Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... i
SERIES & SEQUENCES ............................................................................................................................ 1
Counting Principle ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Common Definitions & Rules .................................................................................................................... 1
Series .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
PLANES & VECTORS................................................................................................................................ 3
2-dimensional vectors................................................................................................................................. 3
3-dimensional vectors................................................................................................................................. 4
Straight Line Representation ...................................................................................................................... 5
Plane Representation .................................................................................................................................. 6
Intersection of Lines & Planes ................................................................................................................... 7
Intersection of Planes & Planes .................................................................................................................. 7
Distance Problems in 3D-Space ................................................................................................................. 8
COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................................................................................................. 9
Cartesian Form ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Eulers Formula ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Complex Plane & Polar Form .................................................................................................................. 10
STATISTICS & PROBABILITY ............................................................................................................. 12
Statistics.................................................................................................................................................... 12
Probability ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Discrete Probability Distribution.............................................................................................................. 14
Continuous Probability Distribution ........................................................................................................ 15
Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium
IB Mathematics HL Notes (May 2014 Session)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Introduction
This is part of my series of detailed IB Mathematics HL notes that I took during my mathematics course at
Kungsholmens Gymnasium. Part

consists of 4 big topics: Series & Sequences, Vectors & Planes, Complex

Numbers, and Statistics & Probability. The study guide covers the IB syllabus, and thus contains lots of derivations
& explanations for different laws and concepts that students need to master at the end of their IB Mathematics HL
course.
There are many symbols and abbreviations that are used throughout the study guide, in which some of the most
common ones are listed down below. However, most of the symbols will be defined within the guide itself; so pay
attention to these definitions when using the guide! Also, note that the mathematical formulae that appear within
small red boxes (such as the one presented down below) are the ones that appear within the IB Mathematics HL
formula booklet!
Some common symbols & abbreviations:
-

LHS, RHS Left-Hand & Right-Hand Side

2D, 3D 2- & 3-Dimensional

Trig Trigonometric

means equivalent

GDC Graphic Display Calculator

Letter represents the origin of a coordinate system

No. is short for number(s)

Vectors are denoted by mathematical symbols written in bold

Example of an equation that appear within IB Maths HL formula booklet

This guide is not for commercial use; hence, the information presented here (in which most are taken from the
internet, and from Mathematics Higher Level Developed Specially for the IB Diploma (Pearson Baccalaureate),
written by Ibrahim Wazir & Tim Garry) will not be formally referenced.
Please feel free to contact me through email (my email address is dinhsyhai@yahoo.com.vn) if you have any
questions regarding this study guide. Thank you!

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

SERIES & SEQUENCES

Counting Principle
Permutation is an act of rearranging the members of a set into a particular order; while; Combination is an act of
selecting members from a set, but disregarding the order of selection
-

No. of permutations (i.e. no. of ways of rearranging) can be calculated by factorial operation:
o

Definition of factorial:

(where

); however, theres an exception:

this is because with nothing to permute (indicated by the digit zero), everything is left in place!
o

If there are members in a set, but there are only places available for rearranging them (i.e.

),

then no. of permutations for this problem is calculated by

-

No. of combinations (i.e. no. of ways of selecting) can be calculated by binomial coefficients
o

Definition of binomial coefficients: ( )

(where the number of members in a set that will be

selected) this is because order doesnt matter in combination, & thus we have over-counted

times from

(i.e. from the original no. of permutations)

Remember: when solving a problem that requires
these objects as
(because these

particular objects being placed next to each other, we must treat

single object first, we must calculate all possibilities; then multiply this no. of possibilities by
objects can switch places with each other) apply similar thing when therere

objects

Common Definitions & Rules

Sigma Notation is used to represent a series (i.e. a sum):

must be a representation of all terms of a sequence (e.g. an explicit formula with variable ); Part

Part

shows the value of that the first term possesses; Part shows the value of that the last term possesses
Some useful algebraic rules relating to sigma notations are:
o

and

Binomial Theorem states that the coefficients of the a binomial

(where is a constant)
raised to the power of are entries of the

Pascals triangle, which can be calculated by binomial coefficient ( ) mathematically:

( )

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Compound-Interest Formula is

(where is the interest rate in ratio which must be paid

times per year; is the original amount of money; & is the amount of money after years)
Recursive Definition of a sequence is a definition that uses previous terms
-

For arithmetic sequence:

(where

is the common difference)

For geometric sequence:

E.g. Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively as

(where is the common ratio)

{

Mathematicians give a clear distinction between a sequence & a series:

-

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers that follow a specific rule e.g. , , , , ,.

A series is the sum of numbers in a sequence e.g.

Storing a list of

first members of Fibonacci sequence (

Explicit Definition is a definition of a sequence that uses a

particular rule to calculate each individual term; e.g.

the figures to the right show how to use a GDC ( -

) to find the

sum of

first terms of this sequence

Series
For an arithmetic sequence

then:

For a geometric sequence

, & its equivalent series

, & its equivalence series

(where

then:

GDC)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Infinite series dont have real sums; because when adding infinite no. of terms together, the sum wouldnt be real:
-

However, if a series converges to a finite limit , then

If a series diverges, then it doesnt have a sum!

An infinite geometric sequence

has a sum (i.e. it converges) only when | |
when | |
, thus this sum can be calculated by:

is defined as the sum of that series

but since

PLANES & VECTORS

2-dimensional vectors
Some Common Rules:
-

Vector Notations:

components of the vectors) | |

(

)
|

) (where

( )&

) intuitively straight-forward to prove; this rule can also be applied for

| || | can be easily proved when

Any vector

A unit vector has a particular direction, but always has the magnitude of
the same direction as , & can be calculated by

respectively)

& ; mathematically

vectors

(where

unit vector () of any vector

)
has

| |

(where

| |

&

are angles that

makes with -, & -axis

are called direction cosines of a vector such that

&

Bearing is the angle with respect to north direction, measured clockwise

Its unknown whether multiplication of

therere

are

is written in component form

can be written as a linear combination of

Its now quite clear that

&

| | is magnitude of the vectors

( ) are base vectors;

vectors will result in a scalar or a vector quantity; & for this reason,

types of vector multiplication: dot multiplication (which gives scalar quantity), & cross

multiplication (which gives vector quantity)

Dot Multiplication of

Vectors

Since dot multiplication gives a scalar quantity, its intuitive to say that
derive the geometric definition of dot multiplication:
- From cosine rule, |

| |

| |

| | this fact can be used to

| || |

But LHS is |

| |

Equating Equation (2) & the RHS of Equation (1), then we have:
| || |

| |

(1)
(2)

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

| || |

If

&

are parallel, then

, giving

If

&

are perpendicular, then

, giving

Algebraic Definition of dot multiplication:

-

But by geometric definition,

the algebraic definition is

,&

Note that algebraic definition can be used to derive geometric definition if we start from
then its obvious that |

, which provides enough info for us to derive geometric definition; thus:

Geometric & algebraic definition are equivalent (i.e. theyre equally valid as description of dot multiplication)

(the angle between

&

| || |

) can easily be found through the equation

Dot products are:

direct proof using definitions of dot multiplication

Distributive, i.e.

Commutative, i.e.

Not associative, i.e.

direct proof using definitions of dot multiplication

this is because

direction of , while

would result in a vector in the

would result in a vector in the direction of

3-dimensional vectors
Many rules used in
( ),

are exactly the same as the ones used in

( ), &

Scalar multiplication in

Similar as in

( ) are base vectors that lie on -, -, & -axis, respectively

| || |

is as follow:

, Pythagoras theorem can be used to find magnitude of a vector | |

Cross Multiplication of

Vectors

Geometric Definition:
-

| || |

(where

is angle between

is the area of the parallelogram, &

triangle created by &

-

to

; & similarly, for

| is the area of the

is the direction of the thumb when the right hand is screwing

, the screwing action is from

Algebraic Definition is defined using determinants table:

-

)|

(see the figure to the right)

Screwing-right-hand rule: direction of

from

&

to

therefore,

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Cross products are:
-

Distributive, i.e.

Not commutative, i.e.

Not associative, i.e.

direct proof using definitions of cross multiplication

direct proof using definitions of cross multiplication
direct proof using definitions of cross multiplication

Scalar Tripple Product of

-

vectors , , &

is defined as

This is basically volume of a parallelepiped; note that if

, then all

vectors are on the

same plane this can be used as a test to see whether they are on the same plane or not

Volume of Parallelepiped (Adapted from The

scalar triple product by Duane Q. Nykamp
(http://mathinsight.org/scalar_triple_product),
licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Straight Line Representation

1. Vector Equation:
A line is fully described when an equation (vector equation) can give a position vector ( ) for every point on the line:
-

Standard form:

(where

is position vector of any point, thus acting as a dependent variable;

is called the parameter, acting as an independent variable;

vector, which is basically a vector connecting

is position vector of a fixed point; &

is direction

points on the line)

(1) Position vector is basically a vector connecting between a point & the origin of a coordinate system; i.e. it
can be understood as the coordinate of the point on a coordinate system
( )

Components form (derived from standard form): ( )

Parametric form (derived from components form):

( )
,&

,&

Cartesian form (derived from parametric form):

2. Parallel, Intersecting & Skew lines:

Two lines can be:
-

Parallel, if theyre on the same plane, & have the same direction vector; to prove that
sufficient to prove that they have the same direction vector, &

Intersecting, if theyre on the same plane

Skew, if theyre on different planes

point in common

lines are coincident, its

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

To check if

lines are intersecting or skew, follow these steps:

1) Make sure that theyre not parallel (by checking their direction vectors)
2) Write them in standard form using
-

E.g. line

is ( )

different parameters:

( ), & line

( )

is ( )

in common equate

3) If theyre intersecting then they must have a point

equations for , ,

like this:

( )
( )
( )
4) Solve Equation ( ) & ( ) for the

parameters ( & ); then plug these values that are found into Equation ( )

If the values fit Equation ( ), then the

lines intersect

If the values dont fit Equation ( ), then the

lines are skew

Plane Representation
A plane is fully described when an equation can give a position vector ( ) for every point on the plane:
-

Scalar Product form can be derived by setting up the following scenario let vector be on the plane , in
which

, & vector

(1) Its now obvious that

(2) Therefore,

is normal to

(where

| |; & is unit vector of )

is the origin;

scalar product form can be written as

but as

, thus

(where | | is the shortest distance from the origin to the

plane; & is the unit vector that is normal to the plane)

(3) A more convenient equation for scalar product form is:
plane; & must satisfy

Parametric form:
plane; &

is any vectors normal to the

| |

Cartesian form (derived from scalar product form):

-

(where

(where

&

are the

( ) ( )
parameters;

&

are

non-parallel vectors on the

is position vector of a fixed point on the plane) this can be understood intuitively (just like the

cases with Diophantine Equations)

To convert from parametric form to scalar product for, we need to use the cross product of
then substitute the position vector of a fixed point

into the equation

to find

to find ;

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Intersection of Lines & Planes

For a line

) to be parallel to a plane

to the normal vector of

) if

(i.e.

), then the direction vector of

are indeed parallel, then therere now

to prove this, its sufficient to show that

lies within

is not within

&

to prove this, its sufficient to show that

have
&

must be perpendicular
possible cases:

point in common

have

point not in common

arent parallel, then they must intersect:

If

&

To find point of intersection ( ): plug

this value of

into the equation

equations simultaneously) in order to solve for then use

(i.e. solve the

&

& the equation

to solve for
| || |

To find angle between line & plane ( ): use dot product (

to find angle

(see figure to the right); since

opposite direction, it might be that

formula to find

is

of the vectors might also be in

) hence

is an obtuse angle (i.e.

Intersection of Planes & Planes

1. Line of Intersection of 2 Planes:
Suppose that

planes,

)&

), intersect at line

Its obvious that direction vector of

is perpendicular to both normal vectors of

is position vectors to any points of intersection between

(1) Write the
thesere

planes in Cartesian form; i.e.

simultaneous equations with

Case : If
variable

, then

Case : Similarly, if
unknown variable

, then

, then

cases:
now assume that

, then the unknown

& to be easily solved

must pass through the line

now assume that

, then the

now assume that

, then the

& to be easily solved

must pass through the line

unknown variable can be eliminated, leaving

o

unknowns, thus are impossible to solve!

can be eliminated, leaving

Case : Similarly, if

) &

must pass through the line

can be eliminated, leaving

&

; thus to find , follow these steps:

&

(2) To solve this problem, consider these following

o

); then to find this line of

( ):

( ) & vector

intersection , we just need to figure out vector

&

to be easily solved

Case : If none of the components of vector is , then any cases above can be used to solve for
note that IB problems usually belong to this case!

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

2. Angle Between

Planes:

Its obvious that the angle between

dot multiplication between the
-

As a matter of fact, any

planes is exactly the angle between the

normal vectors of those

planes

normal vectors can be used to work out this angle

non-parallel planes can make

angles ( & ) between them such that

however, its usually more common to choose the acute angle, rather than the obtuse one!

3. Intersection Between

Planes:

Intersection between

planes (

intersection between

,&

,&

) can be found by first finding lines

, respectively) with these

Case :

,&

are parallel there is no intersection between the

Case :

,&

are coincident (i.e.

Case :

,&

intersect at

single point the

,&

(which are lines of

lines, therere now

) the

cases to consider:

planes!!!

planes intersect at

single line!!!

planes intersect at exactly this point!!!

Adapted from Intersection of Lines and Planes by Dan Sunday (http://geomalgorithms.com/a05-_intersect-1.html)

Distance Problems in 3D-Space

Shortest Distance between Point & Plane (e.g. between point , & plane
-

Step : Find equation of a line

thats perpendicular to

Step : Solve equations of line

& plane

Step : Its now obvious that |

& passes through point , i.e.

| is the shortest distance that were after!

(

), &

Step : Check whether the lines intersect or not, because the shortest distance is

Step : Let points

&

be on

&

Step : As must be perpendicular to both

finding the position vectors of

)):
if they intersect!

respectively, such that | | represents the shortest distance between

as the points are on the lines, its quite obvious that

must be

simultaneously to find the point of intersection

Shortest Distance between Line & Line (e.g. between lines

&

)):

&

, thus

solve these

equations simultaneously for

& , thus leading us to the solution of | |

; and likewise,
& , which will help

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Shortest Distance between Line & Plane (e.g. between line
-

Step : Since the shortest distance is

theyre now parallel, any points on

whenever

&

), & plane ):

intersect; so first, make sure that

&

are parallel as

will make the shortest distance with plane

Step : Pick any point on , & work out its exact coordinate using the vector equation of

Step : Perform similar steps as when finding the shortest distance between a point & a plane, using coordinate
of the point that was found in step

Shortest Distance between Plane & Plane (e.g. between planes

-

Step : Since the shortest distance is

whenever

&

&

):

intersect; so first, make sure that

&

are parallel

as theyre now parallel, they must have the same normal vector ( )
-

Step : Its obvious that line

the

points where

) is perpendicular to both

intersect with

&

&

thus, we need to find coordinates of

; & these coordinates can be used to work out the shortest distance

COMPLEX NUMBER

It seems that

, where

,&

Cartesian Form
Cartesian Form of a complex number is

(where

is the real part, &

is

the imaginary part a real number will have

-

Addition & subtraction of complex numbers can be done the same way it is done with vectors; i.e. perform
addition or subtraction separately on real ( ) & imaginary ( ) parts

A conjugate of a complex number

is defined as

some theorems relating to this are:

(if

Multiplication of complex no. using Cartesian form can be done by directly expanding & solving algebraically

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Division of complex no. can be done by multiplying both numerator & denominator with the conjugate of the
denominator e.g.

EulErs Formula
Taylors (Maclaurins) series expansion state that:
-

..
..

..

This means

Eulers form of a complex no. is

Complex Plane & Polar Form

Polar Form: Any complex no. can be represented by a point on the complex
plane; this point is
|

(where

is the modulus; &

is called the argument

Using vector notations, a complex no. can also be written as

( )

however, not that vector multiplication cannot be used for multiplication of

complex no. because complex multiplication gives a vector in the same plane!
Let
-

,&

:
by expanding, we have:

Multiplication:
[

Therere now

methods of multiplication (one uses Cartesian form, & the other uses Polar form), we can

compare the results & get the exact values for cosine & sine of some uncommon angles!
This multiplication method leads directly to a new rule: |
-

Division:

( )

( )

| || |
by expanding, we have:

( )
( )
In case if

, then remember to use properties of even & odd functions to simplify the results

10

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

this can be proven by induction (for

De Moivres Theorem states that

formula (for

); now let

) or by Eulers

, thus

; i.e.

;&
-

To write

or

in terms of powers of

or

then equate either the real or imaginary part of the

o

E.g. To write

& the

in terms of powers of

, use binomial theorem to expand the

after expanding

&

, we equate the real part of

thus,

& the real part of

To write powers of

or

in terms of

or

(1) Using De Moivres Theore & properties of even & odd functions, its obvious that

(2) Expand

,&

;&

using binomial theorem

(3) Equate the results from (1) & (2)

E.g. To write

in terms of

&

, we first let

Step : Its obvious that

Step :
Step : By equating results from step

& , we get

Roots of Complex Numbers:

-

Due to repetitive nature of trig functions, its true that

Let

be the

th

-root of

(where

thus, its now obvious that

, i.e.

; & that

) is the

th

note that therere only unique solutions where

-root of

; also, since these roots have the same modulus, they must lie on a circle of radius
on the complex plane, & theyre evenly spaced on this circle (the space between them is
This method can be applied to find the

th

-root of , as

can be written as

As

shows how these

circle of radius

11

radians)

( )

( )} this figure

solutions distribute themselves on a

on a complex plane

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

Statistics
Representation of Data:
-

When therere a lot of data, organize it into groups with intervals

& then graph it using a histogram

(which is similar to a bar-chart, but it represents continuous data)

-

If a class is described with discrete limits (e.g.

), then its boundary on a histogram are midway between

neighbouring classes, i.e. the interval is

-

Relative frequency tables & graphs represent only percentages!!!

In histograms, AREA represents frequency while HEIGHT represents frequency density this is because
classes may have different widths

however, a modal-class will

only make sense if class widths are all the same

-

When describing a data set, give at least

measure of central tendency &

measure of dispersion!

Measures of Central Tendency (which tell us about the middle part of a distribution):
-

Mode modal class is interval with biggest frequency; there can be more than

mode; theres no mode if no

value occurs more than once; a set of data is bimodal if it has 2 modes not affected by extreme values
-

Mean

(for sample mean) &

(for population mean) when data are already grouped, the

intervals midpoints can be used note that the means are affected by extreme values!
-

Median position in the set is

Five-Statistical Summary (min, max,

-

not as easily affected by extreme values compared to mean

, median, &

provide easy ways for measures of dispersion):

Min & max give the range (which is easily affected by extreme values as it doesnt use all members of the set)
st

o
o

)&

rd

Positions of
,

) quartile:
&

are

&

(which is basically the median), &

, respectively
divide data into different parts, but are not included within the

parts they can be used to find inter-quartile range (

An outlier (

) is an extreme value, which lies at least

)
above

or below

-statistical summary is represented graphically by box-&-whisker plot, or a cumulative frequency diagram

12

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Variance & Standard Deviations (main measure of dispersion):
-

Sample variance

the smaller

estimate, we can assume

o

Alternative formula to
o

; with a good

is, the closer the data is to the mean

The squaring is to cancel out any negative uncertainties, & to add more weighting to large differences due
to squaring, variance

is an estimate for the population variance

is:

is very sensitive to outliers

Standard deviation ( ) is positive square root of variance (

This figure shows where the mode,

median, & mean appear in different
shapes of distribution

Probability
Note that to understand most of the formulas used in probability, its sufficient to use basic logic & common sense
with the aid of tree diagram, Venns diagram, &
A sample space

-grid!!!

is a list of all possible outcomes (i.e. events) e.g.

is

(where is no. of outcomes)

Probability of event

Sometimes, its good to use 2D-grid to calculate probability of outcomes that are equally likely

De Morgans laws (which can be easily illustrated by Venns diagram):

Conditional Probability (one should use Tree diagram & some basic logic):
has occurred

, & therefore

13

is probability of

for independent event

given that

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Basic Probability Rules:
[

Venns

diagram can be extremely helpful to visualize & understand this relationship:

o
-

If occurrence or non-occurrence of event

|

For mutually-exclusive events,

does not affect

, then

Bayess Theorem gives probability of

(the

st

event) if

use Tree diagram!!!

(the

nd

probability in reverse by conditional probability, its clear that

General formula for Bayes Theorem is
o

are independent events i.e.

&

event) is known its basically conditional

|

represents groups of many events that happen first i.e.

Numerator represents

Denominator represents

( )

, in which:

which can be found by using one branch of tree diagram that has event
which can be found by using all branches of tree diagram that have event

Discrete Probability Distribution

Basic of Probability Distribution:
-

Random Variable ( ) takes on particular values (e.g. ) that are determined by a random experiment

Probability Distribution Function (PDF) is a function that gives possible values of

for each a model of an entire population

relative frequency)
-

& the probability (i.e.

Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) gives cumulative relative frequency

Basic of Discrete Probability Distribution:

Expected value (i.e. the mean) of

Similar to the normal way of calculating

Binomial Distribution
-

is

only true if experiment is repeated infinite times

, for a discrete PDF,

Used when there are identical & independent trials each has two outcomes (
probability of

;&

for failure with probability of

( )

for success with

)

can be understood by a simple example

Binomial CDF is useful when dealing with at-least or at-most questions, as it deals with sum of binomial PDF

For

Similarly, for

GDC commands:

for

trial,
trial,

trials,

for

;&

14

trials,

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

Poisson Distribution
-

Used when having to count no. of events in a time or space interval, given average rate ( ) for the occurrences
probability of

the average rate will be given!!!

Poisson CDF is useful when dealing with at-least or at-most questions, as it deals with sum of Poisson PDF

For Poisson distribution,

GDC commands:

;&

Continuous Probability Distribution

Basics of Continuous Probability Distribution:
-

Continuous random variable ( ) is represented with probability-density function, in which AREA under it
(found by integration) represents probability since total probability is ,

remember that area

represents cumulative relative frequency over a range of values!!!

-

Since its impossible to find probability of an exact value of e.g.

that can be rounded to

(i.e.

Probability-Density Function is usually defined as, e.g.:

{

o
-

Mode is -coordinate of max point on

Median ( ) separates total probability into 2 equal parts find

percentiles, & IQR can also be found by similar methods (i.e. replacing

quartiles,

by
with a suitable value)

Unlike discrete PDF, calculus will be used to calculate mean in continuous PDF
represents probability over

, we have to integrate within limits

(as

is the appropriate range in the question

Similarly,

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical about the mean Median

Normal PDF is

Mean

however, one can transform any PDF into standard normal PDF, i.e. into

through standardizing all values of

how far a value from

can be transformed by

is values in -axis

15

(this basically to measure

Sy Hai Dinh Kungsholmens Gymnasium (2014)

-

Normal distribution follows Empirical Rule:

o

Interval

Interval

contains

Interval

contains

contains

of measurements
of measurements
of measurements

To calculate probability of normal PDF (use GDC!!!):

-

For normal PDF

For standard normal PDF

When limits are

When were asked to find e.g.

&

are limits used when random variable is

, & are in terms of

used when random variable is

, try values like

) this means

!!!

To calculate a value that gives a specific probability (i.e. the reverse of

-

GDC

command):

is fractional probability this only gives the value such that

(i.e. the lower tail)

cant be used to find such that

for

However, due to symmetry,

, we can use

Remember that is in terms of

Its always good to draw a sketch showing what you need to find!!!

must use standardizing formula to figure out !!!

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