMPLATION OF THE BEAUTY AND [NCIDENT OF THE NATURAL

WORLD BRINGS RENEWED STRENGTH TO THE MIND
By

T.

A.

I).

('

K E R E L

('

I-

Professor of Zoology,- University of Colorado

AMID
man

"Twixt bank and alder, and the grebe steal

the disorderly chaos of huthe mosl

affairs even

out

ig-

Prom

orous become weary in time

and long for some refuge where the
mind may relax and renew its strength.
For the tired muscles comes the benediction of sleep Inn sleep, as we know
.

the high sedge, and, in his restless

doubt,

Dive down, and

rise to see

whal men were

there
;

They saw the swallow chase high up in air

The circling gnats; the shaded lu-ky pool
Broke by the splashing chub
They watched the poppies burn across the

well,

or

hearl

does

mend

qo1

relieve

the

sorrowful

mind.

anxious

There can be no doubl thai William

Morris was righl when he described our
activities as normally governed by two
Is
ids, which he called the
In the mood
energy and of idleness.
of energy we musl I"- doing something,
or at leasi pretending to do something
Inn in the mood of idleness the mind
wanders over pictures of the past, or
contemplates thai which is beautiful
or interesting.
The major purpose of
from the obviart, as distinguished

grass,

An.

o'er the

bindweed's bells the brown

pass

murmuring

still

of his gains.

."

ously

utilitarian,

is

to

render

the

and
fruit fid.
Thus it may be rescued from
mere inanity on he our hand, and cor-

period

of contemplation

pleasanl

ruption on the other.

Morris had little use for modern

and mighl even have been a

science,

impatient

trifle

tainly

is

more

he

tells

we had

if

criticized the

on the -round that it was cerMr. Burroughs

female bee.

line,

last

scienl

ific

us: "In

ture, science

and

my

plays

less

poetical, yet

excursions into naa

part, but not the

monitor
and friend who speaks when spoken to.
leading part

Or

may

it

like a silent

is

say thai

carry

it

hack

in the

of my head and only now and then in

do not go forth as an
the front.
1

taking note of the birds,

Morris was lecturing on the aims of

art when he put forward this theory.

ornithologist

hut he was also keenly alive to natural

flowers, nor as a zoologisl studying the

beauty and incident, as his wril

abundantly show.
Powers of observation and description are combined in
these charming lines from The Earthly

wild creat ares, nor as

Paradise:
"They

the house, and, following up the

ream,
In the low -mi saw the kingfisher gleam
left

Bt

nor as

ing and
life.

I.

nt

Multilist, peep-

prying into the mysteries of

as a nature-lover pure and

who

simple,

taking note of the

botanisl

gathers

much

through

sympathy and observation/'

The English naturalist Wallace kepi
a

beautiful garden

of hi-

li

fe

for

in

the latter

pure relaxal ion and en-

Burroughs
U
and Study, Houghton Mifflin Company,
With previously unpublished portraits of John Burroughs, the American naturalist and author, and
from he favorite haunts; followed
pha of unusual distinction published
/

Ins honor.
irtes]

Burroughs

In connection with the illustrations it is especially

pleasure
the publishers, Houghton Mifflin Company, various brief p
:i

hi'

ii

be able t" quote through

om the writi

Tio. Editor.
:.71

NATURAL HISTORY

572

m.

j,,\ I,,,.

the last, but the

not tell us so much about the woodchuck or the warbler that we can form

flowers were for

period-

what Morris called the

a clear picture of the creatures, never

man

who

having seen them.

Those who read
Burroughs, never having lived in the
northeastern United States, will wish
that the publishers had introduced a
series of pictures of the dramatis personal.
Yet, as he himself well says,
literature cannot be merely photo-

to

Happy

idleness.

<'f

experiments.

for scientific

ii.it

He was working

the

ninet} years of age, after a life

a1

of fruitful labor, can still enjoy nature

with

1
1

ence

many

In'

in

is

faculty,

Con-

simplicity of a child!

iie

in

.-

imagination of some, scino sense inimical to this

and

would be easy

it

men who

scientific

recall
it

Even Herbert Spencer

unimpaired.

moment

ml his

t;j

retained

maximum

enjoy-

When we make

graphic.

art out of things, ".

them with a

literature or

we must

invest

accidental

an atmosphere,
that the literal fact cannot give; we
must work some magic upon the facts."

In the case of our nature writers,

whatever may have been their original

The question is, how much magic,

how much of the human element, how
much of that element personal and

foil

of

ment in the contemplation of a beautiwith

landscape,

ful

the

accompaniment of music.

attitude, the
sarily

problem of art

the background.

in

is

neces-

Mr. Bur-

roughs, when he walks in the woods,

cannot altogether forget that he is a

He

reporter.

would
ings

if

tries

possible

others

to

to

forget

it,

and

communicate his feelby some process of

"... I try to get language

way as far as possible, and
to put my mind directly to that of my
reader.
Hence, when I have been told
telepathy:

out of the

my

page does not seem like writing, that it offers no resistance, and
so on, I feel highly complimented.
I
would have it fit the mind as water fits
the hand.
Deliver me from language

that

as

such,

from

from conscious

fine phrases; in

short,

Says Mr. Bur'Mouse' is a

real mouse, but not the one you catch

peculiar to the writer?

roughs,

".

Burns's

and Shakespeare's violets

where do they grow save in the magic
page of Shakespeare?" Poets throughout the centuries have employed the
worn images of antiquity, things once
real and immediate ; now chosen rather
for their accumulated content of huin a trap;

man

emotion, like the "blessed word

Mesopotamia."
No doubt the highest art is that
which is most completely humanized,
which expresses most perfectly vital

human

emotions,

connected

usually

with periods of activity and with the

style."

It is this simplicity

feeling,

and directness

interplay of personalities.

human

It catches

passions

in Mr. Burroughs' writings that con-

the

stitute their

charm. He is a friendly
companion, keen-minded but not too
remote from the ordinary level of mankind.
He brings us no astounding
revelations, but introduces us to the
good company all around us.
For
some he quickens pleasurable mem-

height,

ories, for others reveals

independent of external circumstances,

appealing to the facts of nature within
rather than without the man.
Nature writing cannot be all this,
and must not be it, if it is to serve its

He writes, it would seem,

may see the things that

for those

new world.
who

he has seen;
his book is a species of guidebook, not
literature independent of time or place.
He is even chary of his words, and does

flood

of

at

its

and preserves for us images of

the maximum products of heart and
train.
Hence it is often relatively
1

true

purpose.

clare that its

One

hesitates

to

de-

humbler objects are the

vital to our needs, but who can

contemplate modern life and not perceive the necessitv for more healthv

more

THE LOVE
simple

more

objectivity,

con-

restful

templation of beauty and incidenl ?

It
an interesting question, how
is
much of the love of nature as shown

any mature mind

in tlif observations of

simple and

is

Qa'ive.

when

had,

which

child, a delighl in brighl colors

no longer possess

The

form.

a
1

simple

in its original

blue of the sky, the red

ol

XATCEE

til'

573

memorable expedition.
and profitable to do

It

pleasant

is

and

so,

I often re-

mind my students of such associations.

Were
possible, however, to develop
it

of each animal and bird

through pure observation we should
know ami understand it as we do our

our

ideas

intimate

friends.

credit

Mr.

of

really to the

is

It

Burroughs that the aniremind him continually

the rose, produced an intensely pleasur-

mal- do

which had no relation

to previous knowledge or experience.
Willi the years, one necessarily loses
his simplicity.
Even the unfamiliar

of the classical authors or of the poets;

sensation

able

reminds us of something; hence the

American "robin/ which is no robin,
and "primrose/ which is nol a prim-

or

if

they do, that he keeps the fact to

Ee tells us what he has seen,

and the ideas he associates with each
creatine are those derived from previhimself.

periellce with

rost

Bui again, life

This brings as the question

should

we cultivate the association of ideas in

the young, or leave them to weave unconsciously a web of thoughl around
is
every familiar objed ?
'ertainlj

it.

short

is

everything

learn

not

not

and one can-

at

hand.

first

Those of us who cannot know nature in

detail in this way are glad to see what
Mr. Burroughs has seen, in some meas-

Much

ure with his eyes.

of the pleasure

sociationto hide the

woodland ramble comes from expectation, and from appreciation of

the meaning of what one sees.
If a

bird

<

it

o too far in cultivating asreal thing under

mass of the debris of the ages, things
which have accidentally -tuck to it

me recalls
when Lord Brougham and

rather than issued from

the occasion

the

Duke

it.

<

of Wellington met and chaffed

each other in this

"\M.

wise:

lord/

Duke, "I used to suppose you

would be remembered as a statesman,
hut now
know that yon will go down
to posterity in the nan
f a
verj unsaid the

comfortable
grace/

sort

of carriage.

55

Brougham,

replied

"Your
once

"]

thoughl you would always be known as

the hero of a hundred fights, bu1 it appeal--

you are

thai

to

be famous for a

cumbersome type

of boots

the

Wellington,

hoot.-.'*

said

rather agree
sense, the

land

sp

all

the
"1

t-."

am

structure

to

certain

tl

agle,

Rome

thistle,

5Te1

to

when

common

rare,

i-

high

what

The painted lady

cardui)

ntels

PyraEngland, but
the country in great

numbers from the com

Kent.

story

of

came

As

boy
life

this

insisted
a

of

and
on

the
in

rememspecies.

my

en-

showing the

telegraph boy

inseel

there

Pyrameis

particularly

trembled,

The

before

famous
I

capture

incut.

butterfly

certain

butterfly to

along.

firsl

tlni-ia-in

butterfly

had read the interesting

ardui year, and

hand

the

know

rare in

is

occasionally visits

M\

of

it; if

likely to think, not

habits

know

well to

would look like close at hand.

know- a lady whose eyesight was detective, and to whom a tree was simply
a mass of green.
When at length she
was fitted with glasses, she was greatly
astonished to find thai it was possible
to see the separate leaves.
So might
one learn to know many animal- and
birds at a distance, and be surprised to
note their liner markings and peculiarities of form when -ecu close at hand.

my

and

is

it

a tree, one likes to

in

it

ber

family of woodpeckers, the Picidae, but

Lewis and Clark and their ever

of

is

it

in

woodpecker

this vicinity,

the

In

United States
to

are

with him.

"1 >amn
and we

'."

of

who came

was indeed

lovely

V.I

could
alread}

without

did

qo1

have

knowing

77 AM/, lll<T<)l!)

wliat

it

and something aboul it.

The answer to our question seems io
be. thai we should teach even young
children something about the facts of
R-as

and the result will be to inand quicken their

nature,

crease their pleasure

interest.

is

undesirable

to

leave

everything for themselves,

for indeed, they usually will not look.
Europe, where there is so much
In

them

to see

traditional

up

little

More

felt as I

nature lore, children grow

many parts

naturalists; but in

especially, perhaps, should

we

emphasize those facts which, though

vital, could not be appreciated by the

mere observation of

The migrations

single individual.

and the data

have been elucidated by
many men working at different times
and places, and yet the general results
of bird.-

geology

of

can often be stated lucidly in a few

words, and readily appreciated in relation to

what

is

actually seen.

It is

not always easy judiciously to combine

book learning and observation; and

even

"Sir.

whom most

Burroughs, compared with

of us are slaves of the book,

where the parents neither

the children remain
care,
nor
know

falls into the error of referring to the

ignorant.

"Halictus moth." because he had never

of America,

Photograph by G. Clyde Fisher

This great stone under the ironwood tree, where John Burroughs played when a boy. lies in pasture land less than a half mile from the house of his birth on the old farm in Delaware County, near
Roxbury, in the western Catskills. On this stone he posed for "The Seer," a bronze figure by the late
C. S. Pietro (see photograph on page 581).
Burroughs, commenting on the work of the camera, and the value of photographs not only for the
accurate delineations of science but also for portraiture of friends and reproduction of scenes linked
with personal associations, writes in Field and Study: "The camera has no imagination, no sentiment,

and no memory, and its literal truth is not art; but for that very reason, it gives us the nude reaj
Who could paint for me the old homestead
Our own memories and feelings do the rest.
ity.
with the charm it lias in my memory, not changing a single feature, but touching every feature with
.

the pathos with which

it

haunts me?"

Voung woodchuck, jumping

home mi the Hudson

seen the lin

<

bees of thai genus, which

le

abound

tainly

mar-

Fabre, mosl

made

observers,

of

own garden.

his

in

the other hand,

>n

velous

;raj

mistake

concerning the identity of an insecl because lir did n"i sufficiently consuH the
books, and had

be corrected

to

his

\>\

We
only
by

need man}

the field too greal to be covered

is

man

single

;i

any

in

every pari of the counl

own observers and

have

less

our midsl

in

difficull

rule-- the work

ion,

We

the

least,

at

stimulate

to

locality,

based

is

The
come

to

high pressure, and has

leisure to

reflected

the

in

si(

\\

is

nature, bui

cannol
her

shorl

sure that,
is

Many thousands may

lovers of

they

to interprel

time

and watch the proces-

events.

be true

teurs

Is

high

prepare

for this,

en

so,

and

ability

public

appreciation,

tnunk,
"

.-a.

nut

and who can he

fidelity.

<

harmony

than

istence

Mr.

wit h the facts of ex-

more

other

pretentious

Every true naturalist is

probabl} something of a mystic, because he cannol fathom the depth- of
and will nol concede thai the
life,
schemes.

may

be completely explained in

Yet he increasingly

less.

which unites

the bond

feels

all

living

and desires to play his game

according to the rules which he per
things,

eeives to

have been established

dawn

the

of

need so

world,

much

lie

is

in

the

not con-

by rigid logic, as In

multitude of concordanl observations.

rusl nature as one
[e comes to
rusts
a

friend.

<

>f

wrote

some

Malay

.1

him we may
years

ago

write, as
in

we

Wallace's

rchipelago :

Perhaps

love

of

nature makes the whole world

kin.

To Easl and Wesl

the gospel preached herein

Musi
All

living

ome

stir

The harmony which underlies

s.-iu

flying

the soul.

thin-- his comrades wen',

the

mouse, cottontail rabbil

c.

The

It

coming with

white-footed
I-

life-

demanding excep-

tional

nd

he will succ

calling,

may
human

themselves

literature.

in

ama-

as

the

in

mind, creating harmonies in place of

>ut of simple pleasures and
react ions ma\ -row a philosophy of life

discord.

si1

be

even-

ill

\\

his

ing unity of nat are

<

terms of the

how many

litt le

greater

is

it

nam iv r The professional

man usually works under

of

teries

smooth the way.

bui

can take the time to master the mys-

scientific

tually

necessarj

on observa-

has small value, and

it

its

doubt-

production.

to

it

bui

musl have

r\

writers.

potentially

ability,

Nol

nature writers.

Burroughs about

Mr.

of

spread of higher education,

more

friend Perez.

friends

squirrel

squirrel

Mill

all

lie

saw

natural law.

nature whole.

other good

friends in the

"SLABSIDES," BURROUGHS' CABIN

IN

THE WOODS

the
home, "Riverby," at West Park, Ulster County (on
"Slabsides" is nearly two miles west of John Burroughs'
partition walls made of yellow birch,
Hudson eighty miles north of New York City). Within the cabin one sees
among BurThe late Theodore Rooseyelt and many other noted men
skeleton stairway, and rustic chairs and beds.
after the cabin
John Muir was one of his first visitors, in 1897, the year
roughs' friends have visited him here.
and other vegetables which demand black
At one side of the cabin Burroughs made a garden for celery
was built
When digging into the
the bottom of a small lake.
rich soil for in recent geological time the land here had been
in days long past
peaty soil, he found sections of wood which had been gnawed by beavers

576

Photograph by G
IN
/

h squash

that eventually

grew

to

great nzi

in

Burroughs' garden

homestead farm, and was presented

But
faint and distant
Wl "

or
calls,

'

'

fisher

THE GARDEN AT FOURSCORE YEARS

other matter can

inaudible for the

hold

his

man

of

t>>

his

at

Woodchuck Lodg< on th old

friend Thomas

I.

Edison

new or unwonted bird song; he li.virs even

fewer associations with woods sounds.
"If we have no associations
attention

if

he hears

Their merit as musical perforn

us.
<>n this
ight."
cannot Bay that either song [meadowlark's or skylark's] would appeal to
others
:to me; for to me it comes forever laden with a hundred mei
ies and
as, with the sight
<>t
'Inn hills reddening in the dawn, with the breath of '""l morning winda blowing
across lonely plains, with the scent
" f flowers ...
the sunlit prairie with the motion of flying horses, with all the strong thrill of eager and but
life. ...
doubt if an] man can judge di
the bird songs of his own coui
them from th
the land hat is bo de ir to him"
1

very

matter Burroughs quo!

'

-:

\.t

to

little
i

lj

:.77

h by G. Clyde Fisher

WHERE MAY AND JUNE ADD

BIRD

SONG TO THE SOUND OF FLOWING WATERS

Each May Burroughs comes to the woodland along these falls on Black Creek, near Slabsides, to look for the Louisiana
water thrush and other warblers, for the scarlet tanager and phcebe.
Here he often camps and cooks his favorite "brigand" steak.
'The camper out often finds himself in what seems a distressing predicament to people seated in their snug, wellordered houses; but there is often satisfaction when things come to their worst,
a satisfaction in seeing what a small
matter it is, after all; that one is really neither sugar nor salt, to be afraid of the wet: and that life is just as well worth
living beneath a scow or a dugout as beneath the highest and broadest roof in Christendom.
"When one breaks camp in the morning, he turns back again and again to see what he has left. Surely he feels lie
has forgotten something; what is it?
But it is only his own sad thoughts and musings he has left, the fragment of his
life he has lived there.
Where he hung his coat on the tree, where he slept on the boughs, where he made his coffee
or broiled his trout over the coals, where he drank again and again at the little brown pool in the spring run, where he
looked long and long up into the whispering branches overhead, he has left what he cannot bring away with him,
the
flame and ashes of himself."
From Pepacton

57 S

MEMORIES
".

hatch

'

The voice

that of a

is

confiding.

His

[of

111"

child,
.all

nut

soft,

in

woods whe
we made maple sugar
spring

the

my

'yank,

b o y li o o d yank, yank

Lack

me

how
a
t

comes

it

to

-ong,
o k e n

Not
but a
t h e

of

spirit

the

ma plewoods

finding
"prow
tinctly

dis-

re-

member where
our
path

schoolboy
through

woods

the

an old
brush fence, and
in winter the fresh
d

prints in the

graj
the

squirrels

ture of

of

and

whom

to

fenc served

old

How

highway.

The

snow

of the red

el

it

all

as

vivid
in

is

pic-

the

my memory

Photograph

wood mice

delicate tracks of the

id there beside our path

they

!<>,

by
Fisher

are

-< Fisher
Photograph by Q.
life around us becomes in<

still

unfaded

in

my mind,

after a lapse of

more than sevent]

the current of
teres ting

"Prom

this little red

Stt

in

nature and

it

in

fireplace

Bchoolhouse he went

to

years.

The wild

and
is

built

Thi

ind by-play.

and

lit'''.

of

in

native rock

thingswell,

is

from the vicinitj

an

interesting

of

Burroughs'

Coopcrstown Semii

579

IN

predomfnate?

mS

THE SOUTHERN CATSKILLS

w^KISaSd

or point is dwarfed; the valley of the Hudson

ing of surprise that the great thing is the earth

From

580

Biverby

Photographs by G. Clyde Fisher

j tg^^
?%

the original features of the.huge.globe^come

a
^ou ^seover^
surface

is only a wr.nk e in the earth s

hand so tar bejona >oui Ken.
itself, which stretches away on every

of

Art

JOHN BURROUGHS
mar the time when
As
know these contemmplating the earth as it swims through space.
more and more in mj thoughts
its beauty, its meaning, and the grandeur of the voyage we are
irface.
mak
The imaginary and hoped for other world occupies mj thoughts verj little. There is so much to
know here, so much to enjoy, bo much to engage every faculty of the mind and develop everj power of the body, Buch
beauty, Buch sublimity, and such
hoy can one ever tire of it, or wish for
veil of enchantment and mysterj over all
better.
I am in love with the earth."
From Field and Study.
This portrait of John Burroughs a~ modeled by the late C 8. Pietro, and is the propertj of the Toledo Museum
Lof Art.
hi- ohl h<
a photograph of it
The rock on which Mr. Burroughs p
in the western <';it-kiii-.
is on
s reproduced on pagi
\

plations
i

most cease,

i-

:i

.1

581

Photograph by

IN

J.

D. Johnson

THE DOORWAY AT SLABSIDES-A BIRD SONG SUGGESTS

A TRAIN OF

"The traveler sees

THOUGHT

Nature that is revealed to the home-stayer. You will find

she has made her home where you have made yours, and intimacy with her there becomes
easy.
Familiarity with things about one should not dull the edge of curiosity or interest.
The walk you take today through the fields and woods, or along the river bank, is the walk
you should take tomorrow, and next day, and next. What you miss once, you will hit upon
next time.
The happenings are at intervals and are irregular. The play of Nature has no
fixed programme.
If she is not at home today, or is in a noncommittal mood, call tomorrow,
or next week.
It is only when the wild creatures are at home, where their nests or dens are
made, that their characteristics come out." From Field and Simla
little

of the

582

BIRD PHOTOGRAPHS OF UNUSUAL DISTINCTION

THE

THE PAGES FOLLOWING. THE WORK OF SOME OF OUR NOTED BIRD

PHOTOGRAPHERS AND NATURALISTS, IN MANY PARTS OF THE COUNTRY,
IS PUBLISHED IN HONOR OF JOHN BURROUGHS, WITH MANY
BRIEF QUOTATIONS FROM HIS WRITINGS

SERIES ON

WHERE CAN

BE HEARD

"THE WHISTLE OF RETURNING BIRDS"

do not know a bird till I have heard its voice ... A bird's song contains a clew to its life, and establishes a sym"
pathy and understanding
From Wake Robin.
without pausing to think that in
"One sees the passing bird procession in his own ground* and neighbor!]
every man's grounds and in every neighborhood throughout the State, and throughout a long, broad belt of
about several millions of homes, and over several millions of farms, the same flood tide of bird-life is
Think of the myriads of dooryards where the 'chipping and eddying or sweeping over the land.
pies' ar.' just arriving; of the blooming orchards where- the passing man] colored warblers are eagerlj
inspecting the buds and leaves; of the woods where ti
m-birds and water-thrushes are searching
out their old haunts; of the secluded bushy fields and tangles where the eh. -wink-, the brown
thrashers, the hats, the catbirds, are once more preparing to begin life anew think of all this
and more, and we maj -.! some idea of the extent and imports
bird life.
The birds
of our youth, but they are
are always
new as the flowers are new, as the spring and summer are new as each morning is new.
."
Like Nature herself thej are endowed with immortal youth
and Study

"I

'.

583

Photograph by Leslie W. Lee

THE BROWN THRASHER-IN NEW ENGLAND

"People
Carlyle. I

^lOT^omM

The only
not made friends with the birds do not know how much they miss ...
journey to a distant
his relating that in his earlier days he was sent on a
sudden
he
y hea*d the **rl
bother and vexation, and that on his way back home forlorn and dejected,
him and cheered him
soaring and singing, just as they did about his father's fields, and it comforted

who have

^1*%^]^!
^mg

remember

gave him much

ing all about him

up

You grow old, your '"ends

"'There is something almost pathetic in the fact that the birds remain forever the same.
your garden 01 " h d ," V*^e
Yet there
die or move to distant finds, events sweep on, and all things are changed.
eadowiarK,
note of the
piercing
strong
quail,
the
the
of
whistle
The call of the high-holes, the
birds of vour boyhood.
melody ot that sprinume
the drumming of the arouse. how these sounds ignore the years, and strike on the ear with the

when your world was young, and

584

life

was

all

holiday and romance!"

From Birds and Poets

"

/./i

THE LITTLE GREEN HERON

B,,r "
again and again in

himself
Ft,

with
ly

,,!

by

Norman MrCHntock

FLORIDA

nature and looks at u from the Btandpoinl ol one in sympathy.

He points out
each creature in anj given bit of countrj is living its individual independent
and wholly apart fron
jet ot vital activity
with a characti

that
i

purp.i-.

IN

its

585

Photograph by Alvin R. Calm

IN

TEXAS-ONE OF OUR FAMOUS SONG BIRDS

OF THE MOCKING BIRD

A KINSMAN

might almost be said that the birds are all birds of the poets and of no one else.
So true is this that all the great
have been poets in deed if not in word. Audubon is a notable case in point, who, if he had not
the tongue or the pen of the poet, certainly had the eye and ear and heart
the singleness of purpose, the enthusiasm, the unworldliness, the love, that characterize the true and divine race of bards.
So had [Alexander]
Wilson, though perhaps not in as large a measure; yet he took fire as only a poet can.
While making a journey on foot to Philadelphia, shortly after landing in this country, he caught sight of the red-headed wood
pecker flitting among the trees
and it so kindled his enthusiasm that his life was devoted to the
pursuit of the birds from that day.
The very idea of a bird is a symbol and a suggestion to the
poet.
A bird seems to be at the top of the scale, so vehement and intense is his life, largebrained, large-lunged, hot. ecstatic his frame charged with buoyancy and his heart with songs."
From Birds and Poets

"It

ornithologists

58C

ow- throat in Oregon.

Photograph by William

"The

L.

Finley and H. T.

Bohlman

current notion that the parent birds teach the young to fly
that of set
purpose thej give them lessons in flying
is entirely erroneous.
The young fly automatically when the time' comes,
so
as
the
witch
hazel
nut
explodes, and the pod of the jewel-weed goes off when the seeds are ripe.
y
The
parent birds call to their young, and I have thought that in some
withhold the food longer than usual to
."
stimulate the young to ma]
a
From /
udy
.

'

Black-throated

tray

warblerOregon. "Till

dow,

//.

the middle of July

T.

to

>" n
..rn

"'"

'"
fretful.

and

ed 8

'"'

"'

Bohlman

equilibrium; the tide stands

he voung are out
all

:ind
Uriel

drone his

his matchless

occasionally

tanager

" From
-7

Photograph by G. K. Noble

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULLS ON A LAKE OF NOVA SCOTIA

It is a silent, alert sentinel of ungulls in the winter time.
ies is the most majestic of the Atlantic Coast
This -i
the ready sources of food about the fishinhabited beaches, never seeking the protection offered by civilization nor
visitors
ing village
A glimpse into the summer colony, however, gives a very different idea of these shy winter

58 S

and

II.

Bohlman

INHABITANTS OF INLAND WATERS

T. "'
1

g avocet, of the
iside

shutting

hit

.'ill

Editoe] m.

KJamath

hi

1908

i,,

the

Editor Mr.

Malheur marshes

wild

at

wild bird reservation in

water from entering the lake 3

bird

i>

Pinle

reservation
bul

aboul

alls

do not know whether you have anj wa

Lower Klamath Lake where I>r. [Frank \i
dried up and the reservation is practically
ong Klamath River and

I.

ommercialism that n
-

Lake

Malheur
bj
i-

to

Oregon, with its surclamation of Pri

ed bj promoters

ird
n,l

to

Klamath

ai

Btandpoinl

lets the water back

ing in the do

in.

\\

Photograph by Edward A. Mcllhenny

THE BLUE GOOSE

590

IN ITS

WINTER HOME-THE LOUISIANA MARSHES

THE MARSH HAWK ON LONG

ISLAND,

PHOTOGRAPHED

RISING

FROM

rank Overton

ITS

NEST
591

Photograph by William L.

The California condor (adult)

ing the

life

the nest.

in southern California.

history of the California condor.

The

old birds

became tamer

Finlei/

and H.

Several hundred photographs were

T.

Bohlman

taken, show-

Eight different trips were made hack into the mountains to

on the last trip, they were photographed at a

at each visit until,

distance of only a few feet

Photograph by William L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman

John Burroughs' characterization of the late Theodore Roosevelt as an observer "in preeminent degree." He says apropos this power: "You may know the true observer, not by the big things he sees,
but by the little things; and then not by the things he sees with effort and premeditation, but by the quick,
spontaneous action of his mind"

We

592

recall

STUDIES

IN

Omr

.1

.1

Urn

NEW YORK STATE

NATURE'S EBONY-IN

eld, but they feed on cutworms and

accused of 'loin.' damage ii
al arm's length from :t blind, fed
this particular bird, while under
"- influenced
-"The great tiling in observatioi
by our preconceived
to be true, or by our fears, hopes, or anj personal element, and to see the thing
believes in ghosts and apparitions cannot !" depended upon to investigi
Be sure the '-row is pulling
Above all don't jump to

grackles have been

other

immer, and

grasshoppers.
bj

what we want
A person

phenomenon

ol

thers

l>ut

like*-

ou kill
grubs, before
game birds and to
pheasants, are giving the crow an unsavorj reputatioi
mcerned.
Burroughs is evidently aware of this objectionable fe
crow
him withal; li" gives man;
"The crov< is always in the
bit of virile character di
lh- color gives him away, his voice gives him .-i
earth or in the skj he
ear
ota iiis plume, though a mori
ad brilliant
II.
yet the op. mi daj is h
is
bit ol the :iiL lit
publicity liis
li
nd, an alai
fello
tl iei
ilist,
all in
_

for thi

who
for

!ikr the

;i

,i

rain,

come shim

=3

.*!*.

-a

rZ)

O
CO

>.3

LU

I
H
r-

<

LU

C5

fc

rt

 <
Q
z
QC O <
^ Z CO
Q =>
^
< LU O
2 uJ Zj
CO

_-

- -=

s Z

O h

J3 *

S
o

til

jjj

^ ~

-r

.r

"./:

.-

K*

C-i

*H

Photograph by Edward A. Mcllhenny

AT THE SOUTH
"We

never

an army
is

know

IN

WINTER TIME-OUR AMERICAN ROBIN

the precise time the birds leave us in the fall: they do not go suddenly; their departure

like that of

no hurry to be off; they keep going and going, and we hardly know when the last straggler
gone."
(From Pepacton.) A few individual robins remain in sheltered spots in the North.
In comparison with English song birds it is said that ours are fewer in number and less famous as musicians.
Burroughs says: "Our birds are more withdrawn than the English," with "notes more plaintive and in-

The robin comes very near the head of the

family with the thrushes and bluebird, and sharing the

termittent."

and catbird.
therefore all the
smaller and smaller,

thrasher,
It is

of well-known American bird musicians, in the

honors with the family of mocking bird, brown

list

He is one of the greatest sources of cheer and companionship in city or country.

more pity that spring after spring the number returning to the North has been
owing to destruction of the migrating flocks at the South, robins shot in

thousands for food

596

is

of occupation in

At the North

in

Photograph by Ernest Harold Baynes

winter time, just chickadee. A view within the window

Photograph by Ernest Harold /''

niilil stud j the winter birds
without
you can lirim: them to your own
door
chickadees, nuthatches, down; woodpeckers, brown creepers
little waifs from the winter
that daily or hourly seek the bountj you prepare for them
The woods and groves seem
erts, the earth is piled with
the wonder is
anap with the cold
Ilnu much company they are to me! What
idventurers can subsist at all,
that ... '
thought
iations thej bring!"From

'.v

597

Freeman Art

Co.,

Eureka, Humboldt County, Californu

THE HERITAGE OF AMERICANS

We

The northern redwood forests are a heritage for every American yet all are in the hands of private capital.
must
purchase sections of this redwood land from the lumber companies who own them, at once before everything lias been leveled by the ax and fire.
For these forests are the greatest the earth has ever seen in all the millions of years of its history.
The trees tower into the sky between three and four hundred feet and attain a prodigious thickness of trunk: and so ancient are they that the largest of them have seen the passing of more than four thousand generations of men
598

Tlio contrast!

Hundreds

of

Each sawmill is
center
and 6re

sixty years.

Freeman Art Co., Eureka, ffwi

redwoods in California have been

thousands
of

;i

of acres of

<i;fornia

cut in the last

incalculable loss not only through the timber

removed but

especially through waste

Sequoia

the Auld Lang Syne of Trees

AN [MMEDIATE WORK FOR EVERY LOVEE OF AMERICA

PRESERVATION OP THE REMNANTS OF REDWOOD
FORESTS IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA
1

W H EN RY

FA

President of the American

was

ITthai

.-a il

any

by

pithily

can

fool

John

they could they would

and hunted
fun

or

Muir

still

their death

could

contrasted
proteci

the

ability

their

done, through

race,

as long
:

of

splendor

lie

America.

can do

IV
i

hat."

some

l>\

conservation

in

I.

matters,

it

\\

is

heritage

Mam

of

for

these

the

future

have
sunshine of
trees

Creator

lifted

as

he

thousand summers, and

them have outlived the
passing of four thousand general
of men.
Mere
matter-of-fact
and
commercial
consideral ion,
mon
-in irely aparl from any senj imenl regarding their beauty or their

to proteci

generation

American Museum,

the

lias

Prom

tl

ilic

[f

influence

drought, disease, avalanches, tempests,

and
Is,
with the inability of that
for

millions of j'ears

same divine power

would vote i" save hese Sequoia

Ilands.
Their venerable and colossal

b<

bi

of

power, could hope for

Speaking of the Sequoias,

them.
to

to

dollar

Natural History, Member of the

destroy

they cannot run away from him,

if

of

Save the Redwoods league

of the

Qcil

[EFIELD

Museum

IS TI1F

them even

fools

"only

heads

their

more than

the

of

largesl

to

the

599

.V.I

m: "in
thrift.

the

md

,!

777,'. I/.

name

of

eoun-

love of

Roosevell would have said.

.

progressed

far,

augmented

HISTORY
Either we shall now. at a goodly expenditure of money, save the redwood
forests as they stand, or we shall lose
them, and after a few years, at an

of

exceedingly

the

money, try

manifestations of life on the globe are

breathe oo1 aloud the
being euj for

lated tracts

alK] has

The

orders of

re<

in"-!

which

uses to

leeially

the}*

majestic

among

are being put,

human

lest

history laugh

California:

ami railroad

is

slow to

evolve beyond aims of immediate pergain.

sonal

Do we ask why
the

redwood

the burden of saving

forests

falls

so

immediand

ately on the shoulders of the state

national

governments

outside

of

the

reason that state and national

governments should look out for the
welfare of the people?
Uncle Sam
owned all this western timber countryyet Uncle Sam was so desirous oi
giving every man in the free United

general

States his chance, that millions of acres

of timber land

were sold

half dollars an acre

at

when

two and one

just one indi-

vidual tree of the wide-stretching for-

was worth at the lowest figure one

hundred dollars.
Thus the timber
went into the hands of private and corporation capital and "nothing could
ests

be done about the crazy bargain

'."

We

race to an eternal extinction.

the temporary con-

ties for

venience of a mankind which

which may be left, knowing

we have doomed the redwood as a

ognize the second course as that usually

shingles

for

expenditure of
few small muti-

Se-

ground for grape stakes for the

to the

save

the

quoias towering more than three hundred feet into the sky are being brought

vineyards of

that

greater
to

at

the sale- could not be undone.

This was the condition when Muir
wrote these words in 1900, and the
twenty years since that time have seen
least

consummated in the
new community.

forest

policy

of

Have we not

any

learned the lesson of

rec-

loss,

especially in

the East, so that we can apply the prin-

redwood? We all realize

we long ago passed the day when
we could afford to look upon trees as

ciple to the

that

giant weeds to be got rid of by any

method, as our forefathers in America
looked upon them, or even as inex-

Heaven to be manThey are one of the

assets of the country.
If we
learned the lesson, we shall in

haustible gifts of

aged wastefully.
few vital

have not

particular instance not merely

burden our children with the bond issues of an attempted restoration of
what we have destroyed, we shall lose
the redwoods beyond all possibility of
For in the case of tr< es
restoration.
such as white pine, black walnut, and
other- now nearly exterminated, we
this

have not been dealing with species that

a thousand years to reach ma-

take half

and two or three times that to

turity

attain

One

their

greatest

hundred

nearly

the

nobility

has

year-

of

been

size.

more

maximum and that has

to the man who lives

seemed too long

the ranks of the redwoods pushed far-

himself only and for today.

species of Sequoias are only
two, 1 the big tree (Sequoia giganted)

ther and farther hack from the sea. by

and the redwood

lumbering methods involving frightful

waste.
Some solution of the problem
must now lie sought which will return
to the government as large a part of the
redwood lands left as money for purchase can be found, to remain permanent possessions of the American people.

One

of

two courses we shall follow.

for

The

(Sequoia

sempervi-

1
The genus Sequoia is not closely related to any
other living group of trees, but in former geological times, reaching back as far as the Jurassic

and

Trias,

near relatives

of

our

Sequoias were

species scattered widely over

Their fossil rethe northern lands" of the globe.
mains have been discovered in Europe and in vaSiberia.
rious lands bordering the Arctic seas

common, with many

The
Spitsbergen. Greenland. Canada, and Alaska.
big tree and the redwood are therefore representavariasmall
..!
with
existence
tivea family whose
they
tion must be measured in million- of years
are "thf auld lang syne of trees

THE

SEQCOIA
/- //>'

We

If

through

Nle\

joil

warm

the

hward

-'Ml!

interior

SVXE OF TREES

l.\.\t,

/./>

more or

of

valley

fornia, on mi r left hand tow cr the

Sierra
Mom
\e\ ada
snow-capped
tai ns. These hea r in hei r high alt it tides
he seaward slopes the hie I'ees. The\
"ii
(

',-ili

low

\ed

with

age

when

dim

imi- of

earl

In'

housands.

In

from livi
np the mountain
i

we

California

the

i-

forests of the re

lie

';il

Mil

fornia

hward

a
i

if

in

of u-

ion

er\

inda

'

r\

i'se

world,

the

width,

to

on

forest

fluted

ru

with -hi

long ages

-un and shadow.

of

hey ha\

dow

from

he

stood

here

ra in-

thai

nori Invest

Ii

lap of

les.

he hig

Sierras.

These
tat ion

to

They have

drifts

rees in

'.'
,

among

land

loin

themselves wonverdun hut thev

mosses and he ground
:

fern-,

h ith

greatest diameter
ami here (hey grow

green

ives

Ii

)n the steep

from

in

moisi ure

are draped w ith

he depl
e.

la'

the

In

the

iy

wice ihe

ders o

red
t

I't-

For
-w eep

and dip- low an

i

hundred mi

north and -mil

thai

-iiini
a

Ba\ of Moi
five

he

'

laden

aisles

ween tin- gianl columns of the vec>.

sometimes with spacious vistas opening
lot he sea and he gn Mind a nd lie dark
t

a-

real

"Architecturally"

then

e,

our own

in

lonu eu rvinu

an

isolated small

nea rlv

fre-

feel.

runk from

hi

"I'

isaics

maximum

miles

o e g

mthern bourn
County. California,
south

redw

reaching

hundred

northern California.

hey reached

trees

diameter of

thou-

Kai

of

ire-t-

ill

few vears ago

en

ji

and o\ cr ii- seaw a nl slopes and

wide moist alle\ - arc the renin
Ik-

with

gianl

sand to tw

Main
ii>

Coasi

ipieiil

thousand

through

venlanl

inac-

cul

1!

make

three

llhove

Well
\er\

it-

tniiin

-.

ers

ri\

of the

the\

I'acilic.

-!

right

In'

southward
low

the

Fori unately, this

protected

is

cessibility,

>n

around

Ii

w here

through ihe

their \\a\

predominate
more until they
and- unmixed
flats and

In

<

valleys

rtd-

the

soil

-.

of

hot loins

reater

si

of

en

clo-e.

trees

increasingly

consei

more and
form

other

At

iicrea-e

hv thousands ;md tens of

Inn

Sequoia

measured

was

life

re\

-iin

<

her

open groves, the\ stand mashattered like ruins from ;in

;iiid

feet

ol

nd

in

sive

tin-

size.

with

lir).

moisture

aiii

'

heroie

conifers

red

lldes

It it

are

mixed

les-

ialh

60]

si

hat

tin-

ree.

from

'.'

ml certainly histoi

"'

he
>

in

home
'

white

alone,

111

the

he ipialil

;|

I'

ie-

In

ree-

omiliel
work w

\l
i

lor

and lake-

;i

heaut

fill

polish,
.-'

it

is

i.

Mendocino County will buy the Montgomery

In Montgomery Grove above Ukiah.-It is hoped and believed that
the great scenic State Highway through the
Grovrof redwoods. This would make the town of Ukiah the entrance to
travel within our own boundaries,
emphasized
Isolation of the United States during the war has
redwood region.
uch travel tor all. Northern Lalito- sue
possibility
new
a
added
has
touring
motor
ease
of
while rapid development in the
Meager profits
its scenic beauty.
save
population to
Tor. ia will now find it to the advantage of the many among its
considered adequate return for
be
longer
no
will
citizens
its
among
lumbermen
few
from redwood lumbering for the
the present desolation

and future poverty

of the

country

.Vex.

Edward

L.

.1//' r

taken a step in the right direcSonoma Count?

Mendi
Luxuriance of growth in a redwood stand ui
operating
Humboldt County has very recently ^ught up tte holdings of on
tion in purchasing the Armstrong Grove
Mount
ir Redwoods
lumbermen along the State Highway; Marin County fortunately has been presented with the ^u
and
Mendocino
fiom
hear
to
has
yet
world
the
but
Francisco:
Tamalpais, bv former Congressman William Kent, of San
local redwoods.
Del Norte counties that their enthusiasm and patriotism have saved valuable sections ot
.

602

SEQUOIA THE AULD LANG SYNE OF TREES

addition

fireproof ancl in
good qualities,

almosl

these

all

parably durable.

which have

It

lain

damp ground

ilic

the

in

tr<

es

have

foresl

ask

to

our

it'

red\*

worthy of preswe quesl ion that

they should be removed from individual and corporation interests which
musl perforce look to an immediate
forests are economically

gain

':

can

'

order

in

on

realize

to

invest-

ments ?
nder the ownership of state
and national governments, experts in
I

ran

forestry

keep

tht

making them

-till

while

its

yield

product of

timber. 2

Hundreds

thousands of acres of
n cut during the
San Francisco is largely
sixty years.
The whole state is a
built of redwood.
land of redwood bungalows, paneled
and beamed with the choicesl grains of
which is good, excepl thai
the w
1.
on an average one half of a tree has
of

redwoods have

wasted

been

the

all

near the

I.

tude of oth<

graph ami
Bureau

.''

.l
T1i;i

fact
lit'

tree

sprouts

among them

things,

electric

the

poles,

lighl

Fo

largely

d\i

ood

tele-

paving

although

from

-t

red-

tractors

lumbering

into

operal

with resulting destruction ami waste.

Such was the condil

of l'.H'.i when

ion

summer

chief of the

'nitetl

in

the early

Jolonel

<

<

Ira

Bureau of
Houston, of

Slate-

and Secretary
Department of Agriculture, visited
umboldl and >el Norte counties and
impressed upon the people the irreForestry,

the

parable loss they were sustaining.

was

the

-till

situation

duly.

in

It

L919,

when

the "Save the Redwoods League"

wa- organized at San Francisco under

the spur of interesl of various public-

men

spirited

see

page 605

The Redwoods League National

in

The Redw

Scope

League has the support of

state governments, and is
national in seope.3
Although it- Council is
made up mainly of influential men from
California, it includes also prominent representatives from the East.
f the first steps of the League \\a<
I-

the national and

<

to

>i

call

the

attention

of

United States

the

Railroad Administration to the injury to the

California State

Highway by

railroad ties along

the cutting of

margin.

At once the
Administration issued an order that no ties
should be purchased from areas which would

within

the

its

proposed

;it

tliis
e

the

ti

lineage.

mp^

when

reservations,

in

stump no
primeval fur

tin'

has been
that.,

oi

;i

la

the survej

redwoods which
M
told by 1

of

the

Rednorthern

the

was made under its auspi

G rant, > member of the
Septi mber is
of \. w York

ticle

an

ar-

which

redwood lands
se

the

ment

of

the

facts

situation

in

of

accompanying

the

state-

tl

m
the

the primei

certain

of

authoritati\ e knov

the

tin-

if

with proper

work and aims

tall

supply

It
(.-tit,

the central
1

remaining northern

the

of

woods, started an army of small con-

ancient

the

trees with
"

undisturbi

rail-

This, coupled with the build-

ies.

new lalifornia
Highway through some of the

lie-t

such

of

vigorouslj

Circh

t"

State

"A Stud;

ai

is

(if

made

authorized the use of redwood for

I,'

this

that

Rail road A.dministra1 ion

every one half used,

for

young trees which grew

mature trees cu1 have
killed.
Especially during the last
thirty years, since improved equipment
came in, redwood lumbering has proceeded with disastrous and the
wood ha- been used nol only for construction ami finishing, for -hi'
ami grape -take-, hut also for a multiand

Siah-

'niteil

ing of the roads of the

Do we need

re-

by the war,

timber broughl aboul

road

good lumber. 3

ervation

Ami now

tank.-.

cently, because of a scarcity of available

and made

to the mill

n carried

said that

is

hundred years

five

ami water

blocks,

incom-

is

it

;h:1

dema

takei

'

! under

left

article.

Mr.

Stephei

of the
Mather,
Mr. (.nuit's

"SAVE THE REDWOODS" MAP

Compiled from the 1916 geological map of the California State Mining Bureau, the 1911 forest

map

tin'

of

Board

California State

and from data regarding

approximate eastern
ceived in December,

the stair

limit

Forestry,

of

highway and

redwoods,
from Mr. M.

of

1919,

re11.

Pratt, State Forester of California.. It is unfortunate that a 1919 forest map has not been is
sued by the California Boafd, because the eight
years since 1911 have seen appalling destruction Hi redwoods, esn.eciatly bordering the sea

redwoods remaining (and they are

of San
coastal counties of California
Sonoma, Mendocino, Humboldt, and Del Norte.
The best trees grow on the bottom lands along the
rivers, and those especially adapted for preserva
tion in national or state parks are the Bull Creek
and Dyerville stands (owned mainly by the Pacific
Lumber Company) in Humboldt County, and in
Del Voile County the Kedwood Creek (owned by
A.
thi
B. Hammond and Sage Lumber Com
panies), Klamath River, and Smith River stand-.
The best of the Mendocino and Sonoma redwoods
have been cut, some very recently; it is hoped that
the various groves left, (specially along the motor
highway, will be set aside by these counties.
Marin County has no redwoods left, except "Muir
Woods," on Mount Tamalpais, near San Francisco.
If we travel northward on the State Highway
from San Rafael, we find the first redwoods just
above
Ukiah the small "Montgomery grove,"
which it is hoped Mendocino County will purchase.
Between Ukiah and Bull Creek there are altogether about 10,000 acres of redwoods, scattered
in groves of a few acres with occasional larger
stands of a few hundred acres, most of them badly
devastated by lumbering and fire lint all worth savAll

the besl

owned by lumber companies) are north

nil

Francisco

in

the

ing for the sake of the attractiveness of the highway.

For instance, there are 5 acres at Phillipsand about 500 acres near Miranda.
Along the South Fork of the Fel River the motor highway runs through some extremely fine redwoods which were rapidly being cut for grape
stakes and railroad ties until the influence of the
Save the Redwoods League" was recently brought
to bear, and which are still threatened along very
many miles of the highway. In fact, between
Garberville and Kureka. lumbering operations
are more or less in full swing, and the nation's
ville

loss

from waste and

fire

in the forests

which

are being cut about equals the loss from

The right
legitimate uses of the timber.
bank of the Eel River below its junction
with the South Fork resembles devastated
France, and the devastation is complete
everywhere on the left bank also except for one fine stand just beyond
Hull Creek, which belongs to the
Pacific

Lumber Company.

There

is

need for immediate

if the last of these most

ancient and heroic trees are to
AVho will dedicate a
be saved.
redwood grove to the health and
happiness of the American peo-

action

ISWJRiA

- %$s.
v

\\

3 i^-\

5 fats h/aht^ay

ple?

(appro*,<7tof<e)

Eastern //nv// of redwood (,

(opprcximaty

The

offer

"- /Ya IVm/- r~hc,/,c ffai/rood

LJ f^Jcrcnan Aa b/e forcsr

Wood land

lumber

companies

every cooperation
ing for such purpose

o/7d brush
III

II

III

Lj /Vonforesfcd
1

in

sell

SEQUOIA THE AULD LANG SYNE OF TREES

within four hundred feel of any state high
This is the federal cooperation we
wav
.

should expect and explains thai the situation

o1 previously understood.

Redwood Forests

Situation of the

A survey of the northern redwoods was

once inaugurated by the

with reference to the selection of

onal park.
area

suitable

The survey (August 5 to August

made by Mr. Stephen Tyng Mather,

was

I"'

direct n

of National Parks, and Mr. Madison (Want.

accompanied by Mr. Charles Punchard, land-

scape engineer of the National Park Service.

way northward from Ukiah

the

to

the

junction of the South Pork of the Eel River

with it- tributary Bull Creek and with the

main

party pa

River, the surveying

Eel

about ten thousand a. -its of redwoods

map). These arc in groves of a few acres

Save

Officers of the

Franklis K

the

>'

Northward beyond these scattered groves

Prominent are the Bull Ireek

greal forests.
and Dyerville flats, culminating the north
ward stretch of the South Pork groves, Bull
al the w< si in the triangle between the
;.

South Pork and

Dyerville

E.

mi

of

of in.-

hi

imb<

CRT

25,

'..low

Frank
lir..

s.
i..

iROi

In.

Portland,

regon

and

Re

of

of

California,

Science and Art.

Stanford

i;

Academj

Woods, California

sr

Mi rri ^m

[iPORD
Professor of Forestry,
M.'i'i

As

of Science

A.h ancement

Merritt

1
l

American

Division,

Pacific

ill..

of California

Universitj

Henry Fairfield Osborn

President, American Museum
Hisfory, New York
via. I.-

of

California

Forest Service, Washington,

I'

of

California

\\'ii.i-.i

President,

MM.

I'll

ii

Natural

Leland

Wl

B.

Hank-. San Francisco,

of

Emeritus,

President

R \Y I.vm

pson
Professor of Dendrology, Universitj

Will

IliK

N.I

l',l

Si

of

Stern

I'.

State Superintendent
ornia

I.

Mmr

..!'

,n-

\i.i-h

University,

Junior

I.KANT
Chairman, New York Zoological
Forester,

President,

en

Grant

VDISO>

Willis

Inl

Eistory,

Henri

the

of

Comptroller, Universitj

alifornia

Trustee of Leland
Trustee of the

i,

tion for

Academy

Daggett
Museum
I

sizes.

all

Director of National Parks

man,

Universitj

tli.-

Los

inclusive of

Department
boul

of the

lalifornia

the triangle

job

President of the Alumni Association,

University of California

111

Bull Creek, the

in

gent,

WlI.I.IAM

the easl

Stephen Tyng Mathek

ILL

'

WlGGINTON

tributary

at

thai one acre ol foresl

must be underst
even (in the mosl crowded bottom lands means only
aboul three dozen redwoods, 20 inches and more
in
knov a as merchantable
i,,
dian* ter
ozen additional trees less than 20
wit.li
In the mixed fori
in diameter.
in the acre may
Is
the number of redw

Past President of the Sierri

its

foresl

it

'

fnterior

Colby

Publisher,

pitiful

William Kent

Former Assistant Secretarj

E.

them

are more nearly solid stands grouped naturally by the drainage of the region into

COUNCIL OP THE LEAG1

William

of

mosl

remnants of the original forests, but all of

vasl importance from the standpoint of the
attractiveness of the highway.

Lane, Secretary
ind Treasurer

Seen

!'.K \;.i.i

of a few

a- follow-:

Redwoods League are

Hi.-

President,

I-

of them badly devas-

<

'

On

larger Man.

al

many

lumbering,

by

tated

at

League, especially

with oecasioi

ach

hundred acres,

605

University of California

Stanford Junior University

\..

Acting Chairman, State Redwood Park Commission of California

immediate purposes of the League are stated a- follow-:

groves bj private subscriptions and bj county bond
To purchase redw
To secure a state bond issue to buj the finest redwood groves along state highways.
To establish through federal aid a National Redwoods Park.
To obtain through state and countj aid the protection of timber along the scenic highways now

ti,..
1.

2,
::.

4.

construction throughout California.

To encourage the state to purchase cut-over redwood areas for reforestation
replanting where repeated fires have made sprout reproduction impossible.

cour
-,

The

in

fee for

annual membership

It
support the plans proposed.
ng their interest
uals del

to
js

gt jj]

is

chairman

ecntive

<

Membership is an expression of desire

League is two dollars
hoped that through the cooperation of all organizations and individit
to this project the purposes of the movement maj be realized while
Professor John C. Merriam
.,,t
groves which now invite protection.

in the
is

!omm

bj

natural means, or bj

'

>

m ad

l-gg-a
a > -a 2 g

~ t

= ~

-.

Bog*
o s 5 g

q,

a S '-S

'-

<s

E -- -2 = =

_
-

-::.
-=

S -="

i -

- r

S OQ -9

IS

3^

B,s

Js-

~~

*"

i ~. -

~-

a,

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_ - -3

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- ~
S TV 3
""

--U

*i

s>

"S a

S.S

| J2 S g E Jj
m3 =

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>

5 - P
,a

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oi
-"

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8
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g

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_?o g

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~ ~
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s*

-Q "~- -

- s
00
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3..S&&

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3
/.
.

-^

o
c
=
~-

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-*

~=

si

h g
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:_

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-

of

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go

'Z

5-

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UJ

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CE
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fl

NATURAL HISTORY

i;ds

made by
tlic

the junction of the South

Then

Eel.

niiiin

order

in

Fork and
northward

along the coast, the Redwood Creek forest,

tlic Klamath River groves, and, just south of

Oregon boundary, the Smith River groves

(see map).
The report of the committee makes it evident that all these forests, or a major part
the

made

of each, should ultimately be

reserves.

picturesque with old, weirdly shaped

for park purposes.

The Survey would

park

purposes

direct the first purchase

either

the

to

Eedwood

Creek Forest, or to the more southerly Bull

'reek and Dyerville stands, connecting with
<

Fork of th a Eel

the groves along the South

River,

Bull

20,000

Creek

to

25,000

described

is

stand of about

propriation.

f>.

State taxal ion

lounty taxation
Local taxat inn
Public subscription
Donations of money
Donations of forest

7.

redwood a rea
Exchange where possible of state or fed-

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

10,000

acres
as

acres,

largest part to the Pacific

altogether.

magnificent

belonging in

Lumber Company,

and the Dyerville forest has about an equal

acreage.
The Dyerville stand is sharply
bounded on the lower right bank of the Eel
River by land as devastated as the battle
fields of France, an urgent demand upon
the observer to save what remains from a
similar desolation. On the lower left bank of

lands

within

the

eral forests for private forests, within

the desired area

Action of the state of California

is

cer-

tain to rescue one or more of the large tracts.

That of Dyerville

Flat, for instance,

threatened

cially

is

espe-

present by the opera-

at

tions of the Pacific

Lumber Company.

It cannot be said that the state of Califor-

nia has been wholly indifferent to its red-

wood

Choice for Immediate Reservation

outside of dired federal ap-

be raised

tree-.

and have good camping sites and good fishThe Redwood Creek stand is similarly
ing.
picturesque and is especially tropical and
fantastic in its luxuriant growths of moss
and ferns. In both of these areas the trees
are larger and older than elsewhere, less
adapted for good timber, and more suitable

for

may

national

parks or forThe Smith River tracts are

national reservations
esl

state or

money

suggestions as to ways by which the

forests heretofore.

More than twenty

years ago .$250,000 was appropriated to buy

redwood land near Santa Cruz which remains

today

On

a state park.

must

the other hand, the

blamed for the unfortunate

work of its Highway Commission in failing
to get a right of way wide enough to protect
state

lie

the scenic- effects along the roadway.

future the need

for

In the

the cooperation

landscape engineer will be understood;

that the right of

of

also,

way should never average

than three hundred yards. The Commission even went so far in certain areas as to
buy only- a one-hmid red-yard strip of land
less

with

proviso that

tin

tin

owners removi

thi

timber!

Anyone who has

lived even briefly in Cali-

fornia can understand the loyalty of Cali-

fornians to their homeland

apart

from the

one of the best stands

influence of the great friendliness of its peo-

examined, about 20,000 acres, belonging also

to the Pacific Lumber Company and with

prominent commercial position.

well ask if there is any sunshine like that which falls on California's
valley meadows, and over her warm foothill
slopes, and through the mist-draped redwoods against the sky. These things have

the Eel, however,

the

is

new State Highway traversing

though

it

also

is

tated territory.

it,

al-

bounded beyond by devasIf the great expense of this

20,000-acre tract precludes

its

purchase in

the reservation of Bull Creek, Dyerville, and

the

South Fork

mends

its

areas,

the

Survey recom-

addition to these forests at the

earliest date possible.

The Money

for Purchase

That all these redwood lands are under

the ownership of lumber companies means
that saving them from the ax will be done
only so fast as money can lie found for their
purchase. The survey committee gives seven

ple

and

its

Surely they

may

profound influence even if we are not conit.

The public sentiment of the
whole state has now been aroused to the
danger threatening its northern forests, and
Governor Stephens, the Legislature, and the
scious of

people

may be

trusted for the result.

Humboldt County Purchases 800 Acres

along the State Highway
As
the

to

county action there

formation

of

the

is

already, since

Redwoods League.

SEQUOIA THE AULD LANG SYNE OF TREES

a definite story to

be told,

lr

story of

is

County,

liul.lt

erosity
well

persona]

of

spirit

cooperation

reservations,

gen

two members of the League

"t'

as

with

coupled

of redwoods from the own,.,-

Eum

activity on the part of the citizens of

which

paramount importance was ac

complished in early September when there
was stopped all work of lumbermen directlj
bordering the highway under construction
along the South ForkoftheEel River.J An.
now the deeds for the holdings are in the
hands of the county. This gives immediate

ow

ne,

which can

as
in-

in

especially,

purchased,

,,!

i.

the proposed

of

gifts

red-

other areas,

in

exchanged for sections

l..-

proposed

cluded members of the state Eighway Commission and all tl

perating lumbermen. A

matter

but,

609

the

in

reser\ ations.

Let All the Nation

Contribute

<

of

protection, for

pari of the distance, to the

narrow strip of the foresl whirl, contributes

so much toward the beauty of the roadway
an. also tn it- popularity through protection
from sun an. blowing In-t
County action has thus proved itself, and
county and local money are certain t.. accomplish much, but cannot be expected
purchase the -teat tracts. The area occupied

Public

ami

subscription

money over

whole

the

donations

United

of

States

are

g 'If most hopeful methods for saving

redwoods, ami the quickest.
But every
mean- must be taken to spread a knowledge
"

:l

the

of the situation or it will not be possible to

catch the thought and heart of the people in
the complex condition of national ami inter

national affairs

to. lay.

All the people of the nation are

concerned

by

the

redwoods
communities of

includes

-mall

relatively

Sonoma County

ha.

previously purchased

one small grove of redw

Grove; ;iii.
it
is
hoped

Armstrong
Mendocino
Montgomery Grove.

County

will

This

situated just

the

l.ti\

the

Is,

that

beyond Ukiah, .mi the

Highway, and if saved
together with the town, form the motor
entrance

tourist

the

to

northern

redwood

region.

lumbermen among those owning

Certain
the lan.

haw

already made gifts to the state

ami others are certain

ely fair that thej

to

more generous than

be

.1,.

should
the

but

so,

it

\\.

forests

;in.

'

for

their

the-,,

rest

that

the

are.-, preserved will be measured in unitmore valuable than gold or silver in health,
in joy ami pleasure from the recreational
opportunities afforded, ami in pride that we

have saved these tree- from the ax and the

circular -aw ami that they belong to us and
to

Tl,.-

the

ting

many

held

;,t

printed

Eureka,

reports

September

6.

lumbermen who were operating nlorn:

Highway, cutting gTape stakes and shingles,

tl

proved himself interested in the

tie- public welfare bj pr
tl..Muir Woods on Mount

trees to

nation

direct

federal

recognition

process will prove

-low one

reconstruction period.
ally

designated

appropriation, notof the need the

Uncle

national

in

the present

Sam

parks

ha- usu-

.ami

of some part

main
a

redw

forest

the public do

conservation, unfortunately,

case for purchase.

I'.

..f

Lea, of

<

Congressman

lalifornia,

Clar-

ha- presented

to

for

calting

House of Representatives
an investigation of the problem
the

with reference to the establishment of

na

redwoods park.

tiouai

The following
from

relative to federal action

recenl

letter

from

is

Colonel

oi

small

previously

to

quoted

the

A-

withstanding

al

were brought together, and they agreed to suspend

cutting for tl... sum of $60,000 and ' give two
options on their property.
The county gave
rd tl
amount, Mr. Mather, .-in.
Mr. William Kent, $15,
Mr k'.Tit had
of

our children forever."

cooperate

manner advantageous to the Government

in any transfer of owner-hip.
What the
Redw
iLeague hopes for i- not only gifts
'There have been

in

resolution
to

upon with
A-

in the report on the League's

connection with the large expend:
ture necessary, "the resultant benefits from

ence

in a

notable

recrea

foi

brought out

It

they have

trilling

fitted

sense of ownership by every American.

survey,

men. who know the

value,

ready shown themselves

especially

purposes that they should become pos-

ional

reserves out

of us.

-o

sessions of all the people, looked

i-

-peak-

redw

tin-

is

spected to

ami

forests

west side of the State

will,

So unique are

It
pie.
cannol
\
pected that the local population should .-any
the heaviest burdens of taxation.

i-

the matter.

in

rel

ntii

Graves, chief of the

of

United states Bureau

Forestry:
"I

regard the movement a- of very great

importance ami one which should !" backed

up by tl
ntire nation.
In many way- the
I- represent the mosl remarkable for
redw
e-t- in the world.
large a- the giant

growing

a-

they

They may

not be quite as
but,

trees of the Sierras

.|<>

in

dense

continu

-'^n

A
Redwood groves
610

MAY DAY

IN

THE SIERRAS AT

in the low altitudes of the Coast

Range

5500 FEET ELEVATION

are never

made

inaccessible by heavy

snows

Photograph by George

THE DRIVEWAY PASSES THROUGH THE

Big

trees of

BIG

J.

Reichel

TREE "WAWONA"

Mariposa Grove. "Wawona" probably 3000 or 4000 years

old.

heiglit

227

feet.

fill

NATURAL HISTORY

612
stands, there

impressiveness which to

is

me

makes them unique among' all the forests

that I have ever seen.
"This splendid undertaking is going to be
possible only through combined action of the
Government, the state, and the public at

As

to the contribution of the Federal

Government, it is very likely to be delayed

Luge.

and to come as aid to a project in which the

state and the citizens of the nation are already liberally contributing."

What

will

appeal to the country as

the thing to do in the necessity of the

case

that we, each and

is

shall pur-

all.

chase these forests as fast as

we

can,

our own, with money subscribed in

for

small or large amounts; then, that

we

them to Uncle Sam so

they may remain forever under
present

shall
that

This will be a definite

his protection.

recognition of the unitedness of gov-

ernment and people in America, and of

the interest and generosity Uncle Sam
has always accorded the people in the
matter of the country's natural resources.

am

including in this article only

photographs of the northern redwoods

unmolested by lumbering (with the
one exception, page 599). The frightIt is not
ful destruction continues. 1

wondered

to he

at that

the northern coast area

ing

who

see it go-

prosperity, their very existence

commercially, depends on the maintenance of these forests, have awakened
their

the point

is,

the country

is

now

awakened, after the many hundreds of

thousands of acres are gone, and it is
still

not too late to save the tens of

thousands of acres
besides, a

Save the

left.

There

is

definite organization

Redwoods League

to

in

now.
the

repre-

sent the people of the country ami to

1

See

articie,

1919.

many

full

is
lost, as on what
There are parts of the
northwestern highways where for miles
the road is narrowed and blocked with
piled grape stakes and shingles, and on
either hand the ground is covered with
a jumble of treetops, branches, slabs,
and bark, which should have gone to
the manufacture of some by-product.
But also there are stretches where the
roadway leads from open sunshine ami
distant views of green, wooded mountain slopes into the giant forest and on
through colonnades of trees where the
air is cool and fragrant and long beams
of sunlight slant down through the
green of redwood foliage.
Nor would 1 direct the gaze to the
miles of desolate country where everything has been leveled and only charred
stumps of giant trees mark the site of
the forests destroyed.
Instead I would

bring to the imagination the acres of

forests still uncut and the potential joy
for

in

Mr. Grant's

Bulletin,

September,

page illustrations

Zoological

Society

Americans of today and tomorrow

in their possession.

The war

has

made

the surface of the

seem smaller and all the lands

nearer and the peoples nearer.
If
France and England and Belgium and
Italy seem not far away from America
earth

today,
id'

to the Waste.

much on what

so

can he saved.

the people of

on about them and realize that

But

handle
ey or gifts id' land to the
best advantage.
would put emphasis, therefore, not
1

how wvy

close to

the United States

is

all

other parts

California!

To

go to the western coast, to tour through

these northern forests is no longer the
It
impossible dream for the many.
will he realized by tens of thousands of
people in 1920.

The redwoods

are not only the "glory

Range" and the pride of

Californians, they are the pride and
Good
satisfaction of all Americans.
luck will surely attend us if we save

of the Coast

our Sequoia woodlands.

CATHEDRAL AISLES
Somehow

IN

ma

<

-.

I.

in

in

Humboldt

HUMBOLDT COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

sunshine penetrates the roof of green far above and illumines the aisles between the giant pillars, imparting a
architectural grandeur.
Redwood forests are the planet's vast cathedrals for the spirit of worship of its peop
American monej ili dedicate these forest cathedrals to ill" American
pie
i

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The Dawn
By

(iEOR G

L A

of
N

Art

GFORD

age remote when beasthood was in flower,

A race of broad-cheeked, big-boned stalwarl men

IN

Vanguard of fir-t full-fledged humanity

Moved westward from the da^rk mysterious

And

settled near the

Easl

bounds of southern France,

Beneath the shadow of the Pyrenees

Where caves and rock-walls served them to defy
'lull -innii-u rath of the glaciers sweeping down
From Scandinavia and the Baltic Sen.
(

Bold spirits, these true pioneers

Warkiors

"l'

"l'

France,

!ro-Magnon.
ii

Troglodytes
'I'd

whom

cave

men

of the old Stone

the use of metals was

age

unknown,

With flint-tipped darl ami bafted palaeolith

They foughl the mammoth ami rhinoceros

Ami matched their strength with Lion, wolf, and

Naught Imt the skins of beasts and gloomy dens

bear.

Shielded their nakedness, while kindled lireDivine bequest, the Staff of Unman Life
Guarded their thresholds from fierce prowling brutes
Ami furnished mean- to thwari the glaciers' chill
Longrheaded, high-browed, of five senses keen.
With human att ributes deeply ingrained,
Mini ers of !ro-Magnon.

<

in

A i.i. praise for those t whom meet praise i> due.

Whose heritage inborn full well compares
With the Athenian Greek true ken of art.
low -mail their means and crude! Gravers of Hint
I

For etching work, and pigments black or ml

Laid over incised line- or bas-relief
Carved on the walls and ceilings of their caves.
The forms of beasts no1 those of men they drevi
None knew jn.-t why. Some mystic awe inspired
These ancients t> portray their mural work
Not at the cavern's mouth hut far within
The dark cramped depths befouled with slime and ooze,
Where none hut hat- and owls dared penetrate;
Where kneeling, crouching, lying prone to earth
Beneath low roofs, betwixl converging sides,
With fat-fed lamps of stone i" lighl the way,
Laboriously they scribed each masterpiece
With flint-point mi the mold-stained lime-tune walls
;

Artists of

!ro-

Magnon.

621

Creating a National Art

HERBERT

By

SPINDEN

J.

Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology, American

Nationality develops

tin-

essentially intellectual

Museum

bond of common thought.

Becaust

of this common thought there is before the peoplt of America tin possibility of evolving on art which will represent <i new compter of life, bused on a philosophy of logiThe
cal mill mechanical efficiency, political equality, ami personal service to society.
art to come which fittingly embodies these things will be our national art.
This art must In useful in itself and not a senseless load upon tin utilities of the aye.
If must lie beauty in cotton as much as in sill", in
nor an empty gratification of vanity.
Romance and heartfelt Ceremony in our
gold.
It
be
joyous
as
will
much
in
copperas
homes and in on r streets, in our work and in our play, for the scan days of tin week.

TRUE

nationality has always ex-

pressed itself in art: we judge

the nations of the past hy the

and beauty which they

objects of use

Likewise by our peculiar art

shall the nations of the future judge
us.
But have we been able, up to the
present time, to stamp a clear imprint

created.

of our collective individuality

tionality

upon

make and

the

things

the thoughts that

or

na-

that

we

we think?

if so, are we content to let the

record of our achievement stand for

And.

time on
ornament that

the qualities of

all

lives

now

enter

form and
our

into

Most persons, thinking of art only as

fine art and knowing the works of European nations where collective individuality

is

seen in literature, music,

costumes, architecture, and many other

things, will humbly admit that we have

America a mass of
works that fittingly embodies our naBut art is
tional hopes and ideals.
more than fine art and therein lies the
We have alpromise of our future.
ready laid the ground for coming excellence in ways which few consider.

failed to produce in

The Length and Breadth

of Art

man's

Art, in its widest meaning, is

expression or embodiment of his ideas
of use

and beauty in

and materials.

different

If the emphasis

modes
is

laid

on

use, the

art

product is called utilitarian

on beauty, it is called esthetic
But never are use and beauty enart.
tirely dissociated, for the utmost development of usefulness depends upon
orderly construction, and the finest
if

expression of beauty

is

necessarily or-

There are law and order in

ganic.

common

speech as well as in poetry:

there are qualities of

form which please

me-

the eye Avhile they administer to

chanical excellence, in the canoes, cooking

and automobiles of everyday

[tots,

life as

there are, for instance, in marble

statues of all hut forgotten gods that

we now regard as purely esthetic.

>t course these marble statues of ancient gods originally played an important and useful role in the life of
the people to whom they are accredited,
although to us they are merely beautiful.
It was an intensely practical thing
(

for the Greeks to bribe and flatter a

god into bestowing his divine favor
upon an individual or a city by pledg-

ing a statue in his honor, as they believed such means effective. And when
to this idea of ensuing benefits were

added religious awe, pride of place,

and good craftsmanship abetted by
competition

marble

of

fellow

monument

workers,

found

the

quality

greater by far than the quality of the

man who

carved

individual

it

is

it.
Such art is not
communal. The at-

NATURAL HIST0R1
may have
human body

tention of the Greek sculptor

In

been directed inward the

made

an

as

almost

exclusive

portrayal

skillful

any

aecessarily

subjecl

because

nol

more

for

this

is

beautiful

than

the bodies of other animals, or

plant

growths,

shapes

or

facts doubl less contrib-

>ther cultural
to

the

in

standing the
uted

this

specializal ion

florescence of

the greal

If

culture had come

kreek

<

the re-

but

was foremost.

ligious idea

sea,

communal undergods had human forms.

because

but

and

Land

of

thousand years earlier, perhaps Eera

would have been represented as a cow,
like Bathor of the Egyptians, instead
a

of

as

stately

conditions

<

rreek

woman.
Under such
an would have had a

md

different

necessarj

without

interest

decrease

quali-

esthetic

in

In a word, ever} greal expression

ties.

of arl

has

cepts,

religious

artist

is

its

roots in c

his

at

tuna! con-

or otherwise,

and the

when he

besl

forgets

himself and speaks for his people and

his times. The frieze of Phidias wasobscure architectural decoration wrought
with sincerity in a place
here the gods
could see better than the critics.
In
\\

nations from least

the history of dead

there was oever arl

to greatest

sake, hut

always

for art's

for life's sake.

art

addition

The

'

<

'reative

shows

<

'ivilizations

comparatively

ci\ ilizations thai

gave

rise

few
to high

and original forms of arl hut it shows

many lesser and derived cultures which
were able to develop a considerable degree of individuality.

Even anion-- the

to

strewn

bols

over

Near East by the great religious tides

of
Buddhism and Mohammedanism.

Then

there are the

Holds

ized

across

of

For instance, there

realism

of

Palaeolithic

France

and

counterpart

anion--

pe civilization-.

1.
-'

Assyrian

of

from various archaeological provinces in

America.

Lastly, there are the \arious

"culture

areas"

of

the

ethnologists

anion- our present day Indians. South

-lander-, and African Negroes.
Sea
The term national art may. perhaps,
I

be used

connection with those great

in

creative civilizations but

mitted

that

linguistic

must be ad-

it

hound-,

which

many

persons hold to be the hounds of

a nation, are exceeded in nearly every
instance by cultural bounds.
Community

of

thought

within

easil}

established

is

single

across several

languages, yet there are

a

ture

several

covers

more

language than

numerous instances where

the

A g

field

of

example

is

single cullan-

that of the

Pueblo Indian- of the Southwest, the

descendants of the ancient cliff dwellers, who speak four distinct languages
yet have practically identical religious
form-, and social organizanaturally think of imperialmilitary conquest in relation

beliefs, art

tions.

We

ism and

the spread of culture,

|

but

some of

pies have been sin-

gularly

devoid of the military spirit.

Religious conversions account for the
id

in

of significant

some

instances

and symboli<
and in other

in-

stances there simply has been expansion

from the area of high culture into ad-

Chim
Mayan

joining area-

Greek

6.

Peruvian

enon kiM.u

Christian

Bushmen

There are the

Neolithic,
Bronze, and Iron age cultures of Europe and the rich remains of pottery

5.

7.

modern

its

the

the
the

Africa.

Egyptian

I.

is

ancient

in

art

and

Spain,

the most artistic

\\

spread

down

centuries.

merous features taken from earlier or

The

special-

art

the continents and

all

i"

upon the products of which must be

based any statement of what a national
art can and should be, are as follow-:

numerous

decorative

great creative en ilizations there are nu-

outside sources.

mention may be
symthe
Far and the

these,

of the welter of signs and

guages.

Bistory

6;

cull n rat ion.

,,1'

to

low culture,

phenom-

anthropologists as ac-

XATUHAL

624

Of

already

civilizations

Mayan

primary

arc

features

in

Mich as the invention of writing , and

the development of elaborate religious
-

and

social

systems strongly reflected in

and

textiles,

ceramics,

But,

before

long

architecture.

foundation

the

independently achieved
the Old

of

must have come the

these civilizations,

inventions of agriculture which

the

in

were

New and

World and which made

possi-

increase in population and

stimulated the growth of religious and

ble a great

social orders.

The Greek

in the classic

higher level

had as

its

It started

field.

of

from

achievement.

positive

characterized by a cold,
chaste realism which speaks to all peoples, but it is singularly weak in orna-

Greek art

is

ment and

is practically devoid of the

formal creations arising usually from
a belief in beast gods, that are so im-

portant

in

the

arts

of

Asia and the

World.

After the militant era of

Rome

art of Greece passed into eclipse

the

and

was succeeded by the warm art of the

Christians, which on the ornamental
side i\ri'\v many of its forms from the
Bronze age and Iron age products of
The Renaissance
northern Europe.
was a rebirth of classic form but not
of classic spirit, although in the minds
of many persons the most satisfying
productions of the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries

are

really

the

full-

blown flowers of Christian symbolism.

The

political

units of

modern Eu-

rope have distinguishable products but

none of them has a really great national art.

of National

Art

means more than an

National art

objective "complex'" of design motives,

or

mass of monumental sculptures

formally related

to

of painting with

nique.

It

tinuous

history, or schools

distinguishable tech-

means permanent and conof the ideals and

expression

emotions that

members
Without this

characterize

and

unite

of a large social group.

the

and intellectual
nothing more than an
assemblage of shapes and sounds which
react harmoniously on sensory organs
content, art

spiritual

is

that are practically the same for

efflorescence

base the developed art, religion, and

philosophy of the earlier civilizations

New

The Substance

the Assyrian, Egyptian, Chinese,

listed

and

type

the

IIISTOIIY

The mere

variation in lan-

all

humanity.

Many

artistic shapes of universal oc-

currence have come about for no other

reason than that they express absolute

and mass, just as varimusic express absolute

Among such
harmony in sounds.
shapes may be mentioned the fret, spiGeometric art can
ral, and swastika.
be understood universally for the simple reason that it has no meaning but,
esthetics in line

ous

scales

in

instead, a sensuous appeal.

Of course

can be given a meaning: sometimes

one bears it said that the swastika is a
it

sign of good luck and that the fret

meander represents the endless wandering of the soul after death. Those universal shapes came into being in differ-

ent parts of the world, as has been said,

because they embody a simple and fun-

damentally

artistic relation of lines just

as the pentatonic scale embodies a fun-

damentally artistic relation of sounds.

In one region these shapes may have
been given the arbitrary meanings
stated above, but such meanings are
not inherent

in

the shapes.

Realistic art can be understood universally because

it

is

frankly objective.

guages creates a feeling of greater difference than actually exists. After all,
language affects only a part of the art

Of course South American Indians

might not understand a drawing of an
elephant or a walrus, and an Eskimo

products of a country, and, at that,

all European languages belong

palm

to one "Teat fa mil

nized

nearly

v.

would probably turn the picture of a

tree upside down before he recogit

as

the feather duster of the

BEATING

The

missionary.
the world,

li.it

NATIONAL ART

graphic art in

firs!

of Palaeolithic

man. was

and ratlin' finely so. Bui realan max have significance quite

realisi ic
istic

thf

Ih'VcihI

ilijt-c-t i\

the fleur-de-lis

Daore than

is

Conventionalized
called, or

To K ranee

t'at-l.

as

art,

often

i-

formalized figures that have

and elements of
geometric order, are more intellectual
than either realisl ic or geometric art.
They are not found among the lowest
elements of

realism

of fairly
nificance

ivli<ri<>iis

><1

i*

ive conl ribul

t'-.

The] constitute a posiion to the mass of human

creations.

The

esthetic quality of art will take

if

only there

is

proper

time for selection

field and sufficienl
The
and the survival of the fittest.
eye and the ear are mechanical organs
that naturally selecl shapes and sounds
with certain physical characters. More-

many kinds

over,

pecially

of construction, es-

textile

in

quality of order

compel

art,

Besides

decoration.

in

fine

animal and plant forms and even

sea have esthetic
qualities winch are the direct result of
this,

shapes of land and

mechanical forces that operate

within or upon them, with the result

the

that

finely realistic art

reflects

organic

nature
Bui before we can have a really national an we mus1 express or embody
a mass of national ideas and emol ions
beauty

ground

mocracy
is

of

that

Politically,

exists

We

have

in

the de-

America today

type and quality that has never

elsewhere

existed
"hi

life.

npon and blocks

to build

the building.

for

and

of

mechanical

political

efficiency,

personal gratificat ion at-

Thf

art

come

to

things

these

even though

ingly embodies

litt

national

be tun-

art

spreads beyond our po-

it

ami proselytes thf world.

limit-

litical

hat

will

Out of Efficiency Comes Beauty

of efficiency comes beauty, that

>ut

<

finement

of

vival

the

struggle

for

Sur-

among

Life

made possible by
many fune-

is

proper correlation of

organism which

ions in the body of an

in

is,

forms.

natural

all

plants and animals

art but

greater art seen in the re-

also of that

in

human

only of

the law not

i-

effect, a

complicated, self-operat-

When

ing machine.

the

mechanism

An

perfect, the lines are good.

resides

interesl

shapes modeled

in

is

esthetic
I'm-

Use.

The proof
esthel ics

tion

is

it

of the

ihanistic basis of

manifold.

this

connec-

interesl ing to read a

passage

is

In

from the ancient writings of Plato in

which Socrates instructs Protarchus
concerning the place of knowledge in
the handcraft arts.
After saying that
little

he

will

left

arithmetic,

if

suration, and weighing he taken

from any of these

menaway

art-, he conl inues

in

things of everydaj

in

solid

new complex

philosophy of logical

equality, ami

the

care of itself

before us the possibility

mi

hascd

life,

those

relative, or cull u ml. rather

is

than absolute.
t

among

who have
ami so on,
developed types, and their sig-

peoples but only

ceremonies.

is

writing into art a

of

tainable mily through service to society.

flower.

it

words there

625

religion

of

in

the

rewards

The

world.

and

punish-

new

religion

Socrates. The rest will be only conjecand 'lie better use of the senses, which
is given by experience an.
exercise, in addition to a certain power of guessing, which is
commonly called art an. is brought to perfect ion by pains an.
practice.
Peotarchus. That is very certain.
Soceates. Music, for instance, i- full of
ture,

this

sort

el'

thing

monizing of sounds,

a-

is

seen

in

the

har-

not

by rule, but by conjecture; an. this is always the rase of flute

music, which tries to discover the pitch of
notes by a guess, an. therefore has a greal
.leal that is uncertain an.
very little of pure
I

ments

i-

gn

ing place to

of

social

service.

Mechanically,

we

si

ience.

have wonderful new appliances to save

labor and turn the energy of the hand
into

energy

of

the

mind.

In

other

After

two

statements

thousand

come

pretty

years
close

to

the

XATIL'AL HISTORY

626
truth.

But by "the better use of the

senses" draftsmen discovered the facts

of perspective drawing centuries before

demonstration and proof of vanishing

made by an
English mathematician. Similarly the
harmonies of sound were written down
in scale music long before Helmboltz
points and horizons were

and others elaborated the

carry

vibrations

harmony

sound,

facts

that

and

that

Pound that the canoe men have also

been introducing changes in shape for
sea-going canoes as contrasted with
those for river navigation.
Usually
there is a new factor of mechanical advantage entering into the question.
Differentiation in plants and animals
is usually along lines of new mechanical
advantage.

But

specialization, while

it

strength-

weakens in the

due to mathematical correspondences between the numbers of

general

vibrations in a given period of time.

lithic

Some

came to have pretty definite shape and

which he used to chop, cut, and drill

is

day,

science,

after

gaining

proper understanding of the human eye

as a super-delicate keyboard of rods and

ens in a special

to

demonstrate exact rules of visual

In the long history of human
art these rules are illustrated by the
independent invention of the same
slut pes and color combinations in dif-

cess.

esthetics.

ficult to

ferent parts of the world.

into a

may

be drawn be-

tween the life history of the art of a

social group of human beings and the
life history of plant and animal famiBoth are organic and have a long
lies.
period of development and a shorter
In the case of
period of florescence.
human art the cycle is completed in a
few centuries while in plant and animal
life

it

may

take

epochs.

geological

Palaeo-

at first a stone tool that

Later special shapes were de-

with.

veloped

close parallel

Thus

of activity.

field

man had

cones for the testing and selecting of

shapes, tones, and colors, will be aide

field,

for these special uses but

general efficiency was lost in the pro-

In other words it was more difchop or cut with the drill form
than it was with the original undifferentiated tool of all work.
In any case esthetic qualities come

form which is developed by and

There is a point of fine balance

for use.

and after that the quality of esthetics in an object becomes a growing

danger.
Biologists recognize as "end

many

products"

highly

and animals

plants

specialized

which have

de-

veloped esthetic characters along with

their adaptations to

Such

esthetic

narrow conditions.

characters

are

irides-

cence and similar bright color effects,

Conservative and radical forces operate

spines,

throughout nature as they do in human art. If we take a given form embodying use, which may be a tool, a
magical design, a plant, or an animal
species, we find it modified, first by a
continual refinement leading to a type
form that meets the general conditions
and requirements of life, second by a
continual selection of special forms

cences, and extreme convolution or at-

thai meet special conditions.

for example,

is

refined until

A
it

canoe,

reaches

shape that moves most readily

through the water. Such a shape cannot avoid having an esthetic interest
because it is orderly.
But while such
refinement leads to a type form, it is
a

and

other

fantastic

tenuation of the body.

the orchid family shows

excres-

Among plants
many example

of extreme specialization in life asso-

and colors,
and among animals, the many-chambered nautilus is analogous. These are
ciated with strange shapes

about to die. as the sea lilies, trilobites,

ammonites, brachiopods, and giant lizards have already died through overspecialization, leaving only a few of
the

more sturdy members

to represent

the family.

The
esthetic

life

story of

side

is

human

from

art

strong

on the
simple

forms associated with use to compli-

ORE ITING
cated and

Then comes
Greek

ant

forms

flamboyanl

usefulness

the

same tendencies
products of

datura]

NATIONAL ART
when only one
thing

showing the
parallel the end

tion

Out of

and

beauty,

out

of

epoch

.1

of a

rt

Mechanical Age

has never fallen to the

It

nation

new

give

to

ideas in

machines, and

processes,

constructions

we

as

Smtcs have given

our history,

United

the

of

[nvention has

i-

The

an

things unthought of before, or of doing

chisel

things

from

release

The

new

in

ways,

essentially

is

phenomenon coming

-"rial

citizens

out of the

traditional

restraints.

United

the

of

States

of

passing into
lose

and take on a

have

lino art

you

ho scrutinizing care of lino

But there

their product.

machines and each

the best

could de\

it

i-o.

sculptors of today model in imper-

manent

old

while

necessarily

to

rue that

workmen over

making

the

production,

must have

children on Boston

that

previous

smell of machinery.

lommon breathed in freedom from the

very air.
Our faculty of doing new
(

apprecia-

ins idious dis-

objects of art,

that

age has used

beei]

anion-- n> ever since the English officer

observed

An

not.

is

have always been

the brief spa]

in

in

of

has been fostered in the public

inet ion

many

so

kink
art

fineness and spirituality

of any

lot

the world

to

as

these people fine art

to

i-

quantity

The

must be rare and

A- a rebeautiful.

industrial

that of today

mind

beauty comes death.

well

the

For them,

necessary.

is

of this curious

sult

history.

621

ho artistic

t<

as

costlj

art,

art, all

that

mint's

flamboy-

i-

Gothic

flamboyanl

flamboyanl Mayan

efficiency

There

the end.

art,

which

in

suppressed.

Largely

is

and then turn the

permanent copy over to

materials
of the

artisan

operating
to

or

power-driven
founder who

bronze

know- the technique of east ing metals.

There are class distinctions among
artists which have come down from ho
days when prince- were patrons and
I

America have shown a collective quality

mind a- regards mechanics, which
doo not owe its origin to any part icUlar

which hardly belong

in

put on a higher

line of blood or training.

merits of hi- work)

of

That some-

thing "from tin- ver} air"' infected

John Ericsson no less than Robert Fulton,

and

ir

continues

to

infect

the

heteroge
us sons of a hundred Old
World nation- u ho come to our shores

new homes
new philosophy.

to build
a

Tin'
lives

de< orat ion

of people

must
chinery

in

hut

goes

the

mechanical age
produced by ma-

this

iven spiritual

ni'

it

into

and intellectual content.

We may
wink ai il
er and take our designs
where we will, hut wo must lill these
designs

with

imes.

There

the
i-

and those who

learn their trade

or

of

spirit

work
regret
at

our

for great

the

an

they could
feet

own
ists,

not

of Phidias

ichelangelo need not apply.

There
A merica

are
w

still

ho judge

many
art

hv

persons

three tests

is

(quite

democracy.

from

aside

the

than a maker of
costumes who may administer to the
same personality for a comparable
reward.
a-

>ne kind of

<

regards

the

an

higher

i-

condemned

values

of

ap-

preciation by being called commercial

am! the
real

o1

1'h''

her vaunted as
distinction

A-

one.

i>

noncommerno longer

the relations between

to

emotional expression and money, everyone has heard divergent sentiments

"No real work of

following
was <\<'v made for money." "Poor
man. hi- finest efforts were potboilers/'
There is a great deal of false sentiment concerning artists.
They are
nothing more than specialized workers,
like the

art

like |,h\

-i.

Man-, lawyers, and scient

and they earn

cent

in

plane

artistic

cial.

that

largely

be

the sunlight of

in

painter

port rait

precarious or

livelihood h\

ual ability.

st -.

mag

display of individ-

But there

i-

also splendid

romance amid the whir of wheel-, or

NATURAL HISTORY

628

where the cantilevers reach out to join

kukIs across the river. There are men
in all walks of life who have faith to
follow airy voices and logic to prove
he impossible easily possible.
There
are master workmen in mills and factories who, while they recognize the
master workmanship of a distant past,
see in it only a spur toward greater
achievements in the future.

normal

that only

ment deserves

be "Beauty

and organic orna-

praise.

Pet the slogan

as beauty doe-."

is

Symbols

<uu/ Loyalties

Has
in

decorative art a practical value

commercial products?

minds

In the naive

of savages designs are often re-

garded as magical devices to bring

good and ward off evil, and as continuous prayers to the gods. I like to
think that decorative art is still magical and able to till dark places with

But the business man often

sunshine.

wants practical value counted out on

the table.
Successful decoration adds
distinction to any product.
American
textile bouses during the last four
years have learned how to add good
decoration to good construction. As a
result American silks have sold in
Paris, and selling silks in Paris is like
sidling coal in Newcastle.
With such a
guarantee of artistic quality, should we
not sell to the most discriminating
buyers both at home and abroad ? Artistic quality in the goods of commerce

means

mind and

higher proportional value of

a lesser value of material in

the manufactured article.

raw materials have

in the case of silks,

to be

Where

the

imported as

hue pottery, and

behooves the manufacturer

to enlarge the proportional value of

the like,

it

workmanship in the completed product.

Art education in America has until
recently

than

in

been

in

production.

appreciation

The most

rather
success-

ful artists in textiles and costumes

have come out of commercial workshops rather than art schools. But the

schools are better capable of inculcat-

ing a sound and fundamental philosophy of art than are the workshops.
The youth of America should be taught
that onlv the good is beautiful and

man

Because
cannot

i-

herding animal be

community

avoid

There are the

family,

the

upon

loyalties.
tribe,

the

larger and

larger idea of cooperation.

There are

nation, each

based

human

also other

associations that fall

the three already mentioned

and that compete with them for a share
of loyalty and support.
For instance,
secret societies and lodges are found
among both primitive and civilized
peoples there are ceremonial organizations of warriors, hunters, and medicine men; there are masons' and drap-

outside

guilds,

ers'

granges,

trade

unions,

and political parties. But as a

supreme human group the nation goes
far beyond the primitive bond of blood
or the selfish bond of common vocation
and develops the essentially intellectual bond of common thought. For
a civilized people the first of all group
clubs,

loyalties should be loyalty to the nation,

and

this

becomes stronger as symbols

are invented to express

The

it.

preeminently a symbol of
nationality, and other symbols are public buildings and utilities such as highways and wide-arching bridges, which
give a sense of common ownership
And
stretching beyond narrow acres.
flag

there are

is

many

other subtle or direct

symbols that unexpectedly voice widely

Xational
felt but inarticulate desires.
art brings about social amalgamation
whether the means of expression be
slogans and rallying songs, monuments.
parades, uniforms that put rich and
poor in the same rank, or simple objects of use and beauty, such as cosumes, flower jars and fountain pens,
that build up an understanding of life
which is good, true, and of our own
times. With common thoughts as warp
and weft a strong fabric may be woven
which shall become trulv beautiful as
I

CREATING
it

And

in thr political

thai

pari

developed
they take
Ii

is

loyalty thrives

the very duties and

make-

are

may

of a people?

life

strangely true that

existence

sacrifice-

the threat of eontlict above or below, it

can offer no advantage to the world.
lli-to|-\
indicate- that the nation is

small, does no1

or

service of

it-

politics, or religion

it

measured by the

i-

which Che imli\ idual is made

to feel his submersion in the group.
Always there must be symbols, like the
in

carved

in

fishes

the

catacombs,

to

and tormenl
and to record permanently the hours
of joy and triumph.
The nation is
best equipped to exerl its full power for
progress and production when it can
oppose the forces thai would undermine its hold "ii individual members,
by loyalty thai is personal, concrete,
and pictured in every mind.
lighten the hours of

\\

hear

Perhaps

internal ionalism.

of

mean- sympathy and

justice among na1 ions and
tin-

sense of

modus

much

rial

operandi

securing

of

a
a

these

Nationalism divides mankind

geographically ami develops vertical

things.

loyalties thai

unite differenl classes of

into an

society

mean- a horizontal division

mankind on the basis of class, with

tionalism

its

an

It'

of

can
members
The success
hardly conl inue to exist.
of revolutionary movements in art,

degree

of

is,

on

thai

practicable.

organization, greal

demand

There

always the danger of conflict

between two nal ion- ju-t a- there i- beween two indi\ idual-. Bu1 it' interna-

course,

what

art,

629

of diversified production.

ions.

loyalties

through

and

deeper

with

embroidered

is

deeper emol

NATIONAL ART

organic whole capable

the

human

of

association

largesl

be-

ings capable of having and adequately

expressing communal ideas of use and

beauty.

may expand

It

of

limit-

blood

even

perhaps,

far

beyond the

and speech and may.

encompass the world.

Let there he frielldlille-- lietWeen political

unit-

also

\<r

by

all

mean-

hut

there

let

refreshing contrasts in thought.

truly national art will express and

- and -atisfad ion- of the
whole: it will awaken a

extend the jo\

people a-

of universal sympathy,
new purpose and beauty into

consciousness

and [mi

many

The

lives.

organic and useful

nor

uerve end-.
as

much

empty

an

vanity, nor a

will he

will

It

In-

the

gratification

of

ickling of

beauty

in

cotton

much

as in -ilk. in copper as

a- in -old.

be

not

utilities of

mere sensuous
It

will

and

itself

in

upon the

senseless load
age,

esthetic art

joyous Romance

and heart fell

!eremony in our homes
and in our streets, in our work and in
(

OUT play for the seven days of the week.

POSTSCRIPT
i

first

the preceding article

i.

was written the

genera] American exhibition of textiles

and costumes, illustrating the splendid ad

\

ances

last

in

indusl rial decoral n e arl during

years, has been

-i.x

held

in

Ii

the halls of

American Museum of Natural History.

The exhibition developed the value of firsl
principles in construction and decoration even
the

where

commercial

women's
sources

clothes

wiv

design, and

The

i-

shown

vogue

in

concerned.

fabrics

.-in.

Historical

for the machine, for the

for the costu

machines of today are

bul the logical extension of mechanical parts
greal

roaring

principles known of old, weaving in

some form or other is as old as human poeiety, and there has always been personal
adornmenl forming a basis of the costumer's
The Jacquard looms, with their busy
art.

and

shuttles and myriad harness -trine-, bewilder

with
tial

:i

machines used

bj

all

decoration,

Kloek printing,

be seen

Philippine

types of weaving, a- well

en'

Yet the

multiplicity of detail.

features can nearly

,-i-

ribes.

simple

in

All the

many methods

such

a-

warp

tie-dyeing,

cylinder

printing,
batik,

em-

broidery, applique, ami stenciling, are found

among

the

lesser

and earlier nation-.

The

NATURAL HISTORY

G30

modern designer and artist eannoi afford to

neglect fields in which the fittest and finest
have been determined by centuries of selection.

The
n

contributions of our age are

special

ru sources of power to replace the muscles

of man, new possibilities of collection and

distribution

that

bring us materials from

afar and that send our

made products

across

the limits which divide nations, and, lastly,

new horizons of suggestions and

inspiration

for our ideas that are practicable and profitable.

In
long

five

or six years

America has come a

way toward developing an adequate

pression of her artistic individuality.

ex-

But

progress has been in the shops rather

this

come from a use

of facts, not theories, and from an objective
study of the relations between form and ornament, between the technical process and
the design. The examples of applied art in
than in the schools.

museum

the various

It has

collections have aided in

who have found

sun-ess that praise should go

American indusand for the bright hopes of the

future.
Likewise a tribute should be given
to certain definite individuals: M. D. C.
Crawford, who established contacts between
science and the trade and who wrote, talked,
and clarified till the last doubt died; E.
for the recent advances of
art

trial

W. Fairchild, who put money and enthusiasm into a program of publicity when the
skies were unpropitious; David Aaron, Albert Blum, Charles Cheney, Irving E. Hanson, Max Meyer, and Jessie Franklyn Turner,
who from the first have joined their faith
with ours and whose artistic skill and perception have stamped qualities of distinc-

new products.
The problem now broadens

tion on

eral

education

in

schools of America.

upon

called

to

to one of gen-

and private
For the schools will be

the

public

supply the industries with

craftsmen whose minds and hands have been

this

prepared for

that are.

The explorers and the pioneers have

blazed a trail and marked a road. They have
come with an earnest of accomplishment in
their hands and an offer of experience and
tested success that those who come after
may build safely and grandly.

forward movement.
Behind all progress, however, there are human personalities. Always there are some
men and women who see with an inner eye
the things that may be and then with ingenuity and courage make them the things
It is not only to the

TJic principal exhibitors

ral

History

in the

new

artists

efficient service in the

present

world.

who cooperated with

the

American Museum of Natuand Costumes were as

exhibition of Industrial Arts in Textiles

follovs:

David Aaron &

Co., Inc., embroideries

American Bead Co., Inc., dress accessories

A. Beller & Co., cloaks and suits
Emile Bernet, tapestry yarns
Blanck & Co., embroideries
Sidney Blumenthal & Co., Inc., velvets
Bonwit Teller & Co., tea gowns and
negligees

Cheney Brothers, silks

Harry Collins, costumes
Faulkner, blouses
Marshall Field & Co., Inc., cretonnes
A. H. Flanders & Co., blouses
Funsten Bros. & Co., sealskins

B. C.

Johnson, Cowdin &

weaving

Co., Inc.,

ribbon

Otto Kahn, Inc., fur garments

Kevorkian Galleries, oriental art
H. R. Mallinson & Co., Inc., silks
J. A.

Migel, Inc., Jacquard loom

Marian Powys,

laces

Ruth Reeves, batiks

Martha Ryther, batiks
Barbara Simonds, hand prints
Hazel Burnham Slaughter, batiks
Mary Taxxahill, batiks
J. Wise Co., Inc., costumes
Women's Wear, costume books

The Museum gratefully acknowledges the assistance of many of these exhibitors toward the
cost of the following photographic insert covering the exhibition.

SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS FROM THE FIRST EXHIBITION

OF AMERICAN TEXTILES, COSTUMES, AND

MECHANICAL PROCESSES
HELD AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NOVEMBER

LEGENDS BY HERBERT

YOUNG AMERICA

IN

J.

TO DECEMBER

1,

1919

SPINDEN

THE RAIMENT OF OLD PERSIA

In former time* each nation had its few special styles in dress and there were
Now dress is cosmopolitan, but cosmopo'itan with
as.
thai operated upon
om time to time
There are fundamental types thai return in th
iiiiiimiiil styles.
The wraiths of the past come and go like shadows or shall we say
i.

12

Blow processes of refin

an almost personal variation

and these go back to the oKl
silhouettes!
I<i r,,,l in

Oalleries

Museum

Proposed

Connected with the American

AMERICA

has

reason

proud

vastly

of

to

her

be

recent

progress in expressing beauty

through the things of everyday use.
The Exhibition of Industrial Art in
Textiles and Costumes, covered in
part by the series of photographs
that accompanies this brief statement, disclosed new forces in Amerk.

ican

It disclosed a will of the

life.

people to work and think together,

an ideal of individual satisfaction

common

in the

good, a conception

of the nation as the exponent of a

philosophy of justice, industry, and

well-being,

and

a recognition of the

place of beauty and good craftsmanship

the

in

women

Such emotional
are

society,

lives to create.

forces, engrossing

protection

surest

the

men and

that

things

spend their

against the doctrines of individual

When

or class selfishness.
tional

consciousness

expressed

through

shall

the na-

duly

be

the

all

little

things that touch life, through garments and dishes and house furnishings, the great things will assume a

new

And

significance.

in bringing

what would
more effective than a great Museum of the Passing Today, which
would stage kaleidoscopic exposiabout such a realization

be

of

tions

emotional qualities

those

and serve as an

that glorify labor

educational clearing house of objective

is good?
commercial

teaching in what

A museum
Mould, in

of

effect,

be a

museum

arts

of the

It would be enfrom every scienstandpoint and would receive

ethnology of today.
tirely
tific

justifiable

public support because of

its

direct

relation to life in its broader aspects

and
and

to the special problems of arts

industries.

Such a museum

need not be involved directly in the

A Bokhara
632

Reproduction.

Bonwit

Teller

&

Co.

of

Commercial Arts

Museum

of Natural History

competitive activities of commerce.

It can reserve for itself a position

above criticism as an umpire of the

best in construction and decoration
and as a teacher of facts and fundamentals.

The

great arts into which decora-

or into which

enters,

tion

it

may

tremendous values in
men and money. Mention need only

enter, involve

made

be

of textiles, costumes, pot-

tery, jewelry,

and house furnishings.

All of these have their foundations

deeply

Bei

in

the arts and crafts of

the lesser and earlier nations.

would not be proper

to

It

show such

arts except in historical perspective

and the American Museum of Natural History with

from

all

the world

is

tions

its

all

parts of

able

to

furnish

best

Moreover, this

such a perspective.
institution

public

achievement

solid

first to

great collec-

times and

has a record of
in

its

relation,

industry, and second to edu-

cation.

Let us imagine

a large section of

American Museum of Natural

History given over to the needs and
First there
uses
of commerce.
would be halls so arranged that the
modern materials could be placed on
temporary exhibition without risk
the

or

deterioration.

Second,

there

would be more permanent educational collection- covering the world

range of definite processes.

Third,

would be ample provision for

classes in design coming from public or private schools and for professional designers coming from manuthere

facturing establishments.

Fourth,

there would be scientific laboratories

whirr special problems relating to

fibers,

dyes,

pottery

clays,

cabinet

woods, ami so on, could be studied

by experts.
After the Coptic.

Bonuii

Teller

dt

Co.

633

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ffl

THE GUATEMALAN
Three da
broidered

HUIPIL AS A

COSTUME TYPE

from New Orleans lies Guatemala where the Indian women wear gaily emsacklike bio s:sba1 the designs are striking and the co.ors bnlThese an

Bouth

huipiles.

Inc
64!

MOSAICS

IN

FUR MADE BY THE KORYAK TRIBE OF NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA

The Siberian

tribes that are dependent upon the reindeer are the world's most skilful workTheir long coats are provided with a hood and with a high neck piece or collar that
up under the chin when the hood is raised or is made to lie down flat over the breast when
the hood is thrown back.
The decoration on these garments is often a patchwork or mosaic of
fur in contrasting colors. In the garment shown here it is estimated that there are nearly twenty
thousand separate pieces carefully cut and sewed together
American Museum of Natural History
644

ers in fur.

ties

COAT FROM SIBERIA AND

WRAP MODELED AFTER

IT

material
is
shown- at the -right
in the
-,.
fur
nw 6'
specimen
garments
<';
- -- the
makers
wonderful mnneio
natives ot
of mihtim
Siberia :ire
are wonuenui
The nativeThe
medallions of blue and white beads,
reindeer skin with the fnr turned in and the decoral on cona Bta Largelj of
at
fur.
reprodu
ced
with
trimmed
relvel
blue
wrap
of
essential features of this Siberian coal are followed in the exquisite
essen
Better < Co.
the left
of
ui

'

645

MODERN USES OF BEADS

IN

DRESS ACCESSORIES

In years gone by, a few handfuls of glass beads figured largely in the purchase price paid the resident
Indians for Manhattan Island and surrounding territory.
But how lovely were the necklaces and pouches
which the Indians made from these beads. The vogue of beaded accessories to woman's dress has led to the
use of numerous aboriginal designs.
A special interest in beadwork lies in the fact that many soldiers disabled in the war have found in it pleasant and profitable occupation

American Bend

616

Co., Inc.

A
It

the
l

"

is

Amur
,hls

far

River

lovel3

cry
in

* owu

from

SUGGESTION FROM SIBERIA

prepared Bshskin to Fan-Ta-Si silk ye) a wonderful fishskin garment from

decorated by the stencil and applique method*, gave form and character

Siberia,

J.

Wise Co., Inc

647

EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL REPRODUCTION

From

the products of the Renaissance we may select an anthology of design that has great educational value.
Particularly is this true of velvets and brocades.
All the brilliancy of color and the perfection of construction that
characterized the hand-loom work of Italy and France in past centuries have been reproduced on American machines

Cheney Brothers
618

MODERN AMERICAN BATIK

otl

ration on

tl

_'"' n

ia

in

the Bpirit

A
Above we
below

STORY OF ADAPTATION OF DESIGN THROUGH BLOCK PRINTING

see a

detail

commercial use

of

an ancient Peruvian mantle with embroidered figures in soft but brilliant

colors and
In the central strip are some of the blocks used in the printing

of this design.

R. R. Mallinson

650

<&

Co., Inc.

WOMAN'S DRESS OF THE PLAINS INDIANS

made from two de.-rskins The

The Indian women of the Great Plains wore graceful dresses
The lines of conout of the construction.
decoration bv beadwork and fringes grew naturally
contain uggest.on. of value to modern
struction and decoration of garment, as simple as this one
Barry Colhns
dressmaker*
651

COMMUNITY OF INTEREST BETWEEN NEW YORK AND THE PHILIPPINES

The Bagobo tribe of the Philippines make hempen jackets which they decorate with beads. A distinguished example showing how suggestions in primitive garments can be applied in the dress of today
is seen in this graceful suit of brown cloth with decoration in brown beads.
Note how the shape of the
Bagobo jacket has been copied, as well as the little pockets, the strings in front that take the place of
buttons, and the design that follows the edges and runs down the sleeves
A. Seller

G52

<

Co.

of

man

distinct field for

development

La

to

CHILDREN'S DRESSES
w the clothes of children

be found

Bere

two

little

wearing adapt,

girls

'*'

"

/ '"'

6;

AMERICAN TEXTILE AND COSTUME EXHIBITION

654

F'^m ?4ft $& '?3m ^i' *$K

A BLOCK-PRINTED CURTAIN
Pr

\w
aB^SJ^S^

fv,fi
India"* T n
l\tii
with
fine decorative effect

in

8"
medley

haUd P aintin

We

8ee a

FROM

INDIA

"jeans f decorating large surfaces in pictographic manner are finely developed

of more or less realistic detilils drawn ot of all proportion to one another but

M. D.

0.

Crawford

An

Among

"Old Tramp"

CHARLES

By
gone

days

INwhich

Florida l\r\

way

only

the

by

could

naturalisl

won]

Easl

Florida

tramp

ioasl

the train

Largo,

to

Railway he can gel

!ross Kej
Long and Windlys

Jewfish on

ai

is

Long, Grassy, Craw] and Vaccas

Bahia Eonda, Big Pine, Torch,

keys,
keys,

Sugarloaf and a
udjoe,
Ramrod,
Qumber of other islands of lesser imECey

following the track of the

the keys only at the cisterns of the na-

he

islands of

and

will cross

mosl of the prin-

many

carry

railroad and are too

and

a train

passenger

fool

the

across

buill

The

along

and

viaduct,

the

tion,

the

before the train passes.

have been familiar with the Florida

the

temptation

the

ecasionall}

to

order thai

in

the

Such

history

rip

October,

by
1

in a

small boat.

isited

Collaborator, United States

West Indies and Florida

distribution of their fauna and

lit

tly

ber,

li<.k

flora, entitled

are highly polished

while
or

the

Christi,

of

all

those of the

blue.

U'\\

are

All

of

tinted

with

our

Liguus
from
derived

consisted

Depa

the butterflies seen.

of

fect- of

he keys near

oul

a list of

mosl wonderfully painted of an\ snails

on earth.
wanted to observe the ef-

L9 L9,

trip were to study

quarters while

my

specimens have been

Cuba, having crossed the Florida Strail
on floating imber, and are anion-- the

undertook the latter part

running from my
home near Miami to Big Pine Key by
rail and making thai island my head1

hoi day.

becoming scarce or are

some cases exterminated. The shells

violet

life.

natural

dis-

in

scarlet,

and

their

make

may

graphical distribution of then-

study

objects of

visil
I

heavy

long

genus Oxystyla are colored with various

-hade- of brown; the Liguus are white,
yellow, green, brown, black, orange and

resisl

of late years are

Keys -nice 1882, having resided in

Lower Florida the greater pari of the
time since thai date and from ime to
have made collecting and extime
Now, alploring trips anion- them.
though m ire than threescore and ten,
cannot

beca

and colled specimens of the large and

beautiful arboreal -nails belonging to
The
the genera Oxystyla and Liguus.
snails were once abundani in the hammock growth of nearly all the ke\ - hut

these

of

it

the disl ribution of the tropical vegeta-

the company has buill wooden cages

hung out over the water at regular intervals

was,

when one tramped

scrub on

for

to pass, bul

tramp can always reach one

Meager

the railroad tank-.

outfit

tance- on the railroad or through the

single-

this

burden

sea.

narrow

ives or at

as

miles of the won-

The stupendous arches

track

interesting chain

this

causewa}

derful

reaches

finally

railroad he will visit

cipal

net! ing,

and two-quar1 water can completed my

Fresh water can be obtained on
stock.

portance, until
I>.\

A blanket, mosquito

shoulder.

West.

getting

for

thing

besl

an awkward thing to carry through

put my things
thick, tangled growth,
hung over my
into a large sack which

Upper and Lower Matacumbe

islands,

the

hat,

through the thick scrub, socks, a high

pair of strong canvas shoes, a coat,
toothbrush, and some small sacks for
holding snails.
nstead of a grip, which

the completion of the extension of the

off

including the one

narrow-brimmed slouch

wore, an old,

was by boat, bul since

of two suits of khaki

in

the

visit

SIMPSON

T.

Keys

the Florida

ture.

on the Flo

he hurricane of earl}

one

which
Texas, and

Septemwrecked Corpus
which had been

author of works on mollusks, especially of the

their ireoloijy, and the geographical

irida

Wilds, published

bj

G.

Putnam
657

1/7

658

/,'

\L

a
Qg the mosl destructive of any
Lower Florida; there
in
recorded
were also two or three points in the

uvolo<f\

of

tlie

keys which I wished to

study.

The geology of Lower Florida, including the keys, is simple but interDuring

esting.

middle

Pleistocene

time, perhaps, a subsidence of the Flo-

and

rid inn area occurred

all

that part

II

.</'<>!:)

Wesi

limestone

an irregular

by

mud

flat.

During the

subsidences, the east-

i\\<>

ern end of the Key West island was

depressed so that the water of the Gulf
of Mexico was driven across the lowest
parts

of

into

it

Florida

the

Strait

during severe northers, thus scouring out channels which have a northnorthwest,

south-southeast

direction,

of the state south of the Caloosahatcb.ee

leaving long, narrow islands between

River was carried beneath the sea. A

bed of limestone was formed
along what is now the southwest coast

at the

great

another, an oolitic, in the

gion,

is

the

Key West

Key West

somewhat similar formation was

down along

re-

limestone.

laid

the southeast coast of the

mainland which bears the name of the

Miami

limestone.

period of eleva-

tion followed during which the land of

south Florida assumed something of

its

present shape and dimensions, but the

part of the Key West beds

probably formed a single island. Various tropical tree and plant seeds,

greater

drifted by the Gulf Stream, were de-

and became established as colonies, and the

same was true of many different kinds
of land animals which belonged to the

The tides are high in the gulf

time they are low in the strait
and vice versa, hence they continually
scour out these passages and eat away
the limestone by means of the carbon
dioxide which the sea water contains.
The upper and lower islands are thus
them.

of entirely different origin.

meager in

subsidence of a few feet followed,

then a second elevation in which
the land of Lower Florida reached a

than it has at
present.
At this time an old dry-land
connection existed between the upper
slightly

higher

level

part of the Florida Keys and the south

shore of the mainland, over which

The
and animals migrated.
upper part of the chain of keys is a
worked-over coral reef which formed

plants

outside the shore of the

Miami

lime-

and it extends from near

Cape Florida to the Xewfound Harbor
keys which come to an end south of
stone country

Ramrod Key.

The curious

tail of

land

species

lower islands

is

The

latest

earth

movement

of this

region was a slight subsidence which

has been
]

sufficient

submerge and

to

tartly destroy the old

land connection

between the Upper Keys and the mainAt no time since the present

land.
life

has existed in this area has the sub-

drown out the

dry-land flora and fauna, nor has the
elevation been great enough to form a
sidence been sufficient to

dry-land connection between the upper

part of the chain and the Miami mainland.
Although the elevated land of

some of these islands

lies

within eight

miles of the high, rocky east coast, the

two regions are quite disand there is a slight difference in

the faunas of the two areas.
For several days I made my headquarters on Big Pine, making cruises
to the neighboring keys in a row
floras of the

tinct,

which forms the lower part of Big Pine

Key is a part of this coral reef and is

Bahama

darky.

Key

wrought

terrible

connected with the main island of

while that of the

very rich, the latter

having more than 175 forms not found

on the Upper Keys.

posited along these old shores

Antillean region.

That the

upper are much the younger of the two

is proved by the fact that, although the
dry land of the two groups is nearly
equal, the flora of this upper group is

boat propelled by a big, good-natured

The hurricane had

havoc in these islands.

AN "OLD TRAMP" AMONG THE FLORIDA KEYS

its continuance tin- wind blew
from nearly every poinl of the compass
ami it drove the water of the sea high
up over the dry land everyw
Along the railroad, between Big Pine

During

and

Summerland

Wes1

the

keys,

broke over the tracks which are perhaps eleven feel above the level of or-

dinary

up on the side
several feel above it.

tide, piling debris

of the roadbed to

Eouses were turn down or dri

away, trees broken or uprooted]

was

seashore

the

places

upon, and

others

in

were built

-and and debris

Every
and rubbish

into the sea.

Ear ou1

conceivable kind of drift

was carried far

in

In well-elevated

in

encroa<

on

dry land.

to the

hammocks

there were

3,

washed in

million-

perhaps from Cuba or the Bahamas

and mixed with broken wood.
and bark. This material lay in drifts
I

tained

My

harm from

entire search of the lower Islands

resulted in finding nothing

a

broken

few

and

They are

burning.

come

among

which

is

ported plants.

cult to understand.

manner

which our tropical

in

way

in ju>t this

past

in

West

of the

has

flora

been planted and established, and

done

it

is

ages.

The land mollusks

Indian region which are

of

Lower Florida

members

gether with some other

to-

of the

animal kingdom have been carried in

and established in much the same way.
arri\ ing on float ing timber which has
inland

carried

The splendid Liguus,

searching,

lives

on

which

for

entirely

waves.

tidal

on

the

was

and lays its eggs in the ground or in decaying wood .in the floor of the forest.
Both animals and eggs
in
sea
former may be transported while clinging to the trees on

water but the

whi.-h

they live and the eggs

carried
is

washed

floods.

the

least

even for

the

in

into

The
by

the

not

immersion

many

be

which

during great

sea

snails arc

may

wood

rotting

hours, as

in
I

injured in
salt

have

water
as

having the
them.
Their

relish

little
is

changed from
sometimes diffi-

The

letter "a"' is

pronounced as it is in the word "what."

and there is a peculiar monotony in
their conversation.

when I had
met an old darky by the
William Lowe, who told me

Five years before,

the island.

name

of

<

on

'mis

he

the

trees in

some hammock land which belonged to

him. Questioned more closely, he said
he had seen the "black snail," as
certain

very

Liguus

him

hired

When
a

to

left

dark-colored

variety

called, in this forest.

is

and he found

to

Bahamas,

that of the

that the work has been

now inhabitants

been

h.

seem

peculiar people

whiti-

ner Lesson could be given of the

of

shells

Liguus and Oxystyla. On one of the

exposed beaches a considerable number
of fragments were washed up and some
of these si ill showed the character
r
of the shells belonging to these
islands.
But it seems probable that
both of these genera of splendid snails
are now extinct on the Lower K
M\ next run was to Marathon on
Iv
This island is invariably
V'accas.
called i\r\
Wacey" by the natives.
Out si ile of Boot Key Harbor and
Marathon, it is inhabited by a few Bahama Negroes who live by fishing, turtling, sponge gathering, and charcoal

and immense beds, and already many

of th(
rere sprouting and con
up the forerunners of colonies of im\

more than

failed

not

eggs

the

a sea hath.

who do

and

experiment,

by

suffer no

659

make

halt-day

him he

lookout

diligent

a single living

search

specimen.
to

for

this

of

had

keep

variety or

any others whenever he had opportunity.

Although this dark form was
formerly abundant and by diligent
search I had found about fifty
had never taken it alive.
mens,
know, it is now to be found
So far aonly in this island, although it once

among

II

the

ape Sabl<
at
Cho
Ten Thousand Islands near
.

NATURAL HISTORY

660

Miami and on one or two islands

lower pari of the Everglades. I

my way

the

in

made

Lowe's house and was told

to

work and

that he was in the field at

would be home

Lowe

When

at night.

asked

might stay all night she

refused, and said I would have to talk
with her husband. I sat on a stump
in the little yard, tormented by mosquitoes and sand flies until dusk when
He didn't seem to rehe appeared.
member me, although I had written
to him that I was coming and wanted

rs.

him

if I

me

to help

All the people

collect.

the little settlement apparently re-

in

my

sented

that

When

presence and

was

I
I

anything

asked Lowe

made me

might stay

all

shelf brought out a

Ma-

and unscrewed the top.

To me, although the odor was nauseating, the sight was thrilling, for it was
nearly full of dead specimens of Liguus
and Oxystyla which he had captured
from time to time and shut up in this
glass prison. Among them I saw some
specimens of the black snail which I
was so eager to obtain, and when I
asked him if the lot was for me he replied, "Yas, sah, w'en you pays me foh
dey."

I offered to give

him

the

money

then but he was not ready to take it

and he wouldn't even allow me to take
the jar in my hand.

welcome.

but

if I

feel

and from

son's fruit jar

wanted

to get

him

to collect for

the next day hut he said he

me

had a char-

little

hand and couldn't leave

under any circumstances.
Finally
after some dickering, when I offered
him a price that would have tempted
a striking union labor man to go to
work, he scratched his head and said,
"Maybe I can fix dat pit so she go ovah
one day, and den I he'p yo\"
I rolled myself up in my blanket and
lay dowm on the floor at bedtime in one

most of the dwellings of

of the dirty, awful-smelling little dens.

the natives, being in size about 14 by 20

Lowe shut the doors; the windows,

which are of boards, are always closed
at night.
I asked him if I might open
the window in my room but he was not
Twice in the night, however,
willing.
when nearly suffocated I got up and
quietly pushed it open while I gasped
in a few breaths of fresh air.
In the morning I went with the old
man to the hammock and he seemed to
be in an excellent humor. "Mans in dis
islaif." he said_. "gwa' cut down timbah
an" Ah tell him yo' pay him good money
He fine
foh any of dem tree snail.
some of dey and pick dey off an' lay dey
on de groun' 'side he coat an' he t'ink
he get dey w'en he go home at night.
Well, sah, w'en he go dare at night dey
ain't no snail dare; Ah reckon dey half
mile away, up in de tree likely laugh in'
And he threw back his head
at him."
and shoulders and laughed, "Yah kya

night he replied very emphatically that

and he

answer
to my inquiry that no one about there
would keep me. He wasn't even willing
that I should sleep on the floor of his
little cookhouse.
I asked him if he inI could not,

tended to turn

me

rain, for a steady

He

also said in

out to sleep in the

downpour had

at last reluctantly

coine

into the house.

better than

permitted
It

w as a
r

set in.

me

to

with board sides and a shingled

roof: a narrow hall, not more than
feet,

from side to side of

and dark ill-smelling little rooms or
cubby-holes were partitioned off in the
three feet wide, ran

it.

res!

of

it.

determined to get into the good

graces of these people if possible, and
began to tell them of my adventures
I

and mishaps. I wanted to get them

interested and to have them become
friendly, and I hoped to have their assistance in collecting.
Soon Lowe began to listen in an interested way and
I could hear the women, who had
crawled into one of the little rooms,
laughing; two or three neighbors came
in

and stood in the smoke of the eversmudge pot and eagerly lis-

lasting
tened.
a door

Finally Lowe got up. unlocked

opening into one of the rooms

coal pit on

it

AN "OLD TRAMP" AMONG THE FLORIDA KEYS

kya

kya

he

until

"Ah

ring.

Is

to

la\

ready

to

come

dare and wait

an'

Ami

yah yah yah!"

made

fairly

he

till

Yah

dey.

gii

he

dem

reckon he t'ink

gwa

snail

gel

!'"

he Laughed again

uproariously

We
with
the

resuH

none.

hours

four of

-nails,

in

could see them so

much

better than

1.

used to hunting for them

who had been

m>

found

two of which were

good condition, while
goi
asked him how it was thai he

black

dead hut

for several

he

that

ami he said, '"Ah reckon n

been bohn an' bred in de scrub,

long,

'ca'se

>ah."
No doubl this was the reason.
The eyes ami other sense organs of men
who habitually live in the wild are
much sharper than those of any one

whose abode i- within the pale of ei\ ilization.

Such persons live in a greal
degree by the use of the senses while

man

tin-

of civilization lives by his wits.

While mi the island

took a long
tramp to it- upper end, then over to
Lin le Vaccas, an unnamed key, also to
Lower. Middle and Upper Crawl keys,
made diligeni search
hut though
I

everywhere,
<

round bul few Liguus.

went into a piei

my way

>n

hack

-k near the upper

harm
end of Vaccas and found a magnificenl

fine,

original

orange-colored

Some

variety.

of

the

were superbly shaded and stained

with scarlel and
collected until eight

shells

Near

was coming on.

hammock

the

was

pai
.

my

1\

little

pool

in

water moccasin, which

concealed under

struck viciouslj

at

palmetto

inside of

the

was walking forward.

in
my hand a
>t iek ahout
four feci long ami less than
an inch in diameter, which
used to
Inpush off -nail.- from the tree-.
I

left

leg a-

happened

carry

to

-tnict i\d\

-truck

at

the snake a-

it

lunged at me. and hit it a -harp blow

on the "neck." This knocked it to the
ground, hut the force of it- -t roke was
real

that

it-

It

houses ami

Liguus

and

broughl

to

-old

me ai
me a

to

Lowe

go!

to

me

that all the darkies

Lowe's

advenbe-

all

morning

N~ex1

and corners were searched

old boxes

the

at

my
the\

that

friendly.

number

Oxystyla
which

of

in

tine

were

-hell-

owners

their

light

round

price.

box to pack m\

shells

good

in and accompanied me to the railroad.

hade his
for me.
When
earn ing
wife good-by -he -aid. "Boss, we shorely
it

mi-- yo' tonight," which

was

Lon- Ke\ and found

felt

high compliment.
next

isited

piece of

fine

flag stop called

searched

hour.-

hammock

rocky

it

near the

Crescent, hut although

for

diligently

did not find even

several

fragment of

went on to Upper
Then
Liguus.
Matacunihe and was fortunate enough
to he taken in at the h
e of a M r. Lee
a

Matacumbe.
faced on
the open sea and to me it was a paradise after the miserable den
had recently occupied.
tramped to the
SOUthwesI end of Lower Matacunihe
Pinder

the

at

village

The room which

of

occupied

Ke\ and hack one day. a distance of

more than sixteen miles, and searched
the

island

few

living

carefully hut

found only

Another day,

-nails.

Mr.

Pinder took me in Lignum Vita- Key

hi- launch and we -pent
several
hour- searching for -nails with rather
in

meager
results.
Formerly
Liguus
-warmed on this island hut
seems as
though some cause besides the enit

croachmenl of <-i\ ilized man i- act ing

to exterminate these beautiful .-nail-.
Very little of the tine hammock has
been cut ami no one lives on the island.
tramped up the railroad track
from Matacunihe and crossed over t<>
I

Windh

Island w Inch ha- the di-tinc-

tion of being the loft

entire chain of ke\

-.

n- eastern end
ahout eighteen

seemed

to

uighl

came quite

head -hot mi between

my

gathered
hear

settlement
that

tures, with the iv-ult

all

hunted together
tin'

the

in

house

661

in

-o

tlat

feet

iesl

of

Two

am

of the

little

kimll-

rise to a

height of

above the sea and

region thev seem like -mall

NATURAL HISTORY
mountains. 'J'" the left of the flag stop
noticed some fine, lofty
called Quarry,
1

hammock
though
out

.-n

little

distance and, al-

had searched
several

results

it

through with-

years

before,

looked so tempting that I hid

my

it

be-

by the railroad track and

pushed through the tangled, thorny
Tramping
scrub until 1 reached it."
through it I sa^ again the very rare
West Indian tree Hypelate trifoliata,
or white ironwood, which is not known
efings

to exist elsewhere in the

United States.

I searched the tall trunks of the trees

two hours but saw no

snails, so at last I turned toward tinrailroad and concluded there were
none.
As I went back I saw at some
distance high up on a tree something
which looked a little like a white
Liguus, but it seemed to be altogether
diligently

too large.

for

hurriedly

made my way

and saw to my astonishment an enormous specimen which, although it was more than thirty feet
re me, I was sure was the largest I
had ever seen. I at once set my wits to
work to study how I might secure it. I
nearer to

it.

could not possibly cut with

my

knife

any pole that would reach it, neither

could I handle such a pole if I had it.
Mr. Pinder, who had been with me to
Lignum Vita? Key. was very expert at
throwing chunks of wood, and he could
strike a lofty limb and loosen a snail
nearly every time, but I am a poor
thrower.
I might hit the side of a
barn if it were not too Ear away and the
wind was favorable, but that is about
Besides,

all.

if

loosened,

the

shell

would most likely be broken by falling

on the rocks below. The only thing to
do

\va> to

climb for

way the trunk

snail

it.

but

much

of the tree on

of the

which the

was fastened was bare of limbs.

I dragged a dead trunk of a sapling

and leaned it against the tree so that
by working up it I could reach the
lower branches which extended along
the trunk for perhaps ten feet.
at a

Then,

distance of about six feet above

-'. a stout limb grew out which had

been broken off a foot or more from the
trunk by the hurricane.
If I could
only get up and stand on this broken
branch it seemed to me that I might

reach the snail.

out with

I cut

my

big pocket knife

the top of a small live tree which the

It had two
storm had overthrown.
strong branches about two feet apart
near its base and I believed I could

use them for steps.

I trimmed up the
somewhat slender main shoot and care-

in a loop, tying the upper

stem below, and when my
v.intraptkm,"' as Uncle Remus would
have called it, was finished, it looked
something like a gigantic sixteenth
note or semiquaver.
At one of the
platforms along the railroad I had
found a long piece of stout string and I
tied one end of it to the contrivance
and the other to my suspender and
commenced my ascent of the trunk of
fully bent

end

it

to the

the sapling I

When

tree.

had leaned against the

got up about six feet

above the rocks this dead trunk broke

and I fell with a crash but was not

much

hurt.

Then

I cut off the only

root which held the little tree that

i

overthrown, dragged

leaned

it

it

had

up. and

against the tree bearing the

Although it sagged it bore me

and soon I was among the branches,
and stood on the topmost one. I pulled
up my ladder and hung the loop of it
on the broken limb, securely tying its
snail.

base

to

the

trunk,

then

carefully

worked up by stepping on the rungs

until I stood on the broken limb.
But I had miscalculated the distance
and I found that I could not reach the
snail by more than three feet.
Must I
I
give it up after all that trouble?
wouldn't push it off and let it fall for I
was certain it would be broken.
It
looked so large and handsome that I
determined I would try to shin up to it.
Shinning a tree is pretty good exercise
for a young fellow but for a man nearly
seventy-four and weighing more than

AN "OLD TRAMP" AMONG THE FLORIDA

L75 pounds

work.

it is

whenever

tightly

the

to

tree,

sight of the great, glittering

while

ilie

jewel

above

my

make further

tempted me to
At Lasi by reach-

head

efforts.

ing far out I could jusl touch

it

then

one more tremendous struggle and

carefully loosheld it in my hand.
ened it, put it in my overalls pocket,
and in loss than a minute had slid to
Then I took it
the foot of the tree.
shouted and capered
fairly
out;
aboul like a boy; I rubbed ii againsl
I

my

cheek and talked foolishly to it.

miser ever gloated over his gold as

over

did

magnificent

that

had found on

5Tears

before I

mound

hack of Chokolaskee

snail.

in the

Ten

Thousand [slands a Liguus which

had
until qow was by far the Largest
Sometime during its life
ever seen.
I

this

specimen had had

quarter of an

broken off
and it had soldered up the opening.
came to put
Bui even with that, when
inch of the tip of

shell

its

my

Chokolaskee shell, this

was longer, more solid, and had greater
diameter.
Counting in the broken
shell is exactly three
part, my ne^
inch.- in length and one inch and
beside

it

nine-sixteenths
glossy

in

diameter.

white

ivory

with

It

is

bronzy

faint

green, revolving lines, which are

distinct

live

its

aboul
arch,

on

and

base,

ears old,

ost

more than

it

more
must be

veritable patri-

of our Liguus do not

three

or four years.

This magnificent specimen amply

paid

me

for

all

hardships of

the

re-

my

From Windlys Islam! 1 worked my

way along the railroad through I.
nd and into the greal Key Largo
-

which has

miles, and

at

K-

soon

ai

The

_>

length

of

nearly

thirty

the little flag stop called

took the

greater pari of
of the key- has

ram
tl

for

home.

riginal for-

been cut that

along the upper part of the chain in

roots of the trees de-

the

as

of the soil

the fields was washed

loose

grow on it.
up again, this time
filled

which covered

down through

the

and pine- would no longer

Then the hammock sprang

rock,

almosi

solid

scrubby growth,

with thorny

trees.

most places
is
so dense that one cannot work his way
through n and it is possible to progress only by hunting out the more
open parts of it. The heat is al
si intolerable and mosquitoes and sand flics
-warm everywhere during the wetter
part of the year.
Mosl of the few residents are
r and live in small, badly
shrubs, and vines.

In

i1

constructed shanties.

It is difficult to

entertainment, even the privilege of

under a roof, no doubt benumber of tramps and had

men who are found on the keys. But
the whole region possesses a peculiar
charm it is a bit of the tropics, it has
vegetation
rich
ami
interesting
a
which, with it- rather meager dry-land
fauna, presents some remarkable problem- in geographical distribution and
evolution.
During the winter there are
few annoying insects,
paratively
c
the sky is marvelously clear and beautisleeping

cause of the

ful,

few cloud-

the

have

summery

and the water is lovely with a

hundred tints of green and blue. A
\a-l marine fauna literally -warms in
the seas, and for the naturalist no o
attractive region exists in the United
look,

Sian-.

went
was taken for a
Everywhere
tramp my appearance no doubt helpI

create

this impression
but in
stopped 1 was able to convince some one that T was all right.
tramped into the little
me evening
illage of Plantation and applied to a
in-'

to

every place

trip.

\-

cayed, mosl

shell

G63

order that pineapples might be planted.

up and

was completely exhausted I

clinging

rested,

a good deal like hard

slowly worked m\ way

A7/>>

<

woman

at

decent-looking house for a

She told me to go
awa\ and -hut he door in my face, W
another house the women ran in. hut by
persistenl hammering on the door one
of them came and told me hat no one
night's

lodging.
t

XATIL'AL HISTORY

664

would keep me, that a

would
the beach
lii<l my bag and walked
find a house.
half mile along the shore to find no
house and concluded that she expected
the hamlel

in

>h< >rr

down

distance

that

M\

;i

nit'

sleep in the sand.

1<>

hack

spoke to an elderly

and asked

stood in a door

on his

to sleep

me come

in

it'

Then

that.

and

to be allowed

refused to

let

to

floor.

Finally I asked

him

tramp and he
I pulled out a gold watch
tramps carried things like

he thought

said he did.
and asked

He

came
man who
I

and didn't want even

converse with me.

if

When

was

took out a roll of

money

tramps carry this?" His

severe scowl changed into a smile and
he said, "Oh. come in, I guess you are
all right."
He gave me a good supper
and breakfast and we parted the hest of
said. ''Do

As I left he said. 'Til tell the

what a fine visit I had with

friends.

folks here

**

the 'old tramp."

where

At

a little flag stop

postmaster sold railway

asked for one to a neighboring

the

tickets I

and the man said, "Have you

any mone\ ?"
handed him a twentydollar hill and in surprise he said he
couldn't change it.
Then I counted
station,

him out

Tree snail

can

amount and

the exact

Museum

of

told

him

lie

trip

that

was

me

enabled

complete success for it

several problems

solve

to

had puzzled in vain over before

added not a little to my col-

going.

and

lections

found things in

as usual

places where the hooks -aid they should

All the scrub was glorious

grow.

not

with flowers

an array

the tropics.

vines

in

closely

have never >een such

related

to

Two

Echites,

the oleander,

had glossy leaves and charming flowers,

the one sulphur-colored, the other rich
yellow,

and both should be introduced

There were masses of

into cultivation.
a

yellow-flowered Cassia and acre- of a

lovely

morning glory with great purple,

blue, or pinkish salvers.

ii-

In the scrub

slender, half trailing, half climbing

and trip whoever ventures

whenever I gazed on its
splendid masses of bloom I forgave it.
In the early morning and late in the
>teins catch

into

it.

hut

evening the moonflowers were as conspicuous as their blue-flowered cousins,

the

morning

glories.

Such

tramps

one into the closest contact and

communion with nature, and renew
tiring

one"- health

Liguus fa, latux, about one half natural

Xatural History

shells

mustn't always judge people by

their appearance.

size)

and

vio-or.

from the

collections of the Ameri-

Animals and Plants

Island

THBIB CONSERVATION

WILL ARD

By
Departmenl

plain

island

of

animal

the

Life

particularly

groups,

mor

of those which are

remote

less

the

or inaccessible, is characterized bj
presence of fewer species than on the
mainlands, these species are often

peculiar

and

limited

strictly

distribution, or of especial
science for other reasons.

[slands have in

many

their

in

interesl

to

cases been the

and

refuge of
plants which were unable to maintain
themselves against the more numerous
enemies thai besel them on the con-

Sometimes the islands have

preserved some survivors of forms

tinents.

used

wl,i r |,

land,

to

larger areas of
the sea, a

inhabit

oow submerged under

island

remnanl of which the existing

The more or less complete
isolation of animal- and plants living

represents.

X A M E

Museum

Natural History)

of

regions, and especially the presence or

absence of terrestrial forms which could

water
n ,,i easily cross u ide stretches of
facts

by any natural means, disclose

aboul the geography of pasl geological
periods and

aid

in

determining when

now sub-

and where former land areas

have

musl
have

merged

way
D,

"ii

arrived

al

differenl

entirely

by

geologists

valuable

conclusions

the

this

In

existed.

afforded

they

check

species of animals

lasl

VAN

G.

Invertebrate Zoology, American

of

and
of small islands and

/THOUGH

URGENTLY NEEDED

is

methods, for while they indicate thai

inan\ existing island- were formerly
f some continenl or of a much
p arj
larger island, they lend no supporl to
fantastic theories of vanished conti-

connections
former land
or
of wide
now
extents
what
are
across
111(
Qgep ocean. Added to all this, the
nents

strange character and, in many cases,

the greal and increasing rarity or the

complete extinction of some of

recenl

lend

creatures

interest

to

them

altogether pre-

these

vents their interbreeding with members

and
of their species from other regions,

from
h

more popular point of

is

not only distant oceanic islands

the variations the] ma\ develop from

climatic or other causes may become

thai

possess

on islands

restricts

or

and permanent, resulting in the

formation of the new species found
Such islands often afnowhere else.
ford exceptional advantages for observ-

fixed

ing the processes of evolution, as the

factors affecting these processes in such

such

interest,

iew also.

since

even

those close to the shores of continents

occasionally have certain peculiar spe-

found anywhere else, or they

through their comparative
inaccessibility and freedom from predator] mammals, safer breeding places

cies

aol

ma\

afford,

for

animals such

as seals or sea turtles,

and
isolated species are often fewer
There
continents.
simpler than on the
o doubl thai Darwin in developing

or ground-nesting sea birds, than can

There is no quesbe found elsewhere.

was influenced

provided by the islands off the Atlantic

coasts of the Dnited State, and Canada.
many of our sea 1'ird- such as the gulls

his theory of evolution

by the observations of island animals

and

plants

years as

The

made during

ipg

relationships

of

earlier

and

naturalist.

creatures

the

his

existing

inhabiting

islands

tion

and

the

between
various

those of other

that,

tern-

for

bu1

and

the breeding places

members

of

the

auk

family would b} this time have been

practically exterminated from this part
of the world.

The gannet,

for instance,

665

666

-V.

TUBAL HISTORY

one of the largest and most beautiful of

our sea birds, now breeds on this side
Atlantic in two island colonies
both much reduced from their
former size; fortunately these colonies

of

tin'

only,

have at length been taken under the

of the Canadian government. On the coast of southern New

protection

England, the breeding colonies of terns

and laughing gulls on Muskeget and a
few other more or less inaccessible islands were able to persist during the
of persecution to which these

years

birds were subjected for the millinery

trade,

and have served

distribution

for

as

centers of

repopulating

other

parts of our coast with these beautiful

species,

now

that protection

is

given

them everywhere.
The survival of the heath hen on
Martha's Vineyard is another strikingexample, while the development of a
species of sparrow, the Ipswich spar-

row, which appears to be confined in

breeding entirely to Sable Island

south of Nova Scotia, although it mi-

its

grates in winter to the mainland, affords an instance near home of the

tendency of insular life to result in
differentiating

new

species.

In another respect Sable Island, just

mentioned, is of interest, for although
it is but little farther north than Portland, Maine, its shores were in the early
days of the settlement of America still
inhabited by a herd of walruses, the
most southern colony of that species of

which we have any historical record.

Forty miles off the coast of Lower
California, not very far south of the

United States boundary, is a small

island,
Ctuadaloupe,
remarkable in
much the same way. It was probably
the last home of an extinct species of
fur seal, and possessed three or prob-

lie
southern hemisphere.
This animal formerly inhabited the coast of
the mainland of southern California,
;is well as Lower California.
It was
supposed to have been entirely destroyed, when a small herd of about
uir hundred individuals was found
slid in existence in 1911 at Guadaloupe
i

-land, so that even at that recent date,

would still have been possible to save

remarkable animal from extinc-

it

this

tion.

Unfortunately the rapid increase of

population and the commercial
expansion during recent times, and especially the development of rapid and
convenient transportation, have put an
end to the immunity of these places
from occupation or at least from frequent visitation by the most destructive enemy of nature that this planet

human

seen
civilized man.
As a
hundreds of the forms of animal
and plant life peculiar to them have
already become totally extinct, and
each year that passes adds more to the
list.
Some of the most beautiful of the

has ever
result,

birds of paradise are of very restricted

range and have become nearly or entirely extinct because of their slaughter for the millinery trade.

of

many groups

are

Members

on the

list

of

extinct or threatened species, especially

land mollusks, insects,

birds, reptiles,

and many

trees

and smaller

plants.

Their remote and isolated homes pro-

them

tected

against

their

natural

enemies but do not avail against the

unnatural ones that now beset them.

Our own Hawaiian possessions afford a good example of what is taking

ably four peculiar species or very dis-

on many island groups.

The
Hawaii are remarkable for the large proportion of
peculiar species and genera found in
no other part of the world. A recent

tinct varieties of land birds that have

writer

recently become extinct.

tions of various

But

its

chief

interest lies in its being the last strong-

hold of the

California sea

elephant,

closely related to the sea elephant of

place

native land birds of

states that

"Due

to the opera-

malign influences, the

native forests and birds have greatly
diminished
within
historic
times.
1

MacCaughey,

in

The Auk, January, 1919.

ISLAM' ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Many known

species of plants,

trees,

and birds have become wholly extinct,

and many others are on the verge of
A time is speedily apextinction.
proaching in which the extinct avian

number

species will exceed in

those

si ill

"Oahu

Farther on he says,

surviving."

has been more completely despoiled of

its

oative bird

than any other of

More of the known

life

the larger islands,

Oahu

passerine species are extincl than

The Oahu

arc living today.

small flycatcher]

abum

the most

is

practically

is

commonly

the only species

Thai

this

unpromising outlook is no
is proved by many other

and

writer-

i-

account

of

and

species

of the 70 indigenous birds considered

peculiar

group of

this

to

distributed

species

But

happen.

islands

already certainly extinct, and a

as

it
is

The Gala-

lished.

Thin/,

species confined to a small

no place

has

Achatinellidae,

it

If this breeding colony

were destroyed we cannot he sure thai
another would be successfully estab-

more of Jin- larger islands. The

Hawaiian Islands are characterized
also by the great number of land molthe

though

seasons,

known, on Eood Island of the Gala-

enemies which

family,

other

pagos group.

by but very few

specimens, while of the remainder only
a
comparatively small minority were
widely distributed and common on one

one

hardly

pagos albatross breeds only, so far as

i-

island has

lusks,

at

same danger.

ber already very rare, known, in spite of

or

could

this

the breeding [daces of

if

species are restricted, even

num-

extensive collecting,

only a matter

In the case of widely

time.

to the

records

May,

in

tire

now probably

is

shorl

exposed

present,

al

forest

1916, so that the total extinction of the

widely

were

than

-ingle

>\

ranges

when conditions

better

siderably earlier date

of this

Vineyard (which under careful prohad been increasing ]1 num-

of

con-

An example

tection

of

of

the en-

of the race of heath hens on Martha's

birds

observations

man

which

in

destruction of the greater pari

study

twenty years ago and based chiefly on

collections

species out.

tin'

these islands, although published nearly

volcanic erup-

may wipe

has some complicity,

tire

it

perhaps

catastrophe,

more often one

tion. Imi

the

observers.

Rothschild's

some

natural one such as

are killed

existence.

in

Second,

of

exaggeration

those

many

If

seriously large percentage of

bers)

remaining native birds and

of the

seen/

elepaio [a

pear abundant.

means

667

from

to escape to

cannot resist, or from

the destructive changes, such as deforestation, that man may bring about.
(

>n scores

been
every

of

growths,

it

human

of islands,

followed
of

bit
in

occupation

by the destruction
the

many

former

cases

forest

resulting

in

the complete extinction of

some of the
and other plants composing them.

being almosl restricted to those islands

trees

and differentiated into a large niunber of species, some of fehem of ex-

and of the birds and animals peculiar

to them and dependenl on them for
ami shelter.

tremelj

local

distribution.

.Many are

and others are becoming very uncommon.

A species restricted to one or more

entirely extinct

-inall

islands for

>

habitat

is

at

dis-

advantage for many reasons some of

which can easily he recogni/'d:
First, because island

species usually

comprise but a -mall total number of

individual-, even though being crow'ded
on a small island may make them ap-

!'

Fourth,

the

advenl

man

of

is

in-

variably accompanied by the introduction

of destrucl ive animal-, especially

domestic cats,
goats, and in

rats,

warm

dogs,

hogs,

and

climates often of

the mongoose, to say nothing of noxious

insects,

weeds,

cidentally

and disease germs acThi

imported.

introduced are apl

to

thus

many adone-.
They

have

vantages over the native

XAIT HAL HISTORY

668
forms which

are

periods

wild

have

lived

association with

in

for

long

teal,

The

one

man.

them know his

him unnecesunderstanding how to take ad-

species

habits: they
sarily,

vantage

tg

ai

not

<l<>

the

of

fear

results

of

his

labor,

while evading the consequences of the

found
small

reported

nowhere
island.

this

fewer than

on

except

Fisher,

species

this

in

1902,

reduced

as

to

hundred individuals.

one

num-

Bailey, in the April-May, 1910.

\\ti i;\i. Eistory, reports it as

reduced to seven. Even if among these
bei

of

hostility that their depredations cause;

seven individuals there are

members of

the domestic species benefit by his care

both sexes that can breed,

it

They are vigorous and

creatures.
The changes in the

inevit-

is

and protection.

able that the species will soon die out

prolific

from the

condition of the land brought about by

clearing and cultivation make the en-

vironment more and more suitable for

them as time goes on, but less adapted
for the native forms. Moreover, among
the

new

effects

inbreeding that

of inbreeding.
is

likely

to

It is

make

the

permanent preservation of the heath

hen impossible, unless it may be found
practicable to introduce the necessary

new blood by

crossing with a few in-

some that find their new home pecu-

dividuals of the prairie chicken of the

western states. The two species are for-

adapted to their needs, so

to an extent that

tunately so closely allied that crosses

in all proportions would probably be

arrivals there are

liarly well

they

that

apt to be

increase

crowds other species practically out of

by the mere effect of their

existence

numbers, and by their consuming the

available food supply, even if they are
otherwise harmless.
This is especially
the case when domestic animals are
allowed to run wild in such places. It
was a common thing in the early days
of navigation to stock

lands
that

with
ships

is-

boos,

so

them

visiting

could also get

uninhabited

goats,

cattle,

or

for

water

supply of fresh meat,

an item of no small importance when

voyages were of indefinitely long duration and cold storage was as yet undreamt of. The literature of many of
these
the

islands

full

is

of references to

and

deforestation

other

damage

that these animals caused.

Fifth, as the
in a

number

ing becomes unavoidable,

effect

and its wellmakes the long

survival of the species impossible.

If

an

animal is to be saved, protection

must le given before its numbers be-

come too

Laysan Island, an
the Hawaiian

small.

member of
group, possesses among
outlying
birds a

species

of

other peculiar

duck, the

and any changes in plumage

would probably soon breed

Such an experiment seems well

the crossing
out.

worth trying, as it appears to offer the

only possibility of preserving the heath
hen.

means least, life in

more uniform and protected en-

Last, but by no
the

vironment

of

produces

islands,

in

course of time a lack of adaptability in

the species to endure changes or to resist

loss

new enemies, and may

of

certain

through their

result in the

powers and functions

disuse.

Some

of

birds for instance, having only

the

short

distances to travel and few enemies to

escape from, have more or less completely lost the power of flight.
Such
retrogressive changes are not physical

of individuals

species becomes reduced, inbreed-

known weakening

fertile,

or other visible characters produced by

Laysan

only

Compare, for

but

also

mental.

instance,

with

the clever resourceful-

ness of the crow and the red fox. which

maintain themselves in thickly settled

districts in spite of man's hostility, the
stupid tameness of the dodo ami Stellers sea cow described in contemporaneous accounts, or the senseless.
small native Hawaiian birds of which it is said, though
probably not without some exaggera-

timidity of certain

ISLAND ANIMALS AND PLANTS

they are afraid even to

tion, thai
a

road cul through the forest, and re-

main always on
happened

We
there

among

thai

remote

of

many

be

will

it

expecl

population

small

where they
was built.

side

when

to be

cannol

the

the

islands

people

influential

ami

lofty

mere extinction
and annihilation of the mosl interesting pari of Hi,, material with which it
deals, the information ahout the life.
habits, food, and reproduction of
vanishing species that would be ac-

quired

unique character of the

and animals and a realization of the urgenl need for their
and
fe\*
protection although
care

that

the

of

plants

native

communities
persons

now

are

such

with

some

without

Bui

interests.

it'

these peculiar island species are allowed

become extincl through neglecl and

to

indifference,

of local

science and

with

all

interest

in

matter

also

is

ii

scientific

to

an

merely

qoI

is

it

concern

loss

men. and to
zoology and

botany, scientific or popular, throughthe world

out

repaired

always he
to

the

in

loss

reproach and

cannol

thai

future and

that

discredit

presenl generation.

til.-

Our Governmenl and our

societies

own

should

see

to

disappearing

species

even care and proted

ter

scientific

on our

thai

it

island possessions at least

ami

is

be
will

tin-

rare

given

an-

ion. hut the

mat-

such an urgenl one and of such

importance

to

science

that

the

duty

should not ho considered as limited by

and we should reproper ground for inter-

political boundaries,

gard

it

a- a

natio

iperation,

those even

in

foreign

or

for

assisting

possessions

who

in

musl

ami only
cause of regrel

he

will

in tin- future.

The whole subjeel of conservation ione that musl receive greater consideration than that which has yet been
conceded to it. We
ften dismiss it
from our minds, and silence our consciences with the thoughl that it can lie
dealt with by the Governmenl or by
I

who have

people

other

troubles of then-

not

sufficienl

Thai we oughl
to do as little damage to the world
and to nature as we can during our
brief stay here, and that we should
leave for those

<,u n

who come

after u-

some

of

resources and as

many

as

we can of the wonderful and

inter-

he natural

esting animals and plant- and the other

beautiful

them

to

over

squeezed

dom

objects

instead

enjoy,

ami

too

and

that

there

i-

i>

our

in

Bui

turning
a

doctrine too
I>

.-el

preached

after

it

is

sel-

or colleges
in

to

our
late

now not far aheadcome a realization that

mistake ever made by the

time

i>

likely to

the greatesl
idea

in

rarely

churches.

nature which we
the world
the condition of a

in

of

lemon.

taughl

ethic-

such a

preserve

our knowledge facts

studied now or never.
to

opportunity

lasl

Even

as

be

of this plain duty ami of this

\' _!'<!

human

we regard science

to

serious efforl

them would add

need encouragemenl <>v help to enable

thorn to carry on such protective work.
it'

ranseendental conception as

to be indifferenl to the

with a taste for scientific or popular

natural history, or with any appreciation

G69

race was not to have taken that

the foundation of
am! conduct.

as

it-

code of

MAJOR ROBERT

M.

YERKES

Lately Chief of the Division of Psychology, Medical Department,

United States

G70

Army

draftees

cal

ei

KX

ORG

G E

emergency

enable them to discover naand utilize it in

Thai
every phase of modern science.
most
the
psychology, in man} respects
science.
applied
ill''
M'ul of
to

Government

the disposal of the

technique whereby a

at

mental

measuremenl

of each

raw, problem-

accurate

fairly

made

be

ruul,'!

recruit,

atical

is

but

striking illustra-

orig-

American resourcefulness,

tion of

meril

of

points

"i'

American
vie\*

Im'Ii;i\ ior.

vrorkablj
of

versus

the

in

bul

German

problem of hu-

brain

power of the manwould nol only enor-

also

milk''

of organ-

possible

;i

writer's

experience

officer- are

to

adopl

positions of leadership
It

ity.

thai

commanding

everywhere and always eager

any technique or method

S.

and responsibil-

equally important to dis-

is

cover those so low in the scale of intelligence as to constitute a menace in

the use of firearms and to the success
of any military undertaking.
1,
recognition of these clearly desirable ends the Medical Department of
1

Army,

the

procedure prepared

and

methods,

Commitl

the

L917, accepted

August,

in

the details of the technique,

for trial

by

Psychological

the

Examination of Recruits, whereby a

mental classification of all recruits
could be made shortly upon arrival in
various

the

The trial
cantonments.
Surgeon General of the

results led the

recommend

to

examining

to "all

candidates for

and

;ill

Earl}

to the

War De-

the extension of intelligi

partmenl

w ise

expenditure of this power and thus pre

\ .-nt
wastage of material resources as
o the
It
has
well ;i- man power.

S.

resourcefulness

tive

Army
accurate scientific clas-

hood of the Army

mously abbro iate the period
ization,

likewise

is

aentarj on the relative

c<

man

sification

It

initiative.

nii'l

inality,

an effective

Armj

will

peared Likely to require the services of

able

C, U.

which

such proportion as ap-

place

A R P S

\\

Major,

of

lately

drew this nation

gle of r.'l
into the \urtex the AmeriRepublic was confronted with an

can

rating

Ohio State University;

the internecine strug-

W||

intelligence

Intelligence Tests

The Army
By

for

examining building

company

officers'

officers, all

training cai

drafted and enlisted men."

in

L918, the

War Departmenl

approved the recommendation of the

Surgeon General and created the Division of Psycholog} in Hi-' Sanitary
>epartment for
!orps of the Medical
t

the purpose of carrj ing into effect the

psychological ser
lot

NATURAL HISTORY

672

signed

each of

'"

the larger training

In addifrom twenty

camps.
\l

tinii,

i"

privates

sixty

were assigned for

temporary duty as
scorers, clerks, typ-

and

ists,

t"

of literate

draftees taking

Alpha

the

in

conduct of the examinations and to

>

/I
Group

orderlies,

assisl

intelligence test

make

readily

available the

com-

results to the various

manding officers.
With this organization
and by means of the group
method, it was possible to
examine, in times of pressure, as

sand

dav

many

as three thou-

recruits
in a

in

single

given cantonment.

Variety of Tests

Employed

Alpha. This is a group

and is intended for
who can read,
Literates

test

Scoring Alpha examination papers.

By means of stencils
was possible to score the papers almost as rapidly as succeeding groups were examined.
Commanding officers received the
results within twenty four hours after examination

and understand Engwith a fair degree of

The general pracease.
write,

it

lish

tice

Psych illogical Personnel

Upon

cruits

the creation of the Division of

Psychology in the Medical Department, about one hundred officers and

three hundred enlisted men were mobilized at

Camp

Greenleaf, Georgia, in

the Medical Officers*

and

there

given

Training Camp,

intensive

military

training, instruction in the technique

and methods of psychological examining, army paper work, and such other
instruction

medical

required

of

the

regular

officer.

The above personnel were then

signed

ments

as-

large

canton-

to carry into effect the

methods

to

the

various

examining.
From
three to five commissioned officers and
four to eio-ht enlisted men were asof

psychological

-tat ion

school

as

was

to

segregate

on the basis of the grade

last

re-

they entered the examining

attended

rule, for the

fifth

in

grade, as a

white and eighth grade for

Those who fell below these grades were ordered to take

(Beta) examination.
the illiterate
With proper facilities as many as five
hundred recruits could be examined in
The proapproximately one hour.
cedure was entirely objective in that
the examiner and the scorers were
wholly unacquainted with the men exThe scoring was done by
amined.
means of stencils and in the absence of
the men examined, which procedure
the colored troops.

eliminated personal bias and prejudice.

Differences in intelligence, or degrees
of mental
the

-cores

competency, as revealed by
made, were indicated by

THE ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS

seven letter ratings, each Letter being
the equivalenl of certain numerical

The

points.

aumeri-

letter grades, the

-,1

of

67

Ai.ru

parallels

tests

in

method of scoring, the variety of grades

of intelligence classification, and in the

ca] equivalents, and significance of each

objective character of the

are as follows

workable correlation exists between

Alpha and Bet \ so that an "A"' grade
in the former is roughly equivalenl to

135 to 212

Very Superior Intelligence:

P oints

Men who graded "A," when

other

of

sessed

essary

pos

xinvnu

were regarded as "high

tions,

From

type."

the drafl

officer

are given to those

very

low

-.-.in-

in

Ai.rn

failed

Superior Jntelligena

Men

105 to 134 points.

"B"

who graded
other

possessed

frequently

sterling

qualities

which qualified them for the con

sioned

officer

an

tice

t\ pe.

outranked

grade

officer

"A" grade

efficiency an

in

but only when other aecessarj

qualities were pronounced in

for

tin'

and relatively lacking in the latter.

The '!'" grade indicates high
material.
type of uoneommissi
tner

Wig)

mi'

I fti

Higt net

missioned

.1

ragt

/..-.

private

type

with

I "f> lligi net

ragt

of

'

'

<

non-

fair

25

to

Men

D-

:i

Very Jnferio

rule

make only

This
tent

grade

win. are

development

sol-

"t'

intelligence

recommended
battalions,

to

14

repre-

incompe
for

special

vice organizations, or for dischai

i-

Like

Alpha

i-

intended for

foreigners.

Knowledge

not

essential

in

of

taking this

is

English
test

the instructions are given by the

iner bv

English

of

complete mental

clas-

made

pos-

recruits

all

is

.Major

M. Yerkes, lately chief of

I;.

Psychology, gives the

Division of

summary

the

of

psychological examining

in

results

means

of dei

-t

rations.

of

the various

this service

was or-

examining was

of mental

finally

in

thirty-five

army

A grand total of
camps.
1,726,000 men had been given psychological examination prior to January
of this number, aboul U,000
1. L919.
were commissioned officers. More than
83,000 of the enlisted men included in
the total had been given an indi\ idual
examination in addition to the group
examination for literates, for illiterates, or both.

group
illiterates and

this

the

Scale.

oh\ ious from the above that the

"Between
Beta.
bul

Bine!

training

illiter-

t'aii

sents the mentally unfit, the

tesl

and

Scale
the

li'-

I'

for those

namely, the

variety of tests covers every case and

ganized

|"imt^.

15 to 24

of this grade are slow,

and as

forms of indi-

utes to an hour.

organized

'

having

after

>rdinary private material.

o

of

cantonments where
:

the

in

"The work

'""

make

or

Performance Scale
are examined.
The time required to give an indh idual examination varies from ten min-

By means

following

commissioned material.
<

idual tests

sible.

45 to 74 points.

English,

revision

illiterates

commissioned rank.

Poinl

rerkes-Bridges

the

Two

\.

understand

win.

material, rarely ma-

officer

for the

L04

This grade indicates good ooncom

"

Tail

idual examinations are w-^'l

sification

"

who

in

that, therefore, a

75 to

Stanford
prac-

actual

"11"

occasional

officer,

the latin-.

in

Tests.

\i.

three to five per cent of

were "A" grade men.

\" grade

"'

an

qualifica-

results.

is

since
<

This

30,

1918, ::

ported

for

April
i:

21

and

(0.5 per

discharge h\

com

November
i

were

re-

psychological

examiners because of mental inferiority.

The number of recommendations
for assignmenl to labor battalions because of low grade intelligence was

NATURAL HISTORY

674
9871 (0.6+ per cent).

men
for

total of

assignment

to

9432

recommended

(0.6+ per cent) was

development

bat-

order that they might be

carefully observed and given prelimitalions

in

nary training to discover, if possible,

ways of using them in the Army.

"During

same

this

period

of

six

months, there were reported 4744 men

with mental age ratings below seven
years; 7762 between seven and eight
years; 14,566 between eight and nine
years; 18,581 between nine and ten
years.
This gives a total of 45,653 (3
per cent) men under ten years' mental
age.
It is extremely improbable that
many of these individuals were worth
what it cost the Government to maintain, equip,

and train them for military

service."

Sample Alpha Tests {for Literates) 1

Beta

"Close-up" demonstration of

demonstrator

is

showing how

to

test.

The

put in missing

parts

The recruits marched into the examining room, were seated, and each
supplied with a pencil and examination
booklet by orderlies who supervised
the group during the examination and
upon its completion collected the
papers and pencils.
As soon as the
group was seated and supplied with
the necessary examining material, the
following general directions were given
by the examiner
:

"Attention!
The purpose of this
examination is to see how
well you can remember,
think, and carry out what

you are told to do. The

aim is to find out what you
are best fitted to do in the

Army.
"Now,

man

in

Army

the

commands and then

them out

exactly.

going

give

to

out.

e
1

to those

who

The

manikin

test,

which the recruit

one of the Performance tests given

have made a low score in the preceding group tests
is

to see

closely.

questions.

//

Individual examination.
trying to put together,

am

some
well

any other

is

you

how

Listen
]

carry
I

you can carry them

commands

M\

often has to listen to

Do
man

Ask

no

not watch
to see

what

does.
The Alpha examination

com-

prises eight tests given to recruits

in groups numbering 500 as a desirable maximum.
In practice the actual number probably did not exceed 200 as an average. Each such
group could ordinarily be examined
in somewhat less than one hour.

THE ARMY INTELLKII-XC

"Look

at

When

your papers.

instantly whatever
yon are doing ami hold your pencil up
>o. (Examiner illustrates by raising
Don't put your /<<
}n- pencil.)
down to tin' paper until I say 'Go.'
say.
Do
1
T.i>t<Mi carefully to what
just what yon are told to do. Remem"
ber, wait for the word 'Go/
stop

'Attention/

Of

eighl

the

of each of tests

question, as

(><]

">.

6,

1.

and

is

mark..

It

given

TEST
are

tin-

sixteen

test

of

ime

is

called.

so that

all.

it

money aside and

may

you

prepare for old age or sickness

colled all the different kinds of money

are

made

of leather, because

is

tanned

it

is

tough, pliable ami

it

can be lilackened

Why

:;

warm

do soldiers wear wrist watches rather

Because

than pockel watches!

Below

sense.

it

they keep better time

they are harder to break

to each question.
Y*>u are to look at
answers carefully: then make a cross in

i.

until

wiser to put some

is

si

Three answers are

questions.

"ii

gamble when you wish

common

i>

with a cross.

not spend

Twelve items are included under this test

of which 1. 1. 7. 11. and 12 are here reproUnder each item are
duced (see below).
tin' directions used by all psychological examiners in giving tin' tost to recruits.

is

ami keep

here.

This

warm

the best one ami

Begin with No. 1

the second answer

lei.-

is

"J

PARTS OF TEST

they keep us

they an- black

1,

Because

we use stoves?

.hi

they look well

Sample

amount

limited

the sample:

in

Why

included in the

tests

Alpha examination

675

square before the best answer to each

the

I call

77->7>

/;

they are handier

ooooo

"Attentionl
'Attention' always means 'Pencils up.'
but not before, make
figure 2 in the second circle and
not more than 5 seconds)
:.

Look

:it

th<

1.

in

When

the third circle.

Go!"

say

'Go'

(Allow

4.
Look at 4.
"Attentionl
not in the triangle or square,
Go!"
but not in the square.

7.

When

say 'Go'

11.

7F

letter after

\\|,,,

I. Gol"

sa

which

is

which is in the circle but

in the triangle and circle,

out the letter just after

ads)

F and

draw

also

a line

(Allow not more thai

A04QQA

Look at 11. Whei

and also through everj odd Dumber

"Attentionl
-'}

a figure 2 in the space

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
i

than

make

and also make a figure 3 in

(Allow not more than 10 seconds)

draw

odd number that

everj

lini

tl

with

let!

is

nol

low not more

seconds)

12.

123456789
ore than 2
Look al 12
more than 5. in which case draw a line under the number

"Attentionl

10 seconds)

out the number

Gol" cross
(Allow not more than
'".')

-l.

NATURAL HISTORY

(>7<>

9 If a
a

man who

river,

can't

swim should

yell for help

and

try to scramble out

dive to the bottom

i'ii

lie

fall into

he should

his

and crawl out

back and

float

After one and a half minutes the examiner called "Stop" and directed attention to test 4.

TEST

If the two words of a pair

or nearly the same,

If they
posite,

mean

draw a

mean

line

the

same

under same.

the opposite or nearly the op-

draw a

line

under opposite.

If you

cannot be sure, guess. The two samples are

already marked as they should be

Samples

fgood
bad
s

little

small

no yes

same opposite
same

opposite

same opposite

day night

same opposite

leave
begin commence
bitter sweet

same opposite
same opposite
same opposite

credit debit
assiduous diligent

same opposite
same opposite

permanent
mitigate
execrate revile

same opposite
same opposite
same opposite

go

transient
palliate

Forty

.v

1/7 i:m.

Sample Beta Tests (for Illiterates

and Foreigners)
In the so-called
i

of

aeeessary.

J>i.i

English

ih''
Ii

is,

tests a

language

knowlis not

therefore, possible to

discover foreigners

and others of high

in<mi;y
It becomes a plain matter of arithmetic to compute the wastage in selecting, for example, 10,000 of such mental

incompetents.

mous wastage with

mental

one hundred times this

twenty-five cents per
As a matter of fact, during six

other

many men

grades of mental ability.

As in the case of Aiimia, the

Beta

months

itive

a-

well

man.

examination comprises eight distinct

Each test is demonstrated on a
tests.
blackboard, partly in pantomime, by
the examiner with the assistance of an
Parts of two of the eight tests
orderly.
are given here.

this enor-

the cost of giving

tests to

as

ability

Compare

at

psychological

of

examining

were 12,506 men reported with

intellectual maturity ranging from less
than seven years to under eight.
It
requires no particular levy on the
imagination to determine the degree of
responsibility attached to this grade of
there

intelligence.

Value of the Psychological Service

If

it

costs $2500, as has been esti-

mated, to equip, train a man for eight

months, and send him overseas; if he
is

now found mentally incompetent

and therefore returned, mustered out,

insurance and pension obligation closed
at an additional expense of $2500, then
we find a total of $5000 needless expenditure.

Add

to this

number 33,147 men with

a mental rating of between eight and

ten years and the economic importance
of mental classification of recruits be-

When we consider the

clogging effects of very low grade mentals in the development of army or-

comes apparent.

and the positive dangers

connected with the assignment of these
children with adult bodies to comba-

ganization

tant

value

units,

the

mental

of

1.

classification

be-

comes increasingly
Profes-

manifest.

and emergency army officers

sional

were not slow in

recognizing

the

importance of this
type of service.

The words of
Major Robert Conard, M.E.C., Surgeon,

36Tth

In-

fantry. A.E.F., are

significant in this

connection
'"The

sorting

both

process,

and

physically

Geometrical construction in Beta test.

Through use of cardboards,
blackboard, pantomime, and demonstration, the subjects are directed to fit
in the separate pieces by means of pencil lines in the heavy-faced square
figure to the right in each of the ten problems.
At the end of 2Vz minutes
miner calls "Stop!" and the next test is undertaken

mentally,

is,

as

it

seems to me, one

of the most important things to

THE ARMY INTELLIGENCE TESTS

I eliminated

be done.

about a thou-

nition

of

679

elemental

the

fact

sand and am now reaping the benefit

in the way of a phenomenally low in-

supremacy must ultimately,

which I hope to mainThe mental selection is a great

tain.
filing, and cannot be given too much
So much time and energy
weight.

tentious

effective rate,

have been wasted in training men who

are mentally unfit, that I am sure the
value of early elimination of that ele-

ment must be recognized."

Among

the

main purposes

resl with that side of a conworld which levies insistent

tribute

upon

intelligent

its

of

is

cannot

visibility

be

combatant service;
(2) Further segregation of those
wholly incompetent for military service
from those capable of service in labor
selection of

Assistance in the
candidates for (a) Infantry School of
Quartermaster Schools,
(b)
Officers,
(3)

members of

In recognition of this cardinal prinin

view of the cxtraordinary
value of native resourcefulness, and, in
view of the imperative necessity of utilizing the host brains of the nation in

ciple,

positions of leader-hip. the psychologists, under the able direction of Major R. M. Yoikes. conceived the idea of

the difficult task of classifying the men

the American Army into seven

of

Artil-

grades of intelligence. The top grade

representing the cream of American

Signal Schools, and

Noncommissioned Officers' Schools

manhood was thereby immediately

made available to the regular army

Machine-gun Schools, (d)

(c)

lery Schools,

en-

applying the science of psychology to

battalions;

f)

safely

trusted i" any save those endowed with

nothing short of very superior or su-

the

be listed:
iclogical service
mentally deof
the
Segregation
(1)
ficient from those capable of doing

<

manhood.

generally acknowledged principle that success hangs heaviest on intelligent leadership and that places of
It

society.

may

that

not im-

mediately,

perior ability, the gifted

Purposes of Intelligence Tests

if

(e)

Assistance in determining

fit-

ness for promotion or assignment to

positions of responsibility;
(5) Assistance for personnel adjutants in the assignments of recrur
organizations in such a way as to secure an equitable distribution of intelligence

and thus avoid loading one

company

of a regiment, for example,

with a preponderance of relatively inferior men while overweighting another

with relatively superior men;

(6) Assistance in classifying men
sent to battalion schools into classes of

thus enabling each

approximate
group to proceed at a rate commensurate with the ability of the group.
ability,

General Significance of the Psychological Service

idea back of the

psychological service as a whole consists essentially in the clear recog-

The fundamental

officer,

who.

lot

it

he said to the lasting

somewhat maligned professional class, was not slow to employ intelligence tests, upon being convinced
of their validity and utility, in the selection of commissioned and noncom-

credil of a

missioned

officers.

It

is

true

that

"cream will rise to the surface"; it is

equally true that the process is slow
and wasteful. The psychological "separator" not only abbreviated the process but graded the quality.
The outstanding significance of the

psychological service, its most enduring contribution to national well-being

consists in demonstrating the imperative necessity of placing intelligence

examination on a parity with physical

examination as now conducted by the
medical profession. In this respect the

work of the psychologists in the American Army finds no parallel or precedent.

The

Intelligence of

Negro Recruits

By M. R. T R A B U E
Director,

ON

Bureau

of Educational Service,

E of the most interesting refound by the psycholo-

sults
gists

who examined recruits

Army, dur-

entering the United States

ing the war just closed, was the surprisingly low intellectual level of those

Columbia University

as tin- median white child entering the same

high school, the average difference between
the ages of the two races being seven
months.
2. The Negroes who enter high school in
New York City remain somewhat longer on
the average than the white pupils.
The scholarship marks assigned by
''>.

members

of the colored race

examined.

who were

Previous studies had been

confined very largely to comparisons of

the Negroes in public schools with
children

white

in

the

same

schools.

These had invariably resulted in lower

averages for the colored race than for
the white, but in almost every case the

had been relatively small

and the ranges of abilities for the two
races had been practically identical.
As an example of the studies which
had been made, the following summary
differences

may

be given of the findings of a study

hundred
Negroes entering the high

of the school records of one

and

fifty

schools of

New York

City.*

teachers to the colored pupils in the New

York City high schools average somewhat
lower than the marks assigned by these same
teachers to the white children.
The accom-

panying figure shows the range of the final

marks for sixty-six white pupils and for sixty-two colored pupils. It will be seen in this
distribution that not more than .7 of the distribution of marks for colored pupils is
below the average of the white pupils.
4. English is the one study in which there
is the greatest difference between colored
and white pupils. Only one fourth of the
colored pupils attain marks in English which
are as good or better than the average mark
obtained by white pupils in the same study.

Studies by Dr. George 0. Ferguson

also indicated that Negroes were
1

bad

distinctly

Only 36 per cent of the Negroes are

as young at the time they enter high school
1.

less

capable in educational

measurements than the white children

in the same school systems in the
South. Dr. Ferguson also found that

when he

classified

his colored pupils

into groups according to the blackness

of their skins, the relationship between

and achievement was quite diswith lighter skins making

color

tinct, those

higher scores.
The writer was very

much

surprised

in July, 1918, at the differences in the

intelligence

scores

obtained

between

certain groups of Negroes drafted for

the

Army and

sent to

Camp

Grant,

Il-

and the white men who were

drafted to the same camp. The diagram <>|>|>n>ite represents the percentlinois,

mo
Comparison

the distribution of scholarship

averages (the figures from 20 to 100, below) of
white and colored pupils in New York City high
schools. The scholarship marks for an individual
are the median of all marks obtained by the pupil,
except those obtained in courses repeated because
The figures at the left indicate the
of failure.
number of pupils in the respective columns who
gained the average indicated be'.ow the columns

680

ages

(if

the various "intelligence grade-"

of

*Mayo, M.

Mental Capacity of the American

Psychology, Vol. XXVIII, 1913.
1
Psychology of the Negro, Archives of Psychology, Vol. XXXVI.
Dr. Ferguson lias reported
-T.

Negro, Archives

of

with the Army tests, similar to those reported in tlii- article, in The Intelligence of Negroes at Camp Lee, Virginia, School and Society,
Vol. IX. X.i. 123:',, June 14.

findings

THE INTELLIGENCE OF NEGRO RECRUITS

518 Louisiana Negroes

--

5212

Mississippi Negroes
--

dts

28052
788
124

G81

andida

Depol Brigade Officers

'I

NATURAL HISTORY

Ij,s-J

many

in

respects than the data used in

In the first place,

previous studies had dealt entirely with
school pupils; that of Mayo, particularly, had dealt only with Negroes and
white pupils who had persisted in
school work up to the high school
grades.
A very much smaller and
more highly selected proportion of the
colored race than of the white race persists in its efforts to secure an education; hence, previous comparison had
been between the "cream" of the colored race and more or less ordinary
previous studies.

white persons.
for

The Army
unselected

relatively

both races.
The comparison in the

somewhat favorable

results are

samples

of

Army may

be

to the colored race

because of the greater possibility of in-

men

obtaining commissome essential induswhich would exempt them from

telligent white

sions or entering
try,

being drafted.
Practically, however,
removal of many of the more clever
white men from the drafted group is
not important and is probably compensated for by the fact that less care
was taken by draft boards in eliminating
unfit Negroes than was the case with
white recruits.
this

Mayo, in his study in New York

City, had used teachers' marks as the
comparisons,

while

basis

for

Army

actual performances on the

in

the

on the one hand, and the white men

among whom they were now living, on
the other.

To

be perfectly fair to both races and

to eliminate so far as possible the probability that white

men were

undue advantage by the

given an

better educa-

tional opportunities of the North, the

scores for literate

and

illiterate

men

were kept separately. Test Alpha required that the person taking it be able
to understand oral and printed directions and statements in the English
language and to carry out these directions thoughtfully.
Test Beta did not
require ability to understand either
printed or spoken English. The directions were given by demonstration and
pantomime, and the tasks to be done
were such that ability to read or recognize the words

and

letters of the

Eng-

language was not required. The

comparisons in Table I are, therefore,
for white men and Negroes who had
been educated in the English language
and were accustomed to reading and
writing frequently.
The comparisons
in Table II are for men of both races
who had not learned to read or write
lish

sufficiently well to

make

practical use

The same
shown graphically in the

of their accomplishments.
facts

are

on page 684.
Later examinations of similar groups

figures

same
and problems were used
as the basis. In other words, as a basis
for comparisons between the two races,

revealed exactly the same type of thing,

definite nature of the

very superior to the estimates given by teachers in assigning
scholarship grades.

were typical of the results obtained in

sets of tasks

the

objective,

Army

tests is

During the

latter part of July, 1918,

Negroes from St.

Louis, Chicago, and the surrounding
territory was sent to Camp Grant.
In
the meantime, additional Negroes from
the South had been examined.
Comparisons were made early in August
between the scores of these northern
Negroes and their southern brethren,
a

large

draft

of

and correspondence with the psychoexaminers at other camps indicated that our findings at Camp Grant

logical

other parts of the country.

There are one or two very important

features which probably need to be rec-

ognized as cautions in interpreting the

scores represented above.
It is probable that even though the white men in
Table II were just as illiterate as the
colored men in that table, the white
men had had, nevertheless, somewhat

more experience in making check marks

with a pencil than had the colored men.
It may also be that a few of the pic-

THE INTELLIGENCE OF NEGRO RECRUITS

TABLE

TABLE

Frequency of Scores made by Literate

Recruits,

Raw Alpha

Camp Grant,

Illinois

683

II

Frequency of Scores made by Illiterate

Recruits,

Camp Grant,

Illinois

Southern Negro Recruits

Northern Negro Recruits

Northern White Recruits

THE INTELLIGENCE OF NEGRO RECRUITS

mental testing

Army,

in the

going

is

to

the social problem of adjusting

affed

the two races,

not dear.

is

mation presented above

obtained

w nli thai

when

the

>i\

the

infor-

included

lie

oilier

camps

Psychology of

ision of

SurgeoE General of

Office

of

Annv

publishes

tads

will

many

in

'Flic

tin'

The

report.

it> official

he

tremendouslj
ami worth while a- an indication of
what the situation really is, hut they
will

interesting

l>e

not. of course, in

will

themselves indi-

cate just what Should he done ahollt

it.

Each student of sociology will interThe w riter,

pret them in his own way.
being

member

of the educational pro-

has the

following surest ions

on.
to

make regarding

the education of the

to

685

preach the gospel, explain the law.

or teach niatheinai

ics,

immt

cramped and become

are

they

have

ward

be

to

ur

other

things

w hieh

minds

ive

ineflied ive

if

constantly to-

than the

fields

in

are interested, jusi as dull

the\

minds are made discontented and dangerous

required or encouraged to nn-

if

dertake work

We

to fail.

according

w hieh they are certain

in

must

all

serve one anol her

our particular capacities.

The proper social ideal and educal ional
program would provide for those Negroes and white- who will uever he
aide to learn to read and write, effective
to

training in some Held in which they

can he successful and happy. At preshe only hing we offer is an
ent, aboul
t

transplant the system of schools which

academic education, leading nowhere

in particular and impossible of mastery by more than a very small per-

now

centage of

Negro.

would seem utter

It

exists for white people,

has been
tions

developed

ith

\\

to try

folly

for

ami which

manj genera-

ho learned professions as

to

its

The

ultimate goal, to the Negro race.

average uorl hern Negro has ability to

learn now things which is aboul equivato

the average

possessed

lent
by
eleven-year-old white school hoy. while

that

Negro

the average southern

capable

is

about as

his intellectual capacities as

in

the average nine-year-old white school

boy.

course, there are

>f

Ne-

lew

groes of "superior" ami "very superior""

with our modern

intelligence, bu1
for

cilities

the

testing

fa-

intelligence of

children and adult-, tin- -mall percentage "I' lie colored race might easily he
i

selected oul of the

and

given

learned

opportunity

professions,

ion

in

to

;i

study

to

the}

it'

condemning

without

Ordinary Negroes
t

ma-- of their fellows

the

the

desire,

so

millions

of

system of educa-

which they are absolutely

cer-

tain to fail of success.

It

i-

sary

in

land,

to

lawn-,

a-

shrubbery,

fort, t" serve the

ters,

respectable and

world of ours to till the

care for animal-, clothing,

thi-

ami

personal

public as waiters,

scavengers, ami the like.

,-i-

comp
it

>r

i-

he colored race.

Such training as i> suu^ested above

should he a fundamental part of the
public school system in localities where
the

type

such

is

as

demand

to

These

education.

of

white

the citizen-,

of

intelligence
black,

or

that

courses

should no! he considered "inferior" or

less
lic

"respectable" than the present pubno disIt

curriculum.
is

school

-race for
to

attend

e.-|>eciall\

ahilit ies,

to

is

blind to have

course which

lor

and

with

those

attend

rain

prepared

his

limited

him

less

"dull" child, white or

that

section

public school system which

ted to

i-

should not he any

it

respectable for
black,

who

child

in

take training and

is

of

the

host

fit-

where he can
which he will he

fields
in

and successful.
Contentment
adds to efficiency ami success lead
contentment. Our presenl school program is not fitted for the large mass
of tin V gro race, and for a considerable port ion of our w hite race.
Fundamental changes need to he made for
the sake of those whose ability runs
along the line- of personal sen ice ami
bodily toil rather than to the juggling
of words and idea-.
conieiii

Central African

South A frican Bushmai

Andamanese Negrito

SKULLS OF THE THREE TYPES OF NEGROID PYGMIES

These skulls

may

be taken as fairly typical of the three groups which they represent. They are all small and rather infantile in general appearance.
In the top view the skulls present a rhomboidal contour, with prominent parietal eminences and a narrow frontal region. The brain cases overhang the face and cheek bones so that these are not
visible in this view.
The proportion of the breadth to length of brain case is greater than it is in most Xegro
skulls.
In the front view the low, broad, nasal openings are conspicuous. In the Andamanese skull the
nasal opening is somewhat higher and narrower than in the other two.
The African Pygmy and
Andamanese skulls have very high orbits and the width and height are nearly equal. In the
Bushman skull the orbits are slightly lower. The faces are very small in comparison with
the size of the brain case.
In profile the skulls show more individuality. The face
of the African Pygmy is projecting or prognathous.
In this it agrees with the
skulls of Negroes in general.
In the Andamanese skull the projection of
the face is not so marked, while the Bushman face is nearly vertical.
All three of the skulls have vertical foreheads but the Bushman
shows an extreme development of this characteristic.
The
occipital regions are projecting and the mastoid
processes are small in all three skulls

686

The Pygmy Races

LOUIS

By

R.

SU

I.

Man

of

VA

Assistant Curator, Department of Anthropology, American

PROBABLY

no other groups of man-

many

kind have inspired so

and

Pygmy

much speculation as have the

man. Prom the very earli-

so

races

est times

others

<>t'

up

have

written

of

In spite

provocation.

slightest

and

anthropologists,

myself

ling

in. -la.

them at the

of this fact a survey of the literature im-

one

ises

with

upon

impressed by the extremes in a group

and will accordingly underestimate the average stature of a tribe containing many short
individuals and overestimate that of a tribe
ally

sparsity

the

all

v> lii.lt

of

tribution,

detailing

and

large majority.

dis-

uals of average stature in the shortest group

Normally there should be

let

u>

geographical

their

come to an understandwe mean by Pygmy.

rule ha- Keen set by some

ing as to just what

hard ami fast

anthropologists which admits to the classification a-

whose

certain

does

re
feet,

ill

has

any group of mankind

av

1 1

inasmuch as

150

for

point

normal frequency curve of the stature of

tin'
bulk of mankind.
But a too strict
adherence to the rule will exclude some true
Pygmy groups. .\t the same time it will
include only a very few groups.
Many racial groups who have for years
Pygmies
been considered ami des
ami who an- undoubtedly related to other
-

One reason for

at 150 centimeters.

that enthusiastic travelei

having a high

this is

invari-

measurement

Our comparison

usu-

is

Williamson
Broek, Poutrin, Czekanowski, Seiner, Werner, and
the
important

Duckworth,

Martin.
Sarasin
den Broek, Poutrii
p< to

b]

thi

To

few groups having

dif-

add

be less confusing if

the

tains 100 individuals.

the sake of variety, let us choose 100

Andamanese Negritos, 100 Kung Bushmen,

100 Italians from Sicily, and 100 Scotchmen. In the figure "ii page 688
have placed
in column I the range of stature in mankind
I

in

The she

2-centimeter intervals.
L36

bottom

centimeters,
the column,

ui'

have placed

and the

the

186

Individuals with a

the top.

'

at

tallest,

from 136 to 159.9 centime!

shall call -hint, from 160 to 169.9
medium, and from 170 to 186 centiOpposite tin- scale we shall
i.ute the men according to their stature.
Bach -lent vertical line represents one
man and i- placed opposite the figure in
In
the scale which represents
column 11
have placed the Andam.i
in column
in column I
the
I.

<

the

men.

to the

and

Italian-,

cross

of
that

main
ted

be

same number of individuals,

since this is impossible, we can
obtain nearly the same result by red
the series in a percentage basis and assum*

ower,
r.

should

ire.

will

Our groU]

observer, he he ever -> careful,

1
Eliminating the mere verbal descriptions of
of
travelers and tin- moi
:s
-mall groups of individuals, the bulk of the
on the li\ it
idale,
"m. Montano, Martii
1
brothers,
Wol
Barrows,
Reed

av<

tion of stature in a

aiding ac-

measurements
almost
ably underestimated the avei
curate

An

there

the matter clear, let us examine the distribu-

cannot qualify

tribes considered a-

Likewise

Pygmies.

individuals of very short stature in a group

inches, in the malt-

liny

a- later

of

few individ-

ferent averages.

see later, such a definition

advantages,

Siill

and will
ornate certain tribes as being composed
"f both Pygmies and tall individuals. Such
s undoubtedly
exist but are rare and

speculations are based.]

Before

individuals.

tall

others have no use for averages

one type or the other predominates by a

con

theories

tli>'

many

taining

to the present, travelers, geog-

philosophers,

raphers,

theories

Museui

in

each

the row-

we

group.

mar

Dumber of
A-

column V the Scotch-

indicates

proceed

the

the

approadi
will

It

be

utain the

individuals.
in

either

direction

from
-

NATURAL HISTORY

088

we find fewer and fewer individAndamanese have an average stat-

the average
Tin'

uals.

ure of 149.3 centimeters.

100

men

The Bushmen arc

stature

the average

viduals arc

short

the

and

156.4 centimeters).

tall.

29 of

medium

slightly taller on

medium

Three
stature,

indi-

and

.Must of us have been impressed

68 short.
\,\

Ninety-six of the

are short and only 4 are of

stature of the South Italians

line.

Tor thi- reason we shall be inclined to

few very short individuals. The

average stature is 165.3 centimeters. Twentytwo are tall. 61 medium, and 17 short, The
Scotch present
average stature

the
is

other

172.1 centimeters. 64 are

34 medium, and only

tall.

From
is

tions

the above

it

- are short.

stature exceeds

will be seen that

dwarf-

within

the

group and between two

it

is

very

150

centimeters.

We

shall

mention certain other groups who,

though perhaps not true Pygmies, are border-

also

line cases.

In the main the word

to

several

tral

African

Negrillos

The exact

Negritos.

Central

Pygmy

is

restricted

Negroid racial types of small

Best known of these are the Cen-

stature.

stated

a relative matter and that the transi-

given groups are so gradual that

The

extreme.

in-

clude as Pygmies some groups whose average

will be surprised to note that there arc

relatively

ism

to draw a hard and fast dividing

The Pygmies merge gradually into
mankind proper in the matter of stature.
difficult

African
with

and

Negrillos

finality.

Oceanic

the

distribution

cannot

Roughly,

of
yet

they

the

be
are

mostly confined to a belt five degrees north

and south of the equator extending nearly
across the African continent.

number of the

The greater

tribes inhabit the dense for-

THE

GMY RACES OF MAN

/')

The distribution of the Oceanic NeThe "Miniore definitely known.

ests.

They

[slands.

inhabil

called,

so

copies,"

are

Andaman

the

particular

of

found

Malay Peninsula.

_>

group

in

;li

Pygmy Neg
Guinea.

sporadically

occur

in

ticularly
I

Kalahari

the

of

not uniqu

in

the

Pygmy types. The Mongoincludes many groups of very short

and the Australoid

ra

true

The Veddah of the

Pygmies.

There

The

two

are

would

It

of

points

particular

in-

distribution of the

the

in

their discontinuous distribution,

is

first

widely separated an
that

island of Cey-

the Toala of Cele-

They belong

very short.

all

the Australoid or pre-Dravidian race.

In.!..

Mongoloid

As representatives of

may mention

the
_:i..

very sh

Kanka-

Philippines,

the

>rt

this typ<

Bontok, Nabaloi,
of

Tin*

while

affinities,

gjmies, are of

stature.

to

Murut, Kalal.it. Kayan. Maloh,

etc.,

the

of the

interior of the island of Borneo, the

of Java, the Batak* and Kubu of

Sumatra, and possibly some of the mixed

Malay Peninsula.

The

and swamps;

found

are

they

.lit:

distribul

the

in

where in the Malay Peninsula and New

Guinea they are inland and mounta'ii-dwellEverywhere they are outnuming people.
who
9
bered and surrounded by othi
occupy the more desirable portions
locality.

This

theorii

The

in

s.

has given

fact

short

their

things

the

When

stature.

taken into consideration

.are

stature

indicati

is

that

of living man.

types arc

Pygmii
from Peru, South America, and the Neolithic

is

In

Switzerland.

both

instances

d
-

indiscriminately for

matran Indoi

The

the fact that th

rounded by one or more

in

the

indicative

many
the
,,f

most
men.

of

early

the

theory we >hall

the

anatomical

return

shortly,

-y

ial

arrival

them as

te
till

ra

ui

primitive of

To

their

where they now

regions

all

would
and

discontinuous distribu-

this

the reports are based on a

it

unfavorable environment the

lies live in undesirable

tion of the

prehistoric dwarfs or

to

that life

to the effect

is

first

oi

rise

an unfavorable environment has been the

proximately on the outline map of

This lisl in. dud.- all of the dwarfed types
necessary to mention, however, that

Africa

and

-tatme.
a

today

ith

regions;

the desert

inhabit

ii

found

Central Africa

in

foresl

I.

Sweden, and Russia form ^till

Mongoloid affinities, but

scon

are

they

In the Philippines
of the country.
they are confined principally to the nioun-

the

The

as.

wherever

tions

south of India, the Sakai and Senoi of

Malay Peninsula, and

j-

of

Neolithic

the

consider them further.

nol

shall

they are occupying the

It

tall,

Swiss are not to

with the Negroid or Australoid
ass
Pygmies in the matter of stature and we

loid race

quite

individ-

an

to

centimeters

cent

fact

perl

centimeters,

L62.2

occurring as they do only sporadically over

But the

the

stature

approxi-

same place we have

from

production of

lon,

be

this that the Neolithic

from

lesert.

re

would

centimeters.

161.6

males,

and 151.2

he average stature of 11

19.7

145.5,

male

165.6

skeletons

;erland,

At

South

in

region

the

female

they be-

belonging

skeleton

as

They

group.

third

African

South

the

Finally,

Bushmen

the

approximately

ual

that

The

and

L56.1,

Prom

are

three

the interior of British and Dutch

in

male

these

to

151.0,

ctively.

More specifically
Philippine
they are found in the Apayao swamp reg
in the Ilocos Mountains, in the Zambales
Mountains, in the East Luzon Mountains, in
the Smith Luzon Mountains, in the island
Verj
of Palawan, and in Mindanao.
covered

140.8,

height.

in

sponding

ki

lly

to individuals

All

estimated

i-

from

three skeletons

Switzerland.
it

centimeters

Archipelago.

cently

females and

the interior of the

in

Still a third

known are

Besl

Schweizerbild,

int.

because of their long isolation on thes

Another group of Negi itos ki
lands.

of

side

but

this

it

be pointed out here that this apparent stratification

which

cent origin.

The

'

qui!

fact that they are outuuin-

DISTRIBUTION OF THE PYGMY AND SHORT RACES OF MAN

NEGROID PYGMY TYPES

[3

AUSTRALOID PYGMY TYPES

Central African Negrillos

(7) Veddah

Central African Negrillos

(2)

South African Bushmen

(3) Toala

Sakai, Senoi

SHORT MONGOLOID TYPES

I

41

/ 1\ Indonesians

/2\

Indonesians of Borneo

"Aeta" Philippine Negritos

/3\

Indonesians of Sumatra

Melanesian Pygmies

/4\

Lapps

bered by other races wherever they are

found, would lead to a stratification even if
the Pygmies were very recent arrivals in a
given locality.

Let us now consider briefly the physical

characteristics of the

Pygmies and

common and

see

how

what
respects they differ from one another. The
most striking characteristics shared by all

much they have

690

of the Philippines

Semang Negritos

15
I

Andamanese Negritos

in

in

of

Norway

the Pygmy groups are short stature, a

rather broad nose, dark skin, and hair that
is

not straight.

In Table I is listed the average stature

of the Pygmies and some near-Pygmy
For convenience these are grouped
tribes.
geographically and racially.

group of any considerable

corded

is

the

Mawambi

The
size

so

shortest

far re-

Negrillos described

THE PYGMY RACES OF MAX

b3

They arc

wski.

Czeki

on

8 inches

tall

ni;tlll s ,..

Philippine

New

(iuinca tribes are 150

well

below.

ami

.-.Mil

s.-mang

Table

II

these races

is

In

feet

The An. la-

NVjrritos,

The

than

less

average.

the

or

accustomed

somewhat

are

taller.
Verj few African groups have an
average stature of less than L50 centiThe South African Bushmen also
meters.
in
centimeters
L50
era
ge more than
ay

The Australoid

height.

Australoid

both

AVERAGE STATURE OF THE SHORT RACES OT MEN

57%

[stands . 146.3

145.4 57

"

.150.0 d9
148.6 58%

Andamanese
South Andamanese
N'ortli

lutJioi

least

lhL

Reed

Barrows

India

BaBinj

59%
58%

Williamson
Wollaston
Schlaginhaufen
Wollaston

60

VandenBroek

.148.6 58%
152.2 60
149.7 59
159.8 63
7;; "140.8 55

...

Pure)

Bambute etc
Baiwa (mixed)
Baamba

being

Negritos,
the
"' Philippine
"I
'

'

ula

.... 152.0 60

Seligmann

Poutrin

[sland
'

'

''

'

it

Pygmies are wantBut from the photographs

bag.
u(

Johnston
Czekanowski

(1|i v|
,

.,,.,,,,,,..

[\

veT y cv i-

they have broad low

dent

that

^. rh maN

The [ndonesians have

noses.

Werner

indicate

&ol

es

Martin

Negro

this

affini-

merely the retention of

primitive character indepei

in these groups.
'

brotl

ently

The head form of Pygmies

'

:m

^:;;;. ;

".

,,,,,

breadth

ot

To my mind

height.

tQ

,-

,,,.,,

ratio

the

Neg)

Indonesian Type
,,M

\\

exception of the Senoi, ac-urate data on the nose of the

|.

Australoid

60% Sarasm
"
61%

L53.3
156.1

Ceylon

broader than the nose of

ties but

, '

have

Negritos

Oceanic

Kuropeans and Mongols.

Australoid

Celebes

somewhat narrower nose but still

60

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.ltli

Ex-

excess of 100).

.155.3 61
156.4 61

Kung

Veddah

the width of the nose

in

'

the

"-

South African i;u-lunen

Beikum and Kung

In

and

NegriUos

African

,.,.,,,,,,
1 '"-

Mawambi

is

the Bushmen.

in

flat

than the height (ins greater

8
,
7
by the nasal index
dicnted

'

155.161

M'Bh

other Negroid groups,

of

61

gmies, Equatorial Africa

148.0 58
iBa-Binga)

liv-

developing

in

Census

Annandale

59%
58%

man

The DOSe bridge, V6TJ

in

Bushmen

60
57

successful of the

aces of

almost

58%

its. 2

Semang, Malay Peninsula. .152.0

Mafulu British New Guinea. 155.1
Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea.. 144.8
L50.9
Toricciii. n.v
lath Pygmies,.New Guinea. 149.2
152.8
Pesechem. New Guinea
150.5
Morup, New Guinea
148.7
Kamaweka, New Guinea

Toala,

the

the

Negrito Pygmies
Zambales, Philipi
Batajm,
Batak,

km

low
Inches)

leads

is

type

have

a nose

Statun

sfikum

low broad nose

and the Indonesian

Th
broad nose.
Smith African Bushmen have probably been

The

type

Group, Locality, etc

Negroid

conception

a primitive character universal in the Negro race,

but by no means monopolized by that yroup.

that of the

to

TABLE

Cua

as

this

such

bul

to confusion.

B ushmen

!;

regard

to

characteristic

Pygmies have an

average Mature very similar

\"(iili

(page 692) the nose form of

compared. All of the groups

recorded, with the possible exception of the

We are
Lapps, have a Low, broad nose.

few

inn-tors

69]

\-''

"

is

*""*

.'

m,. 1im ,i,

59%

151.8

,;1

igao,'
1

Bon1
"

Mandaya,
Bilaan>

Tagbanua,

du

Ayars.

KS*
Maioh.

"

"

..155.0 61

Bon

L55.161

:::::::::2!:iS

"

Celebes

"?

Slii
60
..153.9
..154.7 61

Island

158.5
159.8
I.;

Kubu, Sumatra

Mongoloid Typi
Lapps, Norway
,,,,,.-. Russia

Montano
Barrows
Kr;"'""'

Bai

';.;

acteristic

Hose and McDougall

"

Sarasin brothers
Eohll

L58.7

62'

152.:?

60

M.-mtcgazza

Arctic

61

is

Negritos

to

have

expressed

hi- char

by

the

cepha lic index which records the

width ...- the head in ,-,, ..,
In
percentage of the length.
page 693) we note
Table Ml
Phihppine Negritos
the
thai
Andamanese have very
and

wide
155. s

Pygmy

tend
and Negrillos
~
newhat wider head.

"

"

Negroes have long narrow

heads, bul the

ole

,I

62%
6:t

the

ln-a-h.

'Mie

Sem.-inu
..

g"tos

and

the

Ne*

N''-

Guinea

NATURAL HISTORY

692

TABLE

The Aushair.
Pygmies are character
/(
lS
;11I
ull
nee of body
hair.
Some of the Negroid
Pygmies also differ from the
Negroes m general in having

II

coarse

form of the short racks of max expressed by

TII|; NA SAL tNDEX

xii si:

:I

AT

Group and

Pygmies

Negrito

}'";"'

Locality

94.7
106.0

ata k

"
M
North
Andamanese
South Andamanese
Seniang, Malay Peninsula
Mafulu, British New Guinea...
Tapiro, Dutch New Guinea....
Goliath Pygmies, New Guinea...
Pesechein, New Guinea
'

Morup,
(Ba-Binga)
M'Bio (Ba-Binga)
Lobaye (Ba-Binga)

Census
"

The

"

Annandale

differ

Williamson
Wollaston
Van den Broek
"

"

(pure)
etc

Batwa (mixed)
Baamba

M *?hi

102.5
86.0

Broad
Broad

Toala, Celebes Island

"

"

Negroes and

"

Island.....

Kankanay.

"

"

Ifugao,

"

Bontok,

....

....

Bilaan,

Tagbanua,
"
T3
Borneo

"

iToii>;+
Kalablt,

95.0
88.7
101.9
99.8
90.0
93.4
n-i

91.

"
Maloh,
Tenggerese, Java

Orang Kubu, Sumatra

a
iT>r
Arctic
Mongoloid m
Type

Lapps

Johnston
Czekanowski

97.4
100.4

and

89.0

Medium

much

color

the

neighboring

some instances
The Andama

in

Negritos

Philippine

having more

as

described

often a rather dark brown skin

The Indonesians show

color.

Werner

varying shades of yellow-brown

pigmentation. Again, the BushL

Martin
Sarasin brothers

Bean
Barrows

>T

men and

"

Negrillo and

certain

Pygmies

also

differ

from the Ne groes proper in

,.
having a convex upper lip.
(page 686)
I have figured
t iree skulls from the collection
, ,

,.
of the American .Museum of
.

"

Kroeber

Montano
Barrows
-ut^
Hose and m
McDougall
ii

Natural

History,

Kohlbrugge

the three

main types of Negroid

Hagen

T,

"

"

xi

'

From

Pvffmies.
s

-j

'

color.

skul

ese
are

than

lighter

Negrito

Philippine

mies have

Poutrin

Indonesian Type
Nabaloi,

Negroid Pygmies alio

from the other Negroes

having a lighter skin

jn

Bushmen

Heikurn and Kung

Australoid Pygmies
Senoi, Malay Peninsula
Veddah, Ceylon

Pygmies

Guinea.

f
have a light ye]
The Bushmen
The Nelowish brown skin.
grillos and New Guinea Pyg-

912

Q
couth
African

short

character-

reported for some Afri-

New

of

,.

India

of

105.0
105.0
106.0
111.0
105.8
86.9
86.2

N'Gali

Bambute,

88.2
97.0
83.8
81.4
83.9
83.2
88.1

B TIOWS

with

This

Negrillos and the

,-an

;l

hair.

is

istic

Montano
B

covered

bo<1 ->r

downy

Equatorial Africa

Negrillo Pygmies,

Ba Tua

I
92.

:|

the

Author

'

Bataan, Philippine Islands

Zambales,

,,|

(The nasal index expresses the width of the nose in terms of perA large index denotes a
centage of the height of the nose.
narrow nose)
a Mllil " !ndex denotes
broad "" "
'

black

traloid

representing
ij.

left

+
to

,.i +
right
&

Congo Pygmy, a
South African Bushman, and an
they

Deniker

are

Pygmies, for the most part, have somewhat

narrower heads.
The Australoid Pygmies
and the Indonesians also have rather narrow
heads.
The Lapps have extremely broad

Andamanese Negrito. These

heads.

due to
narrow frontal region and the prominence of the parietal eminences. These may

While none of the Pygmies have straight

hair, their hair form is by no means similar.
The Negritos aud Negrillos have
typical Negroid hair, closely curled and
frizzly.
The Bushmen have an extreme type
of Negro hair. The hair is much finer and
more closely coiled. When stretched slightly
it has the appearance of a very fine and
closely coiled spring.
The Australoid Pygmies have either wavy or curly hair.
The
Indonesians have straight or very slightly
waved hair.
The Lapps have straight

skulls are fairly

typical of the groups they represent.

In the

top view they show a similarity in contour,

all

presenting an outline more or

boid

in

form.

This form

is

less rhoni-

in part

the

be regarded as infantile characteristics.

In the front view there are more marked
The nasal opening is narrower
differences.
in

the

Andamanese

Pygmy and Bushman

nasal openings
w-idely separated.

and

skull.

The

African

skulls have low

the

eye

broad

openings are

The Pygmy and Andama-

nese skulls have very high orbits.

In profile the skulls show a much more

individuality.
In the African

striking

THE PYGMY RAGES OF MAN

,

manese

skull

have

All

haU

.,

found

3 es,

taa^Sppine

The cranial

may

gross size of the brain,

i

Pygmj

the

:l ll

types.

Bushmen

are uext

and

'

I'UIll

South

'.

JJg-J

L5

:ubic

course

the

v^

of

these

must

Pygmies

consideration

taken

be

into

li.t

tit

,.,.,

"

Kalabit,

Mongoloid
Lapps

l.M"'

Arctic

oi

Congo Pygmy, an An. lamaNegrito,aSouthAfricanBushman,anda

U
lern European. The first two have ,
aeveloped chins. The Bushman, however, has
inent

Borrows
Hose and McDougall

'.81.B

Java

_.

rather pr

Kroeber

Kohlbi

O.

and

uliarly

thai

if

..

,,

37.6

typically a

Bean
Barrows

1.8.3

Celebes Island:

Tomlkongka,

''

76.9
78

J*^,

have not been very successful in

On page
developing a chin.

694 are shown the lower 3aws

'

,.j- A>:11 .:

Negrillos

and

Negritos

"

,/,",,',,

Bo nt

their small cranial capacity.

The

Sarasm brothers

8.5

Islands
"

Nabaloi, Philippine

(TonVsTinv

connection with

in

Martin
Deniker

,,1

Of

size

"'

'

ol

centimeters.

small

"""

77.2

5
Malay Peninsula
Veddah, Ceylon ...

above

somewhal

Johnston
Czekanowski

Bushmen

African

is

"

79.6

'.

Europeans

Poutrin

>'l

Ma wambi

capacity

cranial

average

Seligmann

78.1

"^

,.79.4
75.1

(mixed)

Batwa

The

^den*

32.1

-"-J

Negritos

PPTitimpters
centimeter

.,,),;,
CUbn

Schlaginhaufen

'

The

Semang

the

of

v'x
1338

Willian

''

Lobay,

Philippine Ne

79.7

timeters, of the

;;

Binga)

L269 cubic cen-

is

,.

Negrillo Pvgmies, Equatorial Africa

average cranial capacity of the

Andamanese

,;;,,,

N u

,,,,.,,

Annand

77.9
30.0

New

with

centimeters.

cubic

1260

Peninsula
Guin.

Malay
British

The

size

in

ulu

Morup
Kamaweka, New Guinea .......

^j

he

era

centimeters.

cubic

L250

Toricelli

recorded,

tar

so

capacity

of

smallesl

Veddah have the

nial

^^
M;l

small

is

M.S

Aml;im !

iang,

index

an

a-

be taken

--

Andamai

which

capacity,

Montano
& eed

.84.7

"

:|

l -

,,,,

'

zambales,

"'"
" small
"l"" "^- are
,,,,..,,;,,.,.

.,,.
*'"

hi

Cephalic

the

behind

just

narrow

'

three skulls the mastoid pro

all

v
"

Mex

small index

re

most proIn
Bushman.

the

in

h-am**
denotes

,,,,

head and

;,i,.

'

.,.,...

but

this characteristic is

corniced

^ ^

-km

T1

la-

forehead

vertical

[ess

;v

An.

intermediate be-

is

tween the two.

or

The

vertical

,,,,,,-lv

TABLE HI

Pvemy tli- face projects beyond

theVain case more th
s
"""- The liu ^":;:;" ea

693

Bushmen

the

Deniker

are

very distant one.

the

to

related

Negritos and Negrillos this

relati onship is

The Australoid group,

Toala,
Veddah, 8
including
ygfrom the Negroid
ite different
ar
I

the

[n this respect he is almost as

pointed chin,
highly

as the

ialized

8]

No other Negroid group has

Lern

European.

tl

hin devel-

oped to such an extent as the Bushman.

w that, although the Ne
We have
ieshavea fc* characteristics in
,,i
P3
they have, to a very large extent,
developed

them

tingoiri.

Bush

a,

ization

the

local

uliarities

the

farthest

and

dis-

The

another.

ti

perhaps, ha

Negrillos

which

arried this special

.

and differ
Negritos

than

do

these

ns clear

Che

mies in several important characters.

group of shorl stature
[ndonesian

Mongoloid
of

their

Mongoloid

stature.

shorl
ti

in

Man;

affinities

Among

certain Siberian

affinities

these should be men-

*f

- me

South
ami J
Mex
hav
th
So
Eskimo.
the
and
can

Indians in

are
other

J^

stature inJtaoe
or a tendency to very shor
Caucasian^ or
The
types.
racial
distincl

mark,,
European racial type alone has 00
except
stature,
shorl
ly
extre
examples of

NATURAL HISTORY

694

But the Negritos, Negrillos,

Bushmen, and Australoid groups alone are
as individuals.

true Pygmies.

They are

regarded as primitive anatomand consequently as ancestral to mankind as a whole. Such a theory is due to a
confusion of culture and anatomy.
There
is not necessarily any direct correlation between a primitive culture and a primitive
anatomical structure.
The two things are
distinct and different.
While we may have
a primitive culture associated with a group
ically

When considered culturally, most of these

Pygmy tribes are undoubtedly very primitive.

This fact has been largely instrumental in

their being

all

in

the

hunting stage.

having a primitive anatomical structure, the

two are not related in the sense of cause

and effect but are merely an association.
Very few primitive anatomical characters
found in modern man could influence culture to any great extent.
At the very outset it seems questionable
whether short statute, the most characteristic trait of the Pygmies, is a primitive
character.

In the figure opposite

the stature of

mankind

is

as a whole.

plotted

Each

small rectangle represents the average stature of one tribe or group of men. The average stature of 514 different groups is used.
This should give us a fair idea of the distribution

of

stature

in

mankind.

From

about 150 centimeters to 180 centimeters we

have a normal frequency curve with the
greatest

frequency

meters.

On

at

164

to

165

the other hand, the

centi-

Negroes,

represented by the shaded rectangles, have

an irregular distribution of stature with
points of greatest frequency at 168 to 169
centimeters, 154 to 155 centimeters, and 148
In other words, the
to 149 centimeters.
bulk of mankind, and even of the Negroes
proper, has a stature decidedly above that
of the Pygmies. It is rather difficult to believe that only these few groups have retained the primitive form of stature while
all

the others

spect.

have specialized in this

It is very

re-

seldom that such a thing

occurs within a group.

Another proof that excessively short statis not a primitive trait is found in the
fact that the earliest types of man on whom
we have any data for this trait were decidedly taller than the Pygmies. I refer of
course to the Neanderthal race who lived in
Europe during the Pleistocene. Their average stature was about 163 centimeters (5
Going back still further to
feet 4 inches).
Pithecanthropus erect us, a type showing
certain characters of both the apes and
man, we find a femur or thigh bone 45.5
centimeters long. This length of femur corure

Lower jaws of the Negro Pygmy types compared with a European jaw.
From above downward are the jaws of a Central African Pygmy,
an Andamanese Negrito, a South African Bushman, and a European. Of all Negro types the
Bushman alone has succeeded in developing a
chin.
In this respect the Bushman is almost as

highly specialized as the

European

THE PYGMY

L'ACES OF

responds to a stature of about 5 feet, 7

imhcs, in man.
In the upper Palaeolithic,
the

Cro-Magnon race had attained

Taken
itive

many

They accentuate Mime of

the infantile characteristics of the Negro
group. In more than one respect they suggest a group whose development in certain
primitive traits.

particulars

has

is

The

form.
small
the

Infantile

in

in

face

is

proportion to

brain

case

the

(ex-

case

of

Negrillos)

aberrant

Distribution of stature in

ml

Anatomically

clear thai the

I.

The brain

retarded.
case

together they are no more prim-

it
is by no
Negro race is the most
primitive.
Certain Australoid and Mongoloid groups seem, on the whole, to approach
more aearlj to the generalized type of mankin.
The extremely dark skin, the absence
of body hair, the closely curled lmir, thick
lips, and the form of the calcaneum in Negroes are undoubtedly specializations.
Certainly it seems extremely doubtful
that the Pygmy types represent an ancestral
stage in the evolution of mankind.
It
more reasonable to assume that they
represenl aberrant groups and that short
stature has developed more than once as a
racial character, than to assume that
short stature is a primitive trait and that
all mankind except the Pygmies are

means

however, present

do,

695

than other Negro groups and perhaps

-lightly less so.

stat-

ure well above 6 feet.

The Pygmies

all

MAN

in this

man. Each

respect.

rectangle repre

group of men and is placed opposite tinunit on the scale which represents the average stature or
body height of that group. This diagram includes 514
tribes or groups of which L06 (shaded) are Negroid. The
Pygmj tribes are together at the bottom of the scale. It
will be noted that the hulk of mankind, and even of the
proper, has a stature well above 150 centimeterseats one

Nomad Dwarfs and

A

STUDY OP THE PYGMIES OF CENTRAL AFRICA

ATOBD

Civilization*

By

LANG

E R B E R T

11

Curator

-.in!

Mammalogy

of

amp

splendid habil
in

American Mus

the

in

Congo has

Rain Forest

in the

of the norl

recently

of

Natural His-

The scene

depicts a lucky hunter returning with his faithful companion, a bunting dog, to
ily circle consisting of a wife, two children, and an aged mother.
There is thus given to the public,
better acquainted
always eager for information about primitive types of man. an opportunity
ace in the primei
with the Belgian Congo dwarfs, who still manage to eke out their mi
este of Africa. The building of the group was made possible bj the fact thai the American M
Expedition, although chiefly zoological, had a wide range of activities and gathered during
The
of it- staj (1909-1915). material and information necessarj for the reproduction of Pygmi life.
tSx
Frederick Blaschke under the
ited bj
of D rector 1'. A.
group was designi
and the direction of the Author.
Especially interesting is the facl that the lifelike qualities of the new group are partly the resull of
They were the tirst to contribute to our valuable collection
telligence of the Pygmies themselves.
of more than 100 life masks representative of U\ different tribes of Central African races. Mr. James P.
Ghapin, my only white companion and an excellent linguist, explained to the firs! Pygmy we saw that we
Al
should like to reproduce his face by covering it with a layer of "soft, white mud" (plaster of Paris)
though apparently frightened, the little fellow suggested that before having his eyes and mo
tory.

'

The completed casi aroused hi- admirawith "mud." he would like to see it put on his hand or foot.
hastened to add that the cold plaster had become so uncomfortably hot when setting
mind fear arose that he was to be broiled alive. From then on. however, we had less difficulty in takoften trembled during the pi
ts, and although the tall Negroes invariably became
Pygmies submitted with comparative eonfidei
Ktnandinia. chief of the Xala Pygmies, in reply to compliment- on his equanimity while having his
cast taken, said that fear to him was needless.
Was not the white man alone, and Emandinia supported
These are the bi
by one hundred well tried archers, six of whom had never missed their mark'
shown in the photograph on page 705; they took aim at me bul uever re'eased then- arrows.
lunterparl of this was my experience with the Logos, when Maruka, an extremely agreeable but
shrewd chief, made no objection to having his face cast, although his twelve councilors would not allow
unless
Much
it
they could assist, fully armed with spears, bows, and arrow:
custom in war.
to their satisfaction, I invited them to be present on condition, however, that five additional casts should
accompany their chief's to America; and as the Museum enlarges it- series of exhibitions, re]. ro<i
the-, men maj take their places in scenes representing oati
..I'
Herbert Lang.
tion, but he

his

<

FROM

time

immemorial

tion of poets

litis

many

ture of

the

imagina-

enriched the litera

nations with legends of

nilialism.

war, and slavery, while the white

man

slowly

h;is

evolved

dwarfs, impish mounand winged fairies, endowed

with supernatural power and with passion
Today it is thought
for love and revenge.

em

portions have

luit

the vast

only

lately

that perhaps some of these charming tales

had their origin more in truth than in fiction.

interest

bearded,

benevolent

sprites,

tain

Eomer's

account

Aristotle

Pygmy

of

dwell

nations,

said

been

well

enough known

an;i south of the Sahara has

when
more active
Thus
southern neighbors.

received

serious attention

European nations have taken

their

in

within the last few decades, the Dark Conha- beei

tinent

to

guarded mj

well

surrender one by

lake-

_\|it.
from which flows the Nile.
was apparently not ui -.-. upon mere fancy.
Mom than two thousand years Inter, in

Africa

have

continually

had

cheek.

m..re

formidable

than

by

to

lievolul

1870,

Dr.

orable

northeastern
discovered

of that

Sehwcinfurth,

exploration
section

the

very

the

in

during his memwhat i- now the

of the

Belgian

<

ongo,

"Akkas," perhaps remrace renowned in verse, and

now known as the Central African Pygmies.

lack sons have
For centuries Africa'I.

struggled

with the horrors of famine, can-

Vol.

//'
veinfurth.
Heart
New York, L874.
122.

Colonizing

p.

illustrations are

ing

in

frica

one

-rent

Ch

man can seldom bear

white
t

Central

in

ime the

hot,

moisture

equatorial

the
all

along

the

routes

of

1"-

domitable

life

for

[j

lurk-

West

In

forests.

ad\ ance are the silent witness,-

<

lauca,,

and eager adventure come

tragic termination.

staff
studies of

however,

efforts,

length of

steries.

atmosphere or escape the many diseases

o)

from pnotographii

xpedition.

the

wiill:

any

and
II.

The

civilization.

Mediterranean region and eastern and south-

To prevenl

loss

to

of life

temper the zeal of an administra

which forms the pillars of colonization,

to

Pygmies made

bj

the Authi

during the American

NATURAL HISTORY

698

the wise decisions of a responsible govern-

If height alone constitutes the determining

ment have now limited the residential period

White man's impetus must be
to two years.

factor,

dwarfs are nowhere scarce, for south and now even New York has

ern Europe

the

motive to progress, whereas the Negro

will

supply the activity to bring final order

especially

from chaos. Northern, southern, and eastern Africa have in part been made a white
man's country, but the great, steaming equatorial forests will long remain the stronghold of the Negro race, just as they have

large

diminutive peisons,

population of

among women,

inches (150 cm.)

is

height ac-

cepted by scientists for "Pygmy-dom."

The records of modern African Pygmies

prove so heterogeneous that anthropologists

have not yet been able to offer a

been the refuge of the Pygmy.

final opin-

ion as to their classification, although sep-

For the

arating them into various groups.

The Origin, Distribution and

of Pygmies

Classification

South African Bushmen, the Batwa of the Central African

Lake Region, and the more widely distributed Pygmies of the West African Rain
(A branch of the
Forest.
be

Dwarfs are far more widely distributed

posed, independent or mixed with a taller

element throughout a large

of

the

Guinea,

recognized

New

world.

the

the

latter

Philippines,

the chief concern

is

of this article.)

southern Asia and the adjoining

may

sake of expediency three large divisions

than any of their respective discoverers sup-

part

11

4 feet

since

maximum

the

Bushmen

The

South

of

these

Africa are usually set apart

Pygmy

population, the Asiatic and

from the other Pygmy stock

on account of their wide

Oceanic

differentiation.

have

islands,

all

typical

their

branches

called

Negritos," as differentiated

this

*'.

from

Africans,

the

owing

is

How

far

in

life

to

environment

for

the

different

Distinct traces

they are

now

them have been found in

many regions and MacIvei-i reports them to have
been fairly numerous in
Egypt between 6000 and

the arid

regions about the

"Negrillos."
of

4000

b.c.

rimes

dwelt

In

race

together

men
land,

ficult

taller

else-

adjacent

southern
even now.
Italy

and

islands

Europe,
in

rejected
vice

of

they

fail

other

be assumed

very early times.

most of them,

ac-

Czekanowski, 3

to

show the

clearly

around

ser-

effects

them.

An

ently purer stock

to

found

of

is

apparto

be

in the less populated,

volcanic regions where they

'Arthur Thomas and D. Rindall-MacIver. Tin' Ancient Races

of the Thebaid, p. 87.
Oxford
1905.

Vol. 19, fasc. 2, p. 13.

may

it

the

interbreeding with Negro :s

measure 5 feet iy2 inches.

Pygmies

any

had

they
with

regions,

are

Giuseppe
Sergi.
Varieta
TJmane Microcefaliche e Pigme
d'Europa. Bvllettino della Reale
Iccademia Medica di It"inii,

If

affiliations

cording

Sardinia nearly

from military

because

dence.

As regards the Batwa of

the Kivu and Tanganyika

existing

men

answer on account
of prehistoric evi-

in

In the south of

15 per cent of the

to

of lack

that a separation took place

Seigi-

records numbers of small

people from the peninsulas

and

a question extremely dif-

is

Switzer-

Europe.

in

intermixture with the Kafirs

and Herero, their neighbors,

men

France, and

in

where

with

northern

in

to

Kalahari Desert or to an

prehistoric

of tiny

restricted

have lived

in

practical iso-

lation.

Photograph

of

two

Pygmies

who helped the American Museum Expedition. This picture

might

well

ancient
"little

serve

stories

men"

of

illustrate
fairies
and

to

::

Jan

Czekanowski.

Anthno

Expologische-ethnographische
peditionsarbeiten in Ost-Afrika.
Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Vol.
41, pp. 594-595, 1909.

NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION

renter, the West African
Pygmies are known bj several
names, depending on the tribe with which

they

the

mosl

live,

'Akkas"
Tiki"

Manghetii

Iruri

the

Pygmies

arises whether the

The question

are merely degenerate types of Negroes and

recent origin, or the

therefore of relativelj

type from which

earliest

races

African

taller

all

have evolved, or one entirely distincl

The

ami as old as any living

rare.

hypothesis

actual

tin. Is

little

first

support

Harry Johnston states i that

seem to be arrivg at the conclusion that the Congo Pygmies
do nut constitute a homogeneous type of
Negro clearly marked off from the main
stock in the same way a- the Smith African
although sir

anthropologists

"British

They are rather arrested, infan-

Bushman.
tile.

degenerate groups of 'he Nilotic or

i>v

Bantu Negroes produced by the depressing

sir Barry
conditions of the dense forest."
believes "them in the main to be dwindled
endants of the earliest

Negro

true

pioi

with

ami

carvings

numerous
found

stone

<>f

South

as

of

that

are

West

African

to

southern

the

typical

mosl

tin'

mammals,

forest

came

doubtedlj

an'

relatives
in

Miocene ami Pliocene

in

among

today

and uncontinent from the

tin-

which

Antelope-,

northeast.

have

under-

remarkable adaptive radiation in

the Ethiopian part of Africa, ranging from

gone such

the size of a rabbit to that of a bull, have,

as

admitted,

generallj

from

stock

original

derived

also

Eurasia.

argued that with the advent

their

has been

It

tic northeast

in

of the continent of the pastoral Negroes of

Hamitic origin, the

pioneers were forced

tiny

The powerful ami

speedy retreat.

to a

showed

pride

such

fear of

for

vanquished

of

purity

the

in

refuse!

they

that

evi-

probably

"giants"

well-organized

dently

their

tic

enslave

to

sullying

own
withdraw

their

Tic Pygmies, thus forced to

and farther, finally reached Central

and

much disputed.
Granting that
the Pygmies were really the firsl
am
over much of the eastern portion of the
Africa,

closest

flourished

portion of Eurasia
times,

Even

the

whose
have

to

come to Africa
The okapi ami water

South

Africa.

Itm-i

section

of

area

became

the

Pygmies
u

roamed

led portion, a

northeastern

Tin'

West

tic

center

or

African forest
from which the

and west in tic

few reaching the Atlantic.'
south

South

ami

Mauretania

from

pictographs

that

Asia.

che\ retain.

support-

they have

the fact

way

of

upon

called

l.e

analogy

excellent

in-

fait her

Congo Basin, ami

an

by

known

may

distribution

furnish

from

Algeria, across

in

well

a-

Africa,

ancient

Mammalian
to

invaded

first

evidence

implements

the Sudan, Abyssinia, the

in

known

is

most unsatisfactory.

is

of

origin

man

palseontological

that country
the

is

race,

stock

when

poeh

tl

Africa,

the

."

Unfortunately nothing positive

about

of the

rs

compared

as

stock

divergent Bushmen

of an extremely

descendants

these

that

approximate^

the

tions of the controlling factors of dispersal.

of

now current with Europeans).

region and

are

"Mambuti"

or

natives

by

Pygmies

name,, or 'Ti k i-

Azande term
given

pure

then,

supposition,

third

African

by their morphoperhaps sustai

logical characters, ami by modern considera-

being Schweinfurth's

noted

(the
(the

name

the

The

third

the

In

forest,

699

/,

C( ntral

with

ces

At

is

Pygmu

African

continent,

from

Negroes evolved
tradicted
true

more

the

by

at

many

primitive

man.

of

the

of

stocks.

assume

In

human

the

both
It

in

seems

Asia, ac

tl

successive

races

the

Pygmies

that

authorities as

tall

rather con-

is

an early period

cepted by
tions

them

Pygmj
to

plausible

that

theorj

distribution

Negro ami

sprang up

tin'

radle of

migra-

remnants

of

Pygmies could survive to tic present day

in certain regions where a natural prol
tion favored

tin'

preservation of their racial

[I,

tar

1906

pp

B87

388

tic

Central

most

information

important

Pygmies has eome

African

from explorers and scientists who ga

knowledge either .luring rather short

their

\isits
tine

to

Africa,

or

from a

few especially

individuals exported for exhibition pur

The American Museum

poses.

ongo Expe

100 mill S inland to

had penetrated
Avakubi, before we finally came across our

dition

first

Pygmy, who was being unjustly held on

earliest mention of West African dwarfs

folfrom An.lr.-w Battell's record in 1
low.! in L670 by that of Dapper, who sneaks of

'The

'>'_'").

flat.-

ikk.-

characterisl

ria,

So
about

Bakke

the

in

kingdom

<>f

the

Makoko. situated, according to .1.' Brazza, in tic

where in 1865 Du OhaiUu discovered his
ver.
famous 'bongos near
'

ITURAL HISTORY

charge of murder to shield an important

another tribe; the victim with an
i

through

of
his

bad

heart,

been

The

trail.

questions

answered

|j

plentj

from

his

forest

the

in

found

prisoner

return

I.

few

weeks

came

to

later,

Avakubi

bundles of rattan.

caravan

Among

of Ban-

and
them were two

with

rubber

groups of about fifteen Pygmies each, who,

after we had carried on a long and difficult
I

alaver

in

an

our

osite

Phrynium

with

them,

allowed

three

of their

delay

with

these

the

turned

building a shelter; ami in

hour they had completed op-

of

tents

arranging

hut,

remain

to

Without

task

the

women

two

beehh

usual

the

shingle

in

shaped

the

fashion

big

leave- on benl -ticl<< held togethi

Their rapidity ami curious man-

witli vines.

lections.

daka

and

scarcely

for

and the matted hair clipped

head was shortly added to our col
i'

men

expedition.

ner of working attracted a merry crowd of

members

and

porters

\o wonder

that

of

later

in

xpedition.

tl

the

evening

the

Pygmies complai
bitterly
to me of the annoyance, ami
next
thai
morning he and his little hand had disappeared!
This incident is typical of the
difficulty we had at first in keeping the
leader of

tin'

Pygmies with us long enough to study ami

understand them.
Later we saw several other groups at Avakubi and Medje, and three years

later, after

our return to the forest from the Sudan and

Fele plains, we often had hundreds of the

The

small folk about us.

constant

several years of

contact and friendship which

we

had had with the natives spoke well for our

reputation, and the Pygmies of Ngayu,
.Medje, Niapu, and Nala eagerly helped us
obtain some of the rarest mammals. Most
surprising was the way in which they secured
the rare, great scaly anteater (Manis gigantea), and the aard-vark (Orycteropus)
the latter a plains animal not known before
With swaggerto occur in the Eain Forest.
,

ing defiance a youngster of only eight or

ten years would enter one of the animal's

narrow burrows, from 8

Down

into

the

drawn, he would grop

his dagger-like knife

we outside expectantly

for a victim, while

listened

to 20 feet in length.

subterranean channel, with

True to the tradi-

and watched.

tion of the fighting quality of his race, he

would

not

against him
Joseph, the tall Bantu, belongs to the sturdy
race of Bakusu at Stanleyville.
Son of a chief,
a devoted and trustworthy helper, and
acted as headman for the American Museum Expedition, playing the part of a peacemaker rather
than that of a leader.
The short man, Papai,
is offspring of
a Pygmy mother and a Bantu
father,

but

always resented being called a

Pygmy, although according to custom he had
been returned to his mother's tribe when a child.

During the long years

of the expedition this man

friends among the natives we met.
onfidence of Pygmies is gained, their
friendly off-hand ways are a pleasant introduction to the happy-go-lucky life of these hunting

made many

let

battle

the

and

in

the

dark go

the creeper he held as a

signal for assistance

and the

long, flexible

rattan tied to his belt always proved unnecessary

precautions.

lively

time

would

ensue after the animal had been fastened to

and the crowd without would

it from the illsmelling cavern.
The little Pygmy hero,
pushing and pulling from behind, would
finally emerge amid the cheers of his comrades.
But as usual the witch doctor took
the

rattan,

boisterously begin jerking

as

much of

the credit as the plucky boy:

had he not foreseen the glad event and

fied

the most propitious time?

speci-

NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION

and

apparenl

Descriptions,

make

often

too

Tail X< grot

In

us

Pygmies

between

Distinctions

Physical

~01

authoritative,

Ly

are

there

that

believe

striking differences between Central African

Pygmies and the tall agricultural Negroes.

But when we come to sec crowds containing
both Pygmies and tall Negroes, mosl of the
to

Pygmy

"clear-cut"

so-calleil

prove

feat hits

individual or regional characteristics.

l.e

Prom time

time

to

vears' experience

heard

of

officials

many

Central Africa make the

in

sweeping statement that they could pick out

Pygmy from among

hundreds

proving

Sure of

natives.

the

of

other

contrary,

changed the hairdresses, bark-cloths, amu

lets, ami other deeoral Lve features of a cumThus in less
ber of Pygmies ami Bantus.
than ten minutes

became impossible, or at

it

hast very puzzling, for these "experts"

make good
peculiarities

the

boast;

their

were

here

to

few physical

had escaped their

m.t iee.

The northeastern

portion of the Congo

America as a racial meltThe incoming northern elements
ing pot.
ami the Bantu, Nubian, and Eamitic racenave all contributed to what might be

Basin

now

.ailed

is

It

will

type,

generally

which the Pygmy

that

likely

in

is

brachyce

signal for stealthy pursuit.

may be
Climbing trees in

own

bill

traces- a

rivals

finest

phalic, in

In the great African forests game animals arc

few and far between.
The experienced Pygmy
reads their presence in almost imperceptible

his

honey

Pygmy

gradually lose his identity ami disap-

what

in

this

melting pot, not even retaining

supposed

is

to

Looking
impressed
in.

be

at

by

the

have

been

his

most

Pygmies
the

fact

in

numbers, we are

Pygmy

pretty

thirty-three adult males

them exceeding 4

Of

distinction.

measured, none of

few

acrid

of fare with

fruits of

rubber
traps

lie

in

snares

In most

girls to their harems.

whereas the daughters, considered a

valuable asset, remain with the agricultural

These marital relations naturally

help to

the influence

increase

of the Pygmies.

size alone can-

that

for

ef these cases the sons return to the mother's

"taboo" for a

lie

criterion

varies his

lie

bees,

and fat young nestlings.

Also
monkeys, genets, squirrels, and birds
skillfully arranged in trees

Negroes.

-diminutive stature.

obvious character

fashion,

pebble displaced

tribe,

pear

or

leal'

of wild

not a stranger.

the future the

cut

and prestige

On the other hand, it would

Pygmy to marry a womau

of any of his tall friends.

would be too daring to describe as

It

11 inches, the aver-

typical these remnants of a race which has

age was 4 feet, 8 inches, which, with seven

not escaped continued mingling with large

tall
feet,

feet,

Pygmies included, at once rose

10 inches.

the Pygmies

Emandinia, the chief of

of Nala, measured 5

inches, a fair size even for a

is

to

feet,

European.

the case the world over the

As

women on

Each successive
wave of migrants has naturally left its imprint upon the Pygmies, checking certain
somatologieal
molding
characters
and
neighboring communities.

As a

others.

which

In not a few instances

the striking disparity may be accounted for
by the customs prevalent in their inter-

clearly visible in the

greater than usual.

marriage with the

tall

Negroes.

Women

in

of

result

whole are shorter than the men, but

with the Pygmies the difference is even
the

the

intermixture

continually going on,

is

faces

the world over

may show

is

Human

physiognomy.

the

most

varied expressions and where people of different racial characters are welded together

always be

these regions constitute the only important

slowly,

and chiefs of the Bantu tribes

have never had any compunctions in adding

general, all-inclusive descriptions.

treasure,

a regional

resemblance to the agricultural Negroes

ent

no

it

will

racial

difficult to

characters

setting

present

At

pres-

aside

Permanent assembly camp near the village of Nabodia, an Azande chief at Nala. Along the northern limits
Rain Forest the Pygmies have already adopted the architectural style of neighboring natives and have comabandoned the beehive-shaped huts. On this particular occasion every Pygmy had been called in from the
hunting camps in the forest, and the photograph shows the most important men and their helpers with whom I
made arrangements for assistance in the expedition's work

of the
pletely

To celebrate great success in hunting, Pygmies often visit the settlements of the tall Negroes who entertain
them according to prevailing customs. In this Makere village they have selected a shady nook in a banana
grove from which they sally forth for an occasional dance, even a mother with her tiny baby (right center) taking part.
As a rule Pygmies dance singly, the men and women frequently forming separate groups, but there is
little social convention among them
702

NOMAD DWARFS AND CIVILIZATION

majority of Pygmies from the tall Negroes
can be stated, and it is doubtful if physical

have at any previous period been

all
pronounced.
Not
uniformly
more
Pygmies are so much smaller in size as to
be readily distinguished from other Africans, and in the main they are not shorter
legged nor have they longer arms than the
forest Negroes.
Not all of them are repretraits

piognathous type,

sentative of the strongly

and a

projecting

monkey-like

chin nearly obliterate'!,

with

snout,

with

Their alertness, due to peculiari-

forehead.

hunting

ties of

in

the forest, has impressed

Habits and Superstitions of the Pygn

"Relations irith tin
Tall Negroes

The dusty, unkempt tufts of hair, not

more than two inches long, are usually matted, and palm oil i- mure likely to be used
for

gustatory

countries of

is

it

scanty

attire

and lack of body care which distinguish

With good
them from the tall Negroes.
reason others have mentioned the "unsteady
eyes with the brutal glare," causing an un-

elaborate

especially

than

other

times,

to

dirty yellowish

flies.-

aud

inter-

being as common among

Negroes a- among Pygmies.
Forest tribes, however, like the Bandaka.
Mobali, Mongelima. Makere, and Medje, as

mediate

shade-

neighboring

well

tall

Mangbetu,

Azande, and Abarambo, contrast with the uniformly dark Nilotic-.

Pygmies' lips are dark and the pigmentaoften extend- to the gums,
ondersurfaces of both hand- and
tion

as light

a-

in

other Negro races.

binos occur, although they seem

merous anion- the

but the
feet

are

Even almore nu-

'

tall

at

1'oko,

Bomokandi district, more than a

dozen of them lived within a short di-tance
in

the

of the Post.

Pygmies are hairier on the body than East

types, but the West African Ne
whom we v;i\\. especially part Nubians, like the Mangbetu, Azande. and many
African

tribes,

mustaches,
limli-

they

also

men'
shovi

"lanugo" or body down.

hair
the

on
ofl

chest

and

menl ioned

Undoubtedly

hair-

of

shaved
sign

is

of

upon

that

witchcraft

At

all

in

the

hair

gives him

owner

original

the

bereaved.
-ingle

the

however,

possession of an enemy

power
the

all

No wonder

holds.

to

evil

that

every particle from the body, a single hair

or the parities of a ringer nail,

concealed or burned

Pygmies
cident-

and

speaking

in

their

in

course,

lives,

net

is

of
to

calculated

people than

by-one days
memorable in-

such as floods, wars,

in

aged, far more numerous an

little

carefully

and extent of turn.

fortune,

is

the forest

in

time by reference

reckon

amen-

The

years.

this kindly

other Negroes, are

and many must be 70 or

80 years old, since in several camp- we
found four generation- happily performing
their
respective duties.
Throughout the
region a beard with even a few grizzled
highlj

respected,

strands entitles one to authority, ami near

Avakubi
was

-ii

i-

It

Pygmj
of

fame of a tottering

the

i'd

\ested

his

have even longer beards and

and

that

turn

from the plains region, the

as those

women,

in

In despair the cut locks are

mourning.
wantonly thrown in the forest trails, and although one may walk upon them with im-

various writers upon the color of the skin,

reddish yellow,

in

and

Illness

pended by intense superstition.

head,

grief

or

common

so

culture.

death are the sword of liamo.de- held sus-

l>y

which varies from black

hairdressos

Mangbetu

punity, to pick them up would bring worse

couth, indescribably strange expression.

Perhaps too much -tress has been put

than to give gloss

however, favor

delights

Many Pygmies,

to the hair.

the

brown

as

character,

The scalp hair varies just

as in neighboring tribes, forming a thick
felt like cap of kinky black hair or, more
rarely, dense patches and small, bare, mean
dering trails.
A few Pygmies have hair of
a distinctly reddish brown color, a feature
not
uncommon among the Negroes of the
northeastern Congo basin.

upon their physiognomy distinctive features,

more often

individual

but

seems

it

with white men.

which, together with a generally long, convex upper lip, are sufficiently characteristic

although

these regions

in

an

rathei-

Pygmies,

with

usual

males

all

be

to

more

is

an individual fea-

is

some Bantus in most of these

The Pygmies are do! the only
regions.
African race showing the Battened, broadwinged nose, which, lacking a bridge, sets off
still more sharply a well-rounded or receding
ture

iness

among

703

the seven-inch

Pygmj
growth

wrinkled face.

marvelous

how

successfully

the

has fitted himself to the complexity

conditions

Negro

in

races,

among the more powerful

whom in strife he has

with

NATURAL HISTORY

704

somewhat the relations of the scalp-hunting

[ndian to the home-seeking white man.
In

Darkest

Africa weaklings

have

always

pounced upon and either

But it must be underkilled or enslaved.
been

mercilessly

stood

that

among

the

Negro

tall

races

where cannibalism had become one of the

basic features in the maintenance of so-

cietyhowever strange that may sound

of extraordinary courage and cunning,

men

like

be

or

troops could

in

on

relied

became

who

Pygmies,

the

alone

as

snipers,

the forest

in

re-

gions one of the leadingfactors

On

chiefs.

other hand, in

the

open warfare of the

the
'la

power among

of

Bantu

the

by the very

area,

ius

nature of things the Pyg-

mies were of

little

From

tance.

impor-

reports

by

Schweinfurth, Junker, and

i

as

lasati

to

great

the

numbers of dwarfs in former years, it is clear that

relatively recent invasions

More than any other Negro, the Pygmy, with his freedom unchallenged, proves himself keen, fearless, and full of verve.
But mark
when he is confronted by a strange adventure. Posing with their
trophy, the hero and his friend have listened to the camera shutter's
ominous click.
They consider this their lucky day for they rise
unharmed from the ordeal of being photographed, more convinced than
ever that the white man's weapons miss their aim

of the fertile outskirts of

by the XubianAzande
and Mangbetu, must have
the forest

ized element, the

caused the rapid decimation

of

the

tiny

people.

Akenge, the great

chief of the southernmost
Azande near Poko, proudly
Old

related

years,

to

me how

before

the

for

advent

of the Belgians, instead of

hunting

game

for

the

usual store of meat, they

had cleared the country of

Pygmies. Secrecy and silence prevailed, and under
cover of night they would
hang around the camps of
the unsuspecting dwarfs
strong nets ordinarily des
tined to capture the larger
antelope,
and suddenly
pouncing upon the little
fellows, they would drive

Pygmies are the children of the forest, awed by its mysteries,

which their own superstitions foster and increase. Numerous dances,
carried on as a rule at twilight, serve manifold purposes, most often
to do honor to good spirits or to propitiate those believed to be opposed to them; but whatever the occasion, gayety usually dominates

them into the ambuscade

and spear them, entangled
and helpless, like game!
The intricate relations
of Pygmies with the tall
Negroes are much the
same everywhere. A superficial observer might call

Pygmy's arrcw is the crowning step in the pursuit of a victim, be it man or beast. In the
does not depend upon shooting a( great distances, but on the ability to Bteal up under
the wind, unheard, unseen, and never miss the fleeting chance.
Even among Pygmies there are only a few who
have the patience, daring, and energj for such accomplishment

The win r of
consummate

;i

forest

No frenzied

--kill

display

marks the customai

["he

Bkill,

sounds above the wi!d outbursts

and children show keei

only with an extra wild

ten

danci
irhen
neasured tep
in
ccompanied b veird reiterated
din of the drum, beaten nervo
tiaken with much
of the leaders who Bpur their audience to continued efforts
Men, women,
rhythmicallj move in the dance, but obstrej
rs,
satisfied

break awaj

from the formal

circle

705

NATURAL HISTORY

:0G

them vassals, but as a matter of fact, they

enjoy the independence of the irresponsible.
Nobody holds them in high esteem, nor yet

that these and other decorations have deep

significance
for
Pygmies is proved by

them with absolute contempt. Their

natural vindietiveness and ability both to
retaliate and instantly shift to safer places,
make them redoubtable enemies.
Acknow-

observers.

treats

ledged dexterity and intelligence in outwitting the foe are the secrets of their continued existence, for the Xegro is inclined to
respect this obscure power as much as he

does brute strength.

Had

they any griev-

ances they were mostly settled by a single

arrow, successfully sent forth from the

general adoption as recorded by all

Filed teeth, a circular block of

their

ivory in the upper

perforated

elaborate tattoos, a

lip,

and

concha,

a bone crosswise
through the nose are in favor according to
tribal connections.
Beads, bracelets, anklets and leglets of iron or brass, amulets,
and ornate hairdresses mark the fashion

moreover

Pygmy

is

in

Languagt of

revengeful hand.

decorative

all

attempts

the

a poor imitator of the tall Xegro.

Pygmies; Fund, and

tin

Home

Time and again explorers have had

the

They never cared to feast on their human

victims, who among cannibalistic Bantus
became the rightful spoils of war.
Considering that Pygmies usually adopted the

excitement of thinking that they had discovered a real Pygmy idiom, which, they
hoped, might help solve the problem of

customs of their neighbors, it speaks in

their favor that they were the only race in

lished

language of their

the

the tongue of the neighboring agricultural

forest

terrible

not

habitually

practice

of

involved

the

in

cannibalism.

True

children of the forest, success in the chase

satisfied their craving for meat.
sin-

cere fellowship

among themselves

did

away

racial affiliations.

fact

They have been the losing minoritynever masters, and yet never slaves.

criminately.

face defeat.

He

rather eludes than braves

and though he chafes under disappointment as much as the tall Xegro, he

shows greater patience and determination.
foe,

Time being an unimportant element, he

waits for a fair chance to slay his enemy,

man

or

himself

His eagerness to protect

akin to the terror of a hunted

beast.
is

animal; and when cornered

he, too, fights to

the finish.

in

as

In spite of his wonderful specialization

hunting, winch with the Pygmies varies

much

individually and

is

equally subject

to hero worship as unusual excellence with

other peoples, the

Pygmy

lacks initiative to

a very marked degree.

Taken out of his

and shiftless as a
Bohemian he knows he is a dominating
factor, he rapidly becomes weak and waversphere, where though poor

ing, not even able to escape degeneracy.

Tribal marks are a means of identification

among Congo

natives comparable with uniforms of soldiers in civilized countries, and

out

of

which

But when
more distinctly,
discovered that two or three wellthey

interrogated,

and it
known

his

use,

jargon

of

sort

sounds like a different language.

the miseries and horrors of tribal

warfare, yet they were ever ready to ward

Continued hunting has taught the Pygmy

to be as quick as lightning.
Swift of foot,
brave and fearless, he succeeds where others

laziness,

with

off attack.

But now it is an estabPygmies today have no

own. They always speak

Very often they may

tribes.

sheer

that

is

dialects

speak

have

May

been

mingled

indis-

not the curious clicking

sounds, believed by some to

denote Bushhad their origin in

the necessity for communicating during
hunting, when oral language would betray
their presence to wary game?
In these tropics of uniform climate, problems of housing and clothing seldom force
themselves on the attention, and the Pygmy's
foremost occupation centers in food, for on
a well-fed body all passions and pleasures
They hunt to live, at dull times
depend.

man

affinities,

have

confident of future plenty, and during

abundance, reenacting the story of the carcass over which the vultures fight and the

hyenas yowl and laugh.

Although not epiHunting

of the men, fishing and the

cures, they like a variety of food.

falls to the lot

gathering

of

women and

various
children.

tidbits

to

that

Mushrooms,

of

yams,

and caterpillars are stewed in palm

and termites, wild honey, bee grubs,
kola nuts, and fruits of rubber vine are
welcome relishes.
Once in a while Pygmies ma} have shot
an arrow into a neighbor's fine bunch of
bananas to claim it as their own, or deposited a proportionate amount of meat in
snails,
oil,

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NATURAL HISTORY

1<

exchange for what they took from the plantations, but today most Pygmies bring their
goods to tlic villages of the tall Negroes

game.

Indeed

legions

good hunting dog

gladly accepted in

is

in some
payment for a

The place of the dog in hunting is

At the time he is started on a
fresh scent a large wooden clapper is put
around his neck. The noise of this clapper
as the dog routs the game gives the master
in ambush assurance that his arrow has a
wife.

and with little serious altercation barter for

mere trifles until darkness puts them to
The meat, medicine plants, fibers,
rout.
and other products of the forest gathered
by the Pygmies are gladly exchanged for
Plantain
plantains, manioc, and maize.
cider or palm wine gives them too the exHonest
hilaration enjoyed in their dances.

afar the jubilant news.

among

be led astray in the heat of the chase the

ate

themselves, they nevertheless appreci-

in

others,

chance to hit the mark.

camp with clanking

to

outwitting

noise

complete disregard of principles

easy.

involved

cleverness

the

peculiar.

in

of

Primarily hunters, they continually shift

are methods equally in favor.

their

camps to obtain the best hunting

grounds.
The site, old or new, is always

of a leopard near our

cleared in the high-lying, open forest, near

upon

one of the numerous clear brooks; huts are

either built beforehand, or old ones are

daughter and two

meager
Every new
needs for housing comforts.
Indeed, the nomad's
trail means new joy.
restored

life is easy,

satisfy

to

Pygmy women

their

are not fettered

home, and household

Knives and pieces of bark
cloth receive first attention, and as the
mother starts on her way she hoists a tiny
child astride her waist, where he sits grinning with delight although the narrow sup-

work

by hard

at

articles are few.

porting strap mercilessly indents his

flesh.

Another woman loads on her back bunches of

plantains, manioc, and maize, surmounted by
a pot, and fastens to her arm a sleeping mat,
a calabash, and perhaps an old basket. Mortar and pestle, ax, horn, rattle and a drum
for

merrymaking

boys and

fall

to the

share of the

In single file they set out, a

youth leading, and one or two able-bodied
men bringing up the rear. With a dagger
girls.

a quiver of wooden or
iron-tipped, poisoned arrows suspended from
the shoulder, they thread their way, with
tucked in the

bow and two

always

ready

camp

River

the

camp on

The slaying
the Nepoko

leopard which had brought grief

the

by

village

killing

Pygmy's reputation.

the

chief's

women justified

other

Suddenly the beat-

ing of gongs roused the whole neighborhood

and a. throng of exuberant natives outdid
themselves to welcome the hero.

He

hap-

pened to be a master of mimicry and by

gesture and a few, clear, short phrases
pictured

vividly

Deep

the

course

of

hunt.

the

the recesses of the forest, on the

in

leading to a brook, the leopard had

devoured a small antelope, and then had
gained its lair. Our hunter found it asleep
on a low-hanging branch in dense foliage.
trail

He

roused

it

by the splash of a stone flung

With the whir of an ar-

into the water.

row and a gigantic leap of the spotted

beast

the leopard's last struggle began.

There were a few moaning roars, and then
the silence of death betokened Ngalima's
success danger lurks no more on that path.
;

With

the conclusion of the pantomime, the

rejoicing

and dancing of the crowd con-

belt,

tinued until late into the night.

or three arrows in the

Although the privilege of chiefs to sit

upon a leopard's hide makes such a trophy
theirs by right, our gifts of beads, copper
wire, and indigo cloth were considered a
fair exchange.
The meat, also the lumps

for

instant

care of the old, an ember

camp

recovery

his

In the forest, trapping and still-hunting

of fair play.

quickly

all know from

Or should the dog

makes

clapper

the

If the dog returns

bell,

hand
Under
carried from

action.
is

to perpetuate their fire, said

of fat,

a powerful, rejuvenating medicine

be obtained when strokes of lightning set

aflame the gigantic trees although Pygmies
living in the plains are well acquainted with

greater

in

to

to

the art of

The
is

making

march along the

trail

broken by the yelps of the dog, which,

raised to be eaten, has

less

become nevertheless

a highly prized helper in the daily raids on

than

all

prize.

else,

of

course

But what

price-

treasure can be hidden in the leopard's

heart which the

fire.

silence of the

value

became the hunter's

Pygmy

hunter has so eagerly

We

were soon to see, for, frantically yelling and dancing about, he waved

claimed?
in his

hand the iron point of

his

own

fatal

arrow, which had been snapped off from the

g g
I

g a

"

"a

a I -

.2

js

"

S S a

r -z

"-

a1

p,

NATURAL

1-:

shafi

in

fore

it

Twice bethe leopard's struggle.

had pierced the hearts of enemies,

and with

the

joyful

grin

of

devil

he

claimed that no foe of his could escape that

magic dart.

Pygmies

in the Ituri region do not often

J1 1

STORY

wander in hunting, have a more or less

permanent home near the settlements of
agricultural Negroes with whom they are
connected. Fifty or a hundred may live together under a leader, benefiting by such
although occasional friction is un-

unity,

elephants with their arrows,

avoidable between groups serving under dif-

although a single poisoned arrow might fell

an elephant. Instead, they eagerly find the

Each man claims one

the exception and
the great fondness for children is shown by

try to

kill

where through their cunning even this

mighty beast will meet his fate. A huge
section of tree trunk bearing a spear at
one end is hoisted to a branch forty feet
site

above the ground.

Hidden

in

But a

or

slight touch on

Bantu

chiefs.

two wives three

is

women with

the burdening of childless

comparative consideration.
Old, grizzly-haired men,

as

chiefs

in

who

youth,

their

held honors

relinquish

They

much time

ness.

and stretched across the trail, will

send the immense, armed weight crashing
down upon the unsuspecting victim.
Or they locate the habitual resting places
of solitary elephants and report their find

helping to educate the children.

who then

to the tall forest Negroes,

creep

up on the tuskers and with a rush drive a

broad, sharp-edged spear into the base of
the trunk
the

and quick as a

protecting

flash fall

back into

The death of the

jungle.

elephant ensues from loss of blood within a

few hours.

But should

the

wound be

slight,

Pygmies, loath to abandon the prize, follow the victim for days, shooting poisoned
arrows in an attempt to blind the great
and finally spear him at a propitious

beast,

jects

doubt the right

would be of no avail
could the claimants not back it with a muscular frame and cunning enough to stamp them
as men most capable of keeping the wolf
from the door; only thus can they preside
over the destinies of these small and scattered communities.

time-honored clearing in the center of

order

target.

for

At

sixty yards, however, they asked

iron-pointed

arrows

to

withstand

the

strong wind. 1
All

Pygmies,

however

much

they

may

Throughout the practice, a young Pygmy had

amused the crowd by mimicking the sharpWhen asked to show his skill as a
shooters.
1

marksman he

preferred to imitate the sufferings

wounded by arrows. With stiffback in horizontal position, he
serve as forelimbs sometimes as
the help of his bow represented
moments he was pathetically slow
and at other times the eye could hardly follow
Then taking the part of a duihis movements.
ker, he drew himself together, arched his back,
tripped along for a few paces, and stopped suddenly, a splendid take-off of their peculiar, nerAt twenty yards from the
vous movements.
squash target he suddenly stood up and hit the
mark, a feat announced with a savage yell and a
loud thwack upon his forearm.
In the afternoon the little fellow admirahly im-

an elephant
ened legs, and
made his arms
ears
and with
At
the trunk.
of

sub-

to the dignity of chief

liberations.

wooden arrow through the

The

their neighbors, but without

aroused their derision, and at a distance of

failed to send his

cheerfully

of the tales told to the young are the

In testing their marksmanship a squash

seven inches in diameter which I used,
forty yards not one of a dozen volunteers

spend

spirits hidden in mysterious forests and the

unknown dangers lurking in the jungle; and
they encourage their young admirers to
make traps, shoot arrows, and to wrestle.
Chieftainship
among the Pygmies is
generally considered hereditary, as among

No

moment.

these

honors apparently with no feeling of bitter-

the tiny unobtrusive vine connected with the

release

the

drudgery, whereas mothers are treated with

the entan-

gling maze the lightly balanced truncheon

betrays no danger.

ferent

the village has been set aside for their de-

so

Nor are there the dignity and

common with the Bantu, whose

auguries, however, the

palavers.

Indeed, the

Pygmies use during

councils, from

Pygmy

which the women are excluded, are only the

stormy outbreaks of a vociferous, gesticuWhen the commotion has
lating crowd.
finally subsided, a

few may

still

dispute the

itated an official, taking especial advantage of the

latter's habit of accentuating his instruct'ons with
When I asked him to
peculiar, abrupt gestures.
mimic me he grinned happily. During the forenoon I had taken a number of photographs and
my tripod camera was still standing in the shade.
Without injury to the instrument he mimicked my
every movement with just enough exaggeration to

make everyone laugh. Finally he indicated that

the "evil eye had seen well" and now came the
The Pygmy he had
climax to the performance.
pretended to photograph, instead of unconcernedly
walking away, dropped to the ground, illustrating
the native superstition that the "big evil eye" of
A block of salt laid
the camera causes death.
on the "dead" man's stomach instantlv resuscitated
him and the two entertainers walked off joyously,
but only after the clown had received a like re-

ward.

NOMAD DWARFS AND

with

which

dictum,

chief's

nevertheless

expedition.

uncanny

and

celerity

is

exe

IUZATION

71

proved

Iiave

inre,

them

extended

natives,

other

Pygmies nave generally been considered

and excepl in a few regions they have
been unwilling to come in numbers into goi
In many skirmishes and
ernment stations.
in actual warfare they often turned the tide

looked
ni'

the tall

long type

tlie

mi wise different from those

ni'

They adopted the obhad their own blacksmiths,

hut.

and the women bad long ago learned to make

ami wickerwork, an,
potterj
perform
to
I

aim as

snipers.

clearing

Negroes were only too glad

ensuing,
to un-

ments.

dwarfs the responsibility for

and wrongdoing.
of trials ami tribulations have

the

devil

Years

resulted

in

relations

better

roads

of

Prom

that

to

between

this

sive

used

i"

leading

t,,

their

settle

human

roam about aimlessly

little

of our day

gnome ami
is

respon-

mighty

stride.

Pygmies continually shift their camps in search of the best hunting grounds. The nomad's life
easy.
tin' women carrj
There are few household
tin' supplies of food
t
3on
with the cooking pot, and
rls are intrusted iili ax,
o
drum; while the mother hoists the smallest child astride her waist where he is happj a
orting strap ma; mercilessly indent his flesh.

is

Throughout heathi

manhood
Women, ind

th

with great
in these
i

rs

in

il

blessing,

tii}><-

Imong
,,.

ile

the relatively small tiii

yes of their agricull iral neighbors
I

:'l

becon

sturdj
d

external

in

forests of Central Africa

benevolent

citizen

which include the

the small, irresponsible

the moisture-laden

loss of life

finallv

with

planta-

Negroes.

the tall

on

and

villages

ether "household duties"

load

fell

governmenl

Belgian

of battle for the Bantus by their unfailing

palavers

give

to

as they

freedom ami equality

their

in

As soon

life.

that

and willing

intelligenl

up their nomadic

silence.

shy,

the

officials.

Par from being indolent and evasive, thej

Not a sign indicates their whereabouts, and

more surprising still is the return, when
they suddenly swarm in from every side.

In

L3

Pygmies and the administrative

the

the

camp obeyed with

signal to clear out from

incredible

is

Especially

'

peopli
girls

are wel

and

,,,

bs

Photograph by H. G. Crampton
Mt. Roraima, the highest point of British Guiana, is a sandstone plateau eight miles long rising
on perpendicular cliffs, down which tumble numerous cascades from the miniature lakes on its
weathered top.
British Guiana may be roughly divided into two low belts near the coast, and a
mountainous interior for the most part heavily forested except for certain grassy savannahs such
as shown in the photograph.
At the very foot of Roraima rain falls almost every day, accompanied
by heavy winds.
Here giant trees of the jungle give place to low gnarled forms with ferns and
mosses in dripping festoons on every branch

Residential section of Georgetown with the governor's "palace'' in the left background.
Nearly
every house is surrounded by trees and gardens giving the city a forested appearance from a distance.
The flatness of the horizon of the coastal plain is noticeable in the skyline. In the foreground can be
seen one of the open trenches of the city's sewerage system along the side of the street
'14

Real El Dorado

NATURAL RESOURCES OF VITAL

[MPORTANCE which now lie dormant

BRITISH GUIANA POSSESSES

W [LL]

By

Illustrations

THE

people of the

t'nited

A M

L A V A R R E

J.

from photographs

States are

Author

the

bj

lands

grass

elevated

thousand

three

awakening to the possibilities

that are offered them for an increased
Reports
commerce with South America.
e in. now and then, from various places;

aboi

some of them say thai Rio de Janeiro is to

be the coming trade renter of the continent,
while ethers assert that Buenos Aires will
rise more quickly in response to the com-

agricultural and pastoral pursuits.

steadily

merce of the

sea

Each of these natural regions has

special

The coastal

resources.

by the oortheasl trade winds,

line

from

of

the

part

eral

On

resources.

the

that

it

one

to

Looking

to

our

part

American neighbors.
British Guiana is

is

The

westward,

Tt

three

forest

fndian

is

seldom used

a-

guide

Guianas.

in

the interior

for

270

into the interior,

square miles
the

l.

in

i-

i'i

the lew

reaches

500

approximately

miles
!><>,

The topography of

area.

divides

country
ons:

and

it

into

coastal

three

natural

lands of marine

alluvium rising gradually from the sea and

iding from ten to forty miles inland;
sandy and elayej countrj of sedentary
soil, with forests, swamps, and sand dune-,
and traversed by a network of rivers and
2,

their

many

mass

numerous tributaries in which occur

is
rapids ami falls; 3, the mountai
flat

flat-

of

series

and

pla-

Mt. Roraima,

the highest of these, about 8500 feet, has

nearly

grass-covered

flat,

square miles.
in

top

twelve

of

The northwest portion

gold deposits, and recently dian

is

I-

rich

have

been locate,) in paying quantities along the

upper Ma/aruni River
\eail\

the whole nf the civilized popula-

tion of the colony

is

located along the coast

and on the lower hanks of the larger

Here,

also,

dustries.

are

The

cane, and the

are

region, the eastern pari of w hich

and the southwest, an extensive area of

of

mountains

races

teaus.

miles,

occupied bj a cen-

forming a

extends alone the

seacoast

the in-

of the country

topped

fur-

means

The westei

ior.

tral

laborer

because of his small stature, bul makes an excel

lent river-man and carrier and an indispensable

and the largest of

the

al presenl

access to

of

"i

These are
South
nearest

must

the

is

nish the only

British.

the

striking
it

These

the

Dutch,

the

network of river- by
which it is raversed.

three Guiana-, either

French,

the

at

of British

thine' aliout

brings
of

be

found.

ana.

find

ex-

iir;iL

SUgar lands ma\

North America, say

from New York, to
South America, we
us

The

savannahs

vast

map

coast

-wept

excellent for

is

cellent past

of

Atlantic

own

it-

licit

ond and third belts are covered by an exuberant primeval forest, and are rich in min-

"nited

feel

level.

we draw

[f

aighl

any

located

the

rivers.

present-day in-

raising of rice and sugar

making of rum and molasses,

the chief occupations of the

Coconuts thrive well on the coastal

pie.

land-.

Indian raises his bendb or shed anywhere in the bush, make- a small clearing for hiit is estimated that
and then spends his days in pursuit of tropical game,
15,
alioripir
ittered
liroutrh the Guiana forest, a remnant of the fndians whom the Spanish vainly
attempted to
coast,
the
Caribs
their
nam.
ibals of the
who gave
are virtually extinct after years of warfare againsl the white man.
i

The

vvife's

fores!

cassava

field,

715

NATURAL HISTORY

716

mental stations
lias
that
demonstrated
Para rubber grow- vigorously in almost
every situation in which

has been tried

it

outside the flat coastal region.

It is esti-

mated that there are 9,000,000 acres of accessible land, the larger part of which is
eminently

for

suitable

Para rubber.

the

cultivation

Lime-growing

is

experimental stage; this fruit

The late Colonel Roosevelt in 1915 visited the

Tropical Research Station of the New York ZooKalaeoon and was greatly impressed by the possibilities of Guiana, particulogical Society at

larly

its

forest

The

resources.

cultivation

of

gaining in importance each year. The

establishment of experiment plantations proves
that Para rubber will grow vigorously in almost

rubber

of

in the

still

at present

is

growing excellently on the coast of the EsThere are also large areas
sequibo River.
of coastal lands that are well adapted to
pastoral pursuits, but lack of proper drainage causes them to be inundated during the
rainy seasons, January, February, and May,

June, July.

is

any situation outside the

flat

coastal lands

Georgetown, the capital and only large

on the coast at the mouth of

city, is situated

the

Demerara River

angle two

in the

form of a

long and one mile

miles

rect-

deep,

and

is geometrically laid out in wide streets,

running at right angles to each other.
When entering the harbor on my last trip

to the colony, I

ing of an
ing voice

ass.
still

was welcomed by the brayThe memory of that greet-

lingers with me, and, together

with a recollection of open sewers flowing

through the

streets, it is

one of the quaintly

uncommonplace experiences that a

the colony

may have

Being at sea

visitor to

ere he departs.

level, the city is

protected by

a wide sea wall, constructed by Dutch engineers during the last few years.

the late afternoon,

is

Here, in

the city's only rendez-

becomes a promenade where

and listen to a rather egotistic bandmaster conduct his Negro-Hindu
band through seldom recognizable variations

vous,

and

it

the natives gather

atf&M
>'

of well-known compositions.

The

city boasts of only a

an up-to-date
The Botanical Garden in Georgetown contains
an experiment station where scientists may come
from any part of the world for study of the
tropical flora in its natural habitat.
The Garden
serves also as the main park of Georgetown
where the populace promenades on Sundays and
holidays.
The photograph shows two picturesque
travelers' palms in the Garden

few

luxuries,

plant, necessitated,

ice

most

probably, by the inhabitants' ever present

strong

and

desire

for

single

track electric street railway,

cooling

a
which

drinks,

has to wage a continual battle with a multi-

tude of small and heavily laden donkey carts

for the right of way, and a large and beautiful

Botanical

Garden

and

Experiment

Station, where the tropical flora grows in

especially where the soil

siderable

expansion

taking place.

of

is

sandy, and a con-

this

cultivation

is

There are large areas of low-

lying lands on which coffee grows splendidly,

but the cultivation of this plant has been

gradually abandoned through lack of sufficient labor.

The establishment of

experi-

lavish variety

and abundance and

is

closely

many lands; it is
men have learned many of the new

studied by scientists from

here that

things

related to tropical vegetation.

In
1917 a commodious moving-picture theater
was built where one might go three nights a
week and look upon heart-rending, blood-

REAL EL DORADO

.1

;r

humorous scenes that had

curdling, or dully

long Bince ceased to be appreciated

in

the

United States.

The sewerage system of

hinted,

flow through

thai

the city
tide

is

In canals

waste of

the streets, the

carried to the sea, where at

When

emptied.

is

ii

have

the city, as I

one of greal simplicity.

is

low

the tide begins to

the canal gates arc closed, often eaus ;

rise,

the .-anal- to overflow

into the

streets,

These canals, varying from small trench

deep streams, are crossed by arched In
over each of which there are signboards pro
bu1 either the aatives can

hibiting fishing,

not read or they are too hungry

to

enforced law, for coolies, with

feet

few

;i

often

may

above the dirty water,

inches

seen, Bitting on

i"-

obey an undangling

he edge awaii

bite at their lb

The 60,000 inhabitants of the

cosmopolitan

very

from the West

groes

make a
Ne

.-its

indeed.

population

compose must

Indies

with a scattering of native Africans

their
descendants, reUcs of slavery

and
times.

from India to
and sugar plantations, are

indentured

Coolies,

work on the

rice

conspicuous everywhere, dressed must

in

native

their

attire,

making

quite as though he were not

feel

Under

but in India.

often
tourist

the

Smith

in

system of

this

indenture these eoolies sign themselves into

a sort of conventionalized slavery for a period of five year-, for which they are paid,
sometime*, seven shillings a week. When this
term of labor has expired, they must reside
five

years longer in the colony

order to

in

be transported back to India at one half

By the time they have remained

fare.

period,

though,

monej

their

all

this

been

has

become pan
work here and there until
many of them from homesickness

spent, and they usually either

pers or d

Id

they die,

and disease.
nail

the

but
other
gin

Porl

Bhop

keep

Ihinese

<

eialize

'ortu

When

liquors.

admirers!

shops; Chinese keep general stores,

he

is

Portuguese
well

considered

Europeans carrj

opment of the colony.

Along the mast on either

on

among which New Amsterdam,

his

devel-

<'<

of

industrj

Guiana

i-

the ra

plantations of the allu-

Transportation is largely bj
plain.
Numberless rivers and streams traverse
ii,,- whole colony while the coastal flats an
network of canals and ditches for
sected bj
The lower
draining off the excessive rainfall.
uph -Imu - the cane being deposit)
coast

water.

;<

moving

licit

leading

ii

Berbice, ami

stretch

plantations.

the

by

The
sugar
vial

"V,

settlen

Bartica are the mure important.

Berbice

off

ami

side oi

town an' scattered many -mall

Amsterdam and

gin

in

Prom New
num.

Bartica, a

tants,

is

sequibo
vil-

lage with bul one streel ami twenty inhabi-

located at the junction of the

Es

Mazaruni river* ami

place" where in

the

ami

"jumping
the

intei io

off

'I

i*
a

into

ami diamonds, depart

Market Street is the main thoroughfare of Georgetown, the capital, port, and only large city of British
Guiana. This town of about 60.000 inhabitants is relatively modern, except for its open sewerage system, and
supports a good electric street railway and telephone service. The harbor (to be seen on the extreme right in the
background) is the most important shipping point of northern South America, exporting large quantities of
sugar, rum. rice, and some go'.d and diamonds.
This picture was taken Sunday morning, which accounts for the
deserted appearance of the street

Surface mining and lumbering are the sole industries of the forest region. The whole interior is auriferDiamonds are washed from the gravels of river beds by means of the "long torn'' of the placer mine.
Both the gold and diamond industries of Guiana are still in the prospector stage and carried on to a great
extent by nomadic bands of Negroes
scription of the methods used in diamond mining in British Guiana
appeared in the American Museum -Journal (now Natural History) for October. 1918. pp. 499-" _
ous.

718

Photograph by All
The; have many rapids in them which
I

The

interior can be reached al presenl onlj

om making

prevent largi

mining into the

for

interior, but

Near here

civilization.

:i
I

if

>e

station,

penal
easily

he prefer to fact the jungle rather

1

than the rock

town.

the

may

is

settlement from which a person

Kalacoon, the biological

pit.

is
also within a few miles of tin'
Here Colonel Roosevelt spent several

sleepless nights while shooting

with a twenty two caliber

situate.!

as

it

on

is

vampire

l>ats

its

northernmost

immense economic

United States.

Its

the best harbors on

the

one

fact

that

opportunity

capital city

the continent
it

has

to

the

1ms one of

become

save

for

of

power

somewhal by a l>ar of mud brought down by

'The
Demerara and Essequibo rivers.

the

authorities have
it

or keep

content

eVade

with

it,

made no attempt

.nee

delayedi

in

captain-

try

until high tide to

to

permit

pass safely over the obstruc-

Every once

entangled

ship

letting

wait

or

to dr<

they have, instead, been

free;

it

their ships to

angle of South America, this country oilers

nn

the necessary material

enormous source

mining industries

tion.

rifle.

the

impossible to convej

is

it

these rapids will be utilized as an

and especially

for the devi

from

Thus

the ascent,

some da\

the rivers.

bj

in

while a ship becomes

the slimy ooze, ami

it-

exit or

from oi to the country i- thereby

This harbor presents tin' difficulty

of the Mississippi delta, only

in

Lesser de-

gree; that has been overcome by up-to

clogg

ods,

A wayside Hindu
- Bomewhaf larger

even more easily could the harbor

market, featuring cassavas and lemi

than the parsnip ami with much thicker
which is baked, to remove the poisonous hydrocyanic acid
tlic vegetable mainstay
of the Datives of Guiana,
Salt Bsh, rice,
of tin-m.(1 by sweet poti
supplj
I

^Kin

parsnip-like roots,
Boiled whole or ground into

contained

in

the juice, thej

pr<

ami bananas are the other staples

of fresh neat

719

NATURAL HISTORY

720
of Georgetown

kept

be

navigable for the

larger vessels.
It

from yeai
seems

to

colony

year with

Anything

is all

advance.

to

There

languor about the

fur the betterment of the

right so long as

much money

enterprise

little

care-free

be a

to

country.

quire

matters have been going

true that

is

or effort.

be found,

it

does not

Nothing
Some have

re-

like

turers and promoters to her shores.

icans too, have gone there.
They

Amer-

have
taken with them American capital and American genius for opening up new land-, and

have attempted whole-heartedly to place the

colony at the head of its South American

But most of them were soon discouraged from further endeavors by the lack
neighbors.

conditions are wholly to blame, for England

friendly cooperation from the British

Guiana officials. The governor in 1917 even
went so far as to declare that he wanted no
American capital in the colony. It is inter-

takes care of her African colonies with ad-

esting to realize that at that time the Ameri-

is

at-

tributed this condition to the effects of the

climate, but

mirable
there

do nol

and

success,

are

worse

by

believe that

climatic
far

than

climatic

conditions
in

British

Guiana.

of

can flag was flying over the Houses of Par

liament in London as an appreciation of the
aid that American dollars had given in the

British

from the time of Sir

has drawn many adven-

Guiana,

Walter Ealeigh,

war.

American capital is certain to be encouraged in British Guiana, just as British

capital enjoys the right of investing in
American enterprises in the United States
and in Alaska. When such conditions come
to exist, the opening up of the interior will
follow

quickly.

wealth in

itself

Besides
this

containing

much

country will provide

highways over which intercoms,? of considercommercial value may be established

with northern Brazil, and by which Europe
and the United States will gain access to
large quantities of timber and valuable
able

minerals, to say nothing of the possibilities

of agriculture and cattle raising.

The

step toward this accession would

first

be the building of a 250-mile railroad from

Georgetown to the Brazilian frontier. This

would mean, for one thing, that the Brazilian cattle, which by necessity are now
shipped through the Takutu and Branco
rivers to Manaos, an. thence down the Amazon, could be brought to Georgetown less
expensively and more quickly, where they
could be killed and their hides tanned on the
spot, or they could be shipped on the hoof
to the United States and Europe.
I

On account

of the nature of the country

such a railroad would not be very

An American company

to build.

A Hindu by-product of the vicious system of

indenture too old to work and too poor to pay
his passage back to India.
East Indians have
been brought over since the abolition of Negro
slavery, under agreements to labor on the rice
and sugar plantations for five years at a stated
wage, after which time they must remain in the
colony for another period of five years if they
are to be returned to India at one half fare.
At the end of that time they usually have become paupers

difficult

once of-

it provided the government

would give the company a franchise of every
alternate mile along opposite sides of its
The governor in reply said that the
course.

fered to build

land

would

then

too

be

valuable,

appar-

ently overlooking the fact that at present

is

useless

such a

and always

railroad

is

will

built.

it

be useless until

Good

railroads

should also be built along the coasts, con-

Meeting

agricultural

the

central city

with

the

and seaport.

Once the railroad

is

district

REAL EL DORADO

to the Brazilian frontier

dustry will come in

<

jui<-k

succession.

in-

Be-

cause of the lack of facilities for transportation, the necessary

mine

machinery

for

working

most difficuH to convej into the inand so no real mining has been done.
Gold has been profitably worked by both
placer and hydraulic mining, but the only
attempt at getting beneath the surface, accomplished in the Le Desire Diamond Mine.
owned by Mr. Dudley P. Lewis and myself,
was worked on a very primitive basis because it was locate'. nearly 250 miles in the
interior and could be readied only by paddling up a river the course of which was filled
is

terior,

with

treacherous

and whirlpools.
Bauxite has
covered
ties

tin also

usually

passed

by

be-

of getting into

hush the crushing machinery necessary

the
to

is

impossibility

extract

gold fields

due

to

tin

water.

The

it.

richness of the alluvial

this country

in

of

Bolubility

is

supposed to be

gold in the

soil

Mr. Earrison, geologist and general

scientist

of the colony, told

me

thai

to his

mind, thai past interior of forest, mountains,

and savannahs represents one of the richest
storehouses on the South American contim at.
Its great forest, containing such valuable

woo.

Is

as greenheart, wallaba, crabwood,

mora, would

in

and

be a valuable asset.

itself

makes very durable submerged

works such as wharves, piles and docks;
wallaba can be very easily split and is

Greenheart

chiefly

for

use.)

shingles;

crabwood, some-

ra

been

large

in

quartz

in

cause of the

development of the mining

built, the

fully

721

quanti-

has been

lo-

cated as plentiful in the

interior,

but for lack of

transportation

nothing

has

facilities

done

been

with either of these ores.

Gold and diamonds are the

minerals that have

only

been prospected

Eoi

by nomadic
bands of Negroes termed
sivelv, usually

"pork-knockers"

because

they go out supplied with

little salt pork for
and knock about the
bush, hoping to stumble
upon wealth. Even in the
rude,
meager way in

only a
food,

which

this

of pros-

sort

pering has been

.lone,

it

has been a very profitable

occupation and has yielded

the

government many thou-

sands of dollars
ties.

in

royal

The gold and

dia-

monds may be mined with

the roughest of tools, and
when once acquired offer
problem of
portation.
An ounce bottle ,,t" diamonds would l.e
eat

small fortune to a dusky

pork-knocker.

The

These four "religious" members xA the Mohammedan contingent

ttOtographed while attending a Hindu ceremony.
In G
the Hindus visit the Mohammedan ceremonies and vice versa, and both
ts mutually participate in each other's feasts.
The East Indian
immigrants keep not onlj their religions but also their languages and
costumes, in this way lending a very oriental touch t<> the population
through
I

that

occurs

so

plenti-

NATURAL HISTORY

:>!

times called "British Guiana mahogany," can

ate in the scenic highlands where the air

and exceptionmora, a hardwood,

ally durable furniture
is chiefly used for flooring and firewood.
These woods are of exceeding consequence.
On the Potaro Eiver (a branch of the

cool

be worked into very beautiful

;

and the water pure and clear.

Many of these things seem visionary

haps, until

we

is

per-

realize that the building of a

transcontinental railroad in the United States

was considered impossible before it was ac-

Essequibo), about eighty miles inland, there

complished, and to talk about reindeer be-

the magnificent waterfall, the Kaieteur,

ing bred in Alaska was a subject for mirth

ten or fifteen years ago.
Today there are

is

with a sheer drop of about 740 feet and a

breadth of 350

feet.

At some seasons of

year the water flowing over

tains a depth of twenty feet.

its

brink

This

is

transcontinental railroads in the United

the

five

at-

States,

the

itably in Alaska that reindeer

and reindeer are being bred so profmeat can be

highest waterfall of any consequence that

sold throughout the northwestern states at a

has as yet been discovered, and

considerably

is

more than

four times as high as our Niagara. At present

it

is

railroad
this

inaccessible to most people, but a

could

quite easily be built to

it

would mean the possibility of develop-

ing a tremendous water-power station, sur-

passing the one that

is at

the brink of Niagara,

present located on

and power generated

at this place could be utilized all over the

colony, even running the railroads

mines.

and the

resort could also be established

where people worn out by living on the

coastal lowlands, might come and recuper-

here,

cheaper rate than beef.

All

things are visionary until they are accomplished,

The

it

seems.

late Colonel Eoosevelt said in a lecture

before the Eoyal Agricultural Society, on his

Guiana: "You have here

I can see it now, with
homes stretching out over the savannahs and
among the hinterlands. Set your minds to
thinking and your hands to working and delast visit to British

a wonderful country

velop it!"

Surely such a

man

as he did not

speak idly but because he was far-seeing

enough

to realize the possibilities of Guiana.

Photograph by H. E. Crampton
Kaieteur Falls, set among the forested hills of the interior, make one of the chief scenic features
The Potaro River
discovered.
as
yet
highest
waterfall
any
consequence
of
of the province and the
makes at this point a perpendicular drop of 740" feet, or about four times the height of Niagara, and
rainy
season the stream
the
During
continues by a series of cataracts with a farther fall of 81 feet.
is nearly 400 feet wide and carries a torrent twenty feet deep over the brink of the falls

and a Wilderness

Birds

OBSERVATIONS OF TIIK EFFECT OF FOUR FEARS OF WAE ON A FERTILE

COUNTRY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BIRD POPULATION

MAXV

tn

but

chance to see
reverse

tin'

country into

fertile

turning of

as

howling

wil-

Eastward from Arras stretches

plain

fertile

of

much enclosed
an.

soil,

Artois,

unlike

quite

Flanders

of

plain

:t.

The

soil,

also

unlike

is

livjit.

ami

underlaid

places with chalk.

once

tin'

tin'

tin'

mosl

Fences and hedges there

scarce ami, except for a few

large parks, usually confined to the borders

main roads

df the

am

(I

speaking now of

conditions before the war

of the farmers, instead
the

over

small

of

usually

congested

-nine

hollow,

in

into

what after the old Danish style one sees

nut

i<

always kept
are needed.

Cows are

country.

in barns, therefore no fences

Grain ami beets were the prin-

cipal crops, and the bird life was such as

one might expect in a cultivated prairie
country.
Let me now try to describe what
this country looked like after

over

being fought

neatly four years.

fin

One would expect

to find

rank growth

of weeds, volunteer crops of grain, ami

of

sport

all
kill

to

was

stead, there

Wee,

-.

volunteer

larks

and finches galore.

En-

a rolling plain

patches Were

crops

in

of

that

had

to

covered with
-r;i|',-e.

in

many

along

ran

;| tl

The

exist.

but sometimes

the hollows, and

species of dewberry

M'l'V

ceased

ally short

rank

kind

sport

the

ground,

fruiting plentifully.

The

trees

splintered

ruined

were

>tuli-

villages,

all

great herds of stork, and over-

like

the

was as blue and clear as

sky

The

in

of observation balloons struck

lines

one

the

incongruous note, for the circling

looked

planes
es\\

the

Large

cov-

partridges, sometime- fifty or more,

of

hit

and

hawks

great

like

birds added to the resemblance.

up

red

like prairie chickens,

up out of the grass

and skylarks

like lougspurs.

)n the remains of the trenches and wire entanglements were a few loose congregations
<

migrating birds, whim-hats which acted

like

bluebirds, a few black redstarts with a

own

resemblance,

pipit,

and

an

pipits

much

our

like

shrike

oceasional

that

might have been our own butcher bird.

Eaptores were very scarce, there being only
few hovering kestrels, and in the dusk a
bobbing Athene owl, reminding one of the
sparrow hawks and burrowing owls seen on
a similar prairie in America.
The great flocks of seed-eating bird- like
finches and buntings which should have been
in evidence were absent, with the exception

Rooks

and

the land

is

starlings

magpies,

so

yellow

buntings.

common

whei.

cultivated, were also absent, and

nearly

so.

birds had decreased

Except partridges,
number.

Of mammals, hares were common

the

of

prairie-lil

swarmed

Voles

all

in

their resemblance to jack rabbits,

places a

the

had
and

settlers,

encampments had flooded

.ami

of only a few scattered

large increase of bird life due to the cessa

tion

head

similar

pastoral

looked

of

in

the south of England.

It

thrown open to

wagons

fluttered

tered

are

countryside,

villages,

ami the ho

looked

the country, the horse lines of our artillery

of

claj
in

August, 1918,

in

Alberta or Dakota.

dif

all

jump

Rionchy-le-Preux

rolling stretch of virgin prairie

suddenly

climate,

methods of agriculture are

Flanders,

are

if

first

near

plain

their

derness.

our

-lust after

the

literally

indicated

The
mind of our western pra

one
<

D.S.O.

s.

change effected
tin'

lition

seldom

is

it

tin'

of

a village, but they were

prominent feature of the landscape.
whole effect put one irresistibly in

wild

cultivation

ROO

rubble

<>i>{>or-

on

effed

the

L A X

I,

reclamal inn of a wilder-

tin'

nt'

country;

forested

has the

by

note

as in the clearing ami

ness,

observers have had the

tunity
lit'.'

JO

M A

By

vole

to

country.

the

plague

and, in

added

in

fact,

and

domestic cats which should have

d very
much in evidence were gone with the Inhab1

-one gave for

along

the
-

few

highroads;

the

itants,

did

not

plenty.

hollows,

usually show from a Little distance: here

and there low piles of shattered bricks

although

have affected

mice

showed

no

Flanders

in

Gas and gas

shells

the
ill

there

were

apparently could

cats,

effects

for

from

hares and
the

gas.
7'23

XATCL'AL

724

1/1

STORY
wide

Birds also do not seem to suffer from gas

any form. A friend who was with the

none,

in

the belts of fine trees, open spaces, wood,

French during a very heavy cdoud-gas attack put over by the enemy, observed that the
only birds killed were the kingfishers along

and water, everything a bird would need,

although the gas was strong

But once we got through this and into

inhabited and cultivated country, like
magic the birds were everywhere sparrows,
buntings, and finches in ropes on the telegraph wires, or whirring up in great flocks
from the stubble, chaffinches chinking from
the wayside trees, starlings in clouds, and
swallows circling around the church steeples
or gliding low over the meadows, just as in

stream,

the

enough to

kill cattle

miles behind the lines.

Also I failed to see a single bird victim

of the chlorine gas attack of April, 1915.

Up

to the

summer

of 1918 I had invariably

noted that birds seemed to be almost indifferent to shell

foi

fire,

but now

it

was too much

even them.
(gray, I never saw the redwere always in evidence during our

Partridges
leg)

attacks, their little

brown

figures

skimming

low over the ground, silhouetted against the

gray wall of our rolling barrage, often

among the legs of our advancing infantry,

In every case I
and many were killed.
found actual wounds, none seemed to be
killed by concussion, although this killed
With skylarks we found the same
horses.
condition, all dead birds picked up showed
the marks of shrapnel or fragments.

Hares, during these periods, were also ab-

One jumped right

panic-struck.
arms of our general's cook, and one
All
can guess where it went after that.
dead ones picked up, like the birds, had
wounds sufficient to cause death. But the
underground mammals had the hardest time
of all; one would have expected them to
remain below, but the concussion must have
been worse there, for they came to the surface during heavy cannon fire. "When lying
flat for obvious reasons, I often saw voles
within a few inches of my eyes, and could
take them with my hand too paralyzed to

yet birds were as scarce as in the fighting

zone.

the

lines

on the French

coal-

Later near Brussels we came into a cucountry largely under glass, where
grapes were the main product; here birds
rious

became comparatively scarce again, even the

adjacent beech woods had few small birds,
but I was delighted to see bird boxes, little
sections of hollow branches, nailed to the
trees in

but

Many

visible

were lying about dead without

wound, having died either of

many

Wild
swarmed

woods

the beech

cleared of all its inhabitants

had been

by the Ger-

their first occupation, for a depth

of ten miles or more.

there

had been no

to their roosts.

Here for four years

cultivation,

or next to

But

dis-

had made

appearance, and beneath every

its

roost were the remains of hundreds of pi-

geons,

by

eaten

known
is

and hawks, while

foxes

scores of dying birds

But this
away from

region

palumia)
firearms had

ease, the inevitable result of overcrowding,

the bombardments lasting for days which

were a feature of the war before this stage.
In the long, quiet intervals one would expect to see more birds, but they were not

This

all

time flocks of passenger pigeons, flew over

diphtheria.

mans on

(Columba

these woods;

Flocks miles in length, resembling the old-

to be well

much in evidence.
As we neared Cambrai the country was
more wooded, with fine large reedy meres

near the houses

been confiscated and so the "Chasse du

Eamier" had died out, with the result that
the pigeons had multiplied without check.

These intervals of intense gunfire were

canals.

not

pigeons
in

only short periods, for there were none of

the

places

in out-of-the-way places.

fluttered to the ground.

fright or concussion.

near

side.

mining districts had a good quota of birds,

but the densest bird population was always
where the land was most intensely cultivated.

into the

move.

own
Even the ugly

the cultivated country behind our

solutely

any

stretches of grassland between

in

moped

in the trees or

This disease I found

England a form of

that absence of enemies will

make
not by itself

bring about a large increase of bird

especially small bird

principal
cover;

me

a digression and has led

the point which I wish to

factor,

when

Cultivation

life.

coupled

with

life,

is

the

adequate

this cultivation ceases bird life

goes.
I

would ascribe the large increase of par-

tridges not so

much

to

their

comparative

immunity from pursuit by man, but to the

fact that magpies were practically absent,

BIRDS AND
and food and

cover

other

In

plentiful.

parts of northern Prance, unlike England,

tlic magpie is always present in numbers,

huge nest

his

always a conspicuous fea

is

ture in the tree tops along the roads, and

partridges have small chance to rear their

and

broods,

they

if

the

do,

broods

are

WILDERNESS

merous, as there were plenty of buildings

for

them

mile

to build in.

I will call this six-

Next,

came a belt ten or

A.

bell

twelve miles wide, completely devastated, B.

Sparrows, starlings, and swallows had abandoned this region birds scarcer than in A.
:

Next,

was

of our

small.

conditions.

practically disappeared owing to the fact

that there were no trees, nor even hushes,

in

in.

the

well-culti-

country on the French side of the war

its wealth of bird life, one came
to a partly devastated belt about six

zone with
tirst

miles wi.le where birth became scarce, only

a few species like sparrows and starlings
ling around
persisting in good numbers, f
uiir

horse

also

lines;

ten mile

any

Kelt,

nut

way

l.ut

soldiers' billets,

swallows,

fairly

nu-

the belt

that there

with similar physical and fauual

Farther eastward stretched a

devastated nor destroyed

depopulated, except for

and uncultivated, with birds

as in A. or probably a

them to buihl
To recapitulate: Leaving

vate,

a belt on the enem.N- Bide like

side,

In the thoroughly devastated region where

partridges were so plentiful, magpies had

for

.-.'>

little

scarcer than in

on our side, owing to the fact

was

Less

waste of horse-f

I,

also

probably because the magpie came into

his own again in this belt. Lastly came the
well-cultivated country that had not been
I,.
,

with birds

populate,!,

in

full

strength as

under similar conditions on the western side

of the

war

zone.

-.
An impression of Bourlon Wood on the Artois plain during our advance of September
running panic-stricken between the
Gray partridges and hares scurried away from the rolling barrage,
con,;;'
nfantry. The partridges, thanks to the evacuation of the devastated
left when cultivation was
.,,.. grew very numerous, l.ut mosl other birds
,,,
lll
r ,...
helling, l.ut always from acof
birds, hares, and field nice were killed
,.,

rupted.
tual

Many

>

the

wounds and

not

from the concussion or

In a letter to the Editor Mr. Brooks

mv

mj
true enough
line

ti

all

picture of

the same.

.-,

battle

Don't use

rticularly hectic daj

his

world was disintegrating"

and
it

if

comments regarding the drawing: "This i~ something

look :it it. hut
It
makes me laugh everj tunc
birds.
might have drawn a litt!,. shrew
you have anj doubts.

marching down the middli

it

iI

daj and bright sunlight

The New York

Wild Life Memorial

Theodore Roosevelt
State

HA

By C

ADAMS

K L E S C.

Director of The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station at the

College of Forestry, Syracuse

THE

the

of

interest

Theodore

late

Roosevelt in wild life was not the

diversion of a busy

man

it

was one

which he found,
no substiHis strong, spontaneous interest in
tute.
animals was of the kind that comes only
from a man with the heart of a naturalist
and that cannot be suppressed or pretended.
The naturalist is generally an obsarver of
live animals and of what they do.
It was
this which appealed to Roosevelt, and it is
thus eminently fitting that the new memorial
of

his

with

vital

all

needs,

for

his extensive resources,

by the

established

station,

of

legislature

New York in May, 1919, should be called

"The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station." That it should be located at
the New York State College of Forestry
at Syracuse, is appropriate because of what
with Gifford Pinchot, did for forestry,

he,

and, furthermore, because in the future the

forests are destined to be one of the

main

strongholds for the preservation of wild

for a democratic people.

The public
before

coining to see as never

the intimate

and wild

estry

now

is

life.

life

relation

Forestry

between
is

for-

no longer

considered as solely economic in aim.

not

does

mean

merely

the

growing

It

of

it
embraces the complete use of
woodlands for public welfare, including, in
addition to its economic returns from lumber, grazing animals, furs, fish, and game,
other uses educational, recreational, and
scientific which at times may far exceed in

timber;

Roosevelt's Approval of the Plan

rial

memo-

the direct outgrowth of plans pre-

is

sented to Mr. Roosevelt in December, 1916,

for

the

study

of

the

He

natural

history

give

my

726

the

for this memorial."

The duties of the Roosevelt Station are

by the New York law as
follows
"To establish and conduct an exclearly expressed
:

perimental station

Wild

to

be

known

'The

as

Experiment
Station' in which there shall be maintained
records of the results of the experiments and
investigations made and research work ac-

Roosevelt

Life

Forest

complished; also a library of works,

to-

gether with means for practical illustration

and demonstration, which library

all

shall,

at

reasonable hours, be open to the public."

Furthermore, the obligations of the station

are

make

to

"investigations,

experiments,

and research in relation to the habits, life

histories, methods of propagation, and management of fish, birds, game and food and
fur-bearing animals and forest wild life."
Such a memorial station as is contemplated by the law is unique, as no other
similar station or institution exists in the

United States, although of course, several

agencies are devoted to different phases of
the

problem.

It

opens up a vast oppor-

tunity for the "field naturalist" of the type

admired by Roosevelt, and it will serve as

constant beacon of encouragement to
young students, and to ecologists whose
ardor may have become dampened by too
much of the atmosphere of the laboratory or
the museum, and to others who need to renew

of

their youthful enthusiasm

by realizing that

detailed field study on animals

history,

greeted

name

The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest

Experiment Station

with characteristic enthusiasm and

urged that they should be taken up "in a
big way." In this he clearly indicated one
of the essentials of any worthy wild life
memorial. The suggested memorial, in this
way, comes very near to having his direct
approval, and it has met with hearty comtions

life.

consent without reservation for the

use of his

porary,

wild

State

mendation from Lieutenant Colonel Theo"... as you

dore Roosevelt, who writes
know it was one of the subjects that were
always uppermost in my father's mind. I

sugges-

forest

New York

social value that of the purely economic.

It is significant that the present

to

rapidly

is

not a tem-

passing phase of natural

but a permanent, ever persisting

one which will continue to maintain a de-

mand

for well-trained field naturalists.

wild

life

library

of

the nature

sug-

gested by the law will be equally unusual,

as no

such special research library along

these lines has been assembled in America.

VALUABLE ASSETS OF OUR COUNTRY

imples of the kind
and ti-li pondf
Wild Life Forest Experiment Station, for the restocking
emplo
species
the
of
and
needs
habits
sive study of the
rout Btreams

study of forest natural history; he continually pointed out

of the most common wild animals and his works of tra
to emphasize the need
ther, he would have 1ler the experimental conditions of a
1

of

:i

v.-lt

-'i

by The Roosevelt
involves an exten-

would hav,

in

this

scientific

serrations on
a

life

a scientific

loors

histories.

Fur-

and systematic

NATURAL HISTORY

28

number of books on fish, birds, mamand other aspects of the nat-

vast

mals, game,

ural history of wild life

government

reports)

lie

(including

unused,

many

or

little

innumerable private libraries.

in
These might well be concentrated for the

used,

purpose

of

this

The

cover every phase

and

and as contrasted with the usual exciting

and emotional display which attends the disof

cussion

life

are

formation, and not general impressions and

vague imaginings,

Investigations at the Roosevelt Wild

Life Station

The variety of investigations which may

be undertaken appropriately at such a sta-

numerous indeed, including the

gamut

of activities of forest wild

enlife.

Practical consideration, however, will prob-

ably limit the work

of the

few, relatively, of the

lines.

may be

to

these the fol-

given

The

ecology

or the relation of these crea-

life,

is

what

Physiology and Disease.

its,

is

needed

There

and nutrition of wild life awaitDomestic animals have

food,

much

received

attention in this respect, but,

as wild life belongs to the public,

The

of

control

alga?

and

is another example of these wild

problems which only a trained physi-

of streams

or ecologist

ologist

can solve.

life.

This

is

true not only

but also of great numbers of birds and fish,

even of the common kinds which have long
Reflect for a moment upon the
number of men who have devoted a
vast amount of time to trout fishing, and

been known.
great

seems almost incredible at first thought

that there never has been made an exhausit

tive,

scientific

study of a trout stream in

America
It is hoped that the trout problem will be made one of the specialties of
this station, as it is certainly one of the wild
life problems of first importance.
The whole
!

subject of the post-hatchery care of fish

another instance of an extensive

field in

is

need

Closely re-

lated to the physiological problems are those

cur.

game and fur-bearing animals,

aquatic

other

of the ecology and life histories of practi-

wiLl

has

plants in relation to fish and the pollution

fact that

all

it

been to a corresponding degree neglected.

need of a great increase in our knowledge

cally

many

ing investigation.

dealing with the diseases of wild

of the larger

are

connection with the food hab-

in

their complete environment, must

always remain a fundamental problem in
dealing with wild animals. There is urgent

tures to

wild

if

from man.

get a square deal

problems

life

Ecology and Life Histories.

of wild

station

more important and

As examples of

urgent

lowing

is

manuscripts

important

life is to

tion, is

among sportsmen.

State the beaver question

of the forest wild

scientific

already on hand.

tire

subject

this

Xew York

In

one which will soon demand careful consideration if a sane policy toward these
animals is to be maintained. Reliable in-

station.

publications of the station are intended to

problem,

study of the influence of a "buck law" experiment, conducted as a scientific problem,

The diseases of

are legion.
ticular,

These

been sadly neglected, in spite of the

As

serious

outbreaks frequently

oc-

a rule the diseases of most kinds

of wild life attract but

are.

life.

fish have, in par-

little

attention.

They

however, probably important factors in

determining the abundance of many of the

large game animals. In the case of fur-bearing animals there is a large field for experiments intended to study the effect of food

and other influences upon the quality of

Heredity.

The

est wild life*

fur.

study of heredity in for-

opens up a wide subject for

ex-

perimental research. Disease-resisting strains

may prove

to

be an important means of

perpetuating wild
of large

and birds, but

well.

life,

not only in the case

game animals, fur-bearing

in

fish

animals,

and other forms as

Under proper breeding management

wild furs

may

be greatly improved in both

of systematic study, and furthermore, prog-

quality and quantity.

in stocking streams, lakes and ponds

must await studies of this character.
The fur-bearing animals of the forest
have in the past received but little special
study, and their relation to game vermin is

Wild Life Policies. Y-pon a foundation

and inference such as can be built up
only by investigations conducted as indicated
under the preceding headings, we may hope
to build up principles of management or
policies for wild life which will fit them into
the texture of modern social and economic
life.
When this is done in a scientific manner, forest wild life will be intelligently and

ress

another subject demanding detailed attention.

The Virginia deer and the beaver are
the best

known

of the larger forest animals,

and yet even today we have no thorough

of fact

WILD LIFE MEMORIAL TO THEODORE ROOSEVELT

sympathetically

man

the

to

ami used by
To build up

appreciated

advantage.

best

men1

policies

is

in

fact

the

largesl wild life problem,

and the smaller speproblems are means toward accomplish-

cial

The

ing the greater aim.

relation

of wild

animals to one another and to all the items

of their environment is so intricate that
those whi.-h appear superficially to be wholly

luce

Extensive reports have

been printed on this work. In the Adiron-

dacks,

al-o.

ii

/,

of use of fort

lot

<

of

ceding outline

t],,

is

st

x, w

wild
to

ti,,

Old.

The pre

program for the

activi-

summer

preliminary studies have been made

ami studies have been started at the
timber line on Mount Muivx
made in co-

stitutions

the -tate

with

Highlands,

sot

I'ark

region,
in

of the

in

the

scientific

Interstate

studies

have been

cooperation with the Commissioners

fish,

Park)

Interstate

character of the park problems

lerable progress ha- been made.

tin-

fish

survey of Oneida Lake has

much progress
the

fish,

in the

fish

(in co-

operation witli the United state- Bureau of

Fisheries), are additional examples of the

which are
under consideration, and show how these are

related to public welfare.

tion

of these ami

made

will

arise

study of the food of

the

h control,

Thus

the capacity of the waters to pro-

of

relation to park campers

in

been conducted on a smaller scale than is

contemplated tor the new station, but, even
with the limited means available in the past,

of the

reality

in-

Palisades

extensive

Palisades

and

birds

other

several

Nor ha- the southern part of

been neglected, beeause in tin' Bud.

and visitors. Tin' problem of

and the control of mosquitoes by

in

made

fish,

new Roosevelt Station. This inew name tor work already

under way by the college for the last seven
3.
For the last five years this work has
ties

birds to these

for.-!-,

made

life.

investigations have

of the relation of the

operation

in

the ii-h of this iake.

comprehensive plan which provides for every

one in its proper sphere. This plan for adjustment is the nn.st difficult problem of all,

comparison subordinates all otl

the capstone or climax of the whole

worm

cooperation with the

(in

and economic relations of

history

life

of

in

the study of the

in

of fish

United state- Bureau of Fisheries), ami

the

unrelated are so entangled that the relation

of each can be properly adjusted only by a

which

food,

fish

parasites

729

-'

that

similar

the

It is to the solu-

problems

which

Wild Life
committed by

Roosevelt

Experiment station

i-

Legislative act.

morial would
.
,lt himsell than
speriment Station which ha
blished recently at The New V/orl
by tie- New York legislature.
The work undertaken by tie
state plana
ice in wild life conservation, bul
.|\
of hal.its ami life
the practical management from an economic Btand]
New York. The laboratories f<>r the present are in thi- building at
and in many ways unique librarj devoted to wild life will be
and maintained
for public
I

Samuel Garman,

of the Agassiz

naturalists of distinction, perhaps

SOME most
the

fortunate,

seem always to

ride on the crest of the

and circumstance.

time

ing

may be

wave of changToday they

the pivot about which turns awak-

ening popular interest in their chosen sub-

tomorrow leaders in the faunal study

some distant clime the treasures of
which are becoming available to science, or

preciation

of

Museum

species

characters

the

in

groups which will always be of value. How

many others must have received similar aid,
for he had then been an active herpetologist

and ichthyologist for about thirty years!

While other men gather and discuss the

ject,

newest discovery, consult distant collections, or

of

plan expeditions, day in and day out one

exponents

the

may

find

Garman

in his

of

some new point of

view
which
by
data, long accumuarranged

siz

mens

books,

of

others

follow

direct,

by Shufeldt,

path,

line

presently

rec-

ognized

the

in

passing

structure

lesser

stands

men

of

History.

suggests that Samuel

Garman's oneacquaint-

time

authority,

leave

writ-

number

Natural

are

and
which

May

along

some definite
where
they

chance allusion

ing in the April-

building from small

beginnings

it,

with infinite care.

careers

unswerving

for

the pure love of

The

clearer light.

and

independently,

in

Museum, work-

ing with his speci-

being

are

lated,

room in the basement of the Agas-

themselves

ances,

for

to build

may

ways

realize

he

upon until the gen-

His

is

is

new

into

drifted
lines,

still

not

al-

that
there.

the especial

eral level of knowl-

talent

edge

always there, where

its

rises

above

heights and

its

the

becomes

interest

portunities

Samuel Garman,
curator of fishes at

Agassiz Museum of Harvard

University,

of

either

certain courtesy of

Samuel Garman, curator of fishes at the Agassiz

Museum, Harvard College

in

these
It

either carried

of his especial interests.

It will never be

possible accurately to estimate the

sum of

The
when a student in colSamuel Garman many
differentiating frogs and

his contributions to his chosen science.

writer remembers,
lege,

carrying

to

subtle problems in

snakes, and how, although at that time he

was doing little work in herpetology, he always with a few words and recourse to a
specimen or two within easy reach, not only
settled the difficulties, but

730

welcome,

and the

inspiration.

would be difficult to think of

forward by the trend
of the times or bending it along the lines
categories.

him as

these

ceived, the equally

can-

placed

wishes

days to take his

problems, for the
help sure to be re-

the

be

writer

being

more frequent op-

historical.

not

for

imparted an ap-

A glance at the list of Garman's published

works on fishes shows scarcely any acceleration or abatement of effort since the first
was issued in 1875. His conclusions have
not always been accepted by other workers
in systematic ichthyology, but they are invariably interesting and valuable. His most
widely known work on fishes is perhaps the
description and discussion of a very primitive shark, Chlamydoselachus, a number of
years ago.
It is fortunate that this most
interesting fish fell into the hands of so
careful and thorough a descriptive naturalist. J. T. Nichols.

Scientific Zoological Publications of

American Museum

the

SUMMARY OF WORK ON
F R A X K

By
Editor of the BuUeti

TIIK

following aotices of

Museum

are

similar aotices published

in

can

five

publications of the

scientific

VLuseun

can

LI T Z

E.
and

assic

construction of which

of

the March, 1919,

to

the origins,

based

not

only

laboratory

upon the authors' painsdissections, and a study

which an' intended to clothe the

subject, both original ami

fossil bone:

muscles that

the

contribution

earlier

Gregory and Mr. Krwin

Dr.

Osborn's mono

President

in

graph on thai extraordinary group of mam

A second, relating to the jaw muscles

mi'iii of vertebrate palaeontology of the Museum by Dr. L. A. Adams, and was published
(luring 1918 by the New York Academy of
Sciences.
Two or more additional papers
are now in progress.
The specific objects

of the studies, as state.

l>y

the senior author

number, are "to review the

homologies of similar muscles in the differof the

present

ent vertebrate classes; to

make

restorations

of the musculature of the jaw, Limbs, and

axial skeleton of certain extinct amphibians,
reptiles,

one.

l>.\

more

and mammals; and to discover, one

some of the stages by which the

mechanisms of the higher

specialized

here

and Mr.

invaluable

Camp

service

to

certainly have

anatomists b\

record their comparative review

placing on

of the musculature of the limbs

mammals,

birds,

and

reptiles,

zoologically important types

tl

strich,

(Sphenodon
terrestrial,

crocodilians,
.

birdlike

in

certain

Including such
;is

monotremes,

No. lit.
Art.

15,

fifty

117
0.

563,

compiled,

the

beiny

Upon

these

based the more general

lata are

discussions in the paper and the excellent

two-color plates which show the probable

arrangement and homologies of the muscular
sj

stem of

As may

'ynognathus.
well

inferred, the paper

lie

is

of

minutely descriptive, and yet illuminating comparison rather than descrip

necessity

own sake

tion for its

is

ever the aim of both

By working from the known to

the unknown, bj ranging the flesh-clad limbs
of modern animals side by side with bones
which lost their blood and sinew, and even
the real bony tissue itself, millions of years
authors.

ago,

'i

i
.

translated

and

Iregory

interesting,

into

r.

<

even

lamp

have

entertain-

language the mechanics of "walking"

primitive stages, when, although com
plicated enough, it was far less intricate and
ing,
in

its

among modern, relatively

mammals and birds. The differ-

than

specialized

post-limbed

man and

righl
billed

sprawling reptile or a duck-

platypus are obvious, but the diverse

arrangement and proportions of muscular

and skeletal elements, which are substantially
t

he

same elements

lutionarv

three,

all

in

relations

of

the

dinosaur, and

subjects

XXXIX

Pis.

Murphj

field,

brought together within

pages of text and illustration-.

architecture to the others,

the

like.

W. k\. and Camp, C. L

L918.
Comparative Myology and
Bull Amer. Mua Vo< //
XXXVIII,

pp.

this

conveniently

which
paper describe

to

h.

the
in

In the earliest

iry,

view by Robert

in

sum of present knowledge of

the tuatara lizard

mammal

carnivorous,

literature

ences of posture and movement between up-

vertebrates were evolved."

Dr. Gregory

nt ire

scattered

about

ma Is.

of vertebrates, was prepared in the depart

the

tl

Christman

S.

comprised a restoration of the musculature

of lower Tertiary tithanotheres, which will
be published

forms, but also

of the bones of the extinct

In

of the principal muscles of locomotion, are

upon

An

re-

!'<

once moved them.

complete

presented in Part

is

The paper
by Messrs. W. K. Gregory
ami C. I., 'amp is one of a series of studies
of ancient animals with

:;

The tabulations, which relate

insertions, and nerve supply

of the paper.

taking

Among

Cynognathus,

reptile.

of the

continuation

Invertebrate /

in

tor

Ameri-

number of X aim ral History. Summaries of

papers on recenl mammals will appear later.
Life Studies

MAMMALS

FOSSIL

the

fishes,

and the

higher

me

e^ o-

type

of

enlightening

authors of the pn

detail.

tour legged animals, as

movements

,,t;

the

paired

in

limbs

were closely correlated with undulatory move

mentS of the entire trunk and tail, while in

731

NATURAL HISTORY

32
highest stages

the

of vertebrate evolution

movements and musculature become widely differentiated from those of the

axial skeleton. With this progressive adaptation in mind, the authors trace the changes

and muscles of the shoulder

the bones

in

Studies on the Evolution of Animals

limb

the

and hip

girdles, explaining the significance

of the expansion of this or that bony part,

the development of this or that system of
muscles, which, in the long course of evolution, raised the primitive reptile's belly off

the ground, enabled the creature to support

the entire weight of its hinder parts,
instance, on one hind leg, while

it

thrust the

and led ultimately

other forward,

for

to

that

marvelous, almost inconceivable perfection of

balance which permits the highest primate,

the lord of creation, to stand

and walk and

run on two pinlike limbs without even

alizing that he

is

Space for discussing an eminently successattempt to describe and historically

interpret the structures upon which movement in the higher animals depends is not
available, and this notice must close with

among

primitive vertebrates:

mammals

lished

continuation

of

researches

on

from the Snake Creek beds in Western Nebraska, discovered by the Museum
Expedition of 1908 and further explored in
1916.
Fossils are very abundant at this
fossils

but mostly fragmentary, the teeth

locality,

of three-toed horses being more numerous

than anything else; jaws and skulls occur

There

occasionally.

a great variety of

is

animals, more than sixty species.

They

be-

long to the late Miocene or early Pliocene

epoch of the Age of Mammals and represent
a stage in the evolution of the animals of

re-

ful

"In reptiles and primitive

Our West

D. Matthew, curator of vertebrate

palaeontology in the American Museum, pub-

the western plains which

doing anything remarkable.

Dr. Gregory's account of locomotion

of

W.

Dr.

the

and hind limbs cooperate with each

way: The fore and
hind limbs of the same side move in opposite directions
on the other hand the right
fore limb moves in the same direction with
the left hind limb and vice versa.
The
backwardly extended fore foot is raised and
moved forward immediately before the forwardly extended hind foot touches the
ground.
This criss-cross movement of the
fore

other in the following

perfectly known.

is still very imVarious new species and

genera of

mammals

complete

specimens

of

new types

interesting

bear-dog,

others.

described are a large

about

rodent

more
The most

are described, and

the

size

of

a peculiar soft-nosed hornless rhi-

beaver,

and a peculiar horned animal supposed to be a ruminant but with a single

noceros,

median horn on the top of the cranium as

in the fabled unicorn.

An

expedition in the

summer

of 1918, after this article was pub-

lished,

has

obtained

further

interesting

collections.

limbs

is

correlated

with

alternate

lateral

bendings and twistings of the thorax, and

with corresponding turning and twisting of
the girdles, in such a way that the forward

and backward reach of the divergent limbs on

one side
limbs of

is

increased while the convergent

the

are brought still

Another advantage of this
that the pull and push of the
supplemented by the powerful
opposite

nearer together.

arrangement

is

limb muscles

is

spiral

and spring-like action of the

culature, while a third advantage

axial musis

that by

stretching the limbs of the same side in opthe forward thrusts and
brought nearer to the mid-line, and
thus the speed is increased. Hence, it should
posite

directions

pulls are

and does follow that the faster a

moves the narrower is its trackway."

reptile

American Museum expeditions

in

secured large collections of fossil

from

the

Lower

Eocene

Wyoming and New

that

1909-16

mammals

formations

Mexico, more than

of
all

had previously been obtained, and with

and careful study of

the very exact records

the geology of the strata,

sible

to

clear

it

has been pos-

up the correlation and

suc-

cession of faunas in a very precise fashion.

Many new

types have been discovered, and

known
The affinities of various
genera are discussed, and their bearing on
the origin and evolution of the later Tertiary animals.
A paper 2 by Dr. W. D.
Matthew and Walter Granger takes up the
better specimens of others previously

from fragments.

'Matthew.

W.

D.

1918.

Contributions to the

Snake Creek Fauna, With Notes upon the Pleisof Western Nebraska, American Museum
Expedition of 1916. Bull. Amer. M-us. Nat. Hist.,
XXXVIII, Art, 7. pp. 183-229, Pis. IY-X.
[Summary furnished by Dr. Matthew.!
-Matthew. W. 1).. and Granger, Walter.
1918.
A Revision of the Lower Eocene Wasatch and
Wind River Faunas. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
XXXVIII, Art. 16. pp. 565-657. [Summary furnished by Dr. Matthew.]
tocene

SCIENTIFIC ZOOLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS

primitive Lnsectivora, rodents, and edentates,

them showing early stages in the

of

all

now

evolution of these orders,

widely differ-

atiated but so difficult to distinguish in the

Eocene that their true

have been

affinities

matter of much controversy.

The Memoir i by Professor Henry FairOsborn, president of the American

jeum and honorary curator of vertebrate

field

a very fully illustrated

is

re-

vision of all the described species of ances-

from the

tral horses

of

this

later Tertiary formations

The

continent.

and

scriptions

original

with carefully

many more

perfect

or another of the

The geological correlation

ibed forms.

and exactly revised, so that the

succession in time is shown as accurately
irefully

as

possible

is

the light of all the later

in

researches.

Conclusions

evolutionary

succession

mostly

postponed

as

exact

the

to

phylogeny are

and

author's

the

until

West

the

final

monograph on the evolution of the horse,

some probable relation-hips are indicated here and there, and much that will

nent, or have

ii

which

might

who are

interested in the evolutionary his-

tory of the horse, as

vast mass

and

data

of

brings together a

it

evidence

hitherto

scattered through a great number of mis

many

cellaneous publications, and corrects

errors or inaccuracies of the older descriptions

and illustrations; and more than

all

ribes for the first time a large

beca

part

of

Equidae

the

collections

fine

Becured

of

Tertiary

various

by

\ln

Seum expeditions.

iveries

operating with
friends of the

Exploration of

Cavt

tin

Dei

ciate
1

curator

in

and other West Indian islands with equally

satisfactory results.
Valuable evidence has
also been obtained

Hear]

Osborn,

Fairfield,

in

1918.

parative Zoology.

and

Imer

Equidse

[(sonographic Type Revision.

Vat
Hist., II, N. S., Part

North

'

pp.

381-435,

Pte.

I.v

icw furnished by

Hist.,
I.

NX

l>r.

II.

\"

pp.

1,

1-330. Pis. I to I. IV and 17'. i.

view furnished by l>r. Matthew.]
Anthony, II.
L918
The ndigi n
Mammals of Porto Rico. Living and Gxtinci
I

of

If<

Mvs

Memoir Mr. Anthony describes

this

through

his

They
new insectivore, a
a number of rodents

expeditions in Porto Rico.

consist of a remarkable

ground

small

sloth,

large and small, and a few bats.

for the bats,

the fossils are

Except

new and

all

rather distantly related to any continental

mammals, the nearest affinities being with

South America: but they are quite closely
related

the

to

Cuba and

mammals found

fossil

in

This would seem to show

llayti.

Larger islands have boon united at

the

[Re-

U
'arl

3,

nol been united to either

Miocene Or Pliocene,

The evidence

all.

is

is

with South or Central

mammals

America

on

American

in

union

a
the

from

are descended

"natural
rivers.

in

Mio-

the alternative theory that

3tray waifs drifted across bj

rents

Mr.

Africa.

disposed to believe

cene, as against

if

wholly against any

former union with Euro]

Anthony

these

Land

since the

Matthew.]

mammals obtained

illustrates the fossil

and that they have

Amer-

the

of

America,

by explorations for the

the Museum of Com-

Museum and

National

at

mammalogy

othei

ploration of the cave deposits of Porto Rico

Anthony, asso-

E.

Torre and

Cuban discoveries with great success.

Anthony undertook a systematic
\

Mr.

continent
EL

la

no very remote date, geologically speaking,

ls

Pa
A Memoir- by Mi.

de

Dr.

Museum, has followed up the

earlier

that

on

evidence

valuable

A few years ago important

of fossil animals were made in

Cuba by Dr. Carlos de la Torre, professor

of biology, /oology, and zoography in the
University of Havana, and in Porto Rico by
Dr. Franz Boas.
Mr. Barnum Brown, co-

In
all

afford

such problems.

conclusions.

This volume will be of great aid to

always been islands since they

from the sea, whether they were

formerly com
ted with Xorth or with South
America, or, as some have thought, with
Europe or Africa, are problems which have
much discussed by geologists and zoolAlmost nothing had lieen known of
Ogists.
the extinct animals of the West Indies,
rose

but

as the fundamental evidence for such

Whether these islands are

Indies.

the remnants of a former Antillean conti-

de-

reprinted

drawings and

revised

scriptions of each, and of

specimens referred to

type

are

illustrations

is of unusual interest because

bearing upon the geological history of

its

lirst

Revision of Ancestral American Horses

paleontology,

Museum,

Lean

of

733

rafts"

few

seas and cur-

from

the

South

White pelicans and other bird inhabitants of the Klamath Lake Reservation on the Oregon-Calishown in the bird habitat group at the American Museum

fornia boundary, as

Region too Alkaline

for

Crops

Department of Agriculture pronounces lands about the

Malheur Lake and Klamath Lake Bird Reservations in Oregon and
Northern California too alkaline for growing crops

Soil expert of the United States

By
Chief,

Bureau

the
DURING
have arisen
|

E.

W.

creasingly

last

highest importance in connection with the

in

conservation of our wild bird life. In their

prime these two reservations were perhaps
the finest and most populous of any federal
bird preserves in the United States.
With
the growth of settlement in the West land
promoters have found opportunity to ply

threatening to the existence of

reservations.

Lake and Klamath Lake Bird

These are perhaps the most

migratory-bird reservations in the

United States. Malheur Lake is situated in

eastern Oregon, a part of the arid Great
Basin; the Klamath Lake Reservation is located partly in Oregon and partly in the
adjacent part of northern California. Both
contain a great area of swampy land with a
shallow-water lake in the middle, thus forming ideal homes for enormous numbers of
migratory wild fowl, including myriads of
ducks, geese, and pelicans, during the nesting season as well as during the spring and
a

region

where marshy or swampy

areas are as scarce as they are in the north-

western
734

states

their calling in the districts about both of

these reservations

and have made continued

efforts to secure the abolition of the reser-

vations in order that the lands might be

utilized for other purposes.

The marshy lands about the borders of

lakes which form the center of both
of these reservations produce an abundant
growth of tules, rushes, and other grassy
growth which has a certain value as forage
the

for live stock.

Owing

to the alkaline char-

acter of the lands within both of these res-

fall migrations.

In

NELSON

Survey, United States Department of Agriculture

few years conditions

Oregon and northern
California which have become in-

the Malheur

notable

of Biological

such

areas

become of the

the
United States Biological
Survey has for a long time been convinced
that they would be of no value for cultiervations,

BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF STATES

vated

erops

duction

and

that

forage

of

pro-

theii

furnished

agi icultural value.

During the summer

.it'

1919,

in

cerning the value of these lands for agricultural purposes, one of the

most experienced

competenl of The soil experts of the Department of Agriculture made a reconI

3ance of the lands in both Malheur Lake

and Klamath Lake reservations. In thereport

of

that he considers

the per-

it

of one

the most notable wild-fowl resorts in this

country, where enormous numbers of ducks

and geese .and other birds have reared their
young from remote times. The loss of this
reservation will be irreparable since there is

noth

consequences
of the
idea of

will

in

that region.

Similar

from the drainage

result

Klamath Lake Reservation with the

making it into farms.

There

reconnaissance the soil expert

hi-

definitely

depriving

loss to the state in

Hi'

get definite information as to the facts con-

an.

carried out, but further than this will be the

sole

their

is

now

in

bill

taking over of the

Congress tor the

Klamath lands for the

centage of alkali in these lands so high that

purpose Of their being opened tO settlement.

they are valueless for the purpose of gTO'W

especially for the benefit of soldiers of the

ing crops, and that

the water were drained

if

the lake- the marshes and

would become alkali

Malheur Lake iwhich

maintained

drained into

is

it

by

mination that they are too alkaline for crop

it
appears as though any so,

cultivation

wi

by the Blitzen and

The broad belt of marshy

lands surrounding Malheur Lake, covering
thousands of acres, produces forage enough
to support numerous settlers with their live
It

now proposed

is

water of these
.nurses

lands.

If this plan

inevitably

that

is

of

irrigating

carried out

Malheur Lake

dry and the stock

ran. lie-

will

Thus

ceeding value of these areas for wild fowl,

which are now

a

large

num-

ber of the earliest settlers in that region will

be deprive.

of their

homes and property,

to

a value possibly approaching $1,000,000.

So much for the destruction of the propinvolved

in

the lands in the Malheur

their

other

scattered around the lake will be

perpetually worthless.

thank those who led them into such location-.

In view of the practical worthlessness of

Lake and Klamath

Lake reservations for cultivation and the ex-

means
become

it

who are led to locate there with the idea

of building up home- will have no reason to

the

divert

streams high up in

purposes

for

to

Tn view of the recent survey of

soil expert and the deter-

war.

land- by the

Silvies

stock.

late

lal

rase the present plans are

it

is

to be

hoped that they may be continued

as bird reservations and the people living

about them under present conditions may

thus be enabled to retain their homes.
If
this is done these reservations will serve as
important supply points for providing migratory wild fowl for other parts of the counSuch locations are becoming so tVu
try.
the loss of ea.-h one

This

is

now becomes irreparable.

especially true of such large and not-

alde areas as Malheur and

Klamath

lake-.

Professor George

Wag-

Biological Surveys of States

S

WORK

in

'<

/'.

Agriculture, and

biological investigations

of bird- and

mammals by

the Bu-

ner, of the University of

reau of Biological Survey. United

principal

to normal.

being

In

Wisconsin the State Geological and

Natural History Survey is cooperating with
United States Department of Agriculture in the work, which
liar-lev

is in charge of I'r.
H. T. Jackson for the Department

15

and continued
field

Wisconsin, for the

Work was begun May

September 20. The

,-ui.

Department of Agriculture, and cooperating institution-, while somewhat interrupted by the war. is rapid!
back
-

1919

until

of cooperation was the northecial

devoted

Lake Superior.

to

the

Apostle

attention

Islands

in

Harry H. Sheldon for

the Biological Survey, and Mr. Arthur J.
Poole for the Wisconsin Survey, assisted.
In Montana. Mr. Marcus A. Banna, asr<\
M'. Harry Mallei-, worked the
Mr.

NATURAL HISTORY

736

the Missouri and the bordering

and mountains from the mouth of
Milk River westward, under the general diThe
rection of Mr. Edward A. Preble.
Little Rockies, Moccasin Mountains, Big
and Little Belt Mountains and Castle Mountains were visited during the latter part of
Mr. Victor N. Householder
the summer.
was a member of the party during the early
valley

of

plains

Flett, National Park Service, Longmire Mr.

William L. Finley and Mrs. Finley, Portland, Oregon; and Stanton Warburton, Jr.,
of Tacoraa. The Biological Survey was rep;

resented for a part of the time by Mr.

Stanley G. Jewett, Pendleton, Oregon; and
throughout the season by Mr. George G.
'antwell, Puyallup, Washington, and Dr.
Walter P. Taylor, of the Biological Survey,
(

named

in charge of the work.

part of the season.

the last

The biological survey of Florida was conField

tinued by Mr. Arthur H. Howell.
studies were carried on during March and
April over a large part of Lee County and
The
in the region around Lake Okeechobee.

Blue Mountains area of extreme southeastern Washington, in which occurs an unusual mixture of
Rocky Mountain and Cascade Mountain
types; and in Mount Rainier National Park,
in connection with which the circuit of

collections in the Florida State Museum were

examined and the specimens carefully identified.
A collection of bird records from
Florida, both published and unpublished,
shows approximately 390 species and subspecies recorded from the state.

Cooperating at different times with the

work

Biological Survey in field

in the state

of Washington were the following: Prof.

William T. Shaw, State College of Washington, Pullman; Prof. H. S. Brode, Whitman
College, Walla Walla Prof. J. W. Hun gate,
State Normal School. Cheney; Prof. .!. B.
;

northeastern California Burney Falls,

to the Pitt River, with the sur-

rounding 160 acres of forest, have been

donated to the state by the owners.
Tumalo Canon, near Bend, Oregon, with
alternate rock-walled gorge and forest- and
flower-decked bottom land, has been set
This is through the
aside for the people.
generosity

of

the

Shelvin-Hixon

Lumber

Company, which gives the canon, and with

a strip of timber along the highway, as a

it

Thomas
company did not own some

memorial to the

late

The

Shelvin.

of the most
beautiful parts and bought them at a cost

of $20,000 to include them in the gift.

bit of protected

highway

will

This

be in striking

contrast with the road leading into Bend,

which for
1

many

miles

is

desolation

of

rued and cut-over yellow pine.

hi

From Washington comes news

Parks

Association

of

so far as

of the or-

Washington,"

with

In-

in the

for the

first

time,

known, by any vertebrate zoolog-

ical expedition.

In North Dakota Mr. Vernon Bailey

worked through September and October to
get data on

the

hibernation of

mammals

and on the stores of food laid up for winter

by nonhibernating species. He has returned
with many valuable notes to be added to his
report on the mammals of the state, and
with an interesting collection of live rodents
for study of habits in captivity.

Major Everett
man.

In

nounces

its

Pacific Coast
G. Griggs, of Seattle, chair-

small

folder

purpose

which

the
is

league

an-

worthy the

attention of the citizens of every state in

the Union:

"To preserve the natural features

a part of our inheritance, and

of our state
to retain in
their present beauty our mountains, lakes, trails,
and points of scenic interest to advocate new
national parks and the creation of state, county,

as

and municipal parks and highways to connect the

same; to preserve our lakes, rivers, and streams
from pollution, and conserve our natural supply
of food and game fishes
to protect our wild animal life from extermination; to encourage love of
nature; and to preserve in the virginal state some
;

part of our great forests."

Washington and Oregon have no great

mighty

forests of redwoods, but they have

forests of other conifers only less majestic.

For the sake of the water supply these

ests

ganization of a league called the "National

made

Mount Rainier was made

News from

Latest Conservation
INtributary

vestigations were

for-

should no longer be cut on the slopes

and peaks of the Cascade Mountains and

along streams and around the borders of
lakes and for the sake of the beauty of the
;

Through the courtesy of Mr. Madison Grant, who served as organizer for the Save the Redwoods
League, we are enabled to publish these results of activity and influence of the Save the Redwoods
League, the National Park Service, the United States Forest Service, and local western conservationists.
1

LATEST

Alios X I<JW8 FROM PACIFIC COAST

CUX>i;i:\

737

highway and the comfort of the traveler

who follows it, the forests should be proPres-

tected along both sides of the road.

beauty in Oregon and

Washington without doubt will be handicapped. The region is sparsely settled and
scenic

of

ervation

the pioneer idea of destruction

One

inates.

still

predom-

point of contest lies

inline, liate

work on the highways. If, however,

way from 300 to L000 yards wide
be purchased, there will result some of the
this

in

right of

most beautiful drives

ill

the world.

In addition to the need of attention to the

highway problem and

to

the

mot hem

red-

problem, there are other conservation

matters along the Pacific 'oast that should
have the light of publicity thrown on them.
w

Among

these

the

is

rescue from real

led

development of the Seventeen Mile

Drive and it- unique cypress forests, near
Monterey, lalifornia.
A vast satisfaction must be fell by the

estate

<

man who

has accomplished a national good,

or helped in accomplishing

thing for others

is

To do

it.

the great

joy-giving

re-

quirement of the human

mind, and to be

able to give largely, where

it

many

to

will firing

good

thousands, hundreds of thousands,

Americans

or even millions of fellow

thai

must bring a broadening of vision great to

the extent of dwarfing most of the really
insignificant things of

An example

life.

giving was set in

Mr. William Kent bought the redwoods on Mount Tamalpais overlooking
Golden Gate and the waters of the I'.nilic,
the last of the redwood race in all thai bay
m of California. Then he senl a deed
of

such

1908.

of gift to the National Government.

requested that

he
the

"Muii

Muir, even

the

Is,"

monument
his

for

l>e

friend

Also

named
John

from the
White Bouse that he would greatly like to
Dame it the "Kent Monument."
Mr.

ell

fl

characterized

n rote

these

redwoods,

strong and self-reliant, shelter for

the hosts of ferns ami (lowers of the ground,

standing

as signifying the chivalrj

of the forest and

suggesting the ideal of individual .and social

life in

America: "Stand straight and strong,

who can; protect and shelter the weak."

The characterization has even broader application in 1920 than this national meaning
he

gave

surely,

it

it

in

1908.

Bets the

And

for

one thing,

way. for those of us who

gi e, to make the United States, both

East and West, the kind of country in scenic

can

beauty and
w

ill

recreational

opportunity which

best serve all the people.

ad

straight

and shelter the

and

who can

protect

Courtesy of "Bird Lore'

William Brewster
Bv F R A X

WILLIAM
home

BREWSTER

died

at

in

days after the completion of his sixty-eighth

year.
in

the

gists.

For nearly half a century he has been

front rank of American ornitholoHe was the moving spirit in the or-

ganization

of the Nuttall Ornithological

Club of Cambridge, which, formed in 1873,

was the first society of its kirn in

try, and much of the success of
I

this coun-

this

Memoriam
CHAP M A N

31.

Cambridge, Massachusetts, on July 11, 1919, six

his

club

In

during the succeeding forty-six years was

hie to his unfailing support.

From

the

Xuttall

Ornithological

Club

American Ornithologists'
Union, a body which has exercised a profound influence upon the study of birds
in this country, and in the formation of
there developed the

this

of

society

first

Brewster also played a part

importance.

He

served

as presi-

dent of the Union from 1896 to 1898, and,

from

its

organization

in

1883

until

his

FOREST CONSERVATION IN NEW YORK STATE

death,
(

was

lie

an

member

active

of

its

conservative

research,

cal

accurate

Jouncil.

statement, as

in

presentation of facts as

tin'

in

739

it is

Mr. Brewster was also one of the Pounders of the original Audubon Societj which

humanly possible

grew from the American Ornithologists'

Union; he was for years a director of the

sorb it diminish his love for the sentiment

National Association of Audubon Societies,

rather than

tin-

and presidenl of the Massachusetts Audubon

manded

attention, and

Society.

tant

,,,

ant

L880 in

in

Society

Boston

mammals

Natural

of

assist-

the

in

from

Bttstory;

L900 he held a similar position

to

Museum

Cambridge

the

Brewster was

charge of birds and

in

|ss.-)

1887,

from

Zoology, and

Comparative

of

date

last-named

the

the end of his life he was,

in

to

honorarj

in effect,

or advisory curator of birds of thai

museum.

private

This,

enthusiasm

and

been

given

tin-

to

Museum

which he also

Comparative

of

sum

the

lefl

nf

in

grounded

in

the peer

occupied

Brewster

William

<<\

American ornithology.
the fundamentals of tin'
any nf his colleagues in

Til

area

Preserve

of
at

to

thn

New ork
close

tin-

nf

The

the anna

in

techni-

State of

Forest

L919

is

acquisition

Preserve during

1919,

n a.

i ui' authorized
Tin'

by

voters

the

work nf acquisition

in

now cai

is

ried on under a carefully developed plan,

which permits it to proceed systematical!}
ami with complete assurance that the state

reeerve

will

full

value

for every

dollar

es

pended.
I

order

hat

purchase

agreed upon with the owner,

offered

are thoroughly

nf thn Commission,
tity

price
all

cruised

ma

large tracts

by foresters
the quan-

who determine

nf timber on the property.

ornithology.

ni'

Is

The achievements

are not to

a scientist

<>\'

measured alone by

published works,

hi-

but also

.
i

the influence he exerts

i'.\

Viewed from

time.
-w -t

among

this standpoint,

an

u,ru]iii'il

nf

considerate

unselfish,

sound

ami

respect,

who knew him.

confidence nf everyone
doI

-inhere,

of

others,

steem,

tl

an ex-

of

personality,

attractive

judgment, he won

position

enviable
Possessed

ornithologists.

ceptionally

upon his
William

al

It

knowledge of

hi*

which ma. If William Brewster a potent factor in the development of the science of

science,

liter-

in

birds, Imt also the nobility nf hi- eharactei

been carried nut with fun. I- provided by

I.

ami

insight,

discrimination,

observer's

Well

lias

1916.

oaturalist's

unique

tin'

the
acres.

1,886,550.81

additions

of

statement by

nature.

in

born

while their results were presented

ornithology

The work

'"

this country.

New York

Forest Conservation in
Extracts from

consist of

birds

ary form which ha- rarely been approached

was therefore

$60,000.

position

com
more impor-

hi-

sympathetic

trained

the bush

in

hi*

structure, perfect in all its appointments,

was erected on the grounds of his Cambridge
It
contained his library and cpllec
home.
The latter,
tion of North American birds.
by the terms of Mr. Brewster's will, has

Zoology tH

bird

tin-

his

ab-

the hand which

in

made with

with

let

ornithology

contributions to ornithology

be

brick

fire-proof,

bird

These were

institu

were connected with the developmenl nf

hi-

nf

was

It

aever

-till

results of his study nf

the

His active curatorial duties, however,

tion.

aithologj

ni

of

he

l"-.

science

the

in

interest

in

State

New York Conservation Commission

that

foresters

tin-

ture nf

.In

i-

entirely

the aa

in

topographical ami quantity survey.

They an' then followed by appraisers, who

place

where
that

pens

makes

nf

-'ami-.

i1

timber

the
It

the

in

hap

frequently

wner nf the property

tl

valuation survey, ami

pute, thr
th.-

value

the

ascertain

Commission

land cruised

in

in

case

also

<>i .lis

some instances ha-

second time by different

upon the work of the first.

During thr past year the land examined by
foresters ami appraisers, some nf which had

parties, a- a check

been offered

in

1918, included 67,295 acres

thr Adirondacks ami 17,029 acres

kills,

total

amounts
purchase

tin-

"

of

8 [,324

acres;

in

an.

the<
of

in

lata

these

Commission ha- negotiated thr

12,371.98

acres

in

thr

Adiron-

X AT URAL HISTORY

-4<>

lacks

and 16,415.30 acres

the Catskills,

these slopes might be immediately acquired

The average
agreed upon for the Adirondack land

price

Since that time, public-spirited citizens in-

58,787.28

of

total

was $14.90 per

in

acres.

acre, while the

average price
$6.26 per

was

for

the

purpose

of

stopping

denudation.

terested in the welfare of the Adirondaeks

The purchases made during the year

amounted to $734,059.51. In addition there

have organized the Victory Mountain Park

Association, for the purpose of collecting
funds to assist in the acquisition of por-

have been appropriated 92,810.89 acres in

the Adirondaeks and 1740 acres in the Cats-

ing

that

of

in

the

Catskills

acre.

All of these acquisitions have been

kills.

approved by the Commissioners of the Land

Office, although some of them must still be
approved by the Attorney General and other
steps taken before the purchases will be
completed and the titles vested in the state.
The first effort of the Commission is to
acquire land that lies on the high mountain
slopes, where the danger of denudation following lumbering and forest fires is the
These are the sections that should
greatest.
be forever maintained as protection areas,
and upon which no lumbering should ever

When the region was forbe permitted.

"merly lumbered, the forests on these upper

Marcy and the

tions of Mt.

sailors

who

This fund

lost their lives

and

being raised by popular subamounts ranging from one dol-

be turned over
Meanwhile, however,
to check the lumbering that had already
started on the mountain, the Commissioners
of the Land Office, acting upon the recommendation of the Conservation Commission,
lar up,

it

have authorized the appropriation of

the tract that

Lands already acquired during the

by

ized

the

slopes

of

more inaccessible

to

operate

in

those

Now, however,
and pulp wood is much

locations.

the price of lumber

higher and the timber on a portion of these

high,

steep

slopes

could

manufacturing purposes.

be

removed for

These facts ac-

count for the relatively high price of

cer-

all

of

now threatened with denuyear,

or the acquisition of which has been author-

and pulp wood at that time

unprofitable

is

dation.

include

it

will eventually

as a gift to the state.

Office,

made

and

during the war.

is

scription in

slopes were left untouched because the low

price of timber

forest surround-

as a memorial to the soldiers

it,

Commissioners

of

the

Land

parts

of

the

upper

all

Mounts

or

McKenzie,

Saddleback,

Whitefaee, Mclntyre, Marcy, Skylight, Bedfield,

Allen,

McComb,

Seward,

Seymour,

Esther, Sawtooth, Colden, Cliff, and Wallface.

While some of these lands have cost

a comparatively large amount owing to the

fact that they contain large virgin growths
of softwood, nevertheless they are the for-

tain of the lands acquired.

ests of greatest value to the people of the

The Shore Owners Association of Lake

Placid in 1918 raised a fund of $30,000 as a
gift to the state to pay part of the purchase

state of

price of land lying on the slopes of

zie

and Saddleback mountains,

McKen-

in order that

the

Xew York

as protection forests for

sources of some of the largest rivers,

and as vacation grounds, including within

their boundaries the most beautiful and impressive scenery of the Empire State.

English Sparrows live below Sea Level

THE

apparent ubiquity of the common

English sparrow frequently causes us

to forget that this bird is not indige-

nous to this continent and that

some parts is relatively recent.
Grinnell, director of the

nearly

forty-two

extreme of temperature with low relative

humidity in the country ( 134 degrees Fahrenheit on July 10, 1913), presents a novel problem of adaptation. It will be interesting to
watch the subsequent development of this bird
colony under these extreme climatic conditions which formulate a natural experiment
that may throw some light on the question of

Museum

of

Com-

Sparrows, which were introduced

City sometime between 1860

and 1864, arrived

required

ley location, however, involving the greatest

fornia, at Greenland Ranch, 178 feet below

Xew York

they

advent in

fornia, has discovered a new "outpost" of

sparrows in the heart of Death Valley, Cali-

into

but

years more to extend to San Diego in the

southern part of the state. This Death Val-

Dr. Joseph

its

parative Zoology of the University of Cali-

sea level.

1872,

in California in 1871 or

tin'

development of subspeeific characters.

Honor
Address on

of his retin merit after nearly thirty years of

th<

head preparator of

Adam Hermann,

TO

Adam Hermann

to

and

friends

his

fellow workers present their congrat-

upon

ulations

For

achievement.
leader

the preparation

in

of

record

his

nearly

a
and mounting of

skeletons, his -kill, ingenuity,

have

ventiveness

of

nique

revolutionized

chosen

his

profession

and

in-

the

tech-

and

aided

progress of science.

in the

ly

high

years

thirty

ing

s<

as

rvici

Anurirnn Must-nut

fossil vertebrates at th<

have

adopted for
museums, often by
preparators trained in this .Museum under
Mr. Hermann's direction. Gidley and Horn
in Washington, Peterson and Coggeshall in
been

work

similar

very generally

in

other

Pittsburgh, .Miller in Chicago, Martin in

Lawrence, George Sternberg in Ottawa, all
received

their

training

here,

while

many

and museum men in this country

and in Europe have come to the American
scientists

In his early days at Yale University he

was trained under the vigilant eye of Professo: Marsh to an exact and scrupulous regard for finish and accuracy of de
tail,
and the perfei
preservation
and safety of specimens and rec-

Museum

to learn the best methods of preparing and exhibiting fossil vertebrates.

'

Coming

ords.

seum

in

to the

American Mu-

he found an oppor-

1892,

tunity for broader and

more

pro-

work,

the

high

gressive

standards of

retaining

his early training,

bu1

adapting them to new metho

preparation and exhibition which

combined

accuracy

scientific

stricl

with the largest

possible utility in

popular education.

When Mr. Hermann came

Museum the department of

to the

verte-

was in its infancy. A beginning had been made

in the field expeditions and some
valuable collections stood ready to
brate palaeontology

Ids hand.
Bui little or nothing
had been done toward preparation
and exhibition. During the twenty-

Mr. Adam Hermann, head preparator in vertebrate palaeontology at the American Museum, who has just retired

seven year- that have passed since that time,

The

he has seen the exhibits, beginning with a

for this

group of specimens that stood

little

next

corridor

of

elevator, grow steadily

They expanded first into the
mammals, then overflowing

the

by year.
hall

in the

fossil

these limits, filled the great dinosaur hall,

and

finally,

third

and

still

larger hall has

can*

been

fourth hall
with

the

fame and
both at

is

step by step

urgently needed,

expansion

exhibits

the

of

reputation

have

home and abroad,

their

adily

so that the people

of the city are justly proud of their g

Natural History Museum and of it- wonderful skeletons of extinct

Mis

animals.

methods of preparation and mount-

Coenopus

the

tridac-

fine

mounts, the
a Tertiary

required to contain the great and ever

Museum was

example of the panel or low relief mount, which has been so largely
in our later work.
Next came the Metamynodon, the first of our open or full relief
tylus,

increasing series of fossil skeletons, and a

Hermann mounted

skeleton whieh

first

first

/'

the

attempt,

mammal

pride

think, to

this

in

style.

mount
Then

ontops skeleton, whieh has

of

our

Tertiary

mammal

for

twenty-four years, and will, we

hope, remain standing in broad and sturdy
hall

massiveness, defiant of
a

year

to

come.

;ill

rivals,

for

many

The acquisition of the

Cope mammal collection in L893 provided a

new series of valuable and classic specimens, and as the expeditions brought in
new material year by year and the labors
741

NATURAL HISTORY

i-.'

tory staff enlarged, the exhibits gre^

more

The famous Ph> nacodus

skeleton afforded an opportunity for what
and more rapidly.

thought

then

w:i~
forct

remarkable

make an open

to

mount

tour
in

de

which

every bone of the skeleton could be conveniently

removed

Today

method has been very widely apand it is customary to arrange any

plied,

if

desired for separate study.

this

cements

<>(

various kinds have been tried out.

power lias been applied to various

operations.
The numerous ami conspicuous
mountings of the early skeletons have been
reduced to a few inconspicuous simple lines.
The laboratory methods and technique
have always been fully and freely explained
and displayed to all who were interested.
Electric

No

petty rivalries or secrecy for the sup-

rare or unique skeleton so that the parts can

posed

be readily dismantled for study.

In 1897 the department entered a new
field, extending its work to the dinosaurs

has been allowed to interfere with the prog-

and other

lent

This brought up

fossil reptiles.

new problems

for

solution.

The gigantic

and fragile character of the skeletons

of the dinosaurs made them far more difficult to restore and mount than anything
that had previously been attempted.
The
first work done on the dinosaurs was of the
size

nature of preliminary experiments;

first,

in

mounting the limbs, then, in devising mounts

that would hold securely the individual vertebra?; finally, in restoring and mounting
the entire skeleton of a Brontosaurus.

These

advantage of

selfish

ress of the science.

this

spirit of friendly co-

operation has become more and more preva-

and has aided no

less

than ingenuity or

inventiveness in placing our American

seum

laboratory

position

of

technique

acknowledged

in

methods and technique which has served as

a

textbook

in

laboratories

able

mount a

to

little

complete

their

Diplodocus

before the Brontosaurus was

ready for exhibition.

It is but fair,

how-

ever, to say that the chief credit for devis-

ing methods to mount the skeletons of the

giant Sauropoda belongs to

Adam Hermann.

Another very different problem was presented by the great marine reptiles and
fishes of the Kansas Cretaceous.
The skeleton of Tylosaurus dyspelor was one of the
first and is still the finest mounted skeleton
The method
of a Mosasaur on exhibition.
of mounting this specimen included ingenious devices for reducing the weight of the

great block, 26 x 6 feet, and for strengthen-

ing

it

The

and securing
later

its

permanency.

history of the laboratory has

been one of continued progress and prosperity.

Always ready to experiment with
new devices, new tools, new cements or preservatives, many improvements have been
introduced,

Gum

others

tried

tent shellac 1 has replaced

1

and

abandoned.

arabic replaced glue, and to a large ex-

gum

arabic.

New

First used in this laboratory in 1901. I think.

of

vertebrate

palaeontology and has been of great help to

preparators both in this country and abroad.

While credit for the initiation of this liberal

is due to Professor Osborn, yet to Mr.
Hermann, as to other department leaders,

belongs the credit of carrying

were

In

in 1909 a fully illustrated description of his

pose and musculature, took time, so that it

was not until 1905 that we were able to ex-

Meantime our friends in Pittsburgh had

studied and profited by our experiments and

Mu-

present

leadership.

policy

completed Brontosaurus skeleton.

its

furtherance of this spirit of mutual helpfulness Mr. Hermann prepared and published

various experiments, along with studies in

hibit the

institution

and

it

out loyally

effectively.

In a recent census of the fossil skeletons

it

appeared that no fewer than one hundred

were at that time mounted on exhibition,
ranging from the giant Brontosaurus to the

Most of these skeletons

and mounted in outlaboratory, the greater number either by
tiny Pterodactylus.

have

been

prepared

Mr. Hermann himself or under his direction.

This is a record which it is safe to say is
not equaled nor is likely to be by any other
preparator of fossil vertebrates.

And, last but not least, we who have

worked with Adam Hermann for so many
years cannot fail to express our appreciation
of his loyalty to the American

Museum and

department of vertebrate palaeontology, his watchful care over the expenditure

of both time and money in the prosecution
of our work, the aid and instruction freely
given to his subordinates, his frank appreto the

ciation

of good work, and criticism of all

Museum's standards.
and friendly cooperation, not less than to diligence and
skill, we ascribe the growth of the department from its small beginnings in 1892 to
its present position.
W. D. Matthf.w.
that failed to reach the

To

this

spirit

of loyalty

Mona

with

connection

INof

Mona

Island Declared a Forest Reserve

Lobeck's mention

Dr.

[sland

his

in

on

article

the

physiography of Porto Rico page 523),

American naturalists will be grateful to

know

Mr.

thai

Porto

Rico,

Mona

declared

M.

K.

December

Monito

an

northwest
sular

Mona

Foresl

Mona

have

and

thai

and

Island

one half miles

were declared

proclamation

by

of

to

rewarded with success.

three and

islel

forester

steps

reserve,

1919,

22,

of

the

foresl

efforts have been

liis

On

Bruner,

taken

has

of

an

In-

the

go^

ernor.

This insures the preservation of the

highly

interesting

conditions,

espe

by preventing the indiscriminate cut-

cially

ting

natural

the scanty timber for charcoal.

ot'

Mona

[sland

Domingo.

Porto

and

Rico

consists of a nearly

It

dred feel in height, with

the north and east, where

i-

it

sandy

rial

The

\ei\

table-land

its

in

and

aridity

untouched, how
adaptation to extreme- of

practically

is

and

ever,

spi ing.

unusual native vegetation of the

presents

sterility

ditions which ran

habital

con-

scarcely be duplicated

in

Domingo.

either Porto Rico or Santo

Most interesting of the animals on Mona

iguana

the large rock

which,

The

is

ii

now

continue to exisl

to be hoped, will

that

i-

(Cyclura stejnegeri),

habitat will be preserved.

its

inaccessibility of the island affords

i1

the

enemies

subjecl to the

the base of the scarcely

soil a1

an occasions

table

two hun

mosl continuous wave action, and a terrace

ot'

Partlj

corn and cotton

necessary protection from man, its onlj othei

sea cliff " !|

sheei

south.

the

Santo

flat

land of limestone averaging aboul

on

cliff

are being made on this terrace, and coconuts

and bananas grow along the base of the cliff
where the soil is moister and where there is

there

Mona Passage,

situated in

is

between

halfway

precipitous

less

successful attempts to grow

lieino the

the wild

goats,

dOgS W

iguanas are extinct

species

to hunt

llseii

The rock

cattle.

Porto Rico, although

in

their l.ones an- found

eh ate

hi

and

pigs,

eaves, and the related

Santo Domingo appears to he on the

in

in

verge of extinction also.

K.

P. Schmidt.

Destruction of Yellowstone Park Elk

THE

Yellowstone

Park

herd

of

elk

has been driven from the park ranges

winter

this

storms

-now

6000

to

the

by

ami

as

severe

unusually

from

consequence

7000 head have been slaughtered by

hunter-

A X> WS

Montana.

the state of

in

from the National Parks Associa

of this wild life disaster which for

Bulletin
tion tells

pure bloo

the

recalls

lusl

days of the

lasl

buffalo.

life

Ik

of

Park

Yellowstone

genuine remnant

i-

former

storking

'lav-

Park,

tin-

stricted range

ami
bu1

usually

it

not
in

aboul

of

herd

ol'

producl

of

pro-cut

re

a
its

the wild

requires

assis

elk.

fused to art

Nelson, chief of the

\V.

vey,

luit.

spring'-

even
roa.

Bequently

the

Hunters

proached.
instances

and

her.

by

shipped

Tin- -tate of

firing

out

could

killed

them

volley-

into

carcasses

Wyoming

be

easihj

by

tl

COH

ap

m many
bands

the

arload.

ha- established

game

with

the

L5

lire.

Congress

I.

appropriation

likely

to

be

bul

been
the

in

legislature of

future to
|, ;l

,k

protect

ad-

-k

an

f.n

*
I

crises

affairs action

the

..t

i-

National

receiving contributions

fund for the rescue of

al-o preparing to bring

tic

.-

presenl

Meantime
is

nexl

for

forage cannol be pro

ha-

-low.

of

money

international

Parks Association

tin-

Biological Sur-

diversion

improvement

ditional hay. sufficienl

for a

from October

24.

The southern herd ha- been saved with

funds provided through the activity of Dr.

the -ancillary of a

park. an.

ha- even this yeai

Those animals which

escaped the hunter- now fare starvation on
the snow covered grazing grounds.

national ami

national

likewise bul

December

to

tamo through at lea-t a pari of the winter.

The animal- have become almo-t fearless
of men
au-e of their long residence in
l

park boundary to proMontana has not only re

the

extended the open season

I-:.

This
30,01

preserves along

ted the

Montana,
the

he elk.

pressure
in

southern

boundary, ami

to

or.

in

let-

her.

permit

It

beai

t..

it

is

on
the

along
to

re

cuperate.
743

Notes
Natural History greatlj regrets that owing to the printers' strike in New STork City
no numbers of the magazine wore issued

ciety

during October,

November, an.
The present number, dated December, covers
these issues and closes the publication of the

was

1919 volume.

volumes in his honor recalls a "vagrant career.

Toronto. Montreal, Londdn, Bei
lin.
and Vienna as a student; Montreal,

Also,

regretted that, be*

cause of the extraordinary presenl cosl of
it is

and labor, a change of policy is

necessary in the issuance of Nati k\i, History. Announcement has already been made
to readers of the magazine that during 1920
materia]

it

will be issued as a bimonthly, in six

instead of eight

as

num-

ard of quality can be maintained notwithding the increased cost of production.

A league of the Red Cross

societies

of

Great Britain, the United States, France,

Italy, and Japan has been founded with
hea (quarters in Geneva.
This new Eed
s

organization plans to function as an

for relieving national and interna-

tional disasters.

formation

of

coordinating
sanitation

It has also projected the

an international bureau for

and knowledge of

sanitation

and

the

prevention

of

disease

throughout the world.

In this capacity it
has already been called upon for help by
the Supreme Economic Council in Paris.
Lieutenant General Sir David Henderson,
K. C. B.,

is

director general of the league,

and Henry P. Davison, a trustee and treasurer of the American Museum of Natural
History and formerly chairman of the Wai
Council of the American Red
ross, is chairman of the board of governors. Dr. Richard
I

P. Strong, professor of tropical medicine at

Harvard University, has charge of the

medical and public health activities of the

league.

presented

to

Sir

(London).
Canadian by birth and held

professorship

McGill

at

he remarked, the

list

William.

Royal SoSir William

at the

of Medicine
a

his first

University, but, as

of contributors to the

Philadelphia,

Baltimore,

and Oxford as a
was honorary professor of
medicine at Johns Hopkins University at

He

teacher."

the time of his death.

Abraham

Dr.

reyius professor of

medicine at Oxford University, died on Decembei 29 in his seventy-first year.

But
a few months previously on the occasion of
his

seventieth birthday, two volumes of

medical essays, contributed by distinguished

British and American colleagues and former

Jacobi,

and

physician

teacher, died on July 10, 1919.

He came

to

country from Germany in L853, after

having suffered imprisonment from the Prussian government as a result of his participation in the Revolution of ISIS.
In New
this

Fork he started a modesl practice and in

1857 began lecturing in the College of Physicians and Surgeons on the diseases of children. Later he taught in Bellevue Hospital
College and the University of New Fork and
became clinical professor of pediatrics in

Columbia University

in

1870, retiring as pro

fessor emeritus in

1899 after nearly half a

century of instructional work. His contribution to the literature of children's diseases
was large and includes a number of very im-

portant treatisi

One

s.

of the most conspicuous phases of

re-

work of the Rockefeller Foundation,

which was established in 1913 "to promote
the well-being of mankind throughout the
world," has been an educational and medical campaign against tuberculosis in
France.
By spectacular methods of advertising, the
propaganda was carried far and wide
over

the

and

country

and

many

dispensaries

were established.
In the
United state- the Foundation has demonstrated in two states thai it is possible and
laboratories

profitable

William Osler,

were

heretofore), ap-

pearing about the first of February, April,

June, August, October, and
ember.
It
is hoped that by this plan the same stand-

agency

colleagues,

The presentation was made

to

get

rid

of malaria, either bj

oying the malarial mosquitoes or, where

this is impossible, by curing the human
"carriers" of the disease.

In the ease of yellow

an attack has been made against the
sjholds of the disease in Guatemala, and
an expedition was sent to Ecuador for the
.

collection

of

importani

information.

The
7!.-,

Courtesy of Underwood

d-

Underwood

The King and Queen of Belgium, during the recent visit of their Majesties to this country,
honored New York City by planting a tree in Central Park a European beech. In the photograph
taken at the time, the King in the uniform of a Lieutenant General can be seen standing just back of
her Majesty.
The King and Queen were greeted in the park by 30,000 New York school children
before the tree planting

campaign previously begun against the hookhas been continued, and the infection
surveys were completed in Sao Paulo, Brazil,
in Jamaica, and in Guam, while new work
was started in Queensland, Australia, and in
Minas Geraes, Brazil.
The China Medical
Board of the Rockefeller Foundation is constructing thirteen buildings for the Peking

worm

gold medal has been presented to Dr.

M. E. Conner, chairman of the Rockefeller

Foundation Commission to Guayaquil, at a
special meeting of the Guayaquil municipal-

stamping out yellow fever

in

The
lished

Union' Medical College.

tors

Thirty-two instruchave been appointed on the medical

faculty,

and laboratory

facilities

are

now

1914 the large fund of

$22,444,815 has been distributed among recognized agencies for special war service in
ready.

Since

camp and community

welfare,

medical

re-

recognition of his services and success

ity, in

Foundation has estab-

Rockefeller

in that region.

of medical education to

division

which Dr. Richard M. Pearce, professor of

research medicine in the University of Pennsylvania and

member

board to the

Red

War

of the medical advisory

Council of the American

Cross, has been appointed director.

Three

trees

were planted by distinguished

New York

search and relief, and humanitarian aid for

visitors to

Armenia, Syria, Belgium, France, Poland,

Serbia, and Turkey. Plans for public health

"Honor Grove" of Central Park where the

English elm, set out in 1860 by the Prince
of Wales, later King Edward VII, still
stands.
On the afternoon of September 9,

and medical education have been laid on

broad international lines, and a new School
of Hygiene and Public Health has been
opened in connection with Johns Hopkins
University.
The Rockefeller Foundation

City last fall in the

General Pershing, while attending a gathering in the park of 35,000 school children,

put the

first

earth around the roots of a

fortunately has received a large share of the

pin oak as a memorial to the

Christmas Day gift by John D. Rockefeller

their

lives

later,

on October

of $100,000,000 for public health

tion throughout the world.

746

and educa-

lar

in

the
3,

men who

World War.

lost

month

after addressing a simi-

gathering of school children, the King

v /'//>
European
and Queen of Belgium planted
beech, and on November 21 the Prince of
Wales set out an elm near the tree which
bis grandfather planted more than half a

couragement

ceived from various

King and Queen of

the

Belgium, the Crown Prince, and their partj

History

Museum

American

the

visited

on

afternoon

the

Natural

of

party

visited

The

present.

staff

scientific

of

several

the

halls

interest

dial

the

in

November

and

can

1876.

Museum's work.

anniversary

tieth

The

6 Naturt

issue

is

retrospects

with

l>y

Number.

noted British scientists of

in

keep the

president

of the

in

Deslandres,

Academy

of Sciences

to

take

treat

it- first

hold

Britain.

decessor,

will

was established

in

be devoted to cur

pure science and technology.

represent the
a

National

special department

Re

and

informed of the Council's

A particularly important feature
magazine, a- it was of it- pre-

public

of the ih'w

fiftj

II.

Dr.

events

will officially

activities.

various fields of learning,

and an appreciation by

<

which

This monthly

search Council by

fif-

occupied, for the mosl part, with

years' progress

vice

Jubilee

its

in

magazine, the Scientific American

Supplement,

rent

celebrated

\iv.

cor

It

hi

the past genera-

Monthly, will succeed the Scientific Ameri-

royal

viewed important exhibits, expressing

public education

in

October +. and were received by Professor

William K. Gregory and other members of
the

in

weekJy

the

men of

time when science began

Saturday,

of

Norman,

tion, including Mr. Alexander Macmillan, Sir

Joseph Hooker, Huxley, and Tyndall. This
was ten years after the appearance of Dar
win's Origin o] Species and al about the

century before.

Their Majesties

starting

in

i;

Memories," records the en-

"Valedictorj

his

sir

weekly chronicle,

faithful

:i

is

the

publication

translations

of

of complete texts of significant artieles ap

pearing

in

foreign scientific magazines.

of Paris, of the founder and editor, sir Nor

man Lockyer, who

years.

continues his astro

-till

aomical investigations

at

Fifty years have seen vast changes

science and scientific

and of these changes

<-

Tin-:

fourscore and three

lu.-.ir

i<

N~aturt

the

University of Paris ha- presented to

universities

of

the

Allied

countries a

in

England,

medal commemorating the achievements in

the World War <>\' the men of the res]
ti\<'

has

been the

institutions.

in

Kaplan
where General Pershing and three royal guests
Bide of the diddle
Drive between the Drive
i

"Honoi
the citj have
and the Mall.
"i"

>

planted

tral

trees,

Park,
lies

Vu
along

Fork
the

City,

easl

A medal, presented to H.K.H. the Prince of Wales by the American Numismatic Society on the
occasion of the Prince"s recent visit to the United States

The medal was presented to the Prince in a case made of the wood of an elm which his grandKing Edward VII, at that time Prince of Wales, planted in Central Park, New York City, in
1860. A limb from this tree is on exhibition in Memorial Hall at the American Museum, through the
courtesy of the New York Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the Commissioner of Parks.
The tree has grown to a height of 62 feet and at the time of its planting Central Park was only partly
developed, and the whole region west of the park was "in the country." There were only a few houses
and Manhattan Square, now occupied by the American Museum of Natural History, was still in its natural wild state, containing a small lake which contributed its waters to the lake in Central Park
father,

748

VOTES
Dr. George Fli.kuy Hale, director
Mount Wilson Observatory, foreign

Academy

National

tary of the

of the
secre-

of Sciences,

and, during the war, chairman of the National

now

Research Council,

holds the

being foreign associate of the Paris

of Sciences.

chairman

ing

only the stipulation that the fortress be

duced,

Academy

to

il

this island,

one of the greatest bird

bsen atories of the world,

i<

re-

remain with that government

will

it

make

Dr.

in

As the island

two annual migrations.

tin'

has been retained by Germany, however, with

a pro-

reservation.

tected

Council after his resignation as chair-

li

man,

place tor myriad- of feathered travelers dur-

honor of

Hale was elected honorary

perpetuity of the National Re-

L-9

At

recognition of his servie<

in

Pilawin, southeastern Russia, the great

game

the war.

<

preserve of

'ount Potocki, one of the

very few preserves in Russia, has been comDr.

eiarles

<

Walcott,

D.

geologist, and

tary of the Smithsonian Institution, has

elected

Academy

foreign

to

the

fill

Foreign

are

associates

This

has

Benjamin

Americans,

five

limited

Pichot of the

to

twelve.

Franklin,

Count

Rumford, Louis Agassiz, Simon Newcomb,

and Alexander Agassiz.

suii

table! has been erected on the

bl]

Samuel
The
grave had previously
n unmarked.
Rafinesque, born in Turkey, of French and
German parentage, made his first trip to the
at Philadelphia of Constantine

and

botanist

Rafini sque,

zoologist.

in

New

York.

Hundreds of

in 7000 acres of enclosed

which was par' of a -teat tract of
acres. The place was invaded by 2000

forest,

30,

were kept

Red Guards, who shot every anithe carcasses to rot on the

Bolshevik

and

left

ad.

The

lection-

were

keepers

Zoological

the

printed

Huropean bison, and animals of

deer, wapiti.
all sorts

an.

National Society of

French

Society Bulletin,

mal,

letter

Acclimatation,

n previously held by

to

Paris

by the death of Dr. Elie Metchnikoff.

left

ing

vacancy

associate of the

Sciences

of

by the Bolsheviki, accordfrom M. Pierre Ami

pletely destroyed

palace,

furniture,

it-

and

col-

and the servants

the game were tortured to

destroyed,
'if

death."

Destruction of the herd of elephants

United States

He

1802 to collect botanical

in

and

Pennsylvania

in

Delaware.

permanently in this country in

Shortly after his emigration he occu-

settled

1815.

pied

chair

the

of botany

wa- the

in

Rafinesque

researches.

physics
ntific

bassy in
ever,

was

E.

the

in

government recognition of
in the appointment of

characterize,

female

feel

Museum). The preserve

the British

high
at

ft.

(in

Addo

the elephant- naturally assumed that the improvements were for their benefit and acted
accordingly. To confine the elephants would

the

London.
wai measure only and ha- since

proposal has come from various high

The

bird sanctuary.

island

is

only a

little

the

North Sr it forty miles

required

lia\

at

least

thirteen-mile fern

20,000, and
a

necessary

ply for them.

addition it would
provide a water sup-

in

t,,

All this

make-

it

appear that

an elephant- are likely to fare Worse

avert Heligoland into

ruck of aboul one fourth of a square mile in

in

Wisconsin, :h
United state- EmThe appointment, how

attache" to

lying

for

ft.

Mendenhall, of the chair of

University of

scientific quarters

r,

The variety

by n strongly arched fore-

enormous ears recorded as

in.

have

Elephas

Bush near Port Elizabeth lias been opened

up to agriculture by irrigation projects and

lapsed.

The

a variety

the whole of southern Africa.

head an,

science was evidenced

Professor C.

remnant of

last

w hich once ranged over

A departure

summer of

the

in

This herd of from LOO to 200 an

1919.

is

[talian on his special

in

South Af-

was authorized by the provincial council

of the Cape of Good Hope

French, and

English,

in

Reserve

Forest

Transyl

in

University, Lexington, Kentucky.

wrote extensively

Bush

Ido

than our American bison before the onrush

of civilized
t,,

man because

hold and care for

in

they are bo difficult

captivity.

northwest of the mouth of the Elbe River.

Although do birds regularly

cept

the

English

sparrow,

there ex-

nest
it

is

Tin

,
>

uc< a

[ouse

National

the foothill- of Sleeping Ute

Monument

in

Mountains just

AM 77 7/. I/, HISTORY

;:,i>

west

Mesa

of

rado, has

Presidenl

of

Verde
Wilson.

tains the ruins of

[ndian village.

sive

National

Park,

Colo-

established by n proclamation

monument

This

con-

what was once an extenMr. Henry Van Kleeck,

Denver, donated to the Federal Govern-

of

imiii

the Ten acres on which the ruins stand.

potash.

aluminum, chrome, magnesium, and

Free trade in the metals instead of

giving

unrestricted

of

its

opportunity has rather

concentrated the materials in a few hands,

a fact which at times hinders both national
and industrial developments in other coun-

The question has

tries or localities.

accord-

ingly arisen as to "the extent to which na-

Dr. Clark Wissler, curator of anthro

pology

the

in

American Museum, has been

elected chairman of the Section of Anthro-

pology and Psychology of the National Research Council.

British zoologist,

the distinguished

has just

completed

fifty

years' editorship of the Quartt rly Journal of

be to insure an equitable distribution

may be a
world shortage, an adjustment of ship space,
and an equality in the use of basic raw maof the minerals of which there

An

terials.

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, has awarded a gold medal to Dr. A.

Fowler,

professor

of

astrophysics

in

the

Royal College of Science and secretary of

the Royal Astronomical Society, London, in
recognition of his researches

astronomy.

in

Mr, William Henry Fox, director of the

Brooklyn Museum, of the Brooklyn Institute
of Arts and Sciences, New York City, has
been named a Chevalier of the Legion of
Honor by the French Government.
International Control of Minerals, is the
subject of a pamphlet by C. K. Leith, professor of geology in the University of Wis-

by the United States GeologHis purpose is, apparently, to

state the problem in its various phases
rather than to argue for or against it, and
to put emphasis on the imperative need for
consin, issued
ical

Survey.

study of the world mineral situation.

joint organization
tion

and systematic

of the mineral output

of

The

distribu-

the world,

will be subordinated

and the centralized

war maintained. There seems
to be official sanction in Great Britain and
Prance for such a control, the aim of which

Microscopical Scienc(

The

and

control of the

will

Ray Lankester,

Sir E.

tional interests can

to international interest"

important aspect of the control

would also be the part it might possibly play

in the maintenance of peace.

The

International

Research Council was

opened at Brussels, July

presence of

King

18,

minister of science and arts,

the

members

to

Belgium.

in

the

who welcomed

Statutes for the

Council were agreed upon and

lined,

1919,

Albert, by M. Harmignie,

its

objects out-

according to Science, as follows:

"() To coordinate international efforts

branches of science and its

in the different

applications.
(b) To initiate the formation of international associations or unions deemed to be
useful to the progress of science.
(c) To direct international scientific action in subjects which do not fall within the
province of any existing association.
(d) To enter, through the proper channels, into relations with the governments of
the countries adhering to the council to recommend the study of questions falling within
the competence of the council."

Brussels will be the legal domicile of the

Council where

it

will hold triennial meetings,

brought about under pressure of war, has

but the special associations affiliated therewith will probably maintain the custom of

illustrated

meeting successively

the

possibility

of

international

There are several fundamental facts

in reference to the world's mineral supply
which make it a matter of international
concern: (1) About one third of the mineral
output moves between nations; (2) In most
instances it moves along a few restricted
routes to a few centers, for instance, mangaaese is exported from three sources to four
or five consuming centers; (3) No country
control.

is entirely self-supporting, for example,

the
United States lacks almost entirely nickel,
platinum, ami tin. and imports a large part

in

different

countries.

Between the triennial meetings the work of

the Council

mittee of

is

five,

Professor

intrusted to an executive com-

consisting for the present of

(France), Dr. A.
Picard
s.huster (England), Dr. G. E. Hale (United
States),
cointe

E.

M. Volterra (Italy), and M. LeThe general secretariat

(Belgium).

will be established at

Burlington House, Lon-

don, where the Royal Society has set aside

a room for

its use.
All of the nations which
remained neutral during the war were unanimously invited to affiliate with the Council.

NOTES
W.

Dr.

Campbell, director of the Lick

\V.

Observatory, headed the American delega

Re
Tj,,i, to the meeting of the [international
This delegation
search Council al Brussels.

Academj of

American Astro

the

Sciences,

National

from the

representatives

included

physical Society, the American Mathematical

American Physical Society, the

nited Stat<
and the

Society, the

\:n

al

Observatory,

and

the

existence,

into

of

resull

ting two subsidiary societies

the Brussels n

came

As

Survey.

letic

International

As

tronomical and the [international Geophysical

The American Section of the Geo

unions.

physical Union was organi ed under the Di-

National

Physical Sciences of the

vision of

Research Council and, as approved by this

Division, will Include geodesy, seismology

;.m

War.

has

nine

al

while

negligible,

si

many deaths

typhoid, which caused so

the

in

Spanish American Wai and 22 per cenl of

'i\ il
War, was chargeable
the death- in the
with only 0.4 per cenl of death- in the
I

World War. Pneumonia was the most dreaded

disease of the recenl war and to it are as
cribed s

">

per rent of

all

deaths

The

disease.

I'roin

pan

was

pneumonia, however,
world-wide epidemic and

beyond

of

control.

Lamberl point- out that, if the Medical

Departmenl is to increase its usefulness, it
Dr.

requires representatives on the General Staff,

for authority must be united with re-pon

An example

-iliility.

entail-

thority

what

of

found

is

meningitis which caused

lack

of au
ease

the

in

of

per cenl of deaths

The

as Opposed to 2 per cent in other war-.

increased morbidity and fatality were owing

and volcanology, meteorology and aerology,

earth and ocean tides and mareology, and
Mr. William Bowie,
terrestrial magnetism.

in
Dr.
Lambert say-, to over
this case,
crowding and bad ventilation of barracks,

ehief of the division of geodesy of the United

factor- outside

Geodetic Survey, was ap

States Coasl and

pointed

chairman

acting

of

lepa

The
draft

Progress
a

Negro education

in

Departmenl of

tin

Jesse Jones, of

tin-

reviewed

is

Tinted

of the

Bulletin

recenl

[nterior by

states

Thomas

Dr.

Bureau of Education of
Because of the exodus of

that department.

Medical

of the

American

the

Section.

in

control

the

nieut.

fact

34.19 per cent

thai

from military servic

ical

University

the

of

questions

serious

the field of public hygiene.

Beard,

late

rejected

the basis of phys-

raise-

inferiority

of the

was

state-

United

the

in

of

in

Howard

Dr. J.

Illinois,

ana-

Monthly the principal

lyzes in the Scientific

Negro labor from the Smith the legislatures

a more active
hand in this question, and Texas has even
appointed a state supervisor of rural Negro
schools. The greal illiteracy of the sunt hern

cause- of rejection with a view to their pre-

Negroes was called to public attention by the

examinations of Negro recruits in the late

to

of southern states have taken

short

draft,

terms

weeks), p
for

however,

teachers,

many

tion in

(frequently onlj

few

and low salaries

(houses,

scl

demand cone,

will

localities before the deplorable

can

state of affairs

be ameliorated

to

human

Mum

i:

bis presidential

ing

of

the

The death

American

rate

nt'

death

in

war

Alexander Lambert

Dr.

in

Medical

the Civil

War

in

disease

65

educated

in

uly

was the greal

per thousand.

scourge

of

thousand.

Malaria,
the

other natural

re

collective attention

small

gum

sum

to

pre-

to cure, illlie--

their children.

decoration

Civil

of

Commander

of

the

Order of the Crown of Belgium was presented to President Henry Fairfield Osborn
on November 20 by Colonel Osterrieth, chief
the

of

Belgian
state-,

Belgium.

American Expeditionary
Force losl
from wounds in action 31 per thousand and
disea

doctor

vent, rather than a hire,,

of killed in

The

which

demon

draft

to conserve it-

themselves expense by pay-

to save

familv

ing the

United

per

it-

it-

is

adequate medical care and instruction in

And. further, panut- niu-t be

Association.

wounds was 33 per thousand

by

well as

must turn

it

the

all.

any

address before the L919 meel

action or died of

and

determining factor

in

the country

the schools.

I'mi

as a

if

lives as

source-,

notable extent.

was discussed by

All

\entaliility.

-tinted that,

searches

Two
made

Military

to

to

the

Sing

of

scientific

re-

the

volumes of the

as a resull of the

pedition of the American

senl

Mission

representing

Congo Ex-

Museum have been

Bang Allien, inscribed with the

fol-

low ing legend

"In grateful appreciation of the generous

cooperation

of

the

Belgian

Government

in

752
promoting

rURAL HISTORY

this scientific research,

the con-

tributions in these two volumes representing

Congo Expedi-

the reports of the Belgian

tion so far as published, have been assembled

King
by the President and Trustees
American Museum of Natural History

The

announced of Herbert Ward,

and author. Mr.
Ward early went to Africa and was one of
the survivors of Stanley's Emin Pasha Relief
death

is

British sculptor, traveler,

He

for presentation to his Majesty, the

Expedition

of Belgium,

sculpture and exhibited in Paris

of the

on the occasion of his

visit to

America."

in

1888.

later

ble bronzes of African natives,

now

are

in the

to

nota-

some of which

As

Luxembourg.

turned

many

sculptor he

received the decoration of Chevalier of the

The

collection of big

game

trophies

made

In 1916 Mr.

Legion of Honor.

Ward

lec-

by the late Captain F. C. Selous, D.S.O., who

was killed in action during the British cam-

tured in the "United States for the benefit of

paign in East Africa, has been presented by

Mrs. Selous to the British Museum (Natural
History). Captain Selous hunted during a
period of forty years in Africa, Canada,

Among

his books are

Congo

Cannibals

Newfoundland, the southern Carpathians,

and Asia Minor, and it is said that the collection is one of the largest ever brought
together.

Ax
mund

expedition to Africa uuder Mr. EdHeller sailed from

New York

15 for Capetown whence

it

on July

will proceed to

work

the

of

Stanley's Bear

the

American

War

Relief.

Five Years with the

(1890),

My

Life

with

Guard (1891), and A Voice

from the Congo (1910).

The creation of a Mexican government

bureau of archaeology and ethnology has been
announced by the Secretaria de Agricultura
y Fomento. The bureau will carry on scientific investigations of the Mexican aboriginal
cultures on the basis of a regional survey
of the country.

Victoria Falls, from there entering the Bel-

gian Congo and traveling eastward to Lake

Mr. H. C. Raven has been

delegated by the Smithsonian Institution its
representative on the expedition.
Tanganyika.

An

expedition to discover the sources of

Wahi

Shebeli River which flows from

Abyssinia through Italian Somaliland, left
Naples during October. It was under the
the

leadership

Abruzzi,

of

Prince

Luigi,

who was commander

Duke of

the

in chief of the

The

erection of signposts, indicating dis-

and

tance

direction

of

Army

the United States

both

the progressive military

navy during the war, and has held

north and highest altitude
records, the one made in an attempt to reach
the North Pole from Franz Josef Land, the
other by an ascent of Mt. Austin, India, to a
height of 24,000 feet.

On

a previous expedi-

tion to equatorial Africa he scaled Mt. Ru-

wenzori, altitude 16,801 feet.

The

British Imperial Antarctic

Expedi-

John L. Cope plans

to leave

tion under Mr.

New

Zealand in July on the ship ''Terra

Nova." In announcing his expedition Mr.
Cope says that it will aim to ascertain the

and extent of mineral deposits in

Antarctica, to locate any waters abounding

position

places,

about 350 miles of the Mexican frontier.

All the watering places of the region have
been examined and 635 signs erected. All
maps and data have been turned over to

Italian

farthest

watering

through the deserts of southern California

and Arizona under the direction of the United
States Geological Survey has progressed
The water supply of the region is
rapidly.
of strategic importance because it includes

States.

The work

for incorporation in

map

of the United

will ultimately

be extended

to all the western arid lands.

comprehensive outdoor course

in biol-

ogy was successfully conducted last summer

by the department of zoology of Oberlin College uuder Professor Lynds Jones. Students
of ecology were taken on an automobile trip
to the Pacific Coast of Washington, including in their route the Yellowstone Park and
part of the Columbia River. In the summer
of 1920 the department expects to conduct a
similar trip through Colorado to the Yosemite

Park, California.

in whales, to investigate the meteorological

and magnetic condition in the Ross Sea area

and at Cape Ann, and to circumnavigate the
Antarctic Continent.

A museum

of natural history has

been

founded in Yellowstone National Park by

Such
Department of the Interior.
the

VOTES
render importani service

Institutions will

the utilization of out national parks as

in

able, an.

him- dangerous 3po]

The United States Foresl Service reports

from California thai the aviators who made
daily flights ove] the national forests during
summer and
many incipienl
great
that
a

.-111111)1111

fires

of 1919, discovered

and

prevented

thus

So valuable has this work proved

loss.
an air service may ultimatelj become

perm;

protection.

pari of the foresl

nl

The

Bureau of

California

study

to

The methods developed

1

is| ne-.:t

some-

Fisheries

laboratory

in

problem

tin'

of preserving ami canning fishery

t.

states

United

an.

difficull

ha- established an experiment

southern

which ap-

for catching sharks

net

pears well adapted to this

outdoor universities.

the

The Bureau has developed

strong.

special

753

products.

will be placed at

the

of the commercial packers.

Ailuropus mi lanoh
A 1,1 wt panda
from eastern Tibet, one of the rarest of

<<*

Mineral Deposits of South America is

the title of a new work by Benjamin I..
Miller, professor of geology in Lehigh Urn
Th>

and Joseph T. Singewald, Jr., assoeconomic geology in Johns

Bopkins University. This book is the result
of an extended trip by the two authors

discovered

through South America, together with an ex

haustive study of the literature of South
American mineralogy of which they have
the

collected

nomic

first

traordinary

known of

of

the

eontinenl

southern

topographical

and

geological

descrip

tions of the various countries together with

detailed descriptions of localities important

The book

mineralogically.

as

serve

will

chased

chant, investor, or prospector as well as for

to

tor

An

from Natur< thai a conference

of delegates from the Mediterranean nationmet in November at Madrid to consull on
and organize a plan for an international
hydrographic and fishery investigation, par-

very ex-

and the young -hoots

American Museum

tin-

country;

first

was pur-

Milner, a mission

from some natives

it

Mr. Blas.-hke. sculp-

Mu-eiim

American

the

the

is

the -kin

Mi. Joseph

i'r

i-

said

is

it

believed that the specimen

who had obtained

in

it

Almosl nothing

preparation

department, mounted the specimen.

American geology.

learn

is

of Ta-Chien-lu, Tibet.

in

We

It

the

at

broughl

give

the animal's habits, but

valuable source of information for the mer

the student of Smith

shown

ary,

eye-

the

feeds on roots

ii

rel-

The striking black ami

appearance.

of bamboo.

size of

about the

really a distant

muzzle, .and curious black

white coat, -hort

patches about

is

is

it

ative of the raccoon.

that

geologj

bear ami

the eeo-

there follow resumes of the mineral products

and

resembles

general appearance

In

L869.

in

our black bear, bul

bibliography.

extensive

introductory chapter on

an

At't.-r

it

The panda was

American Museum.

the

at

versity,

eiate professor of

ani-

mals, ha- recently Ween placed on exhibition

at

interesting

collection

northwestern Peru, has

the

of birds, taken

just

American Museum from

Watkins,

field

received

Mr.

Barry

representative of the depart

Several new form-,

meat of ornithology.
including a new genus of ovenbirds {Hyloare described in the December Procryptus
ceedings of thi Biological Society of Washington by Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator
i,

reference to the

ticularly with

Of

the

by

ultimately

lie

the

at

Monaco, and by
Tl
Spain, resped ively.

ami

if

a\

histories

of the organization, provided

call

Prince

Prance,
siii:-

Four vessels

fishes.

immediate

life

of

research

this

French, Spanish,

in

published

be

will

Italy.

Italian,

ami

English.

Progress
of

fishskins

ported

by

in

the tanning and

for

the

mercial

preparation

leather

Servict

Fisheries

re

is

Bulletin.

The United states Government

ports thai

Bureau re
samples of the leather made from

shark ami porpoise hides

that

previously

is

much superior

submitted ami

is

-oft,

to
i

the department
American Museum.

of

esting discoveries

of

killdeer,

is

common

ornithology

One of

at

the mosl

the

inter-

breeding race of the

North American bird,

which occasionally reaches extreme northern

South America in winter.

VALUABLE specimen of the great auk

Plautus impennis) ha- recently been ml. led

to the collections which are now in the American Museum, belonging to Dr. L. C. Sanford,
of \e\\

Haven,

or garefowl

habiting

tic

is

('on

-ticiit.

The great auk

an extinct bird formerly

North

Atlantic

regions

in-

ami

SAT URAL HISTORY

54
breeding on small islands

off'

the coast

of

Berkey, to which

appended a sew base

by Dr. Chester A. Reeds;

is

Iceland, on the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and

map

It disthe vicinity of Newfoundland.

appeared early in the nineteenth century
through persecution by fishermen and sailors,

and an interesting description of the geology

of the San Juan District, an area of about five
hundred square miles on the northern side
of Porto Rico, by Dr. Douglas R. Semmes.
The 110 pages of text are supplemented
by twenty-six illustrations, four plates, and

in

who
The

bait, and feathers.

few survivors were taken by colOnly about seventylectors about 1840.
eight specimens are preserved in the museums and private collections of the world,
and accordingly skins have sold for very

killed it for food,

last

large sums.

Boxes
found

in

Indian

deer have

been
heaps in Xova Sent

shell

by the Canadian Geological Survey, and the

identification has been confirmed by Dr.
Gerrit S. Miller, of the United States NaThat the Virginia deer
tional Museum.
ranged so far north, except after

its

intro-

duction into the province in 1SSS, had not

previously been known.

Oxe

three maps.

The Survey was instituted

Xew York Academy

of the

largest

gardens

of

and most beautiful

the

world

is

to

be

founded in Illinois, just outside the city of

Chicago, by the Cook County board of forest
preserve commissioners. This garden will be
made by converting 2000 acres of the Palos
Forest Preserve and so will inherit a natural
tree and plant endowment in the green
prairies and the wooded ravines along the
Des Plaines River. Exotic flowers, shrubs,
and trees will gradually be added.
first

1913 by the

government of Porto
American Museum of Natural History, the Xew York Botanical Garden, and
with the scientific departments of Columbia
University and other institutions, for the
purpose of prosecuting a thorough and sysBico, the

tematic investigation of the natural history

of the island of Porto Rico, and subsequently

A large amount of
data has been assembled and a great number
of specimens collected.
Important prelimi-

of the Virgin Islands.

nary papers have been published in the Bulletin and Memoirs of the American Museum

Natural History as well as

i'f

tific

living specimen of the okapi to

in other scien-

journals.

The complete report

devoted

to

will contain

anthropology,

botany,

volumes
geology,

pakeontology and zoology.

These will give
a most exhaustive and valuable account of
the natural history resources of the islands.

The American
its

The

in

of Sciences in coopera-

tion with the insular

of the Virginia

botanical

of Porto Rico

Ornithologists' Dnion held

thirty-seventh

American

meeting

stated

Museum.

at

November 11-14.

the

Iu

be brought out of the Congo country has

been safely delivered to the Zoological Garden of Antwerp by the Commandant of the

connection

with

nithologists

and

in

tennial

the

expedition

Bas-Uele (Belgian Congo). The

specimen was captured a day or so after

Mountains under the command of Major

Stephen H. Long, the Museum arranged a

district of

its

At

birth.

first

it

was fed on canned

special

of

exhibit

the

of

meeting

of

the

or-

celebration of the cento

specimens,

the

Rocky

manuscripts,

milk and then on the milk of a zebu cow,

drawings, ami published volumes relating to

but since its arrival in Europe the young

animal eats clover and other green plant-.
The Congo Expedition of the American

Major Long's journey.

Museum (1909-15) attempted

ploring expedition to which naturalists were

to

bring out

an okapi, but the specimen captured died

Titian

Thomas Say and

Ramsay Peale accompanied that ex-

pedition which was the

first

American

ex-

officially assigned.

for lack of proper food.

The

The

first

part of

Volume

I of the final re-

port of the Scientific Survey of Porto Bico

and tin Virgin Islands was published Sep-

tember 26 by the
Sciences.

Xew York Academy

It contains

of

Children's

Museum

of Boston has re-

endowment fund
amounting to $25,000. A branch will be
opened in cooperation with the Barnard Memorial in the crowded south end of the city.
ceived

accessions

to

its

a history of the Survey

by Dr. N. L. Britton; a geological introduction, including a discussion of the major

geological features, by Professor C. P.

The bronze memorial to Lewis and Clark

by Charles Keck, sculptor, a photograph of
which was shown in the April-May number

NOTES
\

of

Bistort, was dedicated by the

,
i

Museum

waexpedition

island of Jamaica
mammals, was under-

the

to

for living and extinct

taken

November by Mr.

in

No

Museum.

American

the

Anthony,

E.

II.

Mr. Charles Falkenbach, both of

sted by

This Muck, showing

the block.

numbers of

5^x8

skeleton bones within a space of

ber 21, 1919.

Ax

in

en skulls and corresponding

Novem-

Virginia, on

city of Charlottesville,

:55

brates, except for

fossil

feet,

boxed, ami brought to

lifted,

American .Museum without damage. Its

weighl when boxed wa- aboul -ix thousand
the

pouni

other valuable fossil speci-

ral

from the quarry and

mens were obtained

vicinity.

vi

single skull of a marine

skillfully

\
g
of the renewed period of interchange between the American Museum and
ientific colleague- abroad is the gift of
series of skeletal cast- of the Neanderthal
-

mammal, were known from

this island, but a

consideration of the conditions

and

this

in

Wesl [ndian islands made it appear

highly probable that some land vertebrates
formerly existed there, and tin geology indicated that caves probably existed similar
to tln>-'' in Porto Rico and Cuba from which
other

.-i

man

<>\'

the

laboratory

KTapina, Croatia, which COmes from

of Professor Gorjanovic-

Mr. Anthony had secured Mich large and

teresting

c.i

licet

that they might also yield fossils.

nary

reports

doubt that

in-

Prelimi-

from Mr. Anthony leave no

forecast

this

has been verified,

but the extent and character of the collec-

this

inter

of

Hayti,

vioii-ly.

it'

in

that the most

mainland connection, if
that manner, is by way

Jamaica, and Honduras.

the animal- did arrive in

the

other

inure

islands

through the agency

continental

3,

in

floating vege-

or other accidents of oversea

isolated

have

should

island,

Mi.-.

neeted with the

New Ymk
American Museum

trans-

more

adequately

or

listed

Bermuda

.lent

Museum,
1919

<m
in

assisted

the

Nebraska.
quarry
able

bj

operations

in

the

a section

the

richer

al

part

the

was selected especially suitserved and exhibited at the

fishes,

The

collected.

the

made

fishes

known

are comparatively well

similarity between

muda ami

that

lies

similar

Tl

at

well

oceanic

i-

off

Trinidad

the

isolation

Island,

Brazilian

of

1"'

each

coast,

traced to
locality.

Bermuda ami Porto Rico

nut known elsewhere in the West
interesting, ami we find that cer-

tain fishes of

Atlantic

the fish lite in Ber-

s.iuth

Equator, should

ccurrence

In. lie-

Agate,
of

to

History two

ii

tain

of species

summ<

the

quarry

gi

From

American

M
during

over

turned

Natural

ami are of particular interest a- perhaps

giving some key to the obscure law- which
The dispel -:il of marine li-he-.
A

'he

of vertebrate palaeontology

he
of

contain
several
species
which
collections
have never been described, ami others which
Turk's Island is famous
an little known.
for the variety <^' it- fish life l.ut the -pedes
which occur there have never before been

which

ried

American

iseum.

.hut bauous

be aid of anj

-canty and insular fauna than the la

and mure central islands of Cuba and llipaniola, perhaps even more so than Porto

Mr.

enter of

tl

at the

important collections of marine

land bridge, then Jamaica, as a rather small

and

in

Man

<<\'

by himself, one from Bermuda and the other

from Turk's Island in the Bahamas. 1

On the other hand, it' the animal-. or

rather Their ancestors, arrived on the islands

portation,

Age

Ob-

type.

tation,

Neanderthal man

of

tory

The hall of the

this

of the mainland than those of any

like that

with the other material dealing with the his-

leaving

manner of

The geology of

way. the fauna of Jamaica ought to be more

of

arra

indicates

Indies

probable place for

the fauna arrive.

Zagrab

at
a

nival on the islands.

West

the

Museum

History

and

Croa-

the

in

Louis L. Mowbray, who was conNew Ymk Aquarium for a

number of years, has lately gone to Miami,
Florida, to take charge of a new
On
rected there.
rium which is to

fauna will be studied with particular

should throw further light on

The sources of the fauna and the

i

Department

These easts have

Igranj

The character of

tions remain to be seen.

Natural

tian

mammals, and

inn- of fossil

lirector of the Geological

Kran

Palseontological

occur

in

be

an and eastern

Mi

there,

incredible

i-

that these 3hould not also reach other

Indian islands.

Distance

i-

West

proved to he no

NATURAL HISTOHY

75G
barrier

to

there

ever,

some

is

Possibly,

dispersal.

their

lnnv-

effective barrier in the

trend of the ocean currents or

may

it

be

topographic mapping of the repubDomingo and Haiti has been

undertaken under the supervision of the
United States Geological Survey through
lics

of Santo

Bermuda, they are

barred from waters farther south where they
would meet a keener competition with allied

ernments.

forms.

ington

that, although they reach

survey through the Eocky Mountains

for study of the nature of the folding of the

earth's

crust

involved

these mountains

is

elevation

the

in

of

reported on by Professor

Rollin T. Chamberlin, of the University of

appropriations

right

This section of the Rockies (from

angles.

was
and has been

the Great Plains to the Uinta Basin)

originally 140 miles in width

Academy

by the WashCuba and

of Sciences that

Porto Rico are expected to join in the work.

Division of West Indian Surveys has been
created for this emergency and Lieutenant

Glenn S. Smith placed in charge.

Survey parties have already begun work in
the Dominican Republic.
Colonel

The
Chicago, in the Journal of Geology.
extended in a slight curve

the various ranges at approximately

the respective gov-

An

line of the survey

from near Lyons, Colorado, to the Grand

Hogback at Glenwood Springs, so as to meet

made by

It is also reported

exchange of professors between the

University of Chile and the University of

California has been officially ratified by the

government of Chile through

its

Minister

of Public Instruction, Pablo Ramirez.

the

is

the

first definite

University

of

This

step in a plan by which

California

will

become

compressed into 132 miles, a shortening of

a center for exchanges of professors with the

The section studied by the

Survey was divided into thirteen parts and

leading Hispanic countries of the world and

only 8 miles.

the

thickness of the crust involved in the

deformation was calculated for each section.

roots of the Gore Range reach to a depth

The

for study of the historic and contemporary

problems of these countries. Dr. Charles E.

Chapman, associate professor of HispanicAmerican history in the University of Cali-

of 87 miles and of the plateau near Glenwood

fornia, will be the first exchange professor.

Springs to 107 miles, very great depths when

compared with the crustal deformation of

Those mammals of Australia which are

now or in the past have been in the New
York Zoological Park are the subject of a
well illustrated paper* by W. H. D. Le Souef,

the Pennsylvania Appalachian folds where

maximum depth is only o2 miles. Further

comparison of the Colorado Rockies with the
Appalachians brings out the very great
the

amount of volcanic action there has been

in

the case of the former and the negligible

amount

in the latter.

It is probably

true

that mountain formation in which there has

been involved a thick

shell

of

the

earth's

surface which has necessarily pushed down-

ward

into the earth great depths has always

been accompanied by much outpouring of
lava; and that the reverse has been true in

the case of the deformation, however intense,

of a thin shell which has pushed

its

theoretical division

might

be made of the earth's mountain ranges into

thin-shell, shallow-rooted mountains which

have had

little

volcanic eruption

the

Alps,

the Jura, Scandinavian chain, Scottish Highlands,

Brazil

range,

etc.

and

thick-shell,

deep-rooted mountains with very great lava

output Colorado Rockies, Cascade Range,

western Andes, and the Abyssinian Mountains.

Mel-

of

The Australian mammalian fauna,

with

dingo, kangaroos, wallabies, koala,

its

the

Zoological

wombat, Tasmanian wolf, Tasmanian devil, and platypus, is the most peculiar found on any continent, and is always
of interest to the general visitor at any
zoological garden. The New York Zoological
Park has a representative collection of Australian mammals for which the paper by
Mr. Le Souef will serve as an excellent

bandicoot,

guide.

roots but

a few miles downward instead of several

scores of miles.

Gardens,

director

bourne.

scientific application of micro-cinema-

tography, similar in some ways to that discussed by Mr. Charles Herm in a previous
number of Natural History, is presented

by Professor Herbert F. Moore, in Iron Age.

Professor Moore has designed a micro-cinematograph which is attached to a metal

With this he is able to

testing machine.
take views of the change in microscopical
l

Zoologica, Scientific Contributions of the

Zoological Society. January, 1919.

York

New

NOTES
photographs

these

use

study and

for

Lectures.

The

work on

publication of a

tIk-

in

lefl

been intrusted to Dr. William K. Gregory

Museum.

W. K. GregORV has in press two immonographs in the Memoirs of the

American .Museum of Natural Bistory, one
Dr.

describing

Eocene

the

-ii

he

Primates,

lemuroid

larw inian

male

and female characters, the

plumage from chick to adult.
the songs, courtships, battles, nests, and
of nearlj one hundred species are inThe
cluded and systematically described.
illustration- are by leading American and

grown

of

British artists.

monkeys, apes, and man evolved, the other,

a comparative Btudy of the lachrymal

are shown

Mammalia.
Loi

who

tologists

of

Museum

l'"\ al

lie

Europe,

engaged,

is

monograph
Congo. He has

the preparation of a

ported, in

on the fossil reptiles of the

already published

number of

Eimalayan snow-

above the
of Java."

sea,

the

to

in

To

the four great mural-

re-

is

it

the pheasants

feel

1.6,000

ropical seashot es

one of the senior palaeon-

is

The haunt- of

the author's photographs rang-

in

ing from the -lope- of the

peak-.

Dollo, of

is

Brussels,

ami on
The full-

selection,

the De Vries theory of mutation.

the group of animals from which the later

the

of protective

ries

tl

ami of sexual

coloration

changes

portant

>r.

par-

of the American

id

and the history ut' the ancestry of

has important bearIt
Our domestic fowls.

manuscript by the
late Samuel Wendell Williston, professor of
palaeontology in the University of Chicago,

in

the

covers

ragopans, the impeyans, the gold

and silver pheasant-, the peacocks, he juntridges, the

gle fowl,

ology of reptiles,

lias

Monograph

The

structure of the metals undergoing tests and

thru

75"i

Knight

American

representing

fifth,

special papers

by Charles E.

Age of Man at the

Museum has now been added a

the hall of the

in

Pleistocene

the

of

life

acteristic

North America, with its chargiant beaver, deer, moose, and

tapir, the

remain- of which are found along

uortheastern
in

this

The
t

In

field.

second award of the

leading publication

made by

tology was
ut

Academy

National

the

curator of birds

Beebe,

zoology or palaeon-

in

Washington,

Sciences,

Medal for

Elliol

to

New York

the

at

William

Mr.

Zoological Park, in recognition of his Mono-

graph of

Pheasants.

th<

Osborn of the American Museum

In
Mr. Beebe to the Academy.

Fairfield

presented

Monograph Professor Os-

speaking of the
born said

"This

is

in

p.

nineti

profound study of the living

their natural environment in
Asia.
o
There are
of

ips

these

birds:

fication,

with the shotgun.

cupied

seventeen

twenty

countries,

The journej

months,

and

resulted

abundance of material, both

torial,

life

histories of birds

photographs and sketches.

the great

museums

and

in-

ut'

the

rare

it

and
The

pic-

to

the

ended

in

fur

the

collections.

purpose

of

Thus

the

man, rather than from man

to nal ure.

Cro-Magnon

the

of

artist

the

and

the forerunner in western

of

of the higher modern types of

ci\ ili/.at ion

lR.

of

t-

-e\

Science

on

E.

met
3

tor

the

Advancement

Louis

St.

in

John M.

The
<

retiring

president,

and
St.

affiliated

Louis,

Pro-

of

Botanical

Research"

Plexner gave a lecture, com-

plimentary to the members of

tion

to
Si-

loulter, delivered Ids adi

"Evolution

and President

of

December -9

under the presidency of Dr.

Plexner.

the

Amer-

enty second meet

Associal

mon

man among

arose.

the

in

Tin.

and

Europe

GODDARD, curator of ethAmerican Museum, has been

fellow of the American Academy
and Sciences.
i\ Y

I'i

nologj

cave

France

paintings

sculptures

of

race

prehistoric

Spam and

i]

order of the work was from nature t" the

museum ami

man.

January

of London, of Tring, of

Berlin,

type

sixth

represents

hall,

ican

literary

nev extended over 52,000 miles;

Paris,

in

the peat bogs

North Atlanmural painting by Mr.

Knight, above the western archway of the

states,

tic

oc-

extended

in

later cave deposits of the

eighteen

were successfully hunted with camera, with

field-glasses, and when necessary for identi-

eerning the

ami

whom

part:

in

pheasants
various

Eenry

Professor

with those of the mastodon

on

Medi.al Research."

ind

"Present

tic-

the

assi
,i-

Problems

in

The Association recom-

mended, among other thin--,

that

in

con-

XATURAL HISTORY

758
nection with the Carnegie

International

the

Peace,

Endowment
British,

for

French,

and Italian equivalents of the American Association be invited to send delegates to the

meeting to be held next year

in

Chicago.

The Association also indorsed and commended the general purposes of the Save
Dr. L. O. Howard,
the Redwoods League.
chief of the United States Bureau of Entomology, was elected president for the ensuing year.

Ox

Roosevelt Day, October 27, a number

of lecture reminiscences were delivered at

the American

Museum

in

conjunction with

gardens of the Country Life

a sugar maple and setting it near the evergreen tree which John
Muir planted several years ago. Mr. Bur-

velt tree" in the

Press,

selecting

roughs

is

spending the winter in southern

California.

Through
M.

Strieker,

the courtesy of Miss Josephine

who

acted as Theodore Roose-

during the years

1916

velt's

secretary

1919,

Natural History has become

to

ac-

quainted with Roosevelt's early refusal and

final acquiescence to Sigurd Xeandross' re-

questseconded by Mr. Anthony Fiala for

sittings for a portrait bust

(reproduced as

the

National Association of Audubon Societies.

Addresses on various aspects of

page 510). Unfortunately the

bust was never completed because of Roose-

Roosevelt's interests in natural history were

velt's sickness;

by President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, Mr. T. Gil-

true to life in certain views as

delivered

bert

Pearson,

Association of

secretary

Audubon

of

the

National

Societies, Dr.

Frank

M. Chapman, curator of ornithology in the

American Museum, Mr. George K. Cherrie,
representative of the American Museum on
the Roosevelt Expedition to South America,
Mr. Carl E. Akeley, and Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton.

The New York

Times' "Review of Books"

reports the activity of

John Burroughs

in

the memorial exercises in honor of Theodore

Roosevelt.

Garden

Since the
the

He journeyed from

City,

Long

last issue of

following

his

home

to

Island, to plant a "Roose-

persons

Natural History
have

been

elected

members of the American Musum

Patrons, Mrs. David J. Kelley and Mr.
W. B. Dickerman.
Life Members, Mesdames H. Roswell
Bates, Carlos de Heredia, Bella C. Landauer, Jay C. Morse, J. D. Rockefeller,
Jr., Gardiner
Sherman, Thaw, Misses
Charlotte L. Andrews, Theodora Wilbour, Gen. Thomas L. Watson, Col. S.
Herbert Wolfe, Major Hunter S. Marston, Lieut. Frederick Trubee Davison,
Dr. Felipe Garcia Canizares, The Hon.
Julien Stevens Ulman, Messrs. A. M.
Anderson, John Aspinwall, Frederic
Barnard, E. D. Church, Edgar B. Davis,
Harry Vallette Day, D. George Dery,
Clarence Dillon, Irenee du Pont, Eugene
G.

Foster,

Austen

G.

Fox, Walter

D.

frontispiece,

that

it

in fact, the sculpture is so

it

stands,

very perceptibly portrays the low

and somewhat troubled conmind of the great American in the

year of his life and the fourth of the

state of health

dition of
last

heart-rending years of the war.

Mr. Laurence Y. Coleman has returned

American Museum as chief of the department of preparation. Since Mr. Coleman's connection with the department of
public health of the American Museum in
1915-16 he has been studying zoologv at
Yale, Harvard, and Woods Hole and has
given nine months' service in the United

to the

States

Army

as chemist.

Gelshenen, Augustus Hemexway, Walter

Hinchman, Alfred O. Hoyt, Elias M.
Johnson, Felix E. Kahn, Theo. N. Vail
Marsters, Wm. Maxwell, Dunlevy Milbank, Francis L. Mitchell, E. Virgil
Neal, Frank G. Ormsby, C. P. Perin, Carl
II.
Pforzhelmer, F. L. Rodewald, H. E.
Sargent, Walter Seligman, Stuart C.
Squier, Stevenson Taylor, Inglis M. Uppercu, Theo. N. Vail, C. Blaine Warner,
Blair S. Williams, Emil Winter, and
Samuel Zemurray.
Sustaining Members, Mrs. J. F. D.
Lanier, Miss Anita Bliss, Messrs. John
V. Bacot, Jr., Francis D. Bartow, Edward
11.
Clark, J. S. Douglas, Laurence H.
Hendricks, M. L. Morgenthau, Clarexc ie
M. Roof, E. C. Smith, and Casimir I.
Stralem.
Animal Members, Mesdames T. R. Al-

NOTES
monk I'. Huntington Babcock, J
Ballix, William T. Blodgett, G
Bourne, M. T. Campbell, O. B. Coates,
Sturgis Coi ri.. Clark Davis, George B. de
Long, Fairman E. Dick, Ruger Donoho,
Douglass, George W. I'i eming, \
R. Flower, A. V. Fraser, Ro
\
iiner, Marion B. B. Langzettel, Fred
eric E. Lewis, Frances B. Mason, Junius
S. M< ig
m - Moses, J. O. II. Pitney,
.1.
Ernest Richards, 11. Si sv
Shonnard, A. Ritteb Shumwat,
eric
Henri Sillcocks, II. G. Simon, Roswell
Skeel, Jr., Gerda Stein, William E. S.
Strong, Iori
Rich \i:i Tjader,
3,
1:. A. Walker, Misses Ellen Louise Adee,
Kathkkixk M. Barnes, Annie W. Bond,
Emily linn. Eleanore Cross, Anna S.
GOTBERG, AVAH W. HUGHES, Mary BeRNICE
Milk Lewis, Alice R. Pl
Jenkins,
Isabel M. Peters, Caroline M. Platt,
Clara a. Reed, Alice Low Sand, Belle
Thomson, Alice Wilson Wilcox, Major
II. I\ Erskine, Major John
\V. Loveland,
Capt. A. I'. SiMMONDS, Lieut. Heb

'has.

<

The Rev. Cyrus

Townsend Brady, The Hon. George A.
Carden, Doctors Lawrason Brown, Pablo
Schiff,

U.S.N.R.F.,

Calma,

Henri

Annie s.
Johnston, Charles <'. Lieb, Geo. M. m lcKee,
X1
1SHAL]
Willi AM McDuFFIE, JOHN I*.
X!
John II. N01 u .1. II.
onnell,
<;.
W. Richardson, Wm. Benham Snow,
Walter R. Steiner, Malcolm II. Tallman,
Faneuil Suydam Weisse, Messrs. Wm.
Crittenden Adams, Pall W. Alexander,
F.

Danhcl, Henry

E.

II.

Covell,

Hale,

Maru

Allen,

E.

>'<

Roi

Allen, Morris Am
Anderson, Charles
R.
Baker, Chris
Bambach, Louis n. i: irker, [shor Baumgart, Wm. \. Beach, W. Gednev Beatty,
James H. Benedict, Edwin II. Blash]
Mosi - D. Blitzer, George T. Bowd
Lawrej e .1.
Henrv Mo
.1.

-hi lip

Brookfh

Buei

11

B.

Harb

Dempsey,

L Caesar, Arthur L.
\x. C.
Chene1- R. ''in
\i
11. Clark,
Clark, Lathrop Ci
'II.
1-1.
E. II. Crandall,
Cron
\
Charles II.
son, Frj
sit k

G. Dodd,

II.

ey,

Lo

William

Chapm

'I'.

:i

P-

'

ii

UtD

STALE Doi

D.

John

Charles F
H. B.

I'

:
1

F.

I..

Eden,

II.

ghi

I'

Jr.,
-

B. Fi

.1

Ml MURTR1E

Meyer

(.1;

GODLEY,

Gidding, Gj

GuSTAV

GOODMANN,
JAMES
S. cross, George C. Haigh, Alexander J.
11 *m
h, William B. Hardin, Thos.
B- B B
3, J.
F. Heine,
1

rOTSHALL,

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Robert Carmer Hill,

Julian Hinckley, Harold K. Hoi bs< hild,
Hal HODES, Charles L. Hoffman, W.
ROGl
lOURTNEV HYDE, STANL]
M.
cs, Frederick D. J
Percival
Jefferson, Percy H. Jennings, Frani
Jones, Otto Kahn, Joseph F. Ki
John
Kirkpatrick,
Charles Ki.ingex'.
.1.
Kraemer, Jr., Julius G. Kugelman, Wm. ii. Larkin, George Bacon
Rli
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LOUNSBERY, CHRISTO]
M. I."-'
LOWTHER, [SRAEL LuDm S
iader, Jr., W. .1. Turner
Lynch, Arthur C. Mack, Kenneth K.
Mackenzie, Bernhard Marcuse, Fraxcis
R. M \>i rs, Henry Forbes Mi \-n by, Robert McKELVY, Tik.s. I. McKenna, \
D. Meloy, J. Edward Meyer, Emanuel
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Miller, Frederic
TIME!;. S.

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Moore, Geo. T. Mob

MUNSON, JOHN G. Nil MR. ISIWalter M. Nones, Wm. P.

I..

DORE

Northrup, Gill N. Oakes, Julius Oppenheimer,

Raymond Orteig, Edward S.
Paine, Wainwright Parish, Hubert
pleton Parson, I.i co
R.
Peabody, F.
Curtis Perkins, Jr., L. II. Perlman, John
J.
Phelan, Livingston Platt, B. F.
'i

QUACKINBUSH, EVAN RANDOLPH, ROBERT R.

Reed, Henry R. Reischmann, Tims. a.
Reynolds, William L. Rich, Jr.. Charles
A. Richards, Kingman Nott Robins, Edwin M. Rogers, Gustavus A. Rog] bs, ClarG. Rothschild, William A. 8
Carl Schaetzer, Jack W. Schiffer, WilMAM P. SCHOLLE, J. SCHULLINGER, ALFRED
- LIGSBERG, J. NELSO
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s
1;
Tin... A. Simon,
Harold
Smith. Alfred T. Stanley. Pred M. S
Glenn Stewart, Philip B. Stewab
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brick A. 8 okes, Alfred W. Stone, Arthur II
ERGER, ROBEB
stwout, Daniel <;. Tenney, Ambrose
, J. M. Toy m.kv. J. Henri TownsTravis, Gardiner Trowbb
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slev Twining, \
Ulmann, Leo
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John C. w
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more. Prank Whitney, William W
James I'. Williams, Laidlaw Willums,
ll.
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Wolfe,
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(50

A ATI UAL HISTORY

Associatt Members, Mesdames J. Gilbert

Burton, T. A. Janvier, A. G. Langford, John
W. Phelps, A. P. Taylor, Misses Eliza
Frances Andrews, Betsey Bean, Mary A.
Booth, Rosamond P. Coffin, Caroline J.
Hitchcock, Mary S. Holmes, Elizabeth
Madeira, Agnes McDonell, Louise Klein
Miller, Clara A. Pease, Ruth L. Phillips, Caroline Gray Soule,
Cleona
Sproul, Elisabeth W, Stone, E. Grace
White, The Hon. Charles H. Allen, The
Hon. Edwin F. Lyford, The Hon. Chase
S. Osborn, Professors O. M. Ball, Geo. E.
Beyer, Frederic T. Bioletti, J. H. Bretz,
George Alexander Buist, Webster Chester, T. D. A. Cockerell, Charles Wright
Dodge, Elon Howard Eaton, Simon H.
Gage, George E. Hale, Gilbert D. Harris,
Thomas M. Hills, Jas. S. Hine, X. L.
Huff, J. Gladden Hutton, A. G. Leonard,
Earle G. Linsley, Homer P. Little, Hansford M. MacCurdy, Shirley P. Miller,
Frank S. Mills, C. A. Mooers, Henry F.
Xachtrieb, William Peterson, Charles
Schuchert, Mary A. Willcox, Ira A. Williams, Doctors F. Bascom, R. Bennett
Bean, Frederick Bentley,
B.
Louis
Bishop, J. Chester Bradley, J. Brain
nagel, Edward C. Briggs, H. S. Brode,
Chas. C. Browning, Luther Burbank,
Herman Burgin, C. E. Calm, W. C. Coker,
Joseph D. Condit, R. D. Crawford, Whitman Cross, Charles A. Dewey, Chas. R.
Drake, Charles Redway Dryer, George
C Embody, Justus Watson Folsom. Donald J. Frick, Melvin Randolph Gilmore,
U. S. Grant, Leland Griggs, Philip B.
Hadley, J. Culver Hartzell, William
Frederick Howat, George David Hubbard,
Ivar J anson, E. E. Just, J. H. Kellogg,
Abram T. Kerr, Benjamin F. Kingsbury,
Adolph Koenig. W. .1. G. Land, Frank R.
Lillie, James W. Lowber, Clara S. Ludlow, Marcus W. Lyon, Jr., T. H. McHatEdmund B. Montgomery, Robert
ton,
Orton Moody, Susan P. Nichols, J. Pease
Norton, Henry Leslie Osborn, Frederick
J. Pack, G. H. Parker, Edith M. Patch,
.1. T. Patterson, A. S. Pearse, Raymond J.
Pool, H. D. Reed, Albert M. Reese, Edward Reynolds. DeLanoey Rochester,
Raymond C. Rush, M. Charlotte Schaefer, Adeline F. Schively, Mary Alice
Schively, Solon Shedd, Heryey Woodburn Shimer, Henry Skinner, Charles D.
Smith. F. D. Snyder, Clinton R. Stauffer,
Bernard C. Steiner, P. E. Stuart, Joe H.
<

'.

Todd.

Edward Tucker, Henry

('has.

Utter, Ei.da R. Walker, Stuart Weller,

Wernigk, Charles Branch Wilson, J.

Howard Wilson, Messrs. Billy Andrews,

R.

Orla

Ayrs, Felix Babbage,

L.

Badger,

J.

L.

Bell,

Geo.

B.

Arthur Barneyeld

Frank S. Bigler, E. L. Blackshear, Edgar C. Bradley, Edwin T. Brewster, Wiley Britton, Fred E. Brooks,

Bibbins,

Ernest B. Brown, Walter H. Bucher,

Stewart H. Btjrnham, Verdi Burtch,
Kermit Christensen, W. A. Clark, Jr.,
Ramon Gandia Cordova, Charles H.
Cramer, Norman Criddle, Marcus JIei.e
Dall, Henry- E. Dayies, Samuel Hoffman
Derickson, E. T. Dumble, Willard A.
Eliot, H. G. Faithorn,

erstone,
Fleming,
cis,

Wm.

L.

Freeman

W.

Edward A. FeathArthur H.

Field,

A. Ford,

Mark Fran-

L. S. Frierson, T. E. Gibbon.

W. W.

Grant, Henry Waldo Greenough, John

W. Hancock, T. L. Hankinson, E. C.
Harder, George Harrington, Noryin Trent
Harris, Kenneth L. Hartshorn, Herbert
M. W. Haven, Morgan Hebard, Geo. A.
Hero. J. P. Herring, Richard Charles
Hills, Howard A. Howe, Richard Ledyard
Hubbard, Carl Hyne, Walter F. Jahncke,
William Kelly*, Henry* Kerr. Warren
Knaus, Edward Q. Knight, George Langford, Richard K. LeBlond, Frank Leverett, J. T. Lloyd, Carl F. Lomb, Edgar
Odell Loyett, Geo. E. Marsh. M.
Marsh, Edwin J. Marshall. John W.
Marshall, Geo. C. Matson, S. W. Mc<

'.

Callie,

Mills,

Hiram Dryer McCaskey, Wm. C.

Warner J. Morse. W. D. Murphy,

Arthur H. Norton, George E. Osterhout,

Parfitt, D. C. Parman, George H.
Perkins, John W. Phillips, Laurence E.
Pope, Lewis Radcliffe. J. B. Railsback,
L. C. Read, James A. G. Rehn. G. Brinton
Roberts, Joseph M. Rogers, John G.
rothermel, john h\ll sage, hubert
Schmidt, Charles Schuneman, Frederick
E. Sears, C. W. Shannon, Charles Cutler

Wm.

Sharp,

C.

A. Sharpe,

Henry

S.

Sharpe,

Delavan Smith. Charles H. Sternberg,

George R. Stetson, Frank Stone, Lucius
Storrs, Louis N. Stott, P. A. Tetrault.
Abram Owen Thomas, Howard V. Thomas,
J. K. Urmston, L. R. Waldron, Albert
I'.
Weiss, Wm. D. Wheelwright, B. F.
Whipple, Harold O. Whitnall, E. B. Williamson, Herrick E. Wilson, Chas. D.
Woods, John S. Wright, and Carl Zapffe.
S.

QH

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N3

.19
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