Home

Search

Collections

Journals

About

Contact us

My IOPscience

Cooling and warming laws: an exact analytical solution

This article has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text article.
2010 Eur. J. Phys. 31 1107
(http://iopscience.iop.org/0143-0807/31/5/013)
View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

Download details:
IP Address: 148.225.101.2
The article was downloaded on 13/03/2012 at 14:48

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

IOP PUBLISHING

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Eur. J. Phys. 31 (2010) 11071121

doi:10.1088/0143-0807/31/5/013

Cooling and warming laws: an exact

analytical solution
Ugo Besson
Department of Physics A. Volta, University of Pavia, Via A. Bassi 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy
E-mail: ugo.besson@unipv.it

Received 26 May 2010, in final form 5 July 2010

Published 29 July 2010
Online at stacks.iop.org/EJP/31/1107
Abstract

This paper deals with temperature variations over time of objects placed
in a constant-temperature environment in the presence of thermal radiation.
After a historical introduction, the paper discusses cooling and warming laws,
by taking into account first solely objectenvironment energy exchange by
thermal radiation, and then adding objectenvironment heat exchange by
convection. These processes are usually evaluated by approximating the law of
exchange of thermal radiation by a linear relationship between power exchange
and temperature difference. In contrast, in this paper an exact analytical
solution considering Stefans fourth power law is provided, under some general
hypotheses, for both cases. A comparison with exponential approximations and
with a historical law proposed by Dulong and Petit in 1817 is presented. Data
of an experiment are used to test the analytical solution: the test has allowed
evaluating the heat transfer coefficient h of the experiment and has shown that
our solution provides a better fit with the measured values than any exponential
function. The topic is developed in a way which can be suitable both for
undergraduate students and for general physicists.

1. A short history of the cooling law

The cooling law of objects in a colder environment has been the object of numerous studies.
In 1701, Newton published his law of cooling (Newton 1701, English translation in Newton
1809) both in terms of proportionality between the temperature change rate and temperature
difference (Ta is the environment temperature):
dT
(T Ta ),
(1)
dt
and in terms of an exponential decrease of temperature in time (the excess of the degrees of the
heat . . . were in geometrical progression when the times are in an arithmetical progression).
Newton did not make a clear distinction between heat and temperature, which was normal
in his day, and considered degree of heat as temperature.
c 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA
0143-0807/10/051107+15$30.00 

1107

1108

U Besson

During the 18th century, some scientists resumed and confirmed Newtons law (Richmann
17471748) while others found a discrepancy between this law and the experimental data
(Martine 1738, Erxleben 1777). At the beginning of the 19th century, after studying the
specific role of heat radiation on the cooling process, some scientists stressed that the quantity
of heat which a hot body yields in a given time by radiation to a cold body situated at a distance,
increases, caeteris paribus, in a greater ratio than the excess of temperature (Delaroche 1812),
while others again affirmed Newtons law (Leslie 1804, Prevost 1809).
In 1817, Dulong and Petit published an accurate and extensive experimental research
on the measurement of temperatures and on the law of cooling. They studied the cooling
processes first in vacuum, subjected to solely thermal radiation exchange, and then in air and
other gases, taking into account both radiation and convection. They proposed new cooling
laws, different from Newtons. For the cooling velocity due to radiation they found
 
dT
= m(a T a Ta ) = m a Ta (a (T Ta ) 1),
(2)
dt rad
where m is a constant and a = 1.0077, and consequently the relationship between temperature
and time was


1
a T 1
t=
log
+ const,
(3)
M log a
a T
where the constants M = m a Ta and const can be determined from two experimental data.
For the cooling velocity due to convention they found
 
dT
pc (T Ta )b ,
(4)
dt con
where p = pressure of gas, b = 1.233 for all gases and bodies and c is a constant depending
on the considered gas. The total cooling velocity in air would be the sum of the two velocities
(2) + (4).
These studies were also related to the problem of defining a good scale of temperatures as
many of them consisted in measuring volume variations of either metal or fluid, from which
temperature changes were deduced. However, without an absolute temperature scale and a
definition of an absolute zero temperature it was impossible to find the correct law of thermal
radiation. In fact, only after Kelvins introduction of his scale in 1848, Stefan, also studying
the experimental data of Tyndall (1865) and of Dulong and Petit (1817), found in 1879 his
famous empirical relationship which affirmed that the total radiant energy emitted from a body
per time unit is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body (Stefan
1879). This formula was demonstrated theoretically by Boltzmann (1884) and since then, it
has become the starting point for all studies concerning thermal radiation: the net energy loss
by radiation is considered the difference between the emitted and absorbed radiation, based
on the equation

dErad  4
T Ta4 .
(5)
dt
Concerning the convective cooling, a distinction is made between forced convection, in which
a significant current of air or fluid is produced by external causes, and natural convection, in
which the motion of air is only due to the temperature gradient near the object. In the case of
forced convection, the law of proportionality (1) is well satisfied and a slight stream of air is
sufficient (in his article Newton (1701) specified that the iron was laid not in a calm air, but in
a wind that blew uniformly upon it). The case of natural convection is more complicated and
depends on the geometry of the bodies involved and on the characteristics of the fluid and of

Cooling and warming laws

1109

its motion. Vast studies, which were conducted on this topic at the end of the 19th century and
in the first decades of the 20th century within the engineering research field on heat transfer,
showed that in the most common situations a relationship
dQ
(6)
(T Ta )n
dt
is verified, where n = 5/4 in the case of fluid laminar motion and n = 4/3 in the case of
turbulent motion (see McAdams (1933)).
In more recent years, some papers concerning the cooling law have appeared, taking
into account both radiative and convective processes, in view of the teaching of this topic in
university physics courses. These processes are studied by considering formulae similar to
equations (1) and (5), thus, obtaining a first-order differential equation like the one below:
q=



dT
= c1 (T Ta ) + c2 T 4 Ta4 ,
(7)
dt
without looking for an analytical solution of equation (7) but only giving an approximate
solution for the function T(t). For example, OSullivan (1990) claimed that the solution
yields a very complicated expression containing at least seven terms and gave an approximate
solution of equation (7) by developing the polynomial on the right side in series = (T
Ta) and considering the first two terms in and 2; Vollmer (2009) used an approximation
of the function T(t) using two or three exponential terms with two or three time constants;
Twomey et al (2009) affirmed that there is no analytical solution and decided to perform the
experimental data analysis directly on the variation of dT/dt with temperature.
In this paper, I study the cooling and warming processes of objects due to thermal
radiation and to convection, according to equations (5) and (7), giving an exact analytical
solution. In section 2, I study the case of objectenvironment energy exchange by thermal
radiation; in section 3, I extend the results of this study to the case of objects exposed to
solar or lamp radiation, and in section 4, I also take into account heat exchange by convection
with the surrounding air, and I provide a comparison with data of an experiment. The topic
is developed in a way which can be suitable both for undergraduate students and for general
physicists.
2. Warming and cooling processes in the case of energy exchange by thermal
radiation only

In this section, I treat an object set in an environment whose behaviour can be regarded as a
black body at a constant temperature Tb that emits thermal radiation which reaches the entire
surface of the object. One such case would be an isolated object inside a vacuum container so
that it is subject to negligible heat exchange by conduction and convection, as in the historical
experiments by Dulong and Petit (1817). An example which can be performed in a typical
university lab could be the placement of an object in a bell jar evacuated by a pump (see
Twomey et al (2009) for an experiment performed under similar conditions).
The object emits energy per time unit eT ST4 (Stefans law), where S is the total surface
area of the object, T is the mean temperature of the object surface and eT is the mean value of the
surface emissivity e(), which represents the ratio between the total energy intensity emitted
by the body and that emitted by a black body at the same temperature1 . The environmental
radiation energy, emitted by other bodies, air and the Earths surface, absorbed by the object
1 See Besson (2009), where other specifications are given about the meaning of these coefficients and of the average
temperature in situations involving thermal radiation.

1110

U Besson

per time unit is a  STb4 , where a is the absorptivity of the object relative to the emission
spectrum of a black body at temperature Tb.
In a non-stationary situation, the difference between the absorbed and emitted energy flux
equals the internal energy change, which can be described as CdT/dt, i.e. the product of the
thermal capacity C of the object and the rate of the mean temperature T change over time t.
It should be noted that T is the mean temperature of the bulk body, not only of its surface
regions. Even though there might be some differences between these two temperatures, due
to varying conductivities and varying durations of heat transmission inside the body, here I
neglect these issues and assume that the mean temperature of the bulk body equals the surface
mean temperature, so supposing that the internal heat flow inside the object is much quicker
than the energy loss from the surface2 ,
dT
(8)
= eT ST 4 + a  STb4 .
dt
Because eT depends on the body temperature, in the case of non-black bodies the intensity
emitted is not necessarily proportional to T 4 . However, in practice, eT is not strongly
temperature dependent3 , and I reckon it is temperature independent over the range of
temperatures considered below. Consequently, assuming eT = a = e = constant, and by
rearranging equation (8), we obtain

e S  4
dT
=
T Tb4 .
(9)
dt
C
Equation (9) can be normalized by introducing the dimensionless quantity = T/Tb (so dT =
Tb d ). In rearranging it by separating the variables and t we obtain
C

d
e S 3
=
T dt.
( 4 1)
C b

(10)

The primitive of the function on the left-hand side of equation (10) is the function

d
1
= (ln | 1| ln | + 1| 2 arctan ).
( 4 1)
4
Integrating equation (10) over the intervals [ o; ] and [0; t], we obtain


| 1|
| + 1|
e S 3
1
T t = ln
ln
2(arctan arctan o ) .
|o 1|
|o + 1|
C b
4
Introducing the time constant r =
= ( ) = ln

C
4e STb3

and setting =

t
,
r

(11)

(12)

equation (12) becomes

| 1|
| + 1|
+ ln
+ 2(arctan arctan o ).
|o 1|
|o + 1|

(13)

This function = ( ) is very general; it can be considered the universal normalized function
for the cooling and warming processes due to thermal radiation exchange with an environment
at constant temperature, under the hypothesis of constancy over the considered temperature
range of emissivity e and specific heat c. In fact, the details of this specific body (i.e. the
parameters e, S, C) are embedded in the time constant r, together with the ambient temperature
Tb. The time constant r is an indicator of the duration of the cooling or warming process: the
temperature difference is reduced to 1/10 of its initial value after a duration of few r (less
than ln10 = 2.3 for the cooling and more than 2.3 for the warming processes).
2

See Vollmer (2009), section 4, for an analysis of cases in which this hypothesis cannot be accepted.
Between 0 and 400 C, the most solids have almost constant emissivity e, with high values (0.800.95) for
non-metals and low values for metals (see Besson (2009)).
3

Cooling and warming laws

1111

Figure 1. Variation over time of the mean temperature T of an object in a vacuum exchanging

thermal radiation with an environment at constant temperature Tb. The vertical axis plots the
values of = T/Tb, and the horizontal axis, the values of = tr = eCS 4Tb3 t. The upper curve
represents the case To > Tb ( > 1, o = 1.8) and the lower curve, the case To < Tb ( < 1, o =
0.2).

The graph of this relationship is represented in figure 1 for the cases T > Tb ( > 1, o =
1.8) and T < Tb ( < 1, o = 0.2). Note that for the same temperature difference the rate of
temperature decrease in the case T > Tb is greater than its rate of increase in the case T < Tb,

 
4
4
because it is always (TT+)
.
1 > 1 (T T)
4
4
Equation (13) can be considered as the modern version of Dulong and Petits
equation (3). It is analogue to the typical logarithmic and exponential functions t (T ) and
T (t) which represent the change in temperature over time in the case where heat exchange is
proportional to temperature difference (TTb). In fact, the variations in the second and third
terms on the right-hand side of equation (13) are usually smaller than those in the first term,
which represents an exponential dependence of temperature on time:
= 1 + (o 1) exp( ).
Recalling that =

t
r

(14)

and = T/Tb, equation (14) becomes

T = Tb + (To Tb ) exp(t/r ),

(15)

where the time constant is r = 4eCST 3 (this formula shows that for the same temperature
b
difference To Tb, the time constant decreases with the increase of the absolute value of
temperatures Tb and To). The exponential approximations (14) and (15) always give slower
cooling and quicker warming than the exact solution (13).
Functions (14) and (15) correspond to the approximated solutions of equations (8) and
4
4
of T, considering (T Tb)
(9) obtained by approximating
T Tb with a linear function
 2
4
2
4
 Tb: T Tb = T + Tb (T + Tb )(T Tb )
= 4Tb3 (T Tb ) or, in terms of and
, ( 4 1) = ( 2 + 1)( + 1)
= 4( 1), considering
= 1. This is equivalent to the
approximation in equation (9) of the radiative exchange by a constant heat transfer coefficient
due to radiation hr = 4e Tb3 :

e S  4
dT
hr S
e S 3
=
T Tb4
4Tb (T Tb ) =
(T Tb ).
=
dt
C
C
C

(16)

1112

U Besson

Figure 2. Cooling curve (graph G, solid line) of an object in a vacuum exchanging thermal
radiation with an environment at constant temperature Tb (function = ( ), equation (13)).
Graph E1 (dashed line) and graph E2 (chain line) represent, respectively, the exponential function
= 1 + (o 1) exp( ) and the best logarithmic or exponential fit of G (having = 0 when
= 3 and tending to when 1) = 0.40 ln(( 1)/2) or = 1 + 2 exp(2.5 ). The
vertical axis plots = T/Tb, and the horizontal axis = tr = eCS 4Tb3 t. The differences in
between E2 and the exact solution G are of 0.080.18 when is between 2.5 and 1.3.

This does not give the best exponential approximation; a better one can be obtained by using
between
1 and o, or for T a value Tm intermediate
for a value m which is intermediate


between Tb and To: T 4 Tb4
= Tm2 + Tb2 (Tm + Tb )(T Tb ).
Given that the classical Newtons law is an exponential law and that exponential
approximations are commonly used in textbooks and in teaching, in the following I will
compare the exact solution (13) to opportune exponential trends, in order to show differences
and likenesses. To do this, I have calculated a list of values ( , ) of function (13) and I have
searched for the best exponential fit of these values.
Figure 2 compares the graph G of function (13) ( = ( ) having o = 3) with graph
E1 of the exponential function (14) and graph E2 of the logarithmic (or exponential) function
= ln(( 1)/(o 1)) having = 0 when = 3 and tending to when 1 which
best fits the list of chosen values ( , ) of function (13). I find4 = 0.40, which corresponds
to the approximation ( 4 1)
= 10 ( 1) instead of 4( 1) and to an intermediate value
m = 1.66. The coefficient of determination is R2 = 0.86 and the maximum difference between
the two functions is  = 0.475, which means, for Tb from 270 K to 320 K, a temperature
difference of 130150 K. The logarithmic or exponential functions fit much better if the initial
temperature is lower. For example, the maximum difference decreases to  = 0.125 if o =
2.0 and to  = 0.024 if o = 1.4.
A comparison between our equation (13) ( = ( )) and Dulong and Petits equation (3)
yields interesting results. In order to do so, I changed the scale of the y-axis by introducing
the Celsius temperature T = (Tb + 273) 273, and rearranged equation (3) as follows:
t = c1 (log(1 a (T Tb ) ) c2 ).

(3a)

The constant c2 is determined by substituting the initial temperature To at t = 0, so that

c2 = log(1 a (To Tb ) ). The constant c1 can be determined by using the coordinates of an
intermediate point (t1; T1). Given that Dulong and Petits equation is not an exact solution
4

The coefficient in this equation depends slightly on the choice of values ( , ) of function (13), which are used.
In this case I have used the values from = 3 to = 1.04 by steps  = 0.02.

Cooling and warming laws

1113

Figure 3. Cooling curve of an object in a vacuum exchanging thermal radiation with an environment

at constant temperature Tb. Comparison between the exact solution and Dulong and Petits equation.

and does not coincide with equation (13), by changing the intermediate point, the graph also
changes, but only slightly. Figure 3 shows two curves, choosing Tb = 10 C, To = 410 C and
T1 = 205 C. The two graphs are very similar; the differences are quite small: less than 4 C
for T < 270 C, and with a maximum difference of 6.3 C around 330 C.
We can conclude that Dulong and Petits equation is a good approximation of the exact law
(13). In fact, it is a much better approximation than the pure exponential function, as shown
in figure 3. If one used a function simpler than equation (13), Dulong and Petits equation
could be a good choice. Their equation also has the advantage of being easily inverted into
the following function T(t):



1
t

.
(3b)
+ c2
T = Tb ln 1 exp
c1
ln a
Clearly, as it is not the exact law, it cannot be good for all temperature ranges, but it works
well for 0400 C (note that the maximum temperature measured by Dulong and Petit was
280 C).
3. Warming of an object exposed to solar or lamp radiation

Equations (12) and (13) can also be used to represent the case in which the object is exposed
to a unidirectional radiation flux such as, for example, radiation from the Sun or a lamp. If
exposed to a radiation flux
in direction z, the object absorbs an amount of energy arS

per second (where S is the area of the objects cross-section which is perpendicular to z and
ar is its absorptivity for the incoming radiation) and the energy balance equation (8) becomes
dT
(17)
C
= eT ST 4 + a  STb4 + ar
S .
dt
In a stationary situation dT
= 0, the absorbed energy balances exactly the emitted energy, and
dt
the object maintains a constant mean temperature Te2, given by

S ar
a
a
Te24 =
+ Tb4 = Te14 + Tb4 ,
(18)
S eT eT
eT

S ar
where Te1 = 4

is the equilibrium temperature that the object would have in the absence
S eT
of the environmental radiation energy, i.e. Tb = 0 (this could be the cases of artificial satellites,

1114

U Besson

spaceships, planets and so forth). Note that Te2 is always higher than Te1 and Tb. It becomes
equal to Tb in the absence of radiation flux (
= 0) and becomes equal to Te1 in the absence
of ambient thermal radiation (Tb = 0). In rearranging equation (17) and assuming eT = a =
e = constant, we obtain




e S
e S 
dT
e S  4
ar
S
=
T 4 + Tb4 +
=
T 4 + Tb4 + Te14 =
T Te24 .
(19)
dt
C
e S
C
C
This equation is identical to equation (9), so all results obtained above, in particular
equation (13), are still valid in the case of a unidirectional radiation flux such as radiation from
the Sun or a lamp, by replacing Tb by Te2 and by T/Te2.
4. Warming and cooling processes by radiation and convection

Here, again, I treat an object set in a thermal radiation-emitting environment, but this time
also considering heat exchange with the air at temperature Ta by conduction and convection.
As usually in the case of forced convection (see section 1), I obtain the heat exchange rate H
by a linear relationship with the temperature difference (TTa) and the object surface area,
introducing the heat transfer coefficient h: H = hS(T Ta ). The values of the heat transfer
coefficient h strongly depend on air movement. Common values are between 7 and 10 W
(m2 K)1.
Normally, the temperatures Tb and Ta can be considered equal, but in some situations, such
as in the presence of hotter objects in the environment, there can be a significant difference that
might influence the experimental results (see OSullivan (1990), section VI). In the following,
I always consider Tb = Ta.
Consequently, equation (8) has to be modified as follows:
dT
= eT ST 4 + a  STb4 hS(T Ta ).
(20)
C
dt
Using the same steps as in section 2, setting eT = a = e = constant and Tb = Ta, this equation
becomes


e S
h
dT
4
4
=
T Ta +
(T Ta ) .
(21)
dt
C
e
As in section 2, equation (21) can be normalized by introducing the dimensionless quantities
= T/Ta (so dT = Ta d ), and p = ehT 3 :
a



e S 4 4
Ta d
h
=
Ta 1 +
(

1)
dt
C
e Ta3

(22)

e S 3
1
T dt = 4
d.
C a
( 1 + p( 1))

(23)

The denominator of this fraction can be divided for ( 1), so obtaining ( 4 1 + p( 1)) =
( 1)( 3 + 2 + + p + 1). Consequently, the fraction can be decomposed into two fractions:
( 4

A
B 2 + C + D
1
=
+ 3
.
1 + p( 1))
1 + 2 + + p + 1

(24a)

1
By developing the calculation in equation (24a), I obtain the values of coefficients A = p+4
,
1
2
3
B = p+4 , C = p+4 , D = p+4 , and the complete expression of the two fractions:


1
1
1
2 + 2 + 3
.
(24b)
=

( 4 1 + p( 1))
p + 4 1 3 + 2 + + p + 1

Cooling and warming laws

1115

By using equation (24b), the integration of equation (23) gives




| 1|
e S 3
2 + 2 + 3
1
T t =
ln

d .
3
2
C a
p+4
|o 1|
o + + + p + 1
By isolating t and recalling that p =
C

t = 
h + 4e Ta3 S

h
,
e Ta3

(25)

we obtain




| 1|
2 + 2 + 3
ln

d .
3
2
|o 1|
o + + + p + 1

(26)

By introducing the time constant :

C
C
r
 =

=
,
=
h + 4e Ta3 S
1 + p4
4e STa3 1 + p4

(27)

and the dimensionless quantity = t , equation (26) can be written as

| 1|
= ( ) = ln
+
|o 1|

2 + 2 + 3
d.
3 + 2 + + p + 1

(28)

The denominator of the integral in equation (28) always has exactly one real zero, negative,
= x < 1, so the complete solution of equation (23) includes the sum of three logarithmic
terms and a term in arctangent (see the appendix for a complete calculation):
= ( ) = ln | 1| + c1 ln | x| + c2 ln | 2 + a + b| + c3 arctan(m + n) c.

(29)

The coefficient c is determined by the initial condition = 0 when = o; the other coefficients
can be expressed as functions of x, e.g., a = x + 1 and b = x2 + x + 1 (see the appendix for the
formulae giving all coefficients).
The function = ( ) (equation (29)) is very general; it represents the normalized
function for the cooling and warming processes due to thermal radiation and heat convection
exchange with an environment at constant temperature, under the hypothesis of constancy over
the considered temperature range of emissivity e, heat transfer coefficient h and specific heat
c. However, it is not as universal as in the case of solely thermal radiation exchange studied
in section 2, because it depends, via the parameter p, on the ratio h/e and on the ambient
temperature Ta. Figure 4 plots the functions = ( ) for Ta = 290 K in the cases h/e = 8 W
(m2 K)1 and h/e = 16 W (m2 K)1.
The calculations show that the function ( ) is changed only a little by changing the
ratio h/e, the variations being mainly embedded in the time constant , which is an indicator
of the duration of the cooling process and depends on h and e. The logarithmic term of
equation (28) provides the first exponential approximation of the function ( ), which is
r
C
= (1+p/4)
:
identical to equations (14) and (15) but with a different time constant = (h+4e
T 3 )S
a

= 1 + (o 1) exp( )
T = Ta + (To Ta ) exp(t/ ).

(30)
(30a)

This is equivalent to the approximation in equation (20) of the radiative and convective
exchanges by the constant total heat transfer coefficient htot = h + hr = h + 4e Ta3 . As in
the case of equation (13) of section 2, to compare the exact solution (29) to an exponential
trend, I have calculated a list of values ( , ) of function (29) and I have searched for the best
exponential fit of these values (see curve E2 and corresponding equation in figure 4).

1116

U Besson

Figure 4. Cooling curves (solid line G and point line G ) = ( ) (equation (29)) of an
object exchanging heat by convection and thermal radiation with an environment at constant
temperature Ta, in the cases h/e = 8 W (m2 K)1 and h/e = 16 W (m2 K)1 respectively. The
vertical axis plots = T/Ta, and the horizontal axis = t/ . The chain line E2 plots the best
logarithmic (or exponential) fit of G (having = 0 when = 3 and tending to when 1)
= 0.60 ln(( 1)/2) or = 1 + 2 exp(1, 667 ). The differences between G and E2 are
 = 0.10.35 when is between 0.03 and 1.

By reintroducing the quantities T and t, the solution of equation (21) is given by

t =

C
e S

To

T4

Ta4

dT
.
+ eh (T Ta )

(31)

The denominator of this equation always has two real zeros, one positive T = Ta and the other
negative T = Tx = x Ta < Ta, and recalling that = T/Ta, and = t/ , the solution given
by equation (29) becomes
t = (T ) = ( ln |(T Ta )| + c1 ln |(T Tx )|
+ c2 ln |T 2 + a  T + b | + c3 arctan(m T + n)) c ,

(32)

where a  = a Ta = (x + 1)Ta = Tx + Ta , b = b Ta2 , m = Tma and c is determined by the

initial condition t = 0 when T = To.
By means of a spreadsheet (Microsoft Excel), by inserting the values of Ta, To, e, h and
C/S, the formulae for the parameters , p, x, c1, c2, c3, a, b, m, n and equation (32)5 , it
is possible to observe directly and rapidly the effects of the changes in the inserted values,
mainly of e and h, and to show how the cooling trend depends not only on the temperature
difference but also on the absolute values of temperatures. Moreover, it is possible to compare
equation (32) with the measures obtained in an experiment, in order to check the correctness
of the assumed hypothesis and to find the values of h or e that generate the function which
fits best with the experimental data. In this way, if the value of e is known, for example for a
black object for which e
= 1, it is possible to evaluate h, and subsequently, by using the same
experimental setting and then the same value of h, it is possible to evaluate the coefficient e of
an object having a different kind of surface.
5

An example of this sheet, filled with all the formulae needed, can be obtained from the author.

Cooling and warming laws

1117

Figure 5. Cooling process of a black painted aluminum cylinder exchanging heat by convection
and thermal radiation with an environment at constant temperature Ta. The case of Ta = 299.2 K,
To = 400.6 K, e = 1. Curve M, dashed line: experimental data. Curve G, solid line: graph of
function (33), which best fits with the experimental data. The best fit is obtained assuming h =
7.7 W (m2 K)1.

As an application, I consider the case of a black painted aluminium cylinder, assuming

e = 1, diameter6 d = 2.54 cm, length l = 3.81 cm, C/S = 11.57103 W (m2 K)1, and
an experiment in which Ta = 299.2 K, To = 400.6 K. I obtain the function t = (T)
(equation (32)) which best fits the experimental data by using a value h = 7.7, finding a
coefficient of determination R2 = 0.9985 and a difference in time t < 0.5 min for T > 306 K
or t < 35 min (it reaches 1.4 min when T = 303 K or t = 45 min). This solution corresponds
to the following function t(T):
t = (T ) = 14.00( ln |(T 299.2)| + 0.3322 ln |(T + 600.7)| + 0.3339 ln |T 2 301.5T
+ 2.707 105 | + 0.7995 arctan(2.008 103 T 0.3028)) 0.3179.

(33)

Figure 5 presents the graph of this function, together with the experimental data.
The measured temperatures are not very high in this experiment, so a good approximation
of data can also be obtained by using an opportune exponential trend; nevertheless, it is
worth pointing out that the best exponential fit of these experimental data fits with the
measured values less well than our function (33) and gives a lower coefficient of determination,
i.e. R2 = 0.9925 instead of R2 = 0.9985 and a greater maximum difference in time, t =
1.1 min instead of t = 0.5 min, for T > 307 K (and it reaches 3 min instead of 1.4 when
T = 303 K).
Equation (21) shows that the thermal radiation contribution
to the
 energy loss of the object

is greater than the heat convection contribution when e T 4 Ta4 > h(T Ta ). For h =
8 W (m2 K)1 and e = 1, when Ta = 293 K = 20 C, the radiation contribution prevails if
T > 360.6 K = 87.5 C, and when Ta > 328 K, it prevails for all T > Ta. With these values of
6 It is an aluminium cylinder provided by Pasco in an educational experimental kit (model TD-8497) for studying
the solar constant (see ftp://ftp.pasco.com/Support/Documents/English/TD/TD-8497/012-08690A.pdf). The
cylinder has a little hole especially adapted for inserting a steel temperature probe included in the kit. I inserted the
temperature probe, in the oblique position, in a horizontal mounting bracket secured on a vertical rod inserted into a
stand, and I connected it to a data logger (the GLX by PASCO). I warmed the cylinder in an oven and subsequently
placed the cylinder, using its hole, on the tip of the temperature probe. While the cylinder was cooling, the data logger
was saving the measures of times and temperatures. The experiment was performed in a dark room where an open
window created a slight stream of air.

1118

U Besson

Figure 6. The curves represent the values of T and Ta for which the energy losses by thermal
radiation and by heat convection are equal. By increasing the ratio h/e, the curves go up. The
three curves in the figure correspond to h/e = 8 W (m2 K)1, h/e = 12 W (m2 K)1 and h/e =
16 W (m2 K)1, from below to above. In the region above the curve, the contribution of thermal
radiation prevails.

h and e, the radiation contribution can exceed the convection contribution only if T > 328 K,
and when T > 520.6 K this happens for all Ta < T (see figure 6).
The same type of calculation is also valid for the energy gain of the object in the case of
T < Ta. In this case, the contribution of thermal radiation to the energy gain of the object can
be greater than the heat convection contribution only if Ta > 328 K; e.g., this happens for T >
304.9 K when Ta = 350 K and for all T if Ta > 520.6 K. These temperature values change
notably with the heat transfer coefficient h.
5. Conclusions

As shown in the brief historical narrative, the search for a law of cooling was neither linear
nor simple. This was because the cooling process embeds two very different phenomena,
emission and absorption of thermal radiation and heat transfer by convection and conduction,
which have different properties and obey different laws. Moreover, these phenomena are not
very regular since they strongly depend on the features of the materials and conditions under
examination. The law of thermal radiation emission was discovered only in 18791884 and
until this date, many scientists had been led by the idea of searching for a simple law, as
Newton stated in 1701, or had tried to establish new laws to justify the experimental results,
but without real success, also due to the inadequacy of the available temperature scales.
Later on, convection also revealed to be a complicated phenomenon, which does not obey a
sole simple law. Currently, the basic phenomena involved are well known and established.
By introducing opportune approximations and simplifications, the cooling process can be
treated in the introductory university physics course, based on differential equations similar
to equation (7). Usually, only an approximate solution is given for the function T(t), by using
pure exponential trends, because exact solutions are considered either too complicated or
impossible.

Cooling and warming laws

1119

I have shown that it is possible to provide an exact solution t(T) under the hypothesis of
constancy over the considered temperature range of emissivity e, heat transfer coefficient h and
specific heat c. By introducing two dimensionless quantities, and , linked to temperature
and time, I have found a universal solution = ( ) for the case of energy exchange by sole
thermal radiation (as in vacuum), which includes both a logarithmic and an arctangent term.
This universal solution is valid also for warming processes of objects exposed to a radiation
flux from the Sun or a lamp, by replacing the ambient temperature with the equilibrium
temperature of the object.
For cases involving both radiation and convection phenomena, I have demonstrated how
to find the exact solution = ( ), which is very general but not as universal as in the previous
case, as it depends on the parameter p = ehT 3 . This solution includes three logarithmic terms
a
and a term in arctangent. A time constant indicating the rapidity of the process is defined in
both cases.
I have explicitly written the formulae of all parameters of the solution = ( ). The
implementation of these formulae in a spreadsheet allows to observe directly and rapidly the
effects of the changes in the inserted values, mainly of e and h and to show how the cooling trend
depends not only on the temperature difference but also on the absolute values of temperatures.
I have discussed the relationships between the exact solution and exponential approximations,
and I have compared a numerical case with experimental data. This comparison, made by
using a spreadsheet, has allowed me to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient h of the experiment
and has shown that the solution = ( ) provides a better fit of measured values than any
exponential function.
Appendix A. The calculations to integrate equation (28) and to obtain
equation (29)

The problem is to find the primitive of the fraction in the integral of equation (28):
f ( ) =

2 + 2 + 3
.
3 + 2 + + p + 1

(A.1)

The denominator of f ( ) admits one real solution x given by the formula

1 z
2
x= + ,
where z = ( 8 + (13.5p + 10)2 (13.5p + 10))1/3 .
(A.2)
3 3 3z
Note that, being p > 0, it is always x<1.
Because x is the solution of equation 3 + 2 + +p +1 = 0, it is p = (x 3 +x 2 +x +1). By
dividing the denominator for ( x), the quotient is the polynomial ( 2 + (x + 1) + x 2 + x + 1),
so the denominator can be decomposed as
3 + 2 + + p + 1 = ( x)( 2 + (x + 1) + x 2 + x + 1) = ( x)( 2 + a + b)
where
a = (x + 1)

(A.3)

b = x2 + x + 1

(A.4)

and

Consequently, f ( ) can be decomposed into two fractions:

2 + 2 + 3
E
F + G
=
+ 2
.
2
( x)( + a + b)
x + a + b

(A.5)

1120

U Besson

The integral of the first fraction on the right-hand side is E ln | x|. By developing the
calculations and equalizing the coefficients of terms having equal exponents of on the two
sides of equation (A.5), the parameters E, F, G can be obtained:
E=

x 2 + 2x + 3
3x 2 + 2x + 1

(A.6)

F =

2x 2 2
3x 2 + 2x + 1

(A.7)

G=

x 3 + 3x 2 3x 1
.
3x 2 + 2x + 1

(A.8)

The second fraction on the right-hand side of equation (A.5) can be separated into two fractions:


F + G
F 2 + a
aF
1
=
+
G

.
(A.9)
2 + a + b
2 2 + a + b
2 2 + a + b


The integral of the first fraction on the right-hand side is F2 ln  2 + a + b. The denominator


2
2
2
of the second fraction can be written as 2 + a + b = + a2 + b a4 = + a2 + k 2 , where


1 2
4b a 2
a2
k = b
=
=
3x + 2x + 3,
(A.10)
4
2
2
and the fraction becomes
1
1
=
.
(A.11)
2
2
a
+ a + b
+ 2 + k2


a
. Finally, function (A.1) is decomposed as follows:
The integral of (A.11) is k1 arctan k1 + 2k


F 2 + a
aF
1
E
+
+ G
.
(A.12)
f ( ) =


a 2
x 2 2 + a + b
2
+ 2 + k2
The complete integral of f ( ) is

2 + 2 + 3
d = E ln | x|
3 + 2 + + p + 1




F
1
a
aF 1
+ ln | 2 + a + b| + G
arctan
+
.
(A.13)
2
2 k
k
2k
By comparing equation (A.13) with equation (29), and using equations (A.3), (A.4), (A.6)
(A.8) and (A.10), we obtain the coefficients of equation (29) as functions of x:
x2 1
x 2 + 2x + 3
F
c1 = E = 2
;
c2 = = 2
;
3x + 2x + 1
2
3x + 2x + 1


4(x 2 x)
aF 1
c3 = G
=

2 k
(3x 2 + 2x + 1) 3x 2 + 2x + 3
a
1
2
x+1
;
n=
.
m= =
=
k
2k
3x 2 + 2x + 3
3x 2 + 2x + 3
References
Besson U 2009 Paradoxes of thermal radiation Eur. J. Phys. 30 9951007
Boltzmann L 1884 Ableitung des Stefanschen Gesetzes betreffend die Abhangigkeit der Warmestrahlung von der
Temperatur aus der elektromagnetischen Lichttheorie (Deduction of the Stefans law concerning the dependence
of the radiant heat on the temperature from the electromagnetic light theory) Ann. Phys. Chem. 258 2914

Cooling and warming laws

1121

Delaroche F 1812 Observations sur le calorique rayonnant J. Phys. 25 20128

Delaroche F 1813 Observations on radiant heat Ann. Phil. London 2 1002
Dulong P and Petit A 1817 Recherches sur les Mesures des Temperature set sur les Lois de la communication de la
chaleur Ann. Chim. Phys. 7 11354, 22564, 33767
Erxleben I C P 1777 Legem Vulgarem, secundum quam calor corporum certo temporis intervallo crescere vel
descrescere dicitur, ad examen revocat Novi Commentarii Soc. Regiae Sci. Gottingensis, Gottingae 8 7495
Leslie J 1804 An Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat (London: J Mawman)
Martine G 1738 Essays and Observations on the Construction and Graduation of Thermometers, and on the Heating
and Cooling of Bodies 3rd edn 1780 (Edinburgh: Alexander Donaldson) pp 5187
McAdams W 1933 Heat Transmission 3rd edn 1954 (New York: McGraw-Hill) chapter 7
Newton I 1701 Scala graduum caloris, Calorum Descriptiones & Signa (Scale of the degrees of heat) Phil. Trans.
22 8249
Newton I 1809 Scala graduum caloris, Calorum Descriptiones & Signa (Scale of the degrees of heat) Phil. Trans. R
Soc. London, Abridged 4 5725 available at http://www.archive.org/details/philosophicaltra04royarich
OSullivan C T 1990 Newtons law of coolinga critical assessment Am. J. Phys. 58 95660
Prevost P 1809 Du Calorique Rayonnant (Gen`eve: Paschond)
Richmann G W 17471748 Inquisitio in legem, secundum quam calor fluidi in vase contenti, certo temporis intervallo,
in temperie aeris constanter eadem decrescit vel crescit Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis
Petropolitanae 1 17478

Stefan J 1879 Uber

die Beziehung zwischen der Warmestrahlung und der Temperatur (On the relationship
between radiant heat and temperature) Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der
kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 79 391428
Twomey P, OSullivan C and ORiordan J 2009 An experimental investigation of the role of radiation in laboratory
bench-top experiments in thermal physics Eur. J. Phys. 30 55966
Tyndall J 1865 On Radiation: The REDE Lecture, Delivered In The Senate House, Before The University Of
Cambridge, England, On Tuesday, May 16, 1865 (New York: D Appleton)
Vollmer M 2009 Newtons law of cooling revisited Eur. J. Phys. 30 106384