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PROJECT REPORT FOR COMPLETION OF

B. TECH. IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING


Under West Bengal University of Technology (U. Tech.)

Year : 2005-2006

Name of the Project : PWM based Inverter fed

Induction Motor
Submitted by
Group Workers

Abhra Ray
Amit Nag
Arijit De
Arijit Dey
Arkendu Mitra
Ayanava Chatterjee
Kunal Pahari
Mainak Dey
Soumya Subhra Niyogi

Roll No.

University Roll No.

12003
12004

12716021007
12716021008
12716021004
12716021047
12716021011
12716021013
12716021046
12716021021

12007
12008
12010
12012
12022
12024
12042

12716021031

Saurav Paul
Subrata Sinha Roy

12043

12716021048
12050

12716021051
This project is done under the guidance of Mrs. Shilpi Bhattacharya

81, Nilgunj Road


Agarpara, Pin - 700109

Acknowledgement
We, the student of Electrical Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, 81
Nilgunj Road, Kolkata 700109, have completed our project successfully under
the guidance of Mrs. Shilpi Bhattacharya, Lecturer, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Narula Institute of Technology, Agarpara, without whose guidance,
advice, interest, encouragement and also disbursement of money for purchasing
the components at proper time, our project could not have achieved its grand
success. We also express our respect and profound sense of gratitude to Prof.
Amlan Chakrabarti, Head of the Department, Electrical Engineering, Narula
Institute of Technology, Agarpara for his moral encouragement and advisement at
different stages to build up our project.
At last, we will thankful endlessly to the respective personality, Prof.
Biswarup Basak, Department of Electrical Engineering, Bengal Engineering
& Science University, Shibpur, who spent his expensive time to illustrate how
the project circuitry can be developed.
NAME

ROLL

Abhra Ray
12003
Amit Nag
12004
Arijit De
12007
Arijit Dey
12008
Arkendu Mitra
12010
Ayanava Chatterjee
12012
Kunal Pahari
12022
Mainak Dey
12024
Soumya Subhra Neyogi
12042
Saurav Paul
12043
Subrata Sinha Roy
12050

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.


12716021007
12716021008
12716021004
12716021047
12716021011
12716021013
12716021046
12716021021
12716021031
12716021048
12716021051

Contents
Topic
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)


Objective
Speed Control of Induction Motors
2.1
Pole Changing
2.2
Stator Voltage Control
2.3
Supply Frequency Control
Advantages of Frequency Control
Advantage and Disadvantage of PWM
4.1
Advantage
4.2
Disadvantage
Industrial Applications of PWM
Overview of the Project
6.1
Controlling Part
6.2
Power Part
6.3
Loading Part
Components
Tools and Instruments
8.1
For Testing Purpose
8.2
For Final Project Circuitry
Bolck Diagram of the Whole Project
Total Project Circuitry
Project Details
11.1
Controlling Part
11.2
Power Part
11.2.1 Supply Part
11.2.2 Inverter Bridge Part
11.3
Loading Part
Test Tools
Test Procedure
Test Results
Precautions
Inference

Page No.
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9
9
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12
12
24
24
24
25
27
27
27
28
28

Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)


In this technique several pulses are produced in each half cycle but the width of the pulses is
not the same as in case of multiple pulse width modulation, however the width of each pulse is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of the sine wave reference voltage. The width of the pulse at the center of
the half cycle is maximum and decreases on either side. The figure 6(a) shows the generation of the
output signal by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal fr with a triangular carrier wave of frequency fc.
The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator and when sinusoidal wave of has a higher
magnitude than the triangular wave the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low. This output of
comparator is used to turn on the MOSFETs in the bridge configuration of Figure 6(b), which generates
the output voltage. The reference signal frequency fr determines the output frequency fo of the inverter,
and its peak amplitude Ar, controls the modulation index M, and thereby the rms output voltage vo. Thus
varying the amplitude of the sine wave within the range of zero to Vp, where Vp is the peak of the
triangular wave, controls the output voltage. The number of pulses in each half cycle depends on the
carrier frequency. If the ratio of these two signals (reference and carrier) is equal to m, then the number of
pulses in each half cycle is (m - 1).

G1

M1

G3

M3

G2

M2

Load

Vs

G4

M4

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 1 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
(a) Single Phase bridge inverter (b) Gate signal voltage and (c) Output Voltage

1. Objective :
To vary the speed of a single phase squirrel-cage induction motor by varying supple frequency
with the help of Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) based Inverter.
(Note: to change the frequency we change the resistance of controlling circuit.)

2. Speed Control of Induction Motors :


Induction motors are of two types - Squirrel-cage motor and Wound-rotor motor. There are
various types of speed control methods of induction motor. These are
(i)
Pole Changing,
(ii)
Stator Voltage Control,
(iii)
Supply Frequency Control,
(iv)
Eddy-current Coupling,
(v)
Rotor Resistance Control,
(vi)
Slip Power Recovery.
(i) is applicable for squirrel-cage motor, (ii) to (iv) is applicable for both wound-rotor and
squirrel-cage motor and (v) and (vi) is applicable for wound-rotor.
For squirrel-cage type motor, here pole changing, stator voltage control and supply frequency
control methods are discussed.

2.1 Pole Changing :


For a given frequency speed is inversely proportional to number of poles. Synchronous speed,
and therefore, motor speed can be changed by changing the number of poles. Provision for changing of
number of poles has to be incorporated at the manufacturing stage and such a machine is called pole
changing motor or multi-speed motor.

In squirrel cage motor the number of poles are same as the Stator winding. So there is no
provision for changing the number of poles. But for wound rotor arrangement for changing the number of
poles in rotor is required, which complicates the machine. So it is only used for Squirrel cage induction
motor.
A simple but expensive arrangement for changing number of stator poles is to use two separate
winding which are wound for two different pole numbers. An economical and common alternative is to
use single stator winding divided into few coil groups. Changing the connections of these coil groups
change number of poles. Theoretically by dividing winding into a number of coil group and bringing out
terminals of these group a number of arrangements of different pole numbers is obtained.

Fig. 2 Stator phase connection for 6-poles


Figure 2(a) above shows a phase winding consisting of six coils divided into two groups a-b
consisting of odd number coils (1, 3,5) connected in series and c-d consisting even numbered coils (2,4,6)
3

connected in series. The coils can be made to carry currents in the given directions by connecting coil
groups either in series or parallel as shown in figure B and C. With this connection machine has six poles.
If the current through the coil group a-b is reversed [Fig. 3(a)], then all coils will produce north poles.
Fluxes coming out of the north poles will now find paths through Interpol spaces for going out
consequently producing south poles in Interpol spaces. The machine will now have 12 poles. Here again
the direction of current through coils can be obtained by connecting two sections a-b and c-d either in
series or parallel for both pole numbers 6 and 12.

Fig. 3 Stator phase connection for 12-poles

Further three phases of the machine can be connected to form delta or star connection by
choosing a suitable combination of series and parallel connection between coil groups of each phase, and
star and delta connection in each phase, speed change can be obtained with constant power or variable
torque operation. Connections and speed-torque curves for these operations are shown in Figs. 4 to 6.

Fig. 4 Constant torque control

Fig. 5 Constant power control

Fig. 6 Variable torque control

2.2 Stator Voltage Control :


This is a slip control method with constant frequency variable voltage being supplied to the motor
stator. Obviously the voltage should only be reduced below the rated value. For a motor operating at full
load slip, if the slip is to be doubled for constant load torque then the voltage must be reduced by a factor
of

1
2

and the corresponding current rises to

2 of the full load value. The motor, therefore, tends to

get overheated. The method therefore is not suitable for speed control. It has a limited use for motor
driving fan type load whose torque requirement is proportional to the square of speed. It is a commonly

used method for ceiling fans driven by single-phase induction motors that have large standstill impedance
limiting the current drawn by the stator.

2.3 Supply Frequency Control :


f
.
P
And, motor speed, N r 1 s N s .

Synchronous speed N s 120

Now, it is evident that varying synchronous speed, which can vary by varying the supply
frequency, can vary the motor speed. Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply
frequency f s and air-gap flux m .
E 4.44 k w m f sT ps

If stator drop is neglected, then E is equal to V. Then the supply voltage will become proportional to f s
and m .
V 4.44k w m f sT ps

Any reduction in the supply frequency f s keeping the supply voltage constant causes the
increase of air-gap flux m . Induction motors designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization
characteristic to make a full use of magnetic material. Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the
motor. This will increase the magnetizing current and distort the line current and voltage, increase in core
loss and stator I 2 R loss and produce a high-pitch acoustic noise. Also, a decrease in flux is also avoided
to retain the torque capability of motor. Therefore, variable frequency control below rated frequency is
generally carried out at rated air gap flux by varying supply voltage with frequency so as to maintain

V
f

ratio constant at the rated value.

3. Advantages of Frequency Control :


The variable frequency control provide good running and transient performance due to the
following features
(i)
Speed control and breaking operation are possible from zero speed to base speed.
(ii)
During transient the operation can be carried out at the maximum torque with reduce
current giving good dynamic response
(iii)
Copper losses are low and the efficiency and power factor are high.
(iv)
Drop speed from no load to full load is small.
The most important advantage of variable frequency control is that it allows a variable speed
drive with above mentioned good running and transient performance to be obtained from a squirrel cage
induction motor. The squirrel cage motor has a number of advantages over a DC motor. It is cheap,
rugged and long lasting. Because of absence of commutator and brushes it requires practically no
maintenance; it can be operated in an explosive and contaminated environment, and can be designed for
higher speeds, voltages and power ratings. Though the cost of induction motor is lesser than DC motor of
same power rating but still the cost of variable frequency drive are higher in general. But because of the
advantages listed above the induction motor drives of variable frequency type is mostly preferable over
DC motor drives. Because of the above advantages we are dealing with this type of speed control for
controlling induction motor that has a large number of industrial applications as follows
(i)
It can be used for any type of underground and underwater installation.
(ii)
In applications involving explosive and contaminated environment
(iii)
In application in tractions, steel mills, pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, spindle drivers
etc.

4. Advantage and Disadvantage of PWM :


4.1 Advantage :
Load efficiency is almost always a critical factor in renewable energy systems. An additional
advantage of pulse width modulation is that the pulses are at the full supply voltage and will produce
more torque in a motor by being able to overcome the internal motor resistances more easily. A resistive
speed control will present a reduced voltage to the load, which can cause stalling in motor applications.
Finally, in a PWM circuit, common small potentiometers may be used to control a wide variety of loads,
whereas large and expensive high power variable resistors are needed for resistive controllers.

4.2 Disadvantage :
The main disadvantages of PWM circuits are the added complexity and the possibility of
generating radio frequency interference (RFI). Locating the controller near the load, using short leads,
and in some cases, using additional filtering on the power supply leads, may minimize RFI.

5. Industrial Applications of PWM :


PWM A.C. drive is very popular in industry. By controlling the speed of the induction motor,
production can be varied as needed. The industries that use PWM drive are

1. Water plant.
2. Conveyer belt.
3. Lift.
Etc.

6. Overview of the Project :


Basically the speed of a single phase permanent capacitor squirrel-cage induction motor which
is fed from a PWM based inverter circuit, is controlled. The entire circuit is divided into three parts,

6.1 Controlling Part :


To control the speed of the induction machine a control circuit is made. There a sinusoidal pulse
and a triangular pulse is generated separately and then compare these pulses by comparator and get
triggering pulse to trigger the PWM based inverter circuit. Here sinusoidal pulse is the supply pulse of
controlling network and triangular pulse is the carrier pulse of network. To vary the frequency, just vary
the external resistance of the sinusoidal circuit through POT.

6.2 Power Part :


For power part a D.C. supply of 220V is used. This D.C. supply is inverted to A.C. by PWM
based inverter. Though this converted A.C. is not an exact sinusoidal response by taking consideration of
harmonics we get sinusoidal pulse.
PWM based Inverter circuit (Pulse Width Modulation inverter) is used for frequency control
technique.
Inverter circuit consists of power transistors or power MOSFETs (depending upon the rating of
the machine). These power transistors or power MOSFETs are needed to be triggered and that triggering

pulse is sending from the control circuit. The variable frequency helps to vary the timing of trigger of
inverter, which varies the frequency of the supply of induction machine.

6.3 Loading Part :


In the loading part single-phase squirrel cage permanent capacitor induction motor is loading
where single-phase line enters, produce air-gap flux and help to run the motor.

7. Components :
Sl. No.
1.

Name
OPAMP (741)

2.

GATE
(7405, 7408)

3.

5.

OPTOCOUPLER
(MCT2E)
POWER
MOSFET
(IRF720)
RESISTOR

5.

POT

6.

CAPACITOR

4.

Components
Character in Project
It is the heart of the project. By using
this we produce controlling pulses
(comparing sinusoidal & triangular).
It is used to design the comparator
circuit. 75LS05N known as Logic
inverter is used to invert the square
pulse of 50 Hz. Then 75LS08N
known as Logic AND Gate is used to
ANDing the square pulse with the
output of the OPAMP in which sine
wave and triangular carrier pulse is
compared.
To isolate the triggering pulses for
buffering and then for sending to the
inverter circuit.
We use to build inverter bridge by
which we invert the DC voltage into
AC voltage by using gate pulse.
To build controlling circuit we use
external
resistor
of
different
specification, sometimes for getting
desired time constant and sometimes
for getting different gain for opamp
output.
It is variable resistance which is used
to change frequency & leveling the
pulses over a base line.
To generate sinusoidal and triangular
pulse using opamp, capacitor
charging and discharging phenomena
is used from which we get square
wave and then by using second order
low-pass filter and integrator we get
sinusoidal and triangular wave.

Industrial Specification
Given in data sheet.
Given in data sheet.

Given in data sheet.


Given in data sheet.

47.5 k, 2 M
10 nF, 100 nF.

8. Tools and Instruments :


8.1 For Testing Purpose :
Sl.
No.
1.

2.

Description of Tools and Instruments


Use
The whole circuit design is done on this board. In
this board middle holes are on vertically same
potential and up and down holes are on horizontally
same potential.
Hook up wire
These wires do the whole circuit design.

Quantity

Name
Bread Board

3.

Cutter

4.

Plus

To remove insulation at the ends of the wires cutter


is used.
It is used to straight the wire; also remove the
broken wires from bread board.

4
As required
1
1

8.2 For Final Project Circuitry :


Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Description of Tools and Instruments


Use
It is used to represent the final project circuit by
shouldering.
Multi-Stripped
It is used to connect the component of the circuit
Wire
by shouldering.
Cutter
To use wire we have to remove insulation at the
ends by cutter.
Plus
It is used to straight the wire; also remove the
broken wires from Vero board.
Solder Iron and
It is used to design the circuit on Vero Board
Solder Alloy
permanently.
Name
Vero Board

Quantity
4
As required
1
1
1

10

9. Block Diagram of the Whole Project :


Square wave
(variable
frequency)

Square wave
(5 kHz)

Sine Wave
(variable
frequency)

Second order
Low pass filter

Integrator

Inverter

Triangular
Wave
(5 kHz)

Comparator

B
L
O
C
K
D
I
A
G
R
A
M

Inverted
Sine Wave
(variable
frequency)

Logic
AND

Comparator

Logic
AND

Logic
Inverter

Pulse

Pulse

OptoIsolator

+
D.C.

OptoIsolator

1 2 3 4
Inverter

Motor
11

10. Total Project Circuitry :

12

11. Project Details :


There are three parts in the total project circuitry, they are as follows

11.1 Controlling Part :


At first a square wave of 50 Hz is generated by an OP-AMP. Here a POT of value 2 M is used
to vary the frequency of the square wave above 50 Hz. The necessary circuit arrangement and its output
are given below
R5
47kOhm_5%
R1
Key = a
2M_LIN

75%

U1

4
2

6
3
7
C1

V1

100nF

12V

R3
741

100kOhm_5%

R2
10kOhm_5%

V3
12V

(a)

(b)
Fig. 7 Square Wave Generator

square wave
of
variable frequency

(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform


13

Then the square wave is filtered through a second-order low pass filter made by another OP-AMP
to generate the required sine wave of 50 Hz. To vary the frequency of sine wave, just vary the frequency
of square wave through the POT. The function of the second-order low pass filter with an OP-AMP is
describe below
The schematic diagram of a second order low-pass filter is shown below -V
R

R
Square wave
of variable
frequency

4
2

R1

741

Sine wave
of variable
frequency

3
7

+V

Fig. 8 Second order Low-pass Filter


The transfer function will be given by
2

H s

vo
v

RC 2

RC

RC

in

K02


s 2 0 s 02
Q
K

Q 0

1
, Q = 1.
RC
The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.

where K = 2, 0 =

14
R2

R6
200kOhm_5%
C2
100nF
200kOhm_5% 49.9kOhm_1%

square wave (variable)

R7

R5

1kohm
U1

6
3

C1 100nF

1kohm
R3

U3

R1

2
6

sine wave

741
49%
50kOhm
Key = c

741

V2
12V

V1
12V

R4
1kohm

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9 Second order Low-pass Filter
(a) Circuitry with specified components and (b) Output Waveform
Now with the help of another OP-AMP, an inverting amplifier (described below) is made, which
inverts the sine wave at a phase shift 180. Here another POT of value 50 k is used to maintain the same
level of two sine waves (actual and inverted).
The connection method for producing the inverted gain using OP-AMP is called inverting
amplifier. The OP-AMP makes use of single resistor (r 1) and a single feedback resistor (r 2). The inverting
amplifier produces a phase shift of 180 in voltage from input to output. Thus the input and output
signals of the inverting amplifier are not in phase with each other.

We know that OP-AMP gain without any feedback is very high. This means that the voltage at
the inverting terminal must be small. As a matter of fact, the input voltage at the inverting terminal will be
very nearly at the same potential as the non-inverting terminal. Now since the non-inverting input is
15

grounded, the inverting input of an OP-AMP is also at the ground potential and is referred to as virtual
ground.
-V
r2

r1
2

Actual
sine wave of
variable frequency

741

3
7

Inverted
sine wave of
variable frequency

+V

Fig. 10 Inverting Amplifier


Now recall that voltage gain (A v) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to the
input voltage.
Mathematically, voltage gain
output voltage vo
r
Av

2
input voltage
vin
r1

The inverting amplifier circuit with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R2
1kohm

actual sine wave

1kohm

U1

R1
2

6
3

V1
12V

5 741

V2
12V

(a)

inverted sine wave

16

(b)
Fig. 11 Inverting Amplifier
(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform (inverted sine wave)
After adjusting the level of two sine waves by the POT 50 k, the obtained output is as below

Fig. 12 Two variable Sine Waves (actual and inverted) in a same oscilloscope

Thereafter another square wave of fixed frequency (about 5 kHz) is generated. The necessary
circuit arrangement and its output are given below

17
R3
10kOhm_5%
U1

4
2

6
3
7

C1
10nF

R1
741

high frequency
square wave

100kOhm_5%

V1
12V
R2
10kOhm_5%

V2
12V

(a)

(b)
Fig. 13 High Frequency Square Wave Generator
(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
Integrating this high frequency square wave, the triangular wave (also called carrier signal) is
generated. The description of integrator circuit with an OP-AMP is as follows
Integrator is a circuit whose output is proportional to the area of its input waveform. The RC
circuit itself acts as a simple integrator. But the problem with such a simple circuit is that the output

voltage is not a linear triangular output as it should be. The function of the OP-AMP is to linearize the
output. It may be noted from the diagram that the inverting input to the OP-AMP is held at virtual ground
by the differential amplifier in the OP-AMP input circuit.

18
R2

-V

C
4

Square wave of
high frequency

R1

741

Triangular wave
of high frequency

3
7

+V

Fig. 14 Integrator
The second-order low pass filter with specified components and its output is given in Fig.
R2
15kOhm_5%
C1
4
100nF

R1 1kohm

U1

square wave
(high frequency)

6
V1

3
7

12V

V2
12V

(a)

5 741

triangular wave
(carrier signal)

(b)
Fig. 15 Integrator circuit with specified components
(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Waveform
19

Now two sine waves (actual and inverted) and the triangular wave (carrier signal) are compared
using two OP-AMPs. The comparator circuit using OP-AMP is as follows
The comparator is a circuit that is used to compare two voltages and provide an output indicating
the relationship between two voltages. Generally speaking, comparators are used to compare either,
(i)
Two changing voltages to each other, as comparing two sine waves.
(ii)
A changing voltage to a set D.C. reference voltage.
Figure shows the circuit of an OP-AMP comparator. It may be noted that there is no feedback path in the
circuit. In this circuit the sine wave (actual and inverted) is applied to the inverting input terminal and
high frequency triangular carrier signal is applied to the inverting terminal of the OP-AMP.
-V

sine wave
triangular wave

R
2

741

3
7

+V

Fig. 16 Comparator
The simulation circuit and its outputs are given below

Output after
comparison

actual sine wave

1kohm
R3
1kohm

U1

R1
2

output of comparator I

3
7

741

triangular wave

inverted sine wave

1kohm
R4
1kohm

U2

R2
2

output of comparator II

3
7

V1

741

12V

V2
12V

(a)

20

(b)

(c)
Fig. 17 Comparator circuit with specified component
(a) Required Circuitry, (b) Output Waveform of Comparator I
and (c) Output Waveform of Comparator II
At last the output of the first comparator is ANDed with the square wave of variable frequency by
using chip 7408 and the output of the second comparator is ANDed with the inverted square wave of
variable frequency (inverted by using logic inverter 7404) to generate the triggering pulse for triggering
the POWER MOSFETs. The simulation circuit of ANDing and its outputs are given in the figure below

21

square wave
(variable frequency)
U1A
1

output pulse
74LS08N

comparator
output I

U2A
74LS04N

2
U1B

comparator
output II

output pulse
74LS08N

(a)

(b)
Fig. 18 ANDing the output of Comparator I and II with Variable Square Wave
(a) Required Circuitry and (b) Output Pulses
The pulses are isolated trough four opto-couplers, so that each POWER MOSFET of the inverter
bridge is being triggered separately. The opto-couplers connections and the outputs of four opto couplers,
i.e., individual triggering pulses for each MOEFET are shown in Figs. below

22

U4

output of
AND (7408)
pin no - 3

To MOSFET M1

V1
12V
R4
1.0kOhm_5%

U1

To MOSFET M2

V2
12V
R3
1.0kOhm_5%

U2

To MOSFET M3

output of
AND (7408)
pin no - 6

V3
12V
R2
1.0kOhm_5%

U3

To MOSFET M4
V4
12V
R1
1.0kOhm_5%

(a)

(b)

23

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig. 19 Separation of Pulses with Opto-isolators


(a) Opto-isolator connection and
(b) (e) Four separate Pulses to trigger the MOSFET 1 MOSFET 4
24

11.2 Power Part :


To run a motor we need voltage supply. In speed variation of single phase induction motor by
varying frequency variation method we have to vary external resistance of the control part of the control
circuit to vary frequency of the supply of motor.
The power part consists of two parts,
(i)
Supply Voltage Part.
(ii)
Inverter Bridge Part.

11.2.1 Supply Part :


In supply part, 230 V A.C. is required for the motor. To obtain this voltage, the value of required
D.C. voltage we can obtain by the following equation
Vac 0.612 maVdc

where, Vac supply voltage for the induction motor.


Vsin
ma modulation index
Vtri
Vdc supply D.C. voltage for inverter

Vdc

Vac

230

537 V
0.612ma
0.612 0.7
But 270 V D.C. source is available in the laboratory, so the maximum voltage can be applied to
the motor terminal is
Vac 0.612 0.7 270 116 V

11.2.2 Inverter Bridge Part :


By using power MOSFET IRF720 the inverter bridge circuit is developed, as we know inverter is
used to invert DC voltage to AC voltage.
In Inverter Bridge four IRF720 MOSFETs are used. For single-phase A.C. we need two phases,
one of which is earthed. Suppose we denote the MOSFETs by M 1, M2, M3, and M4. Now we arrange the
MOSFETs crosswise,
M1
M3
M4
M2
In the bridge for the source pins of M 1 and M3 are shorted and the drain pins of these two are connected to
the sources of M4 and M2 respectively. Also drain pins of M4 and M2 are shorted.
Now source pins of M1 and M3 are connected with the positive side of 230V D.C. supply. The
outputs of the controlling circuit are connected to the gate pins of all MOSFETs, as we know that,
MOSFETs are automatic switches operated by gate pulse. By using same convention, we use control
circuit pulses to ON or OFF the MOSFETs of the bridge to get sinusoidal A.C. supply. The drain pins of
M4 and M2 are connected with the negative side of 230V D.C. supply. Now when M 1 is ON due to gate
pulse the D.C. current flows through it, then M2 is ON and make a closed loop through load attached in
the middle of the bridge. So, the upper half of the sinusoidal pulse appears across the load. Next, M 3 is
ON and D.C. current flows through it. When M4 become ON, the current flows through the load and the
25

lower part of the sinusoidal supply appears across the load. The Inverter circuit and its output is given in
the following Figs.
triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 3

M1
M3
output (phase)
neutral

triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 1

270V

R1

L1

1.0kOhm_5%1.0uH

triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 4

M4

C1
2.0nF

C2
2.0nF

M2

triggering pulse
from opto-coupler 2

(a)

(b)
Fig. 20 Circuitry of the total Power Part
(a) Inverter Bridge and (b) Output of the Inverter, fed to the motor
Now we get the desired A.C. supply for motor. Here every MOSFET is become ON when the amplitude
of the gate pulse is 3.8V 4V.

11.3 Loading Part :


This part mainly consists of SINGLE PHASE PERMANENT CAPACITOR INDUCTION
MOTOR. The load part motor is of rating,

26

Power =

1
12

hp;

Current = 0.85 A;
Voltage = 230 V;
Speed = 6500 r.p.m.;
Power factor = 0.8
(a)
(b)
Fig. 21 Loading Part
(a) The Single Phase Induction Motor and (b) Rating of the Motor
As we know that in single phase the alternating phases are absent due to
which the rotating flux is not generated; so rotation of the rotor is not possible.
For that reason permanent split capacitor is used to generate two balanced
phases, due to which a rotating flux generated. There are several types of singlephase motors in market but permanent capacitor type motors are used because here
two balanced phases generate rotating flux for which the backward rotating flux is
absent.
Due to which motor become more efficient and operated in better power
factor. This type of load is used in ceiling fans and table fans now a day.
In our project, the two phases coming from Inverter Bridge is fed to the
load where any one phase is earthed; so that it acts as neutral in single-phase
supply. By this supply starting torque is generated and the motor starts to rotate.

27

12. Test Tools :


Sl.
No.
1.
2.

Name
Oscilloscope
Digital
Multimeter

Description of Tools
Use
To get the response of the parts of the
control circuit.
To measure the voltage, Resistances used,
capacitor used, in the circuit. Also to verify
whether parts of the circuit is active or not.

Specification
230 V, 20 MHz
Resistance = upto 400 k
Voltage = 0 to 1000 V
Capacitor = 0 nF to 10 uF

13. Test Procedure :


For testing the circuitry we use oscilloscope to verify the response of the
part of the circuit if the response is desirable then we proceed for the next portion
of circuit. At the begging of the project we make the total possible circuit in
MULTISIM simulation software and see the responses of every possible part of
circuit. These responses are compared with the original circuit responses and if
there is any wrong thing appear we clarify the original circuit for better response.
To understand the speed variation we use tachometer to measure the speed.
[Note: As we know that in PWM fed inverter the variation of

V
f

should be

constant under base frequency. But here we cant vary voltage and frequency
simultaneously so we vary frequency only over base frequency to do the speed
variation]

14. Test Results :


Type of wave
Square
Sine
Square
Triangular
Output Pulse

Frequency
(above) 50 Hz
(above) 50 Hz
5 kHz
5 kHz
-

Voltage (V)
11 (p-p)
7 (p-p)
11 (p-p)
10 (p-p)
4.5

28

15. Precautions :
To do this project various types of problems appear in front of us those are
as follows with solve,
(i)
First of all things, connection should be correct and perfect.
(ii)
During soldering careful about burning hazards.
(iii)
Use chip base to prevent the burning of chip due to direct
soldering.
(iv)
Soldering should be done in right process otherwise there may
appear short-circuit among pins and connecting wires.
(v)
Use Multi-Striped wire to prevent loose connection after soldering.
(vi)
All the open contacts should be closed to prevent shock hazards.
(vii)
Take measures to minimize the noise in the signal; like using
capacitor to block the noise.

16. Inference :
After finishing the simulation of the circuit by using Multisim software,
we get the specific results and wave forms when we design the circuit part by part
like square wave generator, then second order filter, then we get sinusoidal pulse.
Again square wave generator of high frequency pulse, then integrator and we get
carrier signal triangular pulse. But in the case of hardware design, many
difficulties will occur such as frequency is not in the proper range, many noises in
the required wave form etc. and so we use capacitors and resistors in much more
quantity than that used in software.
From all the above analysis and waveforms, we conclude that if we vary
the POT of Fig. 7(a), the frequency of the Square wave of Fig. 7(b) changed as the
time constant RC will be changed. So the frequency of the sine wave will also vary
and as well as comparison of Sine wave with the triangular wave will vary and the
frequency of the pulses which trigger the MOSFETs will also vary and at last we
will get the variable inverter output.
But, we know that, frequency control below base speed can carry out by
keeping

V
ratio constant. Since there is no such option to vary the supply voltage
f

with its frequency, so the frequency as well as the speed of the motor is varied
above the base speed.

DATASHEET OF OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) LM741

Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note

August 2000

2)

If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required,


please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
(Note 7)
LM741
Operational
Amplifier
Supply Voltage

LM741A

LM741

22V

22V

LM741C

18V
output,
when
the common mode
range is ex500
mW no latch-up 500
mW
500 mW
ceeded, as well as freedom
from oscillations.

Differential
Input Voltage
30V
30V
30V
The LM741 series
are general
purpose operational
The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A except that
amplifi- ers which
feature
15V
15V
Input
Voltageimproved
(Note 4) performance over 15V
the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0C to
industry stan- dards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in
Output Short Circuit Duration
Continuous
Continuous
+70C temperatureContinuous
range, instead of 55C
to +125C.
replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in
55C to +125C
55C to +125C
0C to +70C
most applications. Operating Temperature Range

General Description

Power Dissipation (Note 3)

Features 65C to +150C

Storage
Range
65C to +150C
The amplifiers offer
manyTemperature
features which
make their application nearly foolproof:
overload
protection on the input and
Junction
Temperature
150C

65C to +150C

150C

100C

260C

260C

Soldering Information

Connection N-Package
Diagrams
(10 seconds)

260C

J- or H-Package (10 seconds)


Metal Can Package
M-Package

300C

300C
300C
Dual-In-Line or S.O. Package

Vapor Phase (60 seconds)

215C

215C

215C

Infrared (15 seconds)

215C

215C

215C

See AN-450 Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability for other methods of
soldering
surface mount devices.
ESD Tolerance (Note 8)

400V

Electrical Characteristics

(Note 5)

Order Number
LM741H, LM741H/883
(Note 1),
Parameter
Conditions
LM741AH/883 or LM741CH
See NS Package Number H08C
Input Offset Voltage
TA = 25C
Ceramic Flatpak
RS 10 k

400V
00934103

00934102

Note 1: LM741H is available per JM38510/10101

400V

Order Number LM741J, LM741J/883, LM741CN


See NS Package Number J08A, M08A or N08E
LM741A
LM741
LM741C
Min

RS 50

Min

Typ

Max

1.0

5.0

Min

Units

Typ

Max

Typ

Max

0.8

3.0

2.0

6.0

mV

4.0

mV

mV

TAMIN TA TAMAX
RS 50
RS 10 k

6.0
00934106

Average Input Offset


Order Number LM741W/883
Voltage Drift
See NS Package Number W10A
Input Offset Voltage
TA = 25C, VS = 20V

7.5

15

mV
V/C

10

15

15

mV

Adjustment Range

Typical
Application
Input Offset
Current

TA = 25C

3.0

TAMIN TA TAMAX
Offset Nulling Circuit
Average Input Offset

30

20

200

70

85

500

20

200
300

0.5

nA
nA
nA/C

Current Drift
Input Bias Current

TA = 25C

30

TAMIN TA TAMAX
Input Resistance

80

80

0.210

TA = 25C, VS = 20V

1.0

TAMIN TA TAMAX,

0.5

6.0

500

80

1.5
0.3

2.0

500
0.8

0.3

2.0

nA
A
M
M

VS = 20V
Input Voltage Range

TA = 25C

00934107

12

TAMIN TA TAMAX

2004
www.national.com
National Semiconductor Corporation

DS009341

12

13

13

V
V

www.national.com

Electrical Characteristics
Parameter

(Note 5) (Continued)

Conditions

LM741A
Min

Large Signal Voltage Gain

Typ

LM741
Max

Min

Typ

LM741C
Max

Min

Typ

Units
Max

TA = 25C, RL 2 k
VS = 20V, VO = 15V

50

V/mV

VS = 15V, VO = 10V

50

200

20

200

V/mV

TAMIN TA TAMAX,
RL 2 k,

Output Voltage Swing

VS = 20V, VO = 15V

32

VS = 15V, VO = 10V
VS = 5V, VO = 2V
VS = 20V

10

V/mV

16
15

RL 10 k
RL 2 k

V/mV
25

15

V/mV

VS = 15V

12
10

RL 10 k
RL 2 k
Output Short Circuit

TA = 25C

10

Current

TAMIN TA TAMAX

10

Common-Mode

TAMIN TA TAMAX

Rejection Ratio

RS 10 k, VCM = 12V
RS 50, VCM = 12V

Supply Voltage Rejection

TAMIN TA TAMAX,

Ratio

VS = 20V to VS = 5V
RS 50

25

35

95

86

96

14
13

25

mA

V
mA

90

70

90

dB
dB

dB
77

96

77

96

dB

TA = 25C, Unity Gain

Overshoot
Bandwidth (Note 6)

TA = 25C

Slew Rate

TA = 25C, Unity Gain

Supply Current

TA = 25C

Power Consumption

TA = 25C

0.25

0.8

0.3

0.3

6.0

20

0.5

0.5

0.437

1.5

0.3

0.7

MHz
1.7

VS = 20V

80

2.8

1.7

V/s
2.8

150

VS = 15V

LM741

25

70
80

Rise Time

LM741A

12
10

40

RS 10 k
Transient Response

14
13

mA
mW

50

85

50

85

mW

VS = 20V
TA = TAMIN

165

mW

TA = TAMAX

135

mW

VS = 15V
TA = TAMIN

60

100

mW

Note 2: Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for which the device is
functional, but do not guarantee specific performance limits.

www.national.com

Electrical Characteristics

(Note 5) (Continued)

Note 3: For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and Tj max. (listed under Absolute Maximum
Ratings). Tj = TA + (jA PD).

Cerdip (J)

DIP (N)

HO8 (H)

SO-8 (M)

jA (Junction to Ambient)

Thermal Resistance

100C/W

100C/W

170C/W

195C/W

(Junction to Case)

N/A

N/A

25C/W

N/A

jC

Note 4: For supply voltages less than 15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
Note 5: Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for VS = 15V, 55C TA +125C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E, these
specifications are limited to 0C TA +70C.
Note 6: Calculated value from: BW (MHz) = 0.35/Rise Time(s).
Note 7: For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A.
Note 8: Human body model, 1.5 k in series with 100 pF.

Schematic Diagram

00934101

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DATASHEET OF LOGIC INVERTER


SN7405

DATASHEET OF LOGIC AND GATE


74AC08

November 1988
Revised February 2005

74AC08 74ACT08
Quad 2-Input AND Gate
General Description

Features

The AC/ACT08 contains four, 2-input AND gates.

ICC reduced by 50% on 74AC only


Outputs source/sink 24 mA

Ordering Code:
Order Number

Package

Package Description

Number

74AC08SC

M14A

14-Lead Small Outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC), JEDEC MS-012, 0.150" Narrow

74AC08SJ

M14D

Pb-Free 14-Lead Small Outline Package (SOP), EIAJ TYPE II, 5.3mm Wide

74AC08MTC

MTC14

14-Lead Thin Shrink Small Outline Package (TSSOP), JEDEC MO-153, 4.4mm Wide

74AC08MTCX_NL
(Note 1)

MTC14

Pb-Free 14-Lead Thin Shrink Small Outline Package (TSSOP), JEDEC MO-153, 4.4mm
Wide

74AC08PC

N14A

14-Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package (PDIP), JEDEC MS-001, 0.300" Wide

74AC08PC_NL
(Note 1)

N14A

Pb-Free 14-Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package (PDIP), JEDEC MS-001, 0.300" Wide

74ACT08SC

M14A

14-Lead Small Outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC), JEDEC MS-012, 0.150" Narrow

74ACT08SCX_NL
(Note 1)

M14A

Pb-Free 14-Lead Small Outline Integrated Circuit (SOIC), JEDEC MS-012, 0.150" Narrow

74ACT08MTC

MTC14

14-Lead Thin Shrink Small Outline Package (TSSOP), JEDEC MO-153, 4.4mm Wide

74ACT08MTCX_NL
(Note 1)

MTC14

Pb-Free 14-Lead Thin Shrink Small Outline Package (TSSOP), JEDEC MO-153, 4.4mm
Wide

74ACT08PC

N14A

14-Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package (PDIP), JEDEC MS-001, 0.300" Wide

74ACT08PC_NL
(Note 1)

N14A

Pb-Free 14-Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package (PDIP), JEDEC MS-001, 0.300" Wide

Device also available in Tape and Reel. Specify by appending suffix letter X to the ordering code. (PC not available in Tape and Reel.)
Pb-Free package per JEDEC J-STD-020B.
Note 1: _NL indicates Pb-Free package (per JEDEC J-STD-020B). Use this number to order device.

Logic Symbol

Connection Diagram
IEEE/IEC

Pin Descriptions
Pin Names

Description

An , Bn

Inputs

On

Outputs

FACT is a trademark of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation.

2005 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation

DS009914

www.fairchildsemi.com

Absolute Maximum Ratings(Note 2)


Supply Voltage (VCC)
DC Input Diode Current (IIK)
VI
VI

0.5V to 7.0V

Supply Voltage (VCC)

0.5V
VCC

Recommended Operating
Conditions

20 mA

0.5V

AC

20 mA

DC Input Voltage (VI)

0.5V to VCC

0.5V

VO

VCC

0V to VCC

Output Voltage (VO)

0.5V
0.5V

DC Output Voltage (VO)

4.5V to 5.5V

Input Voltage (VI)

DC Output Diode Current (IOK)


VO

2.0V to 6.0V

ACT

0V to VCC

20 mA

Operating Temperature (TA)

20 mA

Minimum Input Edge Rate ('V/'t)

0.5V to VCC

0.5V

40qC to 85qC

AC Devices

DC Output Source

VIN from 30% to 70% of VCC

or Sink Current (IO )

r50 mA

VCC @ 3.3V, 4.5V, 5.5V

DC VCC or Ground Current

125 mV/ns

Minimum Input Edge Rate ('V/'t)

per Output Pin (ICC or IGND)

r50 mA

Storage Temperature (TSTG)

ACT Devices

65qC to 150qC

VIN from 0.8V to 2.0V

Junction Temperature (TJ)

VCC @ 4.5V, 5.5V

PDIP

140qC

125 mV/ns

Note 2: Absolute maximum ratings are those values beyond which damage
to the device may occur. The databook specifications should be met, without exception, to ensure that the system design is reliable over its
power supply, temperature, and output/input loading variables. Fairchild
does not recommend operation of FACT circuits outside databook

DC Electrical Characteristics for AC


Symbol
VIH

VIL

VOH

VOL

Parameter

VCC

TA

25qC

TA

40qC to 85qC

(V)

Typ

Guaranteed Limits

Minimum HIGH Level

3.0

1.5

2.1

2.1

Input Voltage

4.5

2.25

3.15

3.15

5.5

2.75

3.85

3.85

Units

Conditions
VOUT

0.1V

or VCC

Maximum LOW Level

3.0

1.5

0.9

0.9

0.1V Input Voltage

4.5

2.25

1.35

1.35

or VCC

5.5

2.75

1.65

1.65

Minimum HIGH Level

3.0

2.99

2.9

2.9

Output Voltage

4.5

4.49

4.4

4.4

IOUT

5.5

5.49

5.4

5.4

3.0

2.56

2.46

4.5

3.86

3.76

5.5

4.86

4.76

VOUT

VIL or VIH
12 mA

IOH

24 mA

IOH

24 mA (Note 3)

IOUT

50 PA

0.002

0.1

0.1

Output Voltage

4.5

0.001

0.1

0.1

5.5

0.001

0.1

0.1

3.0

0.36

0.44

4.5

0.36

0.44

5.5

0.36

0.44

5.5

r0.1

r1.0

PA

VI

75

IIN

Maximum Input

(Note 5)

Leakage Current

IOLD

Minimum Dynamic

5.5

IOHD

Output Current (Note 4)

5.5

ICC

Maximum Quiescent

5.5

(Note 5)

Supply Current

2.0

VIN

VIL or VIH

IOL

12 mA

IOL

24 mA

IOL

24 mA (Note 3)
VCC, GND

mA

VOLD

75

mA

VOHD

20.0

PA

VIN

1.65V Max
3.85V Min
VCC

or GND

Note 3: All outputs loaded; thresholds on input associated with output under test.
Note 4: Maximum test duration 2.0 ms, one output loaded at a time.
Note 5: IIN and ICC @ 3.0V are guaranteed to be less than or equal to the respective limit @ 5.5V VCC.

www.fairchildsemi.com

50 PA

IOH

3.0

0.1V

VIN

Maximum LOW Level

0.1V

DC Electrical Characteristics for ACT


Symbol

VCC

Parameter

TA

25qC

TA

40qC to 85qC

(V)

Typ

Minimum HIGH Level

4.5

1.5

2.0

2.0

Input Voltage

5.5

1.5

2.0

2.0

VIL

Maximum LOW Level

4.5

1.5

0.8

0.8

Input Voltage

5.5

1.5

0.8

0.8

VOH

Minimum HIGH Level

4.5

4.49

4.4

4.4

Output Voltage

5.5

5.49

5.4

5.4

VIH

VOL

Units

Guaranteed Limits

4.5

3.86

3.76

5.5

4.86

4.76

Maximum LOW Level

4.5

0.001

0.1

0.1

Output Voltage

5.5

0.001

0.1

0.1

4.5

0.36

0.44

V
V
V

Conditions
VOUT

0.1V

or VCC

0.1V

VOUT

0.1V

or VCC

0.1V

IOUT

50 PA

VIN

VIL or VIH

IOH

24 mA

IOH

24 mA (Note 6)

IOUT

50 PA

VIN

VIL or VIH

IOL

24 mA

IOL

24 mA (Note 6)

5.5

0.36

0.44

IIN

Maximum Input Leakage Current

5.5

r0.1

r1.0

PA

VI

VCC, GND

ICCT

Maximum ICC/Input

5.5

1.5

mA

VI

VCC

IOLD

Minimum Dynamic Output Current

5.5

75

mA

VOLD

IOHD

(Note 7)

5.5

mA

VOHD

ICC

Maximum Quiescent

0.6

75

5.5

Supply Current

4.0

40.0

PA

VIN

2.1V

1.65V Max
3.85V Min
VCC

or GND

Note 6: All outputs loaded; thresholds on input associated with output under test.
Note 7: Maximum test duration 2.0 ms, one output loaded at a time.

AC Electrical Characteristics for AC


Symbol
tPLH

Parameter
Propagation Delay

tPHL

Propagation Delay

VCC

TA

25qC

(V)

CL

50 pF

TA

40qC to 85qC
CL

50 pF

(Note 8)

Min

Typ

Max

Min

Max

3.3

1.5

7.5

9.5

1.0

10.0

5.0

1.5

5.5

7.5

1.0

8.5

3.3

1.5

7.0

8.5

1.0

9.0

5.0

1.5

5.5

7.0

1.0

7.5

Units

ns
ns

Note 8: Voltage Range 3.3 is 3.3V r 0.3V


Voltage Range 5.0 is 5.0V r 0.5V

AC Electrical Characteristics for ACT


Symbol

Parameter

VCC

TA

25qC

(V)

CL

50 pF

TA

40qC to 85qC
CL

50 pF

(Note 9)

Min

Typ

Max

Min

Max

Units

tPLH

Propagation Delay

5.0

1.0

6.5

9.0

1.0

10.0

ns

tPHL

Propagation Delay

5.0

1.0

6.5

9.0

1.0

10.0

ns

Note 9: Voltage Range 5.0 is 5.0V r 0.5V

Capacitance
Typ

Units

CIN

Symbol

Input Capacitance

Parameter

4.5

pF

VCC

OPEN

CPD

Power Dissipation Capacitance

20.0

pF

VCC

5.0V

Conditions

www.fairchildsemi.com

DATASHEET OF OPTOCOUPLER
MCT2E

DATASHEET OF POWER MOSFET


IRF720

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Alok Jain Power Electronics and Its Applications, Second


Edition, Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd.

2.

William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, Steven M. Durbin


Engineering Circuit Analysis, Sixth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.

3.

A. Chakrabarti Circuit Theory (Analysis and Synthesis), Dhanpat


Rai & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd.

4.

Muhammad H. Rashid Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, and


Applications, Third Edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.

5.

D. Roy Choudhury, Shalil B. Jain Linear Integrated Circuits,


Second Edition, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

6.
Nisit K. De, Prasanta K. Sen Electric Drives, Prentice-Hall of
India Private Limited.
7.

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