7 Lan Ieee STDS

LAN AND LAN IEEE
STANDARDS
LAN
A LAN consists of number of computers
and network devices interconnected by
a shared transmission medium,
typically a cabling system which is
arranged in a bus, ring or star topology.
The cabling system may use twisted
pair, coaxial cable or optical fiber
transmission media. In some cases the
cabling system is replaced by wireless
transmission based on radio or infrared
signals.
LAN standards define physical layer
protocols that specify the physical
properties of the cabling or wireless
system.
The computers and network devices are
connected to the cabling system
through network interface card(NIC) or
LAN adapter card.
Prepared by:Shruthi.K,Dept. of E&C, MIT,

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Typical LAN structure & NIC
LAN
3
Uses:
-To share hardware or software resources

-Exchange information.
Key Features of LANS:
-Limited geographical area which is usually less than 10 Km and
more than 1 m.
-High Speed 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps
-High Reliability 1 bit error in 1011 bits.
-Transmission Media Guided and unguided media, mainly guided
media is used.
-Topology It refers to the ways in which the nodes are connected.
There are various topologies used.
-MAC Techniques needed to decide which station will use the shared
medium at that instant.

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LAN
4
The IEEE has published several widely accepted LAN
standards. These standards are collectively known as

IEEE 802.
Various IEEE 802 standards exists and they are
internationally accepted.
LAN standards proposed by the IEEE 802
committee that try:
- To promote compatibility
- Implement with minimum efforts
- Accommodate the need for different applications
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IEEE 802 LAN

5
LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference
model: the physical and data-link layers.
The IEEE 802 LAN is a shared medium peer-to-peer comm. N/W
that broadcasts information.
It does not inherently provide privacy.

The network is generally owned, used, and operated by a single
organization.
The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sub layers :
logical link control(LLC) and media access control (MAC). It has

also created several physical layer standards for different LAN
protocols.

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IEEE standard for LAN

6

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IEEE standard for LAN

7
Data Link Layer: It handles framing, flow control and
error control. Framing is handled in both LLC and MAC

sublayers.
1. Logical Link Control(LLC): Flow control, error control and part of framing are done
in this layer.
It provides one single data link control protocol for all
IEEE LANs. A single LLC protocol can provide
interconnectivity between different LANS.
Need : to provide flow and error control for upper layer
protocols.

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IEEE STANDARD for LAN

8
Framing: LLC defines a protocol data unit (PDU) that is somewhat similar to HDLC.
The header contains a control field used for error and flow control.
The other two header fields define the upper layer protocol at the source and destination
that uses LLC.

These fields are called destination service access point(DSAP) and source service access
point (SSAP).
A frame defined in HDLC is divided into a PDU at the LLC sublayer and a frame at the
MAC sublayer.

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IEEE STANDARD for LAN

9
2. Media Access Control (MAC): Defines specific access method for each LAN. For
example it defines CSMA/CD as media access
method for Ethernet LAN.
It contains a number of distinct modules, each
defining the access method and the framing format
specific to the corresponding LAN protocol.
Physical
Layer: it is dependent on the
implementation and type of physical media used.
IEEE defines detailed specifications for each LAN
implementation.
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IEEE Standard for LAN

10
Packet encapsulation into a

MAC frame.

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Various IEEE 802 Standads:

IEEE 802.1 high level interface
(MAC bridge)
IEEE 802.2 logical link control
(LLC)
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD
IEEE 802.4 token bus
IEEE 802.5 token ring
IEEE 802.6 MANs
IEEE 802.7 broadband LANs
IEEE 802.8 fiber optic LANs
IEEE 802.9 integrated data
and voice network
IEEE 802.10 security
IEEE 802.11 wireless network
IEEE 802 standard

Standards 802.3, 802.4 and 802.5
describe three LAN standards

based on the CSMA/CD, token bus
and token ring.
Each standard covers the physical
layer and MAC sub layer protocols.

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11
802.1:
-Introduces set of standards and gives

the details of the interface primitives.
-It gives relationship b/w the OSI
model and the 802 standards.
802.2:
describes the LLC .
It facilitates error control and flow
control
for
reliable
communication.
It adds header with SN & RN
number.
It offers the following three types
of services:
o Unreliable datagram service
o Acknowledged datagram service
o Reliable
connection
oriental
service
Ethernet IEEE 802.3 LAN Standard

12
In 1970 LAN was introduced. Later many developments and variations
in the initial prototype took place.

In 1985 a standard was declared.
Since then, a number of supplements to the standard have been defined
to take advantage of improvements in the technologies , to support
additional network media and higher data rate capabilities, and also
add new optional network access control features.
From then onwards, the term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area
network (LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard

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13
Three data rates are currently defined for operation over
o
o
o
o
optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:

10 Mbps10Base-T Ethernet
100 MbpsFast Ethernet
1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet
Ethernet protocol has the following characteristics:
It is easy to understand, implement, manage, and maintain
It allows low-cost network implementations
It provides extensive topological flexibility for network
installation
It guarantees successful interconnection and operation of
standards-compliant products, regardless of manufacturer

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14
Ethernet architecture can be divided into two layers:
1. Physical layer: this layer takes care of following functions.

Encoding and decoding
Collision detection
Carrier sensing
Transmission and receipt
2. Data link layer: Following are the major functions of this layer.
Station interface
Data Encapsulation /Decapsulation
Link management
Collision Management
Because Ethernet devices implement only the bottom two layers of the OSI
protocol stack, they are typically implemented as network interface cards
(NICs) that plug into the host device's motherboard, or presently built-in in
the motherboard.
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Physical Layer
15
The standard ethernet defines several physical layer implementations.
Various types of cabling is supported by the standard.

The naming convention is a concatenation of three terms indicating the
transmission rate, the transmission method, and the media type/signal

encoding. Consider for example, 10Base-T, where 10 implies transmission rate
of 10 Mbps, Base represents that it uses baseband signaling, and T refers to
twisted-pair cables as transmission media.
Encoding and decoding : all standard implementations use digital signaling
(baseband) at 10 Mbps. At the sender data is converted to a digital signal using
manchester scheme. At the receiver the received signal is interpreted as
manchester and decoded into data.

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Physical Layer
16
1.
10 Base 5:Thick Ethernet

It is the first implementation. Also called as
thick ethernet or thicknet.
Uses a bus topology with an external
transceiver connected via a tap to a thick
coaxial cable.
The
transceiver
is
responsible
for
transmitting,
receiving
and
detecting
collisions.
The transceiver is connected to the station via
a transceiver cable that provides separate
paths for sending and receiving.
The maximum length of coaxial cable must
not exceed 500m (to avoid degradation of
signal).
If a length of more than 500m is required
upto 5 segments each a maximum of 500m
can be connected using repeaters.
At most 1024 stations is allowed on a single
LAN.
Collision happens in the coaxial cable.

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Physical Layer
2. 10 Base2 : Thin ethernet
Also called as thin ethernet or
cheapernet.
Uses a bus topology but the cable used
is much thinner (0.25 inch) and more
flexible. The cable can be bent to pass
very close to the stations.
The transceiver is normally part of the
NIC which is installed inside the
station.
The length of each segment cannot
exceed 185m due to attenuation in
coaxial cable.
Up to a max of 5 cable segments can be
connected using repeaters (max length
925m).
At most 30 stations is allowed on a
single LAN segment.
Collision happens in the thin coaxial
cable.

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17

Physical Layer
3. 10 Base T:Twisted pair Ethernet
Uses a start topology . The
stations are connected to a hub
via two pairs of twisted cable
(one for sending and other for
receiving).
Any collision here, it happens in
the hub.
The maximum length of the
twisted cable is 100m to
minimize
the
effect
of
attenuation in the twisted cable.
This allows easy to maintenance
and diagnosis of faults. As a
consequence, this is the most
preferred approach used for
setting up of a LAN.

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18

Physical Layer
4. 10 Base-F: Fiber Ethernet
Uses a star topology to
connect stations to a hub. The
stations are connected to the
hub using two fiber optic
cables.
It has the following divisions 10Base
FL: asynchronous
point-to-point link, up to 2
Km
10BaseFP: Star topology, up
to 1 Km link
10BaseFB: A synchronous
point-to-point link, up to 2
cascaded repeaters

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19

Physical Layer
20
Summary of standard ethernet implementations

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MAC SubLayer
21
It governs the operation of the access method.
It also frames data received from the upper layer and
passes them to the physical layer.

Frame format: the IEEE802.3 standard defines a basic
data frame format that is required for all MAC
implementations and also other additional frame formats
that are used to extend protocol s capability.
Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for
acknowledging received frames. Acknowledgements
must be implemented at the higher layers.
Ethernet frame consists of 7 fields.

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MAC SubLayer
22
(OR)
MAC FRAME
FORMAT

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MAC SubLayer
23
Preamble: contains 7bytes (56 bits) of alternating

0s and 1s that alerts the receiving system to the
coming frame and enables it to synchronize its
input timing.it allows stations to miss some bits at
the beginning of the frame. It is actually added at
the physical layer and is not the part of the frame.
2. SFD (start frame delimiter): it indicates the
beginning of the frame. It also informs the stations
regarding the last chance for synchronization. The
last 2 bits 11 alerts the receiver that the next field is
the destination address.
1.

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MAC SubLayer
24
3. Destination address: It is 6 bytes and

contains the address of the destination
station.
The left-most bit in the DA field
indicates whether the address is an
individual address (indicated by a 0)
or a group address (indicated by a 1)
The second bit from the left indicates
whether
the
DA
is
globally
administered (indicated by a 0) or
locally administered (indicated by a
1).
The remaining 46 bits are a uniquely
assigned value that identifies a single
station, a defined group of stations,
or all stations on the network

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MAC SubLayer
25
4. Source address: the SA field is also 6 bytes and contains

the physical address of the sender of the packet.
5. Length or type: It consists of 4 bytes. This field indicates
either the number of MAC-client data bytes that are
contained in the data field of the frame, or the frame type
ID if the frame is assembled using an optional format. If
the Length/Type field value is less than or equal to 1500,
the number of LLC bytes in the Data field is equal to the
Length/Type field value. If the Length/Type field value is
greater than 1500, the frame is an optional type frame, and
the Length/Type field value identifies the particular type of
frame being sent or received.
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MAC SubLayer
26
6. Data: It is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is

less than or equal to 1500. If the length of the Data field is
less than 46, the Data field must be extended by adding a
filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to 46
bytes. (i.e minimum of 46 bytes and maximum of 1500
bytes).
7. FRC (frame check sequence): It consists of 4 bytes. This
sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
value, which is created by the sending MAC and is
recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for damaged
frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA,
Length/Type, and Data fields.
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MAC SubLayer
Frame length: Ethernet has imposed

restrictions on both minimum and
maximum lengths of frame. This is
done for the correct operation of
CSMA/CD.
Minimum length = 64bytes. Part of this
(18bytes=
SA
6bytes+
DA
6bytes+length /type 2 bytes and CRC
4bytes) is header and trailer.
Minimum length of data from upper
layer is 64 18 = 46bytes. If the upper
layer packet is less than 46 bytes then
padding is done.
Maximum length = 1518 bytes (without
preamble and SFD). 1518 18 = 1500
bytes.
This maximum limit helps to reduce
size of the buffer and also prevents one
station from monopolizing the shared
medium, blocking other stations that
have data to send.

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27

MAC SubLayer
28
A frame must take more
than 2 time to send, where

is the propagation time
for preventing the situation
that the sender incorrectly
concludes that the frame
was successfully sent.
This slot time is 51.2sec
corresponding to 512 bit =
64 bytes. Therefore the
minimum frame length is
64
bytes
(excluding
preamble), which requires
that the data field must
have a minimum size of 46
bytes.
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MAC SubLayer
29
Addressing: Each station
on an ethernet network
has its NIC. The NIC fits
inside the station and
provides the station with
a 6byte physical address.
It
is
written
in
hexadecimal notation.

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MAC SubLayer
30
Unicast , Muticast and Broad cast
address: a source address is always a

unicast address since the frame
comes from only one station.
The
destination address can be
unicast,multicast or broadcast.
If the LSB of the first byte in a
destination address is 0, the address

is unicast else it is multicast.

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A unicast destination address
defines
only
one
receipient.(i.e one sender and
one receiver)
A
multicast
destination
address defines a group of
addresses.(i.e one sender and
many receivers).
The broadcast address is a
special case of the multicast
address. The receipients are
all stations on the LAN. It is a
address with all bits as 1s. (48
1S)

MAC SubLayer
31
Problem: Define the type of the following destination

addresses:
a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

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MAC SubLayer
32
Soln: To find the type of the address, we need to look

at the second hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is
even, the address is unicast. If it is odd, the address is
multicast. If all digits are Fs, the address is broadcast.
Therefore, we have the following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is
1010.
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is
0111.
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are Fs.
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MAC SubLayer
33
Access method: standard ethernet uses 1 persistent
CSMA/CD.
Slot time: The round trip time required for a frame to
travel from one of a maximum length network to the
other and the time required to send the jam sequence.
Slot time = round trip time + time required to send the
jam sequence
Slot time is defined in bits. It is the time required for a
station to send 512 bits. This means the actual slot time
depends on the data rate. For example for a 10Mbps
ethernet it is 51.2 s.
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MAC SubLayer
34
Slot time and collision:
Case1: frame size = 512 bits. The sender must know about
the collision before it sends the entire frame. Hence it is
required to have slot time less than the time required to
send minimum frame of 512bits.
Case2: frame size >512 bits (ex: 1518bits). The signal will
reach the destination before one-half of the slot time.
Hence stations following CSMA/CD scheme will sense that
medium as busy and will stay away from sending their
frames. In case they try to send then collision will happen.
Collision will occur during first half of the slot time. If the
first 512 bits are sent then it is guaranteed that collision
will not occur during the rest transmission.
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MAC SubLayer
35
Slot
Time and Maximum Network Length: it

depends on the propagation speed of the signal in
the particular medium.
Maximum length = propagation speed X Slot time/2.
For traditional ethernet maximum length =
(2x108)x(51.2x10-6/2) = 5120m (excluding repeaters
delays and jamming signal time)

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MAC SubLayer
36

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Problem
37
The address 43:7B:6C:ED:10:00 has been shown as

the source address in an ethernet frame. The
receiver has discarded the frame. Why?
Soln: since given address is a multicast address and
source address uses unicast address.
1.

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Problem
38
2. An ethernet MAC sublayer receives 1540 bytes of

data from the upper layer. Can the data be
encapsulated in one frame? If not how many frames
need to be sent? What is the size of the data in each
frame?
Soln: No, since maximum size of frame is 1518bytes.
Hence 2 frames can be sent with the first frame with
1500 data bytes and second frame with remaining 40
data bytes.

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Problem
39
3. An ethernet MAC sublayer receives 38bytes of data

from the upper layer. How many bytes of padding
must be added to the data?
Soln: minimum size databytes = 46
8 bytes of padding to be done.

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Problem
40
4. Suppose the length of a 10base 5 cable is 2300m. If

the speed of propagation in a thick coaxial cable is
200,000,000m/s, how long does it take for a bit to
travel from the beginning to the end of the network?
Soln: maximum length= (propogation speed x slot
time)/2.
Slot time = 23bits.
For 10base 5 slot time = 2.3x10-12s(for a frame).
Time taken for a bit = 0.1s.

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Token Bus IEEE 802.4

41
Token Bus is described in the IEEE 802.4 specification, and is a Local Area
Network (LAN) in which the stations on the bus or tree form a logical ring.
Each station is assigned a place in an ordered sequence, with the last station in
the sequence being followed by the first.
Each station knows the address of the station to its "left" and "right" in the
sequence.
This type of network, like a Token Ring network, employs a small data frame
only a few bytes in size, known as a token, to grant individual stations exclusive
access to the network transmission medium.
A token-passing system in which each station takes turns to transmit a frame
was considered a better option, because if there are n stations, and each station
takes T seconds to send a frame, no station has to wait longer than nT seconds
to acquire the token.

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42
Token-passing networks are deterministic in the way that they control
access to the network, with each node playing an active role in the process.
When a station acquires control of the token, it is allowed to transmit one
or more data frames, depending on the time limit imposed by the network.
When the station has finished using the token to transmit data, or the time
limit has expired, it relinquishes control of the token, which is then
available to the next station in the logical sequence.
When the ring is initialised, the station with the highest number in the
sequence has control of the token.
Since only one station at a time holds the token no collisions do not occur.
There is no relation between the physical location of the station on the bus
and its logical sequence number.
Acknowledgement is returned to the sender.
If there is an error in delivering the information, a request for
retransmission is attached to the token and it is sent to the sender.
Frames can be prioritised.

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Physical Layer
43
The token bus standard specifies 3 physical layer options in terms of transmission
medium, signaling technique, data rate and maximum electrical cable segment length.
The table below summarizes these options defined for the standard.
Sl.No Medium
Options
Transmission
medium
Signaling
Data
Technique Rate(Mbps)
Maximum
Segment
length
Broad band
Coaxial cable
(75 ohm)
Broad band
(AM/PSK)
1,5,10
Not specified
Carrier
band
Coaxial cable
(75 ohm)
Broad band
(FSK)
1,5,10
7600m
Optical
fiber
Optical fiber
ASK
Manchester
5,10,20
Not specified

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MAC Sublayer
44
Each station in the ring has knowledge of - TS: This Station's address, NS: Next Station's address, PS:
Previous Station's address
When the ring is initialised, tokens are inserted into it in station address order, starting with the
highest. The token itself is passed from higher to lower addresses. Once a station acquires the token, it
has a fixed time period during which it may transmit frames, and the number of frames which can be
transmitted by each station during this time period will depend on the length of each frame. If a
station has no data to send, it simply passes the token to the next station without delay.
The Token Bus standard defines four classes of priority for traffic - 0, 2, 4, and 6 - with 6 representing
the highest priority and 0 the lowest. Each station maintains four internal queues that correspond to
the four priority levels.
As a frame is passed down to the MAC sublayer from a higher-layer protocol, its priority level is
determined, and it is assigned to the appropriate queue. When a station acquires the token, frames are
transmitted from each of the four queues in strict order of priority. Each queue is allocated a specific
time slot, during which frames from that queue may be transmitted. If there are no frames waiting in a
particular queue, the token immediately becomes available to the next queue. If the token reaches level
0 and there are no frames waiting, it is immediately passed to the next station in the logical ring.
The whole process is controlled by timers that are used to allocate time slots to each priority level. If
any queue is empty, its time slot may be allocated for use by the remaining queues.
Each station has a timer that is reset whenever it acquires the token. When the token arrives, the
existing value of this timer is inspected before the timer is reset.
There is no guaranteed time limit set on how long a station has to wait to enter the ring when traffic is
heavy, but in practice it is not normally longer than a few seconds.

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MAC Sublayer Frame format
45
The Preamble field is used to
synchronise the receiver's clock.
The Start Delimeter and End Delimeter
fields are used to mark the start and
end of the frame, and contain an
analogue encoding of symbols other
than 0s and 1s that cannot occur
accidentally within the frame data. For
this reason, a length field is not
required.
The Frame Control field identifies the
frame as either a data frame or a
control frame. For data frames, it
includes the priority level of the frame,
and may also include an indicator
requiring the destination station to
acknowledge correct or incorrect
receipt of the frame. For control
frames, the field specifies the frame
type.

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The Destination and Source address

fields contain either a 2-byte or a 6byte hardware address for the
destination
and
source
stations
respectively (a given network must use
either 2-byte or 6-byte addresses
consistently, not a mixture of the two).
If 2-byte addresses are used, the Data
Field can be up t0 8,182 bytes. If 6-byte
addresses are used, it is limited to 8,174
bytes.
The Checksum is used to detect
transmission errors.
MAC Sublayer
IEEE specific frame format
46
Ring initialisation is a special case of
adding new stations. When the first
station comes on line, it registers the fact
that there is no traffic for a specified
period.
It
then
broadcasts
a
CLAIM_TOKEN frame. Not receiving a
reply, it creates a token and sets up a ring
consisting of just itself, and periodically
allows other new stations to join the ring.
Periodically, a station will transmit a
SOLIT_SUCCESSOR
frame
allowing
stations wishing to join the ring. The
frame includes the sender's address, and
that of its current successor in the ring.
Only stations with an address falling
between these two addresses are allowed
to enter the ring (in order to maintain the
logical order of station addresses on the
ring). If no station enters within a slot
time, the response window is closed, and
the token holder returns to its normal
business. If only one station enters, it is
inserted into the ring and becomes the
token holder's successor.

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Preamble
S 00000
D 000
D
A
Preamble
S 00000
D 001
D
A
Preamble
S 00000
D 010
D
A
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
S
A
MAC Sublayer
47
If two or more stations try to enter, their frames will

collide and be garbled. The token holder then runs an
arbitration process, that begins with the broadcast of
a RESOLVE_CONTENTION frame.
Problems sometimes arise with the token or the
logical ring due to transmission errors (for example a
station tries to pass a token to a station which has
been taken offline). After passing the token,
therefore, a station monitors the network to
determine whether its successor has either
transmitted a frame or passed the token. If neither of
these events occurs, it generates a second token. If
that also fails to produce the required outcome, the
station transmits a WHO_FOLLOWS frame
specifying the address of its successor. When the
failed station's successor sees a WHO_FOLLOWS
frame naming its predecessor, it responds with a
SET_SUCCESSOR frame, naming itself as the new
successor. The failed station is then removed from
the ring.
To leave the ring, a station X with a predecessor P
and a successor S simply sends a SET_SUCCESSOR
frame to P telling it that from now on its successor is
S. Station X then just stops transmitting.
TOKEN is a control frame which indicates to pass the
frame.

Manipal.
Preamble
S 00000
D 100
D
A
Preamble
S 00000
D 011
D
A
Preamble
S 00000
D 110
D
A
Preamble
S 00001
D 000
D
A
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D
S
A
0,2,4,
6
F
C
S
E
D

MAC Sublayer
48
Token Bus Control Frames
Frame control field
Name
Meaning
00000000
Claim_token
Claim token during ring initialisation
00000001
Solicit_successor_1
Allow stations to enter the ring
00000010
Solicit_successor_2
Allow stations to enter the ring
00000011
Who_follows
Recover from lost token
00000100
Resolve_contention
Used when multiple stations want to

enter the ring
00001000
Token
Pass the token
00001100
Set_successor
Allow stations to leave the ring
Token Bus Control Frames Summary

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Token Ring IEEE 802.5

49
Token Ring was developed by IBM in the

1970s and is described in the IEEE 802.5
specification
Token ring :a number of stations connected
by transmission links in a ring topology.
Information flows in one direction along the
ring from source to destination and back to
source.
Medium access control is provided by a small
frame, called the token, that circulates
around the ring when all stations are idle.
Only the station possessing the token is
allowed to transmit at any given time.
At any given time only one token will be in
the ring. The stations that want to transmit
must wait. Hence there will be no collision.
The IEEE 802.5 LAN standard defines token
ring networks operating at 4 Mbps and
16Mbps transmission. The rings are formed
by twisted pair cables using differential
manchester line coding. The maximum no. of
stations that can be in the ring is 250.
A bit is emitted every 1/R sec, R data rate.
Length of the bit = (speed V/rate R ). i.e
1Mbps ring with circumference of 1Km can
contain only 5 bits at once on it.

Manipal.

Operation
50
Token passing is the method of medium access, with only one token allowed to exist on the network at any one time.
Network devices must acquire the token to transmit data, and may only transmit a single frame before releasing the
token to the next station on the ring.
When a station has data to transmit, it acquires the token at the earliest opportunity, marks it as busy, and attaches the
data and control information to the token to create a data frame, which is then transmitted to the next station on the
ring.
The frame will be relayed around the ring until it reaches the destination station, which reads the data, marks the frame
as having been read, and sends it on around the ring.
When the sender receives the acknowledged data frame, it generates a new token, marks it as being available for use,
and sends it to the next station.
If there is a error then a request for retransmission is attached to the token. Token carries the message for
retransmission to the sender. The data is thus retransmitted
In this way, each of the other stations on the ring will get an opportunity to transmit data (even if they don't have any
data to transmit!).
If a station receiving the token has no information to send, it passes the token to the next end station.
In a Token Ring network, one station is arbitrarily selected to be the active monitor. The active monitor acts as a source
of timing information for other stations, and performs various maintenance functions, such as generating a new token
as and when required, or preventing rogue data frames from endlessly circulating around the ring.
All of the stations on the ring have a role to play in managing the network. However any station that detects a serious
problem will generate a beacon frame that alerts other stations to the fault condition, prompting them to carry out
diagnostic activities and attempt to re-configure the network.

Manipal.

Ring working
51
o
o
o
o
o
Ring consists of collection of ring interfaces.

Ring interfaces connected by p-p links
Ring interface has 2 operating modes: Listen
and Transmit modes
Listen mode
Data received serially
Data is received and checked for errors
Passing of data serially
Transmit mode:
Interface breaks the connection I/p o/p
Waits for a free token in order to be able to
attach the data to be transmitted to the
token.
On finding a free token, attach the following:
Senders address
Receivers address
Data block to be transmitted
Error checking details
After seizing the token switches from listen to
transmit mode in 1 bit time

Manipal.

Priority system
52
Token Ring networks use a sophisticated priority system
It permits certain user-designated, high-priority stations to use the network more frequently.
Token Ring frames have two fields that control priority: the priority field and the reservation
field.
Only stations with a priority equal to or higher than the priority value contained in a token can
seize that token.
After the token is seized and changed to an information frame, only stations with a priority
value higher than that of the transmitting station can reserve the token for the next pass around
the network.
When the next token is generated, it includes the higher priority of the reserving station.
Stations that raise a token's priority level must reinstate the previous priority after their
transmission is complete.

Manipal.

Frame Format
Two basic frame types are used -
tokens,
and
data/command
frames.
The token is three bytes long and
consists of a start delimiter, an
access control byte, and an end
delimiter.
A data/command frame has the
same fields as the token, plus
several additional fields.
Data frames carry information
for upper-layer protocols
Command
frames
contain
control information and have no
data for upper-layer protocols.

Manipal.
53

Frame Format
54

Manipal.

Frame Format
55
1. Start delimiterAlerts each station of the arrival of a token, or data

frame, command frame. This field includes signals that distinguish the
byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used
elsewhere in the frame.
2. Access-control byteContains
Priority field (the MSB-3bits): 8 priority levels
Reservation field (LSB-3 bits), 8 priority levels
A token bit: used to differentiate a token from a data/command
frame. T=0 is token frame and T=1 is a data frame.
A monitor bit: used by the active monitor to determine whether a
frame is circling the ring endlessly.
3. Fame control byteindicates type of frame data or control frame.
Data frames are identified by FF=01 and Z bits are then ignored.
MAC control frames are identified by FF =00 and the Z bits then
indicate the type of MAC control frame.
Manipal.

Frame Format
56
FRAME CONTROL BYTE:

Manipal.

Frame Format
57
4 & 5. Destination and source addresses6-byte address fields.
48 bit addressing scheme is used as used by ethernet.
6. Datainformation. The length of this field is limited by the ring token holding time,
(max time a station can hold the token).
7. Frame-check sequence (FCS)4bytes CRC checksum same as 802.3 . Receiver
verifies if not valid discards frame
8. End DelimiterSignals the end of the token or data/command frame. The end
delimiter also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the
last in a logical sequence.
E bit indicates that a station interface has detected an error.
The I bit indicates the last frame in a sequence of frames exchanged between 2
stations.
9..Frame StatusIs a 1-byte field terminating a command/data frame. The Frame Status
field includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.
A=0, C=0 => destination not present , information not copied
A=1, C=0 => destination present , information not copied
A=1, C=1 => destination present , information copied
Manipal.

58
If the network is quiet and none of the stations has any data to
transmit, the token simply circulates around the ring continuously.

When a station has data to transmit, it waits until it receives the
token, marks it as "busy" by setting the token bit, adds the data
and/or control information to create a data or command frame, and
transmits the frame to the next station.
Each station that receives the frame will re-transmit the frame to
the next station until it reaches the destination station. This station
reads the data, sets the address recognised and frame copied bits in
the frame status field, and transmits the frame to the next node.
When the frame arrives back at its point of origin, the originating
station generates a new token, which it transmits to the next station,
even if it has further data to send.
In this way, each station network has an equal number of
opportunities to transmit data. Because only one token is allowed to
exist on the network, only one station can transmit at any one time,
and collisions cannot occur.
Manipal.

Although
the IEEE 802.5

specification
reflects
IBM's
Token Ring technology, the
specifications differ slightly.
IBM specifies a star topology,
with all end stations star-wired to
a multi-station access unit
(MSAU), wheras IEEE 802.5
does not specify a topology
(although virtually all IEEE
802.5 implementations were
based on a star).
In addition, IEEE 802.5 does not
specify a media type, while IBM
originally
specified
shielded
twisted pair cable.
The table summarises the IBM
and IEEE 802.5 specifications.

Manipal.
59
IBM Token Ring v. IEEE 802.5
IBM Token Ring
IEEE 802.5
Data rate
4 or 16 Mbps
4 or 16 Mbps
Stations per segment
STP - 260
UTP - 72
250
Topology
Star
Not specified
Media
Twisted pair
Not specified
Signalling
Baseband
Baseband
Access method
Token passing
Token passing
Encoding
Differential Manchester Differential Manchester
Token Ring Protocol

60
To transmit a frame a station must wait for a free token to
arrive at its interface. When such a token arrives the station

claims the token by removing it from the ring. The station
then proceeds to transmit its frame into its outgoing line.
The frame travels along the ring over every point to point link
and across every interface card. Each station examines the
destination address in each passing frame to check whether it
matches the stations own address.
If not it is forwarded to next station else it is copied to a local
buffer and several bits are modified in it and put back to the
ring.
The sending station should then remove the frame from the
ring and insert a free token into the ring.
Manipal.
Token Ring Protocol

61
When the traffic on the ring is light, the token spends most of the time circulating around
the ring until a station has a frame to transmit.
As the traffic becomes heavy many stations have frames to transmit and the token
mechanism provides stations with a round robin access to the ring.
Suppose there are M stations and each station introduces a b bits delay between
receiving the frame and forwarding it to the outgoing line of the interface, then total
delay introduced by all interfaces is Mb bits.
A typical value of b is 2.5 is chosen.
If the total length of the links around the ring is d meters then an additional delay of d/v
secs or Rd/v bits is caused because of propagation delay.
Ring latency is defined as number of bits that can be simultaneously in transit around the
ring.
Ring latency () = d/v + Mb/R secs and R = dR/v + Mb bits ,
where Mb is the total delay introduced by the M station interfaces and R is the data rate.
The ring must be long enough to hold the complete token.

Manipal.
Ring latency and Token reinsertion

62
Consider a ring that operates at a speed
of R = 4Mbps with M=20 stations
separated by 100m and b=2.5 bits.
Ring latency (in bits) = 90 bits. Thus
the first bit in a frame returns to the
sending station 90 bit times after being
inserted.
Consider a ring that operates at a speed
of R = 16Mbps with M=80 stations
separated by 100m and b=2.5 bits.
Ring latency (in bits) = 840 bits. Thus
the first bit in a frame returns to the
sending station 840bit times after
being inserted.
Consider a frame of 400 bits length.

Manipal.

63
Case1: Reinserting a token after the frame

transmission is completed but not until the last bit
of the frame returns to the sending station.
In low latency ring the last bit in the frame returns
after 490 bits. Thus the sending station must
insert an idle signal for 90 additional bit times
before the station can reinsert the token into the
ring.
In high latency ring the last bit in the frame
returns after 1240 bits. Thus the sending station
must insert an idle signal for 840 additional bit
times before the station can reinsert the token into
the ring.
Thus this method of token reinsertion extends the
effective length of each frame by the ring latency.
For low latency ring efficiency = 400/490 = 82%
For high latency ring efficiency = 400/1240 =
32%.

Manipal.

64
Case 2: Reinserting the token after the frame

transmission is completed but not until after
the header of the frame returns to the
sending station.
Suppose header is 15 bytes (120 bits).
The header returns after 210 bits (90+120) in
the first ring. The sending station can
therefore reinsert the token immediately
after transmitting bit 400 of the frame.
The header returns after 960 bits (840+120)
in the second ring. Consequently sending
station must send an idle signal for 560 bit
times before that station can reinsert the
token into the ring.
First ring operates efficiently.
Second ring has an efficiency = 400/960 =
42%.
Case3: Reinsert the token immediately after
the frame transmission is completed. The
need for idle signal is completely eliminated.

Manipal.

65
Ring Latency: Maximum number of bits in transition around the

-
ring
If frame size > ring latency, a complete frame cannot be on the ring
at one time
If frame size < ring latency, complete frame is on transition in the
ring.
Approaches to Token Reinsertion:
1. Single token operation (delayed token release): in which the token
is released only after a complete frame is received by the
transmitting station. Suitable when frame size is nearly equal or
greater than ring latency.
2. Multiple token operation (early token release): in which token is
released after the transmission of a frame is completed by the
transmitting station. Suitable when frame size is less than ring
latency.

Manipal.

66
All 3 reinsertion strategies are implemented in token
ring LAN standards.

First is used in MAC protocol of IEEE 802.5
standard for a 4Mbps token ring LAN.
Second is used in IBM token ring LAN for 4 Mbps.
Third is used in both IBM and IEEE 802.5 ring LAN
for 16 Mbps.

Manipal.
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface

(FDDI) was developed by ANSI in the
mid-1980s and specifies a 100-Mbps
token-passing dual-ring LAN using
fiber-optic cable, which is frequently
used
as
high-speed
backbone
technology because of its high
bandwidth and the distances it can
span (up to 100 kilometres).
Up to 1000 devices can be connected to
an FDDI network, with up to two
kilometres between stations
using
multi-mode fiber, and even longer
distances using single-mode fiber.
16 and 48-bit addresses are allowed.
In FDDI, token is absorbed by station
and released as soon as it completes the
frame transmission .
FDDI uses (multilevel scheme)4B5B
binary line coding technique. The FDDI
frame has a maximum size of
4500bytes or 36000bits.

Manipal.
67
FDDI
The dual-ring system consists of a
primary and a secondary ring, in which
traffic on each ring flows in opposite
directions. In normal operation, the
primary ring is used for data
transmission and the secondary ring
remains idle.
There are various ways in which FDDI
devices can be connected to the
network. A single attachment station
(SAS) is attached to the primary ring,
usually via a concentrator.
Concentrators are devices which are
similar in many ways to hubs on an
Ethernet network, and are usually dual
attachment concentrators, attached to
both rings.
A dual attachment station (DAS) is
attached directly to both the primary
and secondary rings.

Manipal.
68
FDDI
The
main reason for the

second ring is to provide fault
tolerance in the event of a
primary ring failure. Traffic
can wrap around a problem
node and continue to carry
data on the secondary ring (in
the opposite direction).
If two nodes fail, the wrap at
two
locations
effectively
creates two separate (noncommunicating) rings. Bypass
devices called concentrators
can be used to overcome such
problems. They can also
isolate failed nodes, while
maintaining network traffic.
Manipal.
69
FDDI
An alternative to wrapping is to
use an optical bypass switch. This

device provides continuous dualring operation if a device on the
ring fails. It prevents ring
segmentation and eliminates the
failed station from the ring.
Each DAS has two ports,
designated A and B. These ports
connect the DAS to both the
primary and secondary rings.
Devices using DAS connections
will affect the ring if they are
disconnected or powered off.
If the DAS device fails, the
switch passes the light through
itself using internal mirrors,
maintaining the integrity of the
ring.
Manipal.
70
FDDI Repair summary

71

Manipal.
FDDI operation
72
In certain circumstances, both rings are used to carry data, effectively
doubling the capacity of the network.

Manipal.
FDDI
Physical Layer
73
Cannot use differential Manchester because 100 Mbps FDDI would
require 200 Mbaud rate.

Hence data is encoded using a 4B/5B encoder.
For each four bits of data transmitted, a corresponding 5-bit
codeword is generated by the encoder. There is a maximum of two
consecutive zero bits in each symbol.
The symbols are then shifted out through a NRZI encoder which
produces a signal transition whenever a 1 bit is being transmitted
and no transition when a 0 bit is transmitted. It guarantees a signal
transition at least every two bits, to provide for adequate
synchronization.
Each FDDI station transmits into its outgoing link according to its
own local clock.
Incoming data is received using a clock that is frequency and phase
locked to the transitions in the incoming bit stream.
Local clock is 125MHz. This yields 100 Mbps (80% due to 4B/5B).

Manipal.
FDDI
Physical Layer
74
16 out of 32

Manipal.
combinations are for

data
3 for delimiters
2 for control
3 for H/W signaling
8 are unused
FDDI
MAC Layer
76
FDDI frame structure is very similar to that of IEE 802.5. the FC field is
used to indicate the presence of a token and to provide information

about the type of frame.
The capture of a token is not done by flipping a bit but by removing the
token transmission from the ring and replacing it with a data frame.

Manipal.
FDDI
MAC Layer
77
To accommodate a mixture of stream and bursty traffic, FDDI
is designed to handle two types of traffic:

Synchronous frames that typically have tighter delay
requirements (e.g., voice and video)
Asynchronous frames have greater delay tolerances (e.g., data
traffic)
FDDI uses TTRT (Target Token Rotation Time) to ensure that
token rotation time is less than some value.
In particular all the stations in an FDDI ring must agree to
operate according to a given target rotation time (TTRT).
Each station i is allowed a certain amount of time Si secs that
specifies the maximum duration the station is allowed to send
synchronous traffic each time it has captured the token.
Manipal.
FDDI
MAC Layer
78
Each station maintains a token rotation timer (TRT)
that measures the time that has elapsed since the

station last received a token.
When a station first calculates the token holding
time (THT) = TTRT TRT. It is the measure of the
degree of activity in the ring.
When traffic is light token will rotate quickly around
the ring and TRT <<TTRT.
As the traffic becomes heavy TRT TTRT.

Manipal.
FDDI
MAC Layer
79
The FFDI mac implements as follows:

If
THT>0 then station can transmit all its

synchronous traffic Si. Also if THT has not expired
after Si secs the station is still allowed to transmit
asynchronous traffic for the balance THT time. The
station must then release token.
If THT <0 then station is allowed to transmit only its
synchronous traffic Si and must then release the
token.

Manipal.
Differences between 802.5 and FDDI

80
Token Ring
Shielded twisted pair
4, 16 Mbps
No reliability specified
Differential Manchester
Centralized clock
Priority and Reservation
bits
New token after receive

Manipal.
FDDI
Optical Fiber
100 Mbps
Reliability specified (dual
ring)
4B/5B encoding
Distributed clocking
Timed Token Rotation Time
New token after transmit
Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11

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