Diploma in Management Studies

Business Mathematics BUS003

Lecture 7 The Derivatives (I)

Topics to be discussed:
Limits and Continuity
Slope of Tangent Lines and Derivatives
Basic Rules of Differentiation
Ref: Tan, Chapter 9

Learning Outcomes
After this lecture, students should be able to:
Compute limits of simple functions
Understand what a continuous function is and
their basic properties
Understand the Intermediate Value Theorem
and its applications to finding zeros of functions
Compute the slopes of tangent lines
Use the basic rules of differentiation to compute
derivatives of polynomial and rational functions

Limit of a Function
The function f has the limit L as x approaches a,
written lim f ( x) L
x a
If the value of f(x) can be made as close to the
number L as we please by taking x sufficiently close
(but not equal to) a.
4(t 2 4)
g
(
t
)

Example: The function g defined by

t2
t 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001 1.999 1.99 1.9 1.5
g(t) 18 16.4 16.04 16.004 15.996 15.96 15.6 14
Observe that g(t) approaches 16 as t approaches 2.
We say that the limit of g(t) as t approaches 2 is 16,
4(t 2 4)
written
lim g (t ) lim
t 2

t 2

t 2

16

Graph of function
Observe that the point t = 2
is not in the domain of the
f
function
ti g
The point (2,16) is missing
from the graph of g
The value of g(t) at t = 2
plays no role in computing
the limit

4(t 2 4)
g (t )
t 2
y

g (t )

4(t 2 4)
t2

16
12
8
t

1.9 2 2.1

Examples of Limit of Function

Let

x 1
x 2
g ( x)
if
x 1
1
Evaluate lim g ( x)

y g(x)
y=g(x)

x1

The domain of g is the set of all

real numbers. From the graph,
g(x) can be made as close to 3
as we please by taking x
sufficiently close to 1.
Therefore lim g ( x) 3

2
1
x

x 1

Observe that g(1) = 1, which is

not equal to the limit of the
function g as x approaches 1.

f ( x) L
Properties of Limit lim
xa

and

lim g ( x) M
xa

2.

lim f ( x) lim f ( x) Lr r, a real number

xa
x a
c a real number
li cff ( x) c lim
lim
li f ( x) cL
L c,

3.

lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x) L M

4.

lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x)

5.

f ( x) L
f ( x) lim
x a
provided that M0

lim
xa g ( x)
lim g ( x) M

1.

x a

xa

xa

x a

x a

x a

xa

lim g ( x) LM
xa

xa

Example of Evaluation of Limits

( a ) lim x 3
lim x 2 3 8
3
x 2

x 2

(b ) lim 5 x 3 / 2 5 lim x 3 / 2 5( 4 ) 3 / 2 40
x 4

x 4

( c ) lim (5 x 4 2 ) lim 5 x 4 lim 2 5(1) 4 2 3

x 1

x 1

x 1

( d ) lim 2 x 3 x 2 7 2 lim x 3 x 2 7 2 lim x 3 lim

x3

x3

x3

x3

x2 7

2 (3) 3 3 2 7 2 ( 27 ) 16 216
( 2 x 2 1) 2 ( 2 ) 2 1 9
2 x 2 1 lim
x 2
( e ) lim

3
x 2
x 1
lim ( x 1)
2 1
3
x 2

Indeterminate Forms
For a quotient f(x)/g(x), if the limit of both f(x) and g(x)
approaches zero as x approaches a value a, we obtain
an expression 0/0.
0/0 The limit of the quotient f(x)/g(x) has
the indeterminate form as x approaches a
2
e.g. h( x) 4( x 4) has the indeterminate form 0/0 as x
x 2 approaches 2.
The strategy for evaluating indeterminate forms are:
(1) Replace the given function with an appropriate one
th t takes
that
t k on the
th same values
l
as the
th original
i i l ffunction
ti
everywhere except at x = a
(2) Evaluate the limit of this function as x approaches a.

Example of Limits with Indeterminate

Forms ( a ) lim 4 ( x 4 ) 0
2

x 2

Re write

x2
0
2
4( x 4)
4 ( x 2 )( x 2 )

4( x 2)
x2
( x 2)

4( x 2 4)
lim 4 ( x 2 ) 16
x 2
x 2
x2
1 h 1 0
( b ) lim

h 0
h
0
1 h 1 ( 1 h 1)( 1 h 1)
Re write

h
h ( 1 h 1)
1 h 1
1
h

1 h 1
h ( 1 h 1)
h ( 1 h 1)
lim

lim

h 0

1 h 1
lim
h 0
h

1 h 1

1
1

1 1 2
9

Limits at Infinity
The function f has the limit L as x increases
without bound (or, as x approaches infinity),
f ( x) L
written lim
x
if f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by
taking x large enough.
The function f has the limit M as x decreases
without bound (or as x approaches negative
infinity), written lim f ( x) M
x
if f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to M by
taking x to be negative and sufficiently large in
absolute value.
10

Example of Limits at Infinity

f ( x)

2x2
1 x2

x 1 2
5
10 100
f(x) 1 1.6 1.92 1.98 1.9998
As x gets larger, f(x) gets
Closer to 2. We call the line
y = 2 a horizontal asymptote.
The limit of the function f(x) as
x increases without bound is 2

yy=2

2x2
lim
2
x 1 x 2
11

Theorem of Limit of Function at Infinity

1
and
0
x x n
1
provided that n is defined
x
For all n > 0, lim

eg.

g ( x)

1
0
x x 2

lim

1
x2

and

1
0
x x n
lim

y
g(x)=1/x2

1
0
x x 2
lim

We often use the technique to

evaluate the limit at infinity
y of a
rational function: Divide the
numerator and denominator of the
expression by xn, where n is the
highest power present in the
denominator of the expression.

12

Examples of Limit of Rational Function at

Infinity
( a ) lim

( b ) lim

x2 x 3
lim
x
2x3 1

1
x

1
x2

1
x3

3
x3

000 0
0
20
2
3
3x2 8x 4
lim
2
2 x 4 x 5 x 2
lim 3 lim

1
x

lim

lim 2 4 lim

1
x

5 lim

x
x

8
x

4
x

1
2
x x
1
2
x x

4
x2
5
x2

300
3

200 2

13

Example of Limit of function

at positive
2 x 3 3x 2 1
and negative infinity f ( x) 2
x 2x 4

Divide the numerator and denominator by x2,

2 x 3 x12
2 x 3 3x 2 1

li
lim

x x 2 2 x 4
x 1 2 4
2
x
x

li
lim

The numerator becomes arbitrarily large where the

denominator approaches 1 as x approaches infinity
2 x 3 x12
2 x 3 3x 2 1
lim

lim
x x 2 2 x 4
x 1 2 4
2
x
x
The numerator becomes arbitrarily large in
magnitude but negative in sign, whereas the
denominator approaches 1 as x approaches
negative infinity
14

Applied Example: Average Cost

Function
Custom Office makes a line of executive desks. It is
estimated that the total cost of making x executive desks
is C(x) = 100x + 200,000
200 000 dollars per year,
year so the
average cost of making x desks is given by
C ( x) C ( x) 100 x 200,000 100 200,000 dollars per desk.
x
x
x
C ( x ) and interpret your results.
Evaluate lim
x
200,000
200,000

lim C ( x) lim100
lim100 lim
100

x
x
x
x
x

x
As the level of production increases, the fixed cost per
desk produced, represented by the term (200,000/x)
drops steadily. Hence, the average cost approaches
$100, as the level of production increases.
15

Exercise 7.1(a)

f ( x)
Sketch the graph of the function f and evaluate lim
x a

if it exists, for the given value of a.

(a ) f ( x) 0 if
x 2

x
(b) f ( x) if
1

x 1
x 1
x 1

x0
x0

(a 1)

(a 0)

16

Answers to Exercise 7.1(a)

17

Exercise 7.1(b)
Find the indicated limit, if it exists.
( a ) lim

x 1

x2 1
x 1

x 2 25
( b ) lim
x 5
x5

( c ) lim
li

3x 2
x5

3x3 x2 1
( d ) lim
x
x3 1

18

Answers to Exercise 7.1(b)

19

One-Sided Limits
The function f has the right-hand limit L as x
approaches a from the right, written

lim f ( x) L

xa
x

if the values of f(x) can be made as close to L

as we please by taking x sufficiently close to
(but not equal to) a and to the right of a.
The function f has the left-hand limit M as x
approaches a from the left, written

lim f ( x) M

xa

if the values of f(x) can be made as close to M

as we please by taking x sufficiently close to
(but not equal to) a and to the left of a.
20

10

Theorem of One-Sided Limit

Let f be a function that is defined for all values of x
close to x = a with the possible exception of a itself.
then lim
li f ( x) L if and only if lim f ( x) lim f ( x) L
xa

xa

Example
x
f ( x) if
x

x0
x0

lim f ( x) lim x 0

x 0

Thus

x 0

and

1
g ( x) if
1

x0
x0

lim f ( x) lim ( x) 0

x 0

x 0

lim f ( x) 0
x 0

lim g ( x) 1

x 0

Thus

and

xa

lim g ( x)
x 0

and

lim g ( x) 1

x 0

does not exist

21

Continuous Function
A function is continuous at a point if the graph of
the function at that point is devoid of holes, gaps,
j
jumps
or b
breaks.
k M
Mathematically,
th
ti ll
A function f is continuous at a number x = a if the
following conditions are satisfied.
1.f(a) is defined. 2. lim f ( x) exists. 3. lim f ( x) f (a )
x a

x a

A function f is continuous at x = a if the limit of f at

x = a exists and has the value f(a). If f is not
continuous at x = a, then f is said to be
discontinuous at x = a
22

11

Examples of Continuous and

Discontinuous functions
Find the values of x for which each of
the following functions is continuous
x0
1
(a) f(x) = x + 2 (b) F ( x) 1 if x 0

(a) The function f is continuous

everywhere because the three
conditions of continuity are satisfied
for all values of x.
(b) The function F is continuous
everywhere except at x = 0, where
the limit of F(x) fails to exist as x
approaches zero.

f(x)=x+2

y
yy=F(x)
F(x)
1
-1

23

Properties of Continuous Functions

1. The constant function f(x) = c is continuous everywhere

2. The identity function f(x) = x is continuous everywhere
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then
3. [f(x)]n, where n is a real number, is continuous at x = a
whenever it is defined at that number.
4. fg is continuous at x = a
5. fg is continuous at x = a
6. f/g is continuous at x = a provided g(a)0
7 A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at every
7.
value of x.
8. A rational function R(x)=p(x)/q(x) is continuous at every
value of x where q(x) 0
24

12

Example of Continuous Function

Find the values of x for which each
function is continuous
(a) f (x) 3x 2x x 10
3

8x10 4x 1
(b)g(x)
x 2 1

4x3 3x2 1
(c)h(x) 2
x 3x 2

(a) The function f is a polynomial function of

degree 3, so f(x) is continuous for all values of x.
(b) The function g is a rational function. The
denominator of g is never equals to zero. We
conclude that g is continuous for all values of x.
(c) The function h is a rational function. The
denominator of h is equal to zero at x = 1 and x =
2 since x2-3x +2 = (x - 2)(x - 1). So h is
continuous everywhere except at x = 1 and 2.
25

Intermediate Value Theorem

If f is a continuous function on a closed
interval [a,b] and M is any number
between f(a) and f(b), then there is at least
one number c in [a,b] such that f(c)=M
y
f(b)
M
f(a)

y=f(x)

c b

x
26

13

Theorem: Existence of Zeros of a

Continuous Function
If f is a continuous function on a closed
interval [a,b], and if f(a) and f(b) have
opposite signs, then there is at least one
solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the
interval [a,b]. f(a) y

f(b)
27

Exercise 7.2(a)
Find the indicated one-sided limit, if it
exists.

(a ) lim (2 x 5)
x 1

(b) lim
x2

x4
x2

(c) lim x
x 0

28

14

Answers to Exercise 7.2(a)

29

Exercise 7.2(b)
Find the values of x for which the
function is continuous

(a) f ( x) 2 x 2 x 1
(b) f ( x)

2
x2 1

30

15

Answers to Exercise 7.2(b)

31

Slope of a Tangent Line

To define the tangent line to a
curve C at a point P on the
curve, fixed P and let Q be
anyy point
p
on C distinct from P.
The straight line passing
through P and Q is called a
secant line.
As the point Q is allowed to
move toward P along the
curve, the secant line rotates
about P and approaches a
fi d liline th
fixed
through
hP
P.
This fixed line is the tangent
line to the graph of f at point P

y
Q

Secant
lines

P(x, f(x))

tangent
g
line
x

32

16

Slope of a Tangent Line

The curve C is the graph
defined of a function defined y
by y =f(x).
The point P is described by
P(x, f(x)) and the point Q by f(x+h)
Q(x+h,f(x+h)), where h is
some appropriate nonzero
number.
f(x)
The slope of the secant line
is f(x+h) f(x)
f(x) =f(x+h)
f(x+h) f(x)
P
x
x+ h x
h
Observe that Q approaches
P as h approaches 0.
The slope of the tangent line is lim
h 0

y=f(x)

x
x+h

f ( x h) f ( x )
h
33

Average and Instantaneous Rate of

Change
The slope of a tangent line to the graph f at the
f ( x h) f ( x )
point P(x, f(x)) is given by lim
h 0
h
if it exists. This is also the instantaneous rate of
change of f at x
The average rate of change of f over the interval
[x, x+h] or slope of the secant line to the graph f
through the points (x, f(x)) and (x+h, f(x+h)) is
f ( x h) f ( x )
h

34

17

Derivative of a function
The derivative of a function f with respect to x
is the function f, lim f ( x hh) f ( x)
The domain of f
f is the set of all x where the
limit exists
Four-Step Process for finding f(x)
1. Compute f(x+h)
2. Form the difference f(x+h) f(x)
3. Form the quotient f ( x h) f ( x)
h
4. Compute f(x)= lim f ( x h) f ( x)
h 0

h 0

35

Example of Derivatives: f(x)=x2,(a) find f(x),

(b) compute f(2) and interpret your results.
(a) f(x + h) = (x + h)2 = x2 + 2xh + h2
f(x + h) - f(x) = x2 + 2xh + h2 - x2 = 2xh + h2 = h(2x + h)
f ( x h ) f ( x ) h ( 2 x h)
2x h

h
h
f ( x h) f ( x )
f ' ( x) lim
lim(2 x h) 2 x
h 0
h 0
h

(b) f(2)=2(2)=4.
f (2) 2(2) 4. It means the slope of the tangent line to
the graph at the point (2,4) is 4. It also tells us that the
function f is changing at the rate of 4 units per unit change
in x at a = 2.
36

18

Differentiable and Continuity

If a function is differentiable at x = a, then it is
continuous at x = a.
If a function is continuous at x = a,
a it does not
necessarily imply that x is differentiable at x=a.
A continuous function fails to be differentiable at x = a
when the graph of f makes an abrupt change of
direction at (a, f(a)).
y

(a, f(a))

x
37

Exercise 7.3(a)
(a) Use the four-step process to find the
slope
l
off the
th tangent
t
t line
li tto the
th graph
h off
f(x) = 2x + 7 at any point.
(b) Find the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of f(x) = 3x2 at (1, 3) and determine
an equation of the tangent line.

38

19

Answers to Exercise 7.3(a) (a)

39

Answers to Exercise 7.3(a) (b)

40

20

Exercise 7.3(b)
Let f(x) = x2 - 2x + 1
(a)
( ) Fi
Find
d th
the d
derivative
i ti f off ff.
(b) Find the point on the graph of f where
the tangent line to the curve is horizontal.
(c) Sketch the graph of f and the tangent
line to the curve at the point found in (b).
(d) What is the rate of change of f at this
point?
41

Answers to Exercise 7.3(b) (a),(b)

42

21

Answers to Exercise 7.3(b) (c), (d)

43

Four Basic Rules of Differentiation

d
We use the notation dx f (x) to mean the
derivative of f with respect to x at x.
R l 1
Rule
1: D
Derivative
i ti off a C
Constant
t t
The derivative of a constant function is equal to
zero
Rule 2: The Power Rule
d n
( x ) nx n 1
If n is any real number, then
d dx
e.g. If f(x)=28, then f(x)= dx (28)=0
d
If f(x)=x, then f(x)= dx (x)=1.x1-1=x0=1
If f(x)=x5/2, then f(x)= d (x5/2)=(5/2)x3/2
dx

44

22

Example of Power Rule:

(a ) f ( x)

(b ) g ( x )

1
3
x

(a) f ( x) x x1/ 2
d
1
1
f ' ( x) ( x1/ 2 ) 12 x 1/ 2 1/ 2
dx
2x
2 x
1
(b) g ( x) 3 x 1/ 3
x
d
1
1
g ' ( x) ( x 1/ 3 ) x 4 / 3 4 / 3
dx
3
3x
45

Four Basic Rule of Differentiation

Rule 3: Derivative of a Constant Multiple of a
Function d
cf ( x) c d f ( x)
dx
dx
The derivative of a constant times a
differentiable function is equal to the constant
times the derivative of the function
Rule 4: The Sum Rule
d
f ( x) g ( x) d f ( x) d g ( x)
dx
dx
dx
The derivative of the sum (difference) of two
differentiable functions is equal to the sum
(difference) of their derivatives
46

23

Example of Constant Multiple Rule and

Sum Rule
d 3
d
5x 5 x3 5(3x2 ) 15x2
dx
dx
3
d
3
1
f ' ( x) 3x1/ 2 3( x3/ 2 ) 3/ 2
(b) f ( x)
2x
dx
2
x
d
(c) f ( x) 4x5 3x4 8x2 x 3 f ' ( x) (4x5 3x4 8x2 x 3)
dx
d
d
d
d
d
4x5 3x4 8x2 x 3 20x4 12x3 16x 1
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
2
2t 5 75
d 1 2
2
t
5
3
4
(d ) g(t ) 3
g ' (t ) t 5t t 15t
5t 4
dt 5
5 t
5
(a) f ( x) 5x3

f ' ( x)

47

Exercise 7.4
(a) Find the derivative of the function f by
using the rules of differentiation
(i ) f ( x) x 5

(ii ) f ( x) 3 x

(iii ) f ( x) 0.03x 2 0.4 x 10

(iv) f ( x)

2x3 4x 2 3
x

(b) Find the slope and an equation to the

tangent
g
line to the g
graph
p of the function f(x)
( )
2
= 2x 3x + 4 at the point (2, 6).

48

24

Answers to Exercise 7.4 (a)

49

Answers to Exercise 7.4 (b)

50

25