What is Angle Modulation?

In angle modulation, information is

embedded in the angle of the carrier.
We define the angle of a modulated carrier
by the argument of...
st Ac cos t

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Phasor Form

In the complex plane we have

t=3
Phasor rotates with nonuniform speed
t=1
t=0

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Angular Velocity

Since phase changes nonuniformly vs.

time, we can define a rate of change
di (t)
i
dt

This is what we know as frequency

d i
st Ac cos2fct c
2fc
dt
i t
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Instantaneous Frequency

We are used to signals with constant

carrier frequency. There are cases where
carrier frequency itself changes with time.
We can therefor talk about instantaneous
frequency defined as
1 di t
fi t
2 dt

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Examples of Inst. Freq.

Consider an AM signal

d i
st 1 km(t)cos2fc t c
2fc
dt
i t

Here, the instantaneous frequency is the

frequency itself, which is constant

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Impressing a message on
the angle of carrier

There are two ways to form a an angle

modulated signal.
Embed it in the phase of the carrier
Phase Modulation(PM)
Embed it in the frequency of the carrier
Frequency Modulation(FM)

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Phase Modulation(PM)

In PM, carrier angle changes linearly with

the message
st Ac cos i t Ac cos2fct k pmt

Where
2fc=angle of unmodulated carrier
kp=phase sensitivity in radians/volt

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

Frequency Modulation

In FM, it is the instantaneous frequency

that varies linearly with message
amplitude, i.e.
fi(t)=fc+kfm(t)

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

FM Signal

We saw that I.F. is the derivative of the

phase
1 di t
fi t
2 dt

Therefore,
t

i t 2fc t 2k f mt
0

st Ac cos2fc t 2k f m(t)dt

0
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

10

FM for Tone Signals

Consider a sinusoidal message m(t) Am cos2fmt

The instantaneous frequency
corresponding to its FM version is

fi t fc k f m(t)

fc

k f Am cos2 fmt

resting frequency

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

11

Illustrating FM
1

Inst.frequency
Moves with the
Message amplitude

FM
message

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

12

Frequency Deviation

Inst. frequency has upper and lower

bounds given by
fi t fc f cos2fmt
where
f frequency deviation k f Am
then
fi max fc f
fi min fc f
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

13

FM Modulation index

The equivalent of AM modulation index is

which is also called deviation ratio. It
quantifies how much carrier frequency
swings relative to message bandwidth

f
W
baseband

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

f
or
fm
tone

14

Example:carrier swing

A 100 MHz FM carrier is modulated by an

audio tone causing 20 KHz frequency
deviation. Determine the carrier siwng
and highest and lowest carrier frequencies
f 20KHz
frequency swing 2f 40KHz
frequency range :
fhigh 100MHz 20KHz 100.02MHz
flow 100MHz 20KHz 99.98MHz
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

15

Example: deviation ratio

What is the modulation index (or deviation

ratio) of an FM signal with carrier swing of
150 KHz when the modulating signal is 15
KHz?
150
f
75KHz
2
f 75

5
fm 15

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

16

Myth of FM

Deriving FM bandwidth is a lot more

involved than AM
FM was initially thought to be a bandwidth
efficient communication because it was
thought that FM bandwidth is simply 2f
By keeping frequency deviation low, we
can use arbitrary small bandwidth

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

17

FM bandwidth

Deriving FM bandwidth is a lot more

involved than AM and it can barely be
derived for sinusoidal message
There is a graphical way to illustrate FM
bandwidth

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

18

Piece-wise approximation of
baseband

Look at the following representation

Baseband bandwidth
=W

1/2W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

19

Corresponding FM signal

FM version of the above is an RF pulse for

each square pulse.
The frequency of the kth RF pulse at t=tk is
given by the height of the pulse. i.e.
fi fc k f mtk

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

20

Range of frequencies?

We have a bunch of RF pulses each at a

different frequency.
Inst.freq corresponding to square pulses
lie in the following range
fi max fc k f mmax
fi min fc k f mmin
mmin

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

mmax

21

A look at the spectrum

We will have a series of RF pulses each at

a different frequency. The collective
spectrum is a bunch of sincs
lowest

highest

f
4W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

22

So what is the bandwidth?

Measure the width from the first upper

zero crossing of the highest term to the
first lower zero crossing of the lowest
term
highest
lowest

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

23

Closer look

The highest sinc is located at fc+kfmp

Each sinc is 1/2W wide. Therefore, their
zero crossing point is always 2W above
the center of the sinc.

2W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

24

Range of frequenices
lowest

highest

Above range lies

<fc-kfmp-2W,fc+kfmp+2W>

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

25

FM bandwidth

The range just defined is one expression

for FM bandwidth. There are many more!

BFM=4W+2kfmp
Using =f/W with f=kfmp
BFM=2(+2)W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

26

Carsons Rule

A popular expression for FM bandwidth is

Carsons rule. It is a bit smaller than what
we just saw
BFM=2(+1)W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

27

Commercial FM

Commercial FM broadcasting uses the

following parameters
Baseband;15KHz
Deviation ratio:5
Peak freq. Deviation=75KHz
BFM=2(+1)W=2x6x15=180KHz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

28

Wideband vs. narrowband

FM

NBFM is defined by the condition

f<<W
BFM=2W
This is just like AM. No advantage here

WBFM is defined by the condition

f>>W
BFM=2 f
This is what we have for a true FM signal

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

29

Boundary between narrowband and

wideband FM

This distinction is controlled by

If >1 --> WBFM
If <1-->NBFM

Needless to say there is no point for going

with NBFM because the signal looks and
sounds more like AM

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

30

Commercial FM spectrum

The FM landscape looks like this

carrier

FM station A

FM station B

25KHz guardband

FM station C

150 KHz
200 KHz
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

31

FM stereo:multiplexing

First, two channels are created; (left+right)

and (left-right)
Left+right is useable by monaural
receivers
Left channel
+

mono

Right channel

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

32

Subcarrier modulation

The mono signal is left alone but the

difference channel is amplitude modulated
with a 38 KHz carrier
Left channel
+

Composite baseband

mono

Right channel
+

DSB-SC
fsc=38 kHz
-

fsc=
38KHz
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

freq
divider
33

Stereo signal

Composite baseband signal is then

frequency modulated
Composite baseband

Left channel

mono

FM
transmitter

Right channel
+

DSB-SC
fsc=38 kHz
fsc=
38KHz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

freq
divider
34

Stereo spectrum

Baseband spectrum holds all the

information. It consists of composite
baseband, pilot tone and DSB-SC
spectrum
Left+right

DSB-SC

19 KHz

38 KHz

15 KHz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

35

Stereo receiver

First, FM is stripped, i.e. demodulated

Second, composite baseband is lowpass
filtered to recover the left+right and in
parallel amplitude demodulated to recover
the left-right signal
Left+right

DSB-SC

19 KHz

38 KHz

15 KHz
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

36

Receiver diagram
+
lowpass
filter(15K)

Left+right

left

coherent detector
15 KHz
19 KHz 38 KHz

bandpass
at 38KHz

lowpass

right

- +

FM
receiver
PLL
X

lowepass
Divide 2

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

VCO

37

Subsidiary communication
authorization(SCA)
It is possible to transmit special
programming ,e.g. commercial-free
music for banks, department stores etc.
embedded in the regular FM programming
Such programming is frequency
multiplexed on the FM signal with a 67
KHz carrier and 7.5 KHz deviation

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

38

SCA spectrum
Left+right

DSB-SC
SCA signal

19 KHz
15 KHz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

38 KHz

59.5

67

74.5

f(KHz)

39

FM receiver

FM receiver is similar to the superhet

layout

RF

mixer

IF

limiter

Discriminator

deemphasis

AF power
amp

LO
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

40

Frequency demodulation

Remember that message in an FM signal

is in the instantaneous frequency or
equivalently derivative of carrier angle
t

st Ac cos2fc t 2k f m(t)dt

0
t

st Ac 2fc 2k f mt sin 2fc t 2k f m(t)dt

Do envelope detection on s(t)

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

41

Receiver components:RF
amplifier

AM may skip RF amp but FM requires it

FM receivers are called upon to work with
weak signals (~1V or less as compared to
30 V for AM)
An RF section is needed to bring up the
signal to at least 10 to 20 V before mixing

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

42

Limiter

A limiter is a circuit whose output is

constant for all input amplitudes above a
threshold
Limiters function in an FM receiver is to
remove unwanted amplitude variations of
the FM signal
Limiter

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

43

Limiting and sensitivity

A limiter needs about 1V of signal, called

quieting or threshold voltage, to begin
limiting
When enough signal arrives at the
receiver to start limiting action, the set
quiets, i.e. background noise disappears
Sensitivity is the min. RF signal to
produce a specified level of quieting,
normally
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

44

Sensitivity example

An FM receiver provides a voltage gain of

200,000(106dB) prior to its limiter. The
limiters quieting voltage is 200 mV. What
is the receivers sensitivity?
What we are really asking is the required
signal at RFs input to produce 200 mV at
the output
200 mV/200,000= 1V->sensitivity

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

45

Discriminator

The heart of FM is this relationship

fi(t)=fc+kfm(t)

What we need is a device that linearly

f
is at the IF frequency
follows inst. frequency
Of 10.7 MHz
carrier

Disc.output

-75 KHz

+75 KHz
fcarrier

Deviation limits
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

46

Examples of discriminators

Slope detector - simple LC tank circuit

operated at its most linear response curve
This setup turns an FM signal
into an AM

output

fc

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

fo

47

Phase-Locked Loop

PLLs are increasingly used as FM

demodulators and appear at IF output
fin

Phase
comparator

Error signal

Lowpass
filter

Output proportional to
Difference between fin and fvco

Control signal:constant
When fin=fvco

fvco

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

VCO

VCO input

48

PLL states

Free-running
If the input and VCO frequency are too far apart,
PLL free-runs

Capture
Once VCO closes in on the input frequency, PLL
is said to be in the tracking or capture mode

Locked or tracking
Can stay locked over a wider range than was
necessary for capture
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

49

PLL example

VCO free-runs at 10 MHZ. VCO does not

change frequency until the input is within
50 KHZ.
In the tracking mode, VCO follows the
input to 200 KHz of 10 MHz before losing
lock. What is the lock and capture range?
Capture range= 2x50KHz=100 KHz
Lock range=2x200 KHz=400 KHz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

50

Advantages of PLL

If there is a carrier center frequency or LO

frequency drift, conventional detectors
will be untuned
PLL, on the other hand, can correct itself.
PLLs need no tuned circuits
output

If fc drifts detector has no way of

correcting itself

Slope detector
fc
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

fo

51

Zero crossing detector

FM

Hard

limiter

Zero
Crossing
detector

Multivibrator

Averaging
circuot

Output

FM input

Hard limiter

ZC detector

more frequent
ZCs means
higher inst freq
in turn means
Larger message
amplitudes

multiV
Averaging circuit

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

52

NOISE IN ANALOG
MODULATION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Receiver Model

The objective here is to establish a

relationship between input and and output
SNR of an AM receiver
Modulated signal s(t)l
BPF

detector

filter

output
BT=2W

Noise n(t)

-fc

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

fc

54

Establishing a reference
SNR

Define channel SNR measured at

receiver input

(SNR)c=avg. power of modulated signal/

avg. noise power in the message bandwidth

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

55

Noise in DSB-SC Receiver

Tuner plus coherent detection

DSB-SC

BPF

x(t)

LPF

v(t)

s(t)
n(t)

Cos(2fct)

st Ac m(t)cos2fc t
s2 t avg.power Ac 2 m2 (t) / 2 Ac2 P / 2
P avg. message power
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

56

Receiver input SNR

Also defined as channel SNR:

Ac2 P

2WN o

Ac 2 P / 2
WN o

(SNR)c

noise power in the message bandwidth

Flat noise spectrum:white noise

No/2

Noise power=hatched area

-W

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

57

Output SNR

Carrying signal and noise through the rest

of the receiver, it can be shown that
output SNR comes out to be equal to the
input. Hence
SNRo
1
SNRc

Therefore, any reduction in input SNR is

linearly reflected in the output

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

58

(SNR)o for DSB-AM

Following a similar approach,

SNRo
k2P

2 1
SNRc 1 k P
k : AM modulation index
P : avg. message power

Best case is achieved for 100%

modulation index which, for tone
modulation, is only 1/3
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

59

DSB-AM and DSB-SC noise

performance

An AM system using envelope detection

needs 3 times as much power to achieve
the same output SNR as a suppressed
carrier AM with coherent detection
This is a result similar to power efficiency
of the two schemes

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

60

Threshold effect-AM

In DSB-AM (not DSB-SC) there is a

phenomenon called threshold effect
This means that there is a massive drop in
output SNR if input SNR drops below a
threshold
For DSB-AM with envelope detection, this
threshold is about 6.6 dB

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

61

NOISE IN ANALOG
MODULATION

FREQUENCY MODULATION

Receiver model
FM
s(t)

BFP

Limiter

FM
detector

LPF
(W)

n(t)

Noisy FM signal at BPFs output is

x t st n(t)
Ac cos2fct t r(t)cos2fc t t
noise

where

t m(t)dt
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

63

Phasor model

We can see the effect of noise graphically

(t)

(t)

(t)
reference

The angle FM detector will extract

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

64

Small noise

For small noise, it can be approximated

that the noise inflicted phase error is
=[rAc]Sin(
So the angle available to the FM detector
is +
FM Detector computes the derivative of
this angle. It will then follow that...

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

65

FM SNR for tone modulation

Skipping further detail, we can show that

for tone modulation, we have the following
ratio
SNRo 3 2

SNRc 2

SNR rises as power of 2 of bandwidth; e.g.

doubling deviation ratio quadruples the
SNR
Bandwidth-SNR exchange

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

66

Comparison with AM

In DSB-SC the ratio was 1 regardless.

For commercial FM, =5. Therefore,
(SNR)o/(SNR)c=(1.5)x25=37.5
Compare this with just 1 for AM

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

67

Capture effect in FM

An FM receiver locks on to the stronger of

two received signals of the same
frequency and suppresses the weaker one
Capture ratio is the necessary
difference(in dB) between the two signals
for capture effect to go into action
Typical number for capture ratio is 1 dB

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

68

Normalized transmission
bandwidth

With all these bandwidths numbers, it is

good to have a normalized quantity.
Define
normalized bandwidth=Bn=BT/W
Where W is the baseband bandwidth

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

69

Examples of Bn

For AM:
Bn=BT/W=2W/W=2

For FM

Bn=BT/W~2 to 3
For =5 in commercial FM, this is a very
large expenditure in bandwidth which is
rewarded in increased SNR

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

70

Noise/bandwidth summary

AM-envelope detection
2
SNRo
SNRc
2
2
Bn 2

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

71

Noise/bandwidth summary

DSB-SC/coherent detection
(SNR)o=(SNR)c
Bn=2

SSB
(SNR)o=(SNR)c
Bn=1

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

72

Noise/bandwidth summary

FM-tone modulation and =5

(SNR)o=1.5 2(SNR)c=37.5 (SNR)c
Bn~16 for =5

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

73

Preemphasis and
deemphasis

High pitched sounds are generally of

lower amplitude than bass. In FM lower
amplitudes means lower frequency
deviation hence lower SNR.
Preemphasis is a technique where high
frequency components are amplified
before modulation
Deemphasis network returns the
baseband to its original form
Allanki Sanyasi Rao

74

Pre/deemphasis response

Flat up to ~500Hz, rises from 500-15000 Hz

17dB
preemphasis

Deemphasis circuit
Is between the detector
And the audio amplifier

+3dB

-3dB
deemphasis
-17dB
500 Hz

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

2120 Hz

15KHz

75

Suggested homework

3.41
5.3
5.7

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

76