Engineering Physics PHY 1001

ENGINEERING
PHYSICS
[SUBJECT CODE: PHY1001]
COMMON COURSE MATERIAL FOR FIRST YEAR BTech STUDENTS
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MANIPAL UNIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS [2 1 0 3]
Optics: Two source interference, Double slit interference, Coherence, Intensity in double slit
interference using phasor method, Interference from thin films, Newtons rings, Diffraction
and wave theory of light, Single-slit diffraction, Intensity in single-slit diffraction using phasor
method, Diffraction at a circular aperture, Double-slit interference and diffraction combinedIntensity in double-slit diffraction (Qualitative approach), qualitative description of multiple slits
and diffraction grating
[9]
Applied Optics: Spontaneous and stimulated transitions, He-Ne and Ruby laser, Applications of
lasers, Optical fiber, Total internal reflection, angle of acceptance and numerical aperture, types
of optical fiber, types of attenuation, applications of optical fibers.
[5]
Quantum Physics: Black body radiation and Plancks hypothesis, Stefans Law, Weins
displacement law, Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Photons and electromagnetic waves,
Wave properties of particles, de-Broglie hypothesis, Quantum particle (wave packet, phase
speed, group speed). The double-slit experiment revisited, the uncertainty principle
[8]
Quantum Mechanics: An interpretation of quantum mechanics, Wave function and its

significance, particle in a box (infinite potential well), Schrodinger equation, Particle in a well of
finite height, Tunnelling through a potential barrier and its applications, The quantum model
of the hydrogen atom, The wave functions for hydrogen
[8]
Solid State Physics: Free electron theory of metals, Band theory of solids, Electrical conduction
in metals, Insulators and Semiconductors, Superconductivity-Properties and Applications [6]
Reference books
1. Halliday, Resnick, Krane; PHYSICS: Volume 2, (5e), John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2009
2. Serway & Jewett; PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics,
Thomson, 2013
(9e),
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To understand the wave properties of light and thereby applications of interference and
diffraction of light.
To study the working principles of optical fibers and lasers.
To understand the basic principles of quantum physics.
To understand the mechanism of bonding and electrical conductivity in solids.
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of this course students will be able to:
Explain the principles of optical methods of testing and measuring of various physical
parameters.
Describe the construction and working of optical fibers and lasers.
Discuss the principles of dual nature of particles and light.
Describe quantum mechanical properties of micro particles such as energy quantization,
tunneling, and quantum mechanical model of hydrogen atom.
Explain electrical conduction properties of materials.
TEACHING PLAN
L/T No.
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
L0
Introduction : course contents, assessments, AMS, availability etc.
L01
Light as an EM (electro-magnetic) wave. Interference of light waves. Coherence. Double-slit

interference
L02
Intensity in double-slit interference.
L03
Interference from thin films. Newton rings.
T04
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-01 to L-03.
L05
Diffraction and wave theory of light. Single-slit diffraction. Intensity in single-slit diffraction.
T06
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-05.
L07
Diffraction at a circular aperture. Double-slit interference and diffraction combined.
L08
Multiple slits. Diffraction gratings.
T09
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-07 & L-08.
L10
Spontaneous and stimulated transitions. Metastable state. Population inversion. Ruby Laser
L11
He-Ne laser. Applications of lasers. Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-10 & L-11.
L12
Optical fibers. Total internal reflection. Angle of acceptance and numerical aperture.
L13
Types of optical fiber. Attenuation in optical fibers. Applications of optical fibers.
T14
L15
Black body radiation and Plancks hypothesis. Stefans law. Wiens displacement law. Rayleigh-Jeans
law.
L16
The photoelectric effect.
T17
L18
The Compton effect.
L19
Photons and electromagnetic waves. The wave properties of particles. de Broglie hypothesis.
T20
L21
The quantum particle. The double-slit experiment revisited. The uncertainty principle.
T22
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-21.
L23
An interpretation of quantum mechanics. Wave function and its significance.
L24
The Schrodinger equation. The particle in a well of infinite height.
L25
A particle in a well of finite height.
L26
Tunneling through a potential energy barrier. Applications.
T27
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-24 to L-26.
L28
The quantum model of the hydrogen atom.
L29
The wave functions for hydrogen atom.
T30
L31
Free-electron theory of metals.
T32
Band theory of solids
L33
Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-31& L-32.
L34
Electrical conduction in metals, insulators and semiconductors.
L35
Superconductivity properties and applications
T36
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Optics
p01
Chapter 2
Applied Optics
P30
Chapter 3
Quantum Physics
p46
Chapter 4
Quantum Mechanics
p64
Chapter 5
Solid State Physics
p79
EVALUATION SCHEME
Internal assessment
5 Quizzes of 4 marks each
20 Marks
2 Sessional of 15 marks each
30 Marks
End Semester Examination

Total
50 Marks
50 Marks
100 Marks
PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
CHAPTER 1
OPTICS
OBJECTIVES
To understand the principles of interference and diffraction.

To explain the intensity distribution in interference and diffraction under various
conditions.
To understand the phasor method of adding wave disturbances.
To explain the interference from thin films
To explain the diffraction of light waves at single, multiple slits and circular apertures.
Light is a transverse electro-magnetic wave in which electric (E) and magnetic fields (B)
oscillate in phase, perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. The visual sensation of light is due to its E- field and as such in discussing
interference phenomena, one considers superposition of electric fields.
1.1 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES
When two or more waves superpose in a region of space, the resultant amplitude of E-field at
any point is the vector sum of the individual amplitudes of the waves and the intensity at that
point is proportional to the square of this E-field amplitude. When waves from two
independent sources superpose, the resultant intensity at any point is the sum of the
intensities due to individual sources and is same throughout the region of superposition. On
the other hand, when two similar waves traveling almost in the same direction superpose,
intensity variation take place in the region of superposition. This redistribution of light
intensity when two or more similar waves superpose is called interference and such similar
waves are called coherent waves.
1.1.1 COHERENT WAVES:
Two waves are said to be coherent when they maintain a constant phase difference
between them. For this is to be true the waves must have same wavelength (and hence
same frequency, since velocity of all em waves are same and is equal to 3 108m/s)
and travel almost in the same direction. Coherence is a necessary condition for
producing stable interference pattern. Suppose phase difference between two waves
keeps changing, the positions of maximum and minimum amplitudes vary with time.
As a result rapid intensity fluctuations will occur which cannot be followed by the eye(
normal eye can resolve fluctuations ~ 16).
Coherence depends on the length of the wave trains. Longer the wave train, degree
of coherence is more. Common light sources emit light wave trains of finite length (few
millimeters) accordingly the degree of coherence is less.
Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal
1
Fig. 1.1 Section of infinite wave train and a wave train of finite length
Laser light is highly coherent (coherent length of few centimeters to meters).
Degree of coherence is very important in telecommunications and holography.
How to produce coherent waves?

Waves from two independent sources cannot be coherent. Because in these sources the
fundamental light emission processes occur in individual atoms, and these atoms do not act
together in a co-operative way (that is, incoherent).
There are two methods of producing coherent waves:
i) Division of wave front: For example, Young double slit experiment (Figure 1.2).Here, two
different portions of a same wave front is made to pass through two narrow slits separated by
large distance d (d>>). Huygen wavelets from the two slits are perfectly coherent.
Fig. 1.2 Production of coherent waves by division of wave front

2
ii) Division of amplitude: For example, in Newton rings experiment this mechanism is used.
Light waves reflected from front and rear surfaces of a thin film are perfectly coherent (Figure
1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Production of coherent waves by division of amplitude

When the two coherent waves overlap (i.e., when they travel almost in the same direction)
they produce interference pattern on the screen placed on their path. The fringe pattern
consists of alternating series of bright and dark bands known as interference fringes. For good
contrast of these fringes, the amplitude of the two coherent waves must be comparable.
The interference is constructive when the net intensity is greater than the individual intensities
(Figure 1.4a). The interference is destructive when the net intensity is less than individual
intensities (Figure 1.4b).
Fig. 1.4 (a) Constructive interference of two waves that are in phase (b) Destructive
interference of two waves that are 1800 out of phase
Maximal constructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference is 0, 2,
4, . (the waves are in-phase). During the period of one oscillation ( phase change of 2 or

3
360), the wave disturbance travels a distance of , and hence the path and phase difference
are related as
Phase difference Path difference
Thus, the phase differences of 0, 2, 4, .. is equivalent to path differences of 0, ,

2... Condition for constructive interference is therefore-path difference = m
where m = 0, 1, 2,.
Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when their phase differences are
3, 5 , (the waves are 180o out of phase) or path differences of /2, 3/2, 5/2 .
Thus, condition for destructive interference is, path difference = (m+1/2) ,
0, 1, 2
where m =
1.1.2 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
Fig. 1.5 Double slit arrangement and interference pattern

A train of plane light waves is incident on two narrow parallel slits of widths a (<<) separated
by distance d (>>). Each slits emit Huygen wavelets and behave like two independent
coherent sources. The interference pattern on the screen at a distance D consists of bright and
dark fringes.
For D>>d, we can approximate rays r1 and r2 as being parallel. Path difference between two
waves from S1 & S2 on reaching a point P on a screen is S1b = d sin .

4
Fig. 1.6 (a) Schematic of double slit arrangement, (b) Showing the path difference between
two rays r1 and r2
For maximum at point P
S1b = m
which can be written as,
d sin = m,
m = 0, 1, 2, . . .m = 0 is the central maximum.
For minimum at point P
d sin ( m 21 )
m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
For small value of , we can make following approximation
sin tan
y
D
In such a case, the path difference

d sin S1b
yd
D
For mth maximum located at ym , we can write

5
ym d
m
D
or
ym
D
d
where m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Separation between adjacent maxima (for small ) known as fringe width/band width is,
y ym1 ym
D
( m 1)
D
d
is independent of m.
The spacing between the adjacent minima is same as the spacing between adjacent maxima.
1.1.3 YOUNGS DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Double slit experiment was first performed by Thomas Young in 1801. So double slit
experiment is known as Youngs Experiment. He used sun light as source for the experiment.
In his experiment, he allowed sun light to pass through narrow opening (S0) and then through
two openings (S1and S2).
Fig. 1.7 Youngs interference experimental set up

1.1.4 INTENSITY IN DOUBLE SLIT INTERFERENCE PHASOR METHOD
Phasor is a rotating vector.
Electric field components at P due to S1 and S2 are (see figure 1.8)

6
E1= E0 sin t andE2= E0 sin (t + ) respectively, where is the phase difference between
them.
Resultant field E = E1 + E2
Fig. 1.8 Schematic of double slit arrangement
Fig. 1.9 (a) Phasor representation of two waves, (b) Another way of drawing (a)
From phasor diagram (Figure 1.9b),
E=E1+E2
= E sin(t + )

7
= 2E0cos sin(t + )
But = /2. So above equation can be written as,
E = 2 E0cos(/2) sin(t+/2)
So, intensity at an arbitrary point P on the screen due to interference of two waves having
phase difference;
4 E 02 cos 2

4 0 cos2
2
where 0 E 02 is intensity due to single source.
Since 2dsin/ ,
2 d sin
4 0 cos
From above equation,

At maxima : 2 m
or
At minima : ( 2 m 1)
d sin
or
d sin
(m 1 )
2
where m 0, 1, 2, . . .
Fig. 1.10 Intensity variations as a function of phase differences

1.1.5 INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
A film is said to be thin when its thickness is comparable with the wavelength of the light, i.e,
of the order of a micron. Greater thickness spoils the coherence of the light. In Figure 1.11b,
the region ac looks bright or dark for an observer depending on the path difference between
the rays r1 and r2.

8
Fig. 1.11 Ray diagram for thin film interference

Phase change on Reflection: It has been observed that if the medium beyond the interface
has a higher index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes a phase change of (=180o). If
the medium beyond the interface has a lower index of refraction, there is no phase change of
the reflected wave. No phase change occur for transmitted light.
Fig. 1.12 Phase changes on reflection at a junction between two strings of different linear
mass densities (a) The incident pulse is in the heavier string, (b) The incident pulse is in the
lighter string
When light pass from one medium to another, its velocity changes and accordingly its
wavelength changes. The type of interference in thin films is determined by the wavelength
n in the film and not the wavelength in air. If n is wavelength in the film of refractive
index n and is the wavelength in vacuum then n = / n
It is therefore optical path length difference that is of interest and not the geometrical path
length difference in discussing interference from thin films.

9
Optical path length: Optical path length for a light wave is the vacuum path equivalent of its
geometrical path in the medium.
Distance traveled by light in a medium in the time interval of t is d = vt
Refractive index n = c/v
Hence, ct = nd
nd is the optical path corresponding to geometrical path d and is the distance traveled by light
in vacuum in the time t that it takes to travel path d.
Equations for thin film interference: Normal incidence (i = 0)
Path difference = 2 d + () n (?) + () n (?). The terms with question marks are to be used if
there are phase changes at front and rear surfaces respectively.
Assuming air on either side of the film (Figure 1.11b), conditions for Constructive interference:2 d + () n = m n
m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
(maxima)
Destructive interference:2 d + () n = (m+) n
m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(minima)
It can be noted that, it is possible to suppress the unwanted reflections from glass at a chosen
wavelength by coating the glass with a film of proper thickness and in such a case the film is
known as antireflection coating. Moreover, the film may reflect or transmit preferentially a
particular wavelength and in such a case the film is called a monochromator.
Wedge shaped film: When light falls on wedge shaped thin film, it undergoes partial
reflections from upper and lower part of the film thereby producing coherent waves.
Fig. 1.13 Interference in a wedge shaped film

Since the film is thin, the reflected waves are close by and are in a position to interfere.
Constructive interference occurs in certain part of the film [2 d + () n= m n] and destructive

10
interference in others[2 d + ()n = (m+)n]. Then bands of maximum and minimum intensity
appear, called fringes of constant thickness. The locus of the points having the same film
thickness is a straight line and hence straight(linear) fringes are formed.
Newtons rings: When a plano-convex lens is kept on an optically flat glass plate, a thin film of
air is formed between the two. Monochromatic light falling on this system partly reflects from
upper and lower surfaces of the film (Figure 1.14a). These two coherent waves interfere
constructively or destructively depending on the thickness of the air film. The locus of the
points having the same thickness is a circle and hence alternate bright and dark concentric
circular fringes are formed (Figure 1.15).
Fig.1.14 (a) Newtons ring set up, (b) the geometry of the set up.
For constructive interference 2d = (m - ) (assuming normal incidence and air film n = 1)
d R R2 r 2
r
R R 1
R
2
1
2
r R 1 using binomialexpansion
1 r 2
d R R 1 . . .
2 R
r2
2R
Substituting d , in 2d = (m - ) we get,
r
m 12 R
m 1, 2, . . . for maxima and is known as the order of the rings.
Note that r>0 for m=1. i.e, the first bright ring is at r>0 , and consequently the center must be
dark. This observation can be taken as an experimental evidence for the 180 phase change
on reflection.

11
Fig. 1.15 Circular interference fringes observed in Newtons ring set up

EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is interference of light waves?

What is coherence? Mention its importance.
How coherent waves are produced? Illustrate with figure.
Write the necessary condition for the constructive and destructive
interference of two light waves in terms of path/phase difference.
5. With necessary diagram, obtain an expression for the fringe-width of its
interference pattern.
6. Obtain an expression for intensity of light in double-slit interference
using phasor diagram.
7. Draw a schematic plot of the intensity of light in double-slit interference
against phase-difference.
8. Explain the following: i) Phase change on reflection ii) Optical path length
9. Write the conditions for constructive and destructive interference of
reflected light from a thin soap film in air, assuming normal incidence.
10. Explain the interference in wedge-shaped thin films.
11. Explain the formation of Newtons rings and hence obtain an expression
for the radius of mth order bright ring.
PROBLEMS
[2]
[2]
[3]
[2]
[5]
[5]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[5]
1. Calculate the path difference between two coherent waves in terms of their wavelengths,
for phase differences of i) 60 ii) 270.
Ans: i) /6 ii) 3/4
2. The double slit arrangement is illuminated by light of wavelength 546 nm. The slits are
0.12 mm apart and the screen on which interference pattern appears is 55 cm away.
a) What is the angular position of (i) first minima and (ii) tenth maxima?

12
b) What is the separation between two adjacent maxima?

Ans: 0.13, 2.6, 2.5 mm
3. Monochromatic light illuminates two parallel slits a distance d apart. The first
maximum is observed at an angular position of 15. By what percentage should
d be increased or decreased so that the second maximum will instead be observed
at 15 ?
Ans: 100%
4. A double-slit arrangement produces interference fringes for sodium light (wavelength
= 589 nm) that are 0.23 apart. For what wavelength would the angular separation
be 10% greater ? Assume, the angle is small.
Ans: 650 nm
5. Find graphically the resultant E(t) of the following wave disturbances.
E1 = E0 sin t
E2 = E0 sin (t + 15o)
E3 = E0 sin (t + 30o)
E4 = E0 sin (t + 45o)
Ans: E(t) = 3.83 Eo sin (t + 22.5)
6. Find the sum of the following quantities (a) graphically ( phasors method) and (b)
algebraically (using trigonometry) :
y1 = 10 sin (t)
y2 = 8.0 sin (t + 30)
Ans: y = 17.4 sin (t + 13.3)
7. Source A of long-range radio waves leads source B by 90 degrees. The distance rA to a
detector is greater than the distance rB by 100m. What is the phase difference at the
detector? Both sources have a wavelength of 400m.
Ans: 0
8. A soap film (n=1.33) in air is 320nm thick. If it is illuminated with white light at normal
incidence, what color will it appear to be in reflected light?
Ans: 567 nm (yellow-green)
9. Lenses are often coated with thin films of transparent substances such as MgF 2 (n=1.38)
to reduce the reflection from the glass surface. How thick a coating is required to produce
a minimum reflection at the center of the visible spectrum? ( wavelength = 550nm)
Ans: 100 nm
13
10. If the wavelength of the incident light is = 572 nm, rays A and B in Fig 41-24 are
out of phase by 1.50 . Find the thickness d of the film.
Ans: 215 nm
11. A broad source of light (wavelength = 680nm) illuminates normally two glass plates 120
mm long that touch at one end and are separated by a wire 0.048mm in diameter at the
other end. How many bright fringes appear over 120 mm distance?
Ans: 141
12. In a Newtons ring experiment, the radius of curvature R of the lens is 5.0m and its
diameter is 20mm. wavelength= 589nm
How many rings are produced?
How many rings would be seen if the arrangement is immersed in water (n = 1.33)?
Ans: 34, 45

14
1.2 DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

When light passes through a narrow slit (of width comparable to the wave length of light), the
light not only flare out far beyond the geometrical shadow of the slit; they also gives rise to a
series of alternating light and dark bands. This observation can be explained by assuming that
light must travel as waves and as such bend at the edges of apertures or obstacles on their
path. The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of obstacles or slits, and hence
its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction. As a result of
bending of light waves, the edges of shadows are not very sharp as expected by the rectilinear
propagation of light. Diffraction effects are seen more prominently when the size of the object
causing diffraction have dimensions comparable to the wavelength of light falling on the
object.
Fig. 1.16 Diffraction pattern - Poisson spot
Fig. 1.17 Diffraction at an aperture

Diffraction occur when coherent wave-fronts of light fall on opaque barrier B, which contains
an aperture of arbitrary shape (Figure 1.17). The diffraction pattern can be seen on screen C.

15
The pattern formed on the screen depends on the separation of the source and the screen C
from the aperture B. We can consider three cases:
1. Very small separation- when C is very close to B(irrespective of source distance) the waves
travel only a short distance after leaving the aperture and rays diverge very little. The
effects of diffraction are negligible, and the pattern on the screen is the geometrical
shadow of the aperture.
2. Both S and C are at large distance- i.e., both incident and the emerging wave-fronts are
plane (the rays are parallel). One can achieve this condition by using two converging lenses.
This class of diffraction is called Fraunhofer diffraction(Figure 1.18a and b).
3. S and C are at finite distance from the aperture - i.e., incident and emerging wave fronts
are spherical or cylindrical. Diffraction produced in this case is called Fresnel class (Figure
1.18c).
Fig. 1.18 Diffraction (a) and (b) Fraunhofer type, (c) Fresnel type
1.2.1 SINGLE-SLIT FRAUNHOFER DIFRACTION (QUALITATIVE)
All the diffracted rays arriving at P0travel equal optical paths and hence are in-phase (Figure
1.19). Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum (central maximum) of
intensity I0 at P0.
16
Fig. 1.19 Conditions at the central maximum of the diffraction pattern

Consider another point P1 on the screen where the rays leaving the slit at an angle , meet
(Figure 1.20). Ray r1 originates on the top of the slit and ray r2 at its center. If is chosen such
that the path difference between r1 and r2 is (a/2) sin = /2, a condition for destructive
interference of rays r1 and r2.
Fig. 1.20 Conditions at the first minimum of the diffraction pattern

In such a situation, this condition is satisfied for every pair of rays, one from upper half of the
slit and the other corresponding ray from lower half of the slit. Hence each pair of
corresponding rays cancelling each other producing first minima.
So the condition for first minimum,
a
sin
2
2
or
a sin

17
This equation shows that, the central maximum becomes wider as the slit is made narrower.
If the slit width is as small as one wavelength ( a= ), the first minimum occurs at = 90 which
implies that the central maxima fills the entire forward hemisphere.
In fig. 1.21, the slit is divided into four equal zones with rays r1, r2 , r3 and r4 leaving the top of
each zone. Let be such that the path difference (a/4) sin, between r1and r2 is
(a/4)
sin = /2.
Fig. 1.21 Conditions at the second minimum of the diffraction pattern

This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4. As a result, while the
corresponding rays from first and second quarters of the slit interferes destructively so does
the rays from third and fourth quarters. As a whole, the secondary wavelets from different
parts of the slit interfere destructively resulting in minimum intensity at P 2. Thus, condition for
second minima is, (a/4) sin = /2 or, a sin = 2
In general, the condition for m th minima,
a sin m
m 1, 2, 3, . . .
There is a maximum approximately half way between each adjacent pair of minima.
1.2.2 INTENSITY IN SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION (QUANTITATIVE)
Divide the slit of width a into N parallel strips each of width x (this also means that their
separation is also x). The strips are very narrow and can be regarded as radiator of Huygen
wavelets and all the light from a given strip arrives at point P with same phase (Figure 1.22).

18
Fig. 1.22 A slit of width a divided into N parallel strips each of width x (Inset shows the
condition at second strip)
The phase difference between waves arriving at point P from two adjacent strips have the
same constant phase difference
x sin
The wave disturbance at any point due to each strip can be represented by a vector. To find
the resultant intensity, we have to lay N vectors each of length Eo head to tail, each differing
in direction from the previous one by . The resultant phasor amplitude is found by vector
addition.
Fig. 1.23 Phasor diagram to calculate the intensity in single slit diffraction
19
From Figure 1.23,

E 2R sin
Also
Em
R
Combining, E
Or , E E m
Em
sin
sin
where
is the phase difference between rays from the top and bottom of the slit. Thus,
So,
a sin
a
sin
The intensity E
2
sin
E
2
m
sin
2
m
where m E m is the max. intensity

From the above eqn., for minima, sin 0
Hence m where m 1 ,2, 3,.....
or, a sin m where m 1, 2, 3,.....
2
Fig. 1.24 Intensity distribution in single slit diffraction

20
Fig. 1.25The intensity distribution in single-slit diffraction for three different values of a/.
1.2.3 DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
The mathematical analysis of diffraction by a circular aperture shows that the first minimum
occurs at an angle from the central axis given bysin 1.22
where d is the diameter of aperture.

d
The equation for first minimum in single slit diffraction is
sin
where a is the slit width
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the aperture into elementary
Huygens sources and integrate over the aperture.

21
Fig. 1.26 Diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture

The fact that lens images are diffraction patterns is important when we wish to distinguish two
distant point objects whose angular separation is small. The condition for resolution of such
close objects is known as Rayleighs criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closely
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of the two point sources is
such that the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first
minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.
R sin 1 1.22
since R is very small, it can be appoximated as
R 1.22
R is the smallest angular separation for which we can resolve the images of two objects.
Fig. 1.27 Images of two distant point sources formed by a converging lens (a) Well
resolved (b) Just resolved (c) Not resolved
1.2.4 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
In our analysis of double slit interference we assumed that the slits were arbitrarily narrow
i.e., a<<. For such narrow slits, the central part of the screen is uniformly illuminated by the
diffracted waves from each slit. When such waves interfere, they produce interference fringes

22
of uniform intensity. But, in practice the condition a<< is usually not met. For such relatively
wide slits, the intensity of interference fringes is not uniform. Instead, the intensity of the
fringes varies within an envelope due to the diffraction pattern of a single slit as shown in the
Figure 1.28.
Ignoring diffraction effects, the intensity of interference fringes is given byI, INT = Im,INT cos2
Ignoring interference effects, the intensity of diffraction pattern is given by
Im,DIF(sin/)2
The combined effect is the product of the two and is given by I
sin
m ( cos ) 2

I,
DIF
Fig. 1.28 Double slit interference and diffraction combined

23
Fig. 1.29 Intensity sketches to illustrate the combined effect of interference and diffraction
1.2.5 MULTIPLE SLITS
In principle, one can use a double slit interference pattern to measure the wavelength, but
fringes being wide there involves an uncertainty in locating their mid points. It has been
observed that increase in the slit number reduces the fringe widths and the precision of
wavelength measurement improves. The second effect of increasing the number of slits is the
appearance of faint secondary maxima, (N-2) in number, as shown in the Figure 1.30.
Fig. 1.30 Intensity pattern for (a) Two-slit diffraction (b) Five-slit diffraction
Following figure shows five slit grating illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength. A
principal maximum occurs when the path difference between rays from any pair of adjacent

24
slits is d sin = m , where d is the separation between adjacent slits. Location of principal
maxima is independent of number of slits.
Fig. 1.31 An arrangement of multiple slits (Here N = 5)

Width of the maxima: Consider the Figure 1.32 in which the mth principal maximum occurs at
an angle . We move away from this maximum through an angular displacement to arrive
at the next minimum. This angle is the measure of angular width of the mth maximum.
Fig. 1.32 Width of principal maximum

At minima, the phase difference between adjacent slits is such that,

2
where N is the number of slits, since N phasors form a closed loop
N
Corresponding path difference is,

N
2

25
For the
mth
principal maximum at , we have d sin = m .
For the first minimum at ( + ) after the mth principal maximum is therefore
d sin ( ) m
d sin cos cos sin m
d sin (d cos ) m N
m (d cos )
N d cos
m N
is the angular half width of mth principal maximum at .
It is seen that, the principal maximum become sharper as number of slits (N) increases as
mentioned earlier. Width of central maximum will be
Nd
1.2.6 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

The diffraction grating, is a useful device for analysing light sources. It consists of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A typical grating might contain N= 10,000 slits
distributed over a width of a few centimetres. They are of two kind: i) Transmission gratings
ii) Reflection gratings. A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on a
glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves are transparent
to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel
grooves on the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light from the spaces between
the grooves is specular, and the reflection from the grooves is diffuse.
Fig. 1.33 (a) Reflection type grating, (b) Grating spectroscope

26
Fig. 1.34 Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source

Most gratings used for visible light, whether of the transmission or reflection type, are phase
gratings i.e, there is a periodic change in phase (and a negligible change in amplitude) of the
light as a function of position across the grating. The grating equation is same as that of
multiple slits i.e, d sin = m , d is the slit separation, m 1,2,3,..... and is called order of
the spectra.
EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11
Explain the term diffraction of light. What are the factors that determine
diffraction pattern?
Discuss qualitatively, the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single-slit.
Derive an expression for intensity of diffraction pattern in the case of
single-slit, using phasor diagram.
Draw a schematic plot of the intensity of light in single slit diffraction
against phase difference.
Explain briefly diffraction at a circular aperture.
State and explain Rayleighs criterion for optical resolution.
Effect of diffraction is ignored in the case of Youngs double slit
interference. Give reason.
Arrive at the equation for the intensity of double slit diffraction pattern.
Discuss qualitatively, the diffraction due to multiple slits.
Obtain an expression for the half angular width of any principal
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits.
What is diffraction grating? Write the grating equation.
[3]
[5]
[5]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[3]
[5]
[2]
PROBLEMS
1. A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value of a does the minimum
for red light ( = 650nm) fall at = 15o?
Ans: 2.51 m
2. In the above problem what is the wavelength of the light whose first diffraction
maximum (not counting the central maximum) falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first
minimum of red light?
Ans: 430 nm

27
3. Calculate, approximately, the relative (with respect to central maxima) intensities of

the first three maxima in the single-slit diffraction pattern.
Ans: 0.045, 0.016, 0.0083
4. A single slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are a and b, so chosen that the
first diffraction minimum of a component coincides with the second minimum of the b
component.
i) What is the relationship between the two wavelengths?
ii) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?
Ans: (i) a = 2 b (ii) all minima of a coincide with even numbered minima of b
5. Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit with width 25.2m. The
distance from the slit to a screen is 3.48m. Consider a point on the screen 1.13cm from
the central maximum. Calculate (a) (b) (c) ratio of the intensity at this point to the
intensity at the central maximum.
Ans: 0.186, 0.478 rad (= 27.4), 0.926
6. A converging lens 32mm in diameter has a focal length f of 24 cm. (a) What angular
separation must two distant point objects have to satisfy Rayleighs criterion? Assume
that = 550nm. (b) How far apart are the centers of the diffraction patterns in the focal
plane of the lens?
Ans: 2.1 x 105 rad (= 4.3), 5 m ( 9)
7. In a double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen from the slits is 52cm, the
wavelength is 480nm, slit separation d is 0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
i) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
ii) What is the distance from the central maximum to the first minimum of the fringe
envelope?
Ans: 2.1 mm, 10 mm
8. What requirements must be met for the central maximum of the envelope of the doubleslit interference pattern to contain exactly 11 fringes?
Ans: slit separation = (11/2) slit width
9. A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm. It is illuminated with yellow
sodium light ( = 589 nm). Find (a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed
and (b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
Ans: (a) 16.3, 34.1, 57.3 (b) 5.2 x 105 rad (= 0.18)
10. A diffraction grating has 104 rulings uniformly spaced over 25.0mm. It is illuminated at
normal incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which contains two closely
spaced lines of wavelengths 589.00nm and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b) What is the angular separation
between the first order maxima of these lines?
Ans: (a) 13.627 (b) 0.014

28
11. Given a grating with 400 rulings/mm, how many orders of the entire visible spectrum
(400-700nm) can be produced?
Ans: 3

29
2. APPLIED OPTICS
OBJECTIVES:
To explain basic interactions of radiation with matter.

To comprehend various terminologies used to explain lasing action.
To understand the basic principle of lasing system.
To identify the various possible applications of laser.
To understand the basic working principle of optical fiber.
To classify different types of optical fibers and explain their merits & demerits.
To analyze different types of losses in optical fibers.
To recognize various applications of optical fibers.
2.1 LASER
Laser light is highly monochromatic, coherent, directional and can be sharply focused. Each of
these characteristics that are not normally found in ordinary light makes laser a unique and
the most powerful tool. Lasers find a wide variety of applications in the field of scientific
research, engineering and medicine.
2.1.1 SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED TRANSITIONS
There are three possible processes that involve interaction between matter and radiation.
Absorption: Absorption of a photon of frequency f takes place when the energy

difference E2 E1 of the allowed energy states of the atomic system equals the energy
hf of the photon. Then the photon disappears and the atomic system moves to upper
energy state E2 .

30
Spontaneous Emission: The average life time of the atomic system in the excited state
is of the order of 108 s. After the life time of the atomic system in the excited state,
it comes back to the state of lower energy on its own accord by emitting a photon of
energy hf = E2 E1 .
In an ordinary light source, the radiation of light from different atoms is not coherent.
The radiations are emitted in different directions in random manner. Such type of emission
of radiation is called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated Emission: When a photon (called stimulating photon) of suitable frequency

interacts with an excited atomic system, the latter comes down to ground state before
its life time. Such an emission of radiation is called stimulated emission. In stimulated
emission, both the stimulating photon and the stimulated photon are of same frequency,
same phase and are in same state of polarization. These photons are emitted in the same
direction. In other words, these two photons are coherent.
Population inversion: From Boltzmann statistics, the ratio between population of atoms in
two energy states E1 and E2 at equilibrium temperature T is,

31
E E1
nE 2
exp 2
nE 1
k T
[2.1]
where k is Boltzmann constant, n(E1) is density of atoms with energy E1 , n(E2) is density
of atoms with energy E2 . Under normal condition, where populations are determined only
by the action of thermal agitation, population of the atoms in upper energy state is less
than that in lower energy state (i.e. n(E2) < n(E1), Figure 2.4a).
For the stimulated emission rate to exceed the absorption rate it is necessary to have
higher population of upper energy state than that of lower energy state. This condition
is called population inversion (n(E2) > n(E1), Figure 2.4b). This is a non-equilibrium condition
and is facilitated by the presence of energy states called metastable states where the
average life time of the atom is 10-3 s which is much longer than that of the ordinary excited
state ( 10-8s).
Principle of laser: Lasing medium or active medium, resonant cavity and pumping system are
the essential parts of any lasing system (Figure 2.5). Lasing medium has atomic systems
(active centers), with special energy levels which are suitable for laser action. This
medium may be a gas, or a liquid, or a crystal or a semiconductor. The atomic systems
in this may have energy levels including a ground state (E1), an excited state (E3) and
a metastable state (E2).

32
Fig. 2.5 Block diagram of laser system
2.1.2 RUBY LASER

In ruby laser [Fig.2.6], the lasing medium is a ruby rod which has chemical composition
of Al2O3 doped with Cr2O3. Cr3+ ions are the active centers, which has approximately
similar energy level structure as shown in Figure 2.7. The resonant cavity is a pair of
parallel mirrors to reflect the radiation back into the lasing medium. Pumping is a
process of exciting more number of atoms in the ground state to higher energy states,
which is required for attaining the population inversion. The atoms in the state E3 may
come down to state E1 by spontaneous emission or they may come down to metastable
state (E2) by collision. The atoms in the state E2 come down to state E1 by stimulated
emission. These radiations may be reflected due to mirror action of the end faces. When
population inversion takes place at E2, a stray photon of right energy stimulates chain
reaction, accumulates more photons, all coherent. The reflecting ends turn the coherent
beam back into active region so that the regenerative process continues and part of
the light beam comes out from the partial mirror as a laser pulse. The output is an intense
beam of coherent light.

33
2.1.3 He-Ne LASER

He-Ne Laser has a glass discharge tube filled with He (80%) and Ne (20%) at low
pressure. Helium gas is the pumping medium and Neon gas is the lasing medium (Figure
2.8). The simplified energy level diagram (Figure 2.9) shows four levels: Eo, E1, E2 and E3.
Electrons and ions in the electrical gas discharge occasionally collide with He-atoms,
raising them to level E3 (a metastable state). During collisions between He- and Neatoms, the excitation energy of He-atom is transferred to Ne-atom (level E2), selectively
populating E2 due to resonant energy transfer. Thus, population inversion occurs between
levels E2 and E1. This population inversion is maintained because (i) the metastability of
level E3 ensures a ready supply of Ne-atoms in level E2 and (ii) level E1 decays rapidly
to Eo. Stimulated emission from level E2 to level E1 predominates, and red laser light is
generated. The mirror M1 is fully reflective and the mirror M2 is partially reflective to
allow the laser beam to come out. The Brewsters windows W s are at polarizing
angles to the mirrors, to reduce the reflection loss.

34
2.1.4 APPLICATIONS OF LASER

Laser is used in various scientific, engineering and medical applications. It is used in
investigating the basic laws of interaction of atoms and molecules with electromagnetic wave
of high intensity. Laser is widely used in engineering applications like optical communication,
microwelding and sealing etc. In medical field, laser is used in bloodless and painless surgery
especially in treating the retinal detachment. Also used as a tool in treating dental decay,
tooth extraction, cosmetic surgery.
2.2 OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical fibers are thin, flexible strands of transparent dielectric material such as glass or
plastic. They are basically used to guide infrared & visible light waves through curved paths.
Construction of optical fiber: It consists of a central cylindrical core made of pure glass or
plastic of refractive index n1 surrounded by a cladding made of similar material but of lower
refractive index n2 (n2 < n1). But there is a material continuity from core to cladding. The
cladding is enclosed in a polyurethane jacket that protects the fiber from external damaging
factors such as abrasion, crushing & chemical reactions (Figure 2.10). Many such protected
fibers are grouped to form a cable. The diameter of the core varies between 10 to 200 m
that of the cladding varies between 50 to 250 m.

35
Principle of optical fibers: Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection of
light. When a beam of light traveling in an optically denser medium falls on interface
separating denser medium from relatively less dense medium, if the angle of incidence is
greater than particular angle called critical angle (C) for the pair of media, the light undergoes
total internal reflection which is shown in figure below. Total internal reflection is the most
superior type of reflection. Reflection is total in the sense that almost the entire energy is
returned to the first medium through reflection without any loss of energy. Due to this the
optical fibers are able to sustain light signal transmission over very long distances despite
infinite number of reflections.
Total internal reflection

36
2.2.1 ANGLE OF ACCEPTANCE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

Consider an optical fiber with refractive index of the material of the core n1 and cladding n2
placed in a surrounding medium of refractive index n0 (Figure 2.11). Let a ray AO of light
enter the core of the fiber at an angle 0. Let this ray after refraction through an angle 1 at O
strikes the interface between the core and the cladding at the critical angle such that the
refracted ray grazes the interface.
Applying Snells law of refraction at O, we have,

sin 0 n1
sin 1 n0
sin 0
n1
sin 1
n0
[2.2]
Similarly, applying Snells law at B,

sin ( 90 1 )
n
n
2
or cos 1 2
sin 90
n1
n1
sin 1
n22
n12
[2.3]
Substituting Eq. (2.3) in Eq. (2.2) and simplifying,
sin 0
1
n0
n12 n22
[2.4]
0 is called the acceptance angle or half angle of the acceptance cone. The acceptance angle
is generally about 5 for a single mode fiber & 10 to 15 for multi mode fibers. The term sin0
is called numerical aperture (NA), which indicates the light gathering power of the optical fiber.
It is evident that any ray that enters the fiber at an angle less than 0, strikes the core-cladding
interface at angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection each
37
time it strikes the interface. The optical fiber sustains the light signal transmission over a long
distance.
Fractional refractive index change ( ): It is the ratio of the difference in the refractive indices
(n1n2) between the core & the cladding to the refractive index n1 of the core.
( n1 n2 )
n1
[2.5]
Since n1 > n2, is always positive.

Relation between NA & :
From Eq. 2.4, assuming n0 = 1, NA =
n12 n22 = ( n1 n2 )( n1 n2 )
From Eq. 2.5, (n1n2) = n1 and since n1 n2, we can approximate (n1+n2) 2 n1.
Therefore, NA =
( n1 ) ( 2n1 ) n1 2
[2.6]
The light accepting capacity of a fiber can be increased by making large. But there are
practical limitations to achieve this. Also a very large may cause signal distortion.
Skip distance (Ls): Skip distance is the distance between two successive reflections of the ray
of light which propagates through the optical fiber. Consider a portion of the optical fiber
through which a light signal is transmitted.
Fig. 2.12 Skip distance

From the Figure 2.12,
Ls d cot 1 d cos ec 2 1 1
n12
Ls d
1
n02 sin 2
( sin 1
n0
sin )
n1
[2.7]
2.2.2 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Based on their refractive index profile and geometry, optical fibers may be broadly classified
into
a) single mode step index optical fibers
b) multi-mode step index optical fibers

38
c) multi-mode graded index optical fibers

Number of modes of transmission through an optical fiber: Depending on the launch angle
into the fiber, there can be hundreds of ray paths or modes by which energy can propagate
down the core. The ray paths corresponding to the same propagating wave front is called a
mode. An optical fiber permits a discrete number of modes to propagate through it. Not all
the rays that enter the acceptance cone sustain propagation. Only those modes that satisfy
the coherent phase condition are successfully propagated. The rays belonging to the same
propagating wave-front must remain in step despite the phase changes that occur on
reflection and traversing different optical paths.
The number of modes supported for propagation through an optical fiber is determined by a
parameter called normalized frequency (V) given by
V
d
n 0
n12 n 22
where d is the diameter of the core and is the wavelength of the light propagated. If V >>1,
V2
then the number of successfully propagated modes is
.
2
Single mode step index optical fiber: A single mode optical fiber consists of a core having a
uniform refractive index n1 that abruptly decreases at the core-cladding interface to a lower
value n2, the refractive index of the cladding. The diameter of the core is narrow (5-10m)
generally a few times the wavelength of the light propagating through it. Only rays nearly
parallel to the fiber axis will travel through. It supports a single mode propagation because of
its narrow core.
Fig. 2.13 Single mode step-index fiber

Step-Index Multimode fiber: In this case also the refractive index profile is similar to step index
fiber i.e., fiber consists of a core having a uniform refractive index n 1 that abruptly decreases
39
at the core-cladding interface to a lower value n2 the refractive index of the cladding. But the
diameter of the core is large (50-200m). The comparatively large central core makes it
rugged and easily infused with light, as well as easily terminated and coupled. It also supports
a large number of modes for propagation.
Fig. 2.14 Multi mode step-index fiber

Graded-Index Multimode fiber (GRIN): It consists of a core whose refractive index decreases
gradually from its axis radially outward and becomes equal to the refractive index of the
cladding at the core-cladding interface. The refractive index of the cladding remains uniform.
Dimensions of the core and cladding are similar to that of step index multimode fibers. It
supports a large number of modes for propagation because of its large core diameter.

40
2.2.3 TYPES OF ATTENUATION

Attenuation is the loss of power of the light signal that occurs during its propagation through
the optical fiber. The main sources of attenuation are
1. absorption
2. scattering
3. other losses
Absorption: Absorption of light during propagation occurs due to the impurities present in the
fiber material and also due to the intrinsic nature of the material itself.
The impurities generally present are
a) Transition metals such as iron, chromium, cobalt, copper etc.
b) The hydroxy ions (OH-) that enter into the fiber material at the time of fabrication.
The photons absorbed by the impurities may be lost as heat or may be reemitted as light
energy of different wavelengths and different phase from the one that is propagated. Hence
it results in a loss. Intrinsic absorption occurs by the pure material itself even if the material is
free from impurities and inhomogeneities. Intrinsic absorption though quite less compared to
the loss due to the impurities, it cannot be eliminated.
Scattering: Glass is a heterogeneous mixture of oxides of silicon, phosphorus, germanium etc.
Structural inhomogeneities in the core index will set in the fiber material during solidification
of glass from its molten state. It will also result in a fluctuation of the molecular density. These
in homogeneities act as scattering centers. Since their dimensions are smaller than the
wavelength of the light propagated through the fiber, the energy loss that occurs due to such
1
scattering resembles Rayleigh scattering that is proportional to 4 . The losses due to these
scattering cannot be eliminated by any process. There are other structural in homogeneities
& defects that set in during fabrication of the fiber that contribute to the loss due to scattering.
Their sources are trapped gas bubbles, unreacted starting materials etc. However these can
be reduced to a great extent by improved methods of manufacturing.

41
Other losses: a) Due to dimensional irregularities and imperfections in the fibers (that are
called microscopic bends) the light may not sustain total internal reflection. The energy will
escape from the core.
b) Macroscopic bends occur during wrapping the fiber on a spool or negotiating a curve during
cable laying. Fibers can withstand bends of curvature up to about 10cm without significant
loss. For higher curvature (smaller radius of curvature) than this, the loss increases
exponentially.
Amplification is therefore needed in communication applications at regular intervals in order
to compensate for the losses that occur despite all precautions. An optical repeater is used to
boost the signal.
2.2.4 APPLICATIONS
Optical communication: Optical communication is communication at a distance using light to
carry information. An optical communication system uses a transmitter, which encodes a
message into an optical signal, a channel (optical fiber), which carries the signal to its
destination, and a receiver, which reproduces the message from the received optical signal.
Optical communication has several advantages can carry large data in digital form,
interference and noise free.
Fig. 2.17 Simplified block diagram of optical communication system

42
Optical fibers are also used in sensors, flexible fiberscope (endoscope) and other industrial
applications.
QUESTIONS:
2.1 LASER
1 Mention the characteristics of a laser beam.
2 Explain the following terms with reference to lasers:
(a) spontaneous emission
(b) stimulated emission
(c) metastable state
(d) population inversion
(e) pumping
(f) active medium
(g) resonant cavity.
3 Explain the principle of a laser.
4 Explain construction and operation of ruby laser with necessary diagrams.
5 Explain construction and operation of He-Ne laser with necessary diagrams.
6 Mention any four applications of laser.
2.2 OPTICAL FIBERS
7 What is critical angle?
OR
Define total internal reflection
8 With necessary diagram, derive an expression for angle of acceptance and numerical
aperture.
9 Define fractional refractive index change and get the relation between &
numerical aperture NA.
10 What is skip distance? With neat diagram, derive an expression for it.
11 What are different types of optical fibers? Briefly explain them with diagrams.

43
12 What are the different types of attenuations possible in optical fibers? Explain them.
13 Mention any four applications of optical fiber.
PROBLEMS
2.1 LASER
1 A three level laser of the type shown in figure,
emits laser light at a wavelength 550 nm, near
the centre of the visible band. If the optical
mechanism is shut off, what will be the ratio
of the population of the upper level E2 to that
of the lower level E1 at 300 K ? At what
temperature for the condition of (a) would the
ratio of populations be half ?
2 A pulsed ruby laser has a ruby rod (Al2O3
doped with Cr2O3) as an active medium, which
is 6 cm long and 1 cm in diameter. There is
one aluminium ion (active centre, with energy
levels of the type shown in the figure) for
every 3500 chromium ions. The ruby laser light
has a wavelength of 694.4 nm. Suppose that
all the chromium ions are in metastable state
(E2) and none are in ground state (E1). How much energy is there in a single
laser pulse if all these ions come down to ground state in a single stimulated
emission chain reaction episode ? Density of Al2O3 is 3700 kg/m3. Molar mass of
Al2O3 is 0.102 kg/mol.
3 A ruby laser emits light at a wavelength of 694.4 nm. If a laser pulse is emitted
for 12.0 ps and the energy release per pulse is 150 mJ, (a) what is the length
of the pulse, and (b) how many photons are there in each pulse ?
4 It is entirely possible that techniques for modulating the frequency or amplitude
of a laser beam will be developed so that such a beam can serve as a carrier
for television signals, much as microwave beams do now. Assume also that
laser systems will be available whose wavelengths can be precisely tuned to
anywhere in the visible range (400 nm to 700 nm). If a television channel
occupies a bandwidth of 10 MHz, how many channels could be accommodated

44
with this laser technology ? Comment on the intrinsic superiority of visible light
to microwaves as carriers of information.
5 A He-Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output
power of 2.3 mW. How many photons are emitted each minute by this laser
when operating ?
6 An atom has two energy levels with a transition wavelength of 582 nm. At 300
K, 4.0 x 1020 atoms are in the lower state. (a) How many occupy the upper state
under conditions of thermal equilibrium ? (b) Suppose, instead, that 7.0 x 1020
atoms are pumped into upper state, with 4.0 x 1020 atoms in the lower state.
How much energy could be released in a single laser pulse ?
2.2 OPTICAL FIBER
7 A step index optical fibre 63.5 m in core-diameter has a core of refractive index 1.53
and a cladding of index 1.39. Determine (a) the numerical aperture for the fibre, (b)
the critical angle for core-cladding interface, (c) the acceptance cone half-angle (the
maximum entrance angle) (d) the number of reflections in 1.0 m length of the fibre
for a ray at the maximum entrance angle, (e) the number of reflections in 1.0 m
length of the fibre for a ray at half the maximum entrance angle.
8 A glass optical fibre of refractive index 1.450 is to be clad with another to ensure total
internal reflection that will contain light traveling within 5 of the fibre-axis. What
maximum index of refraction is allowed for the cladding?
9 The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine
the refractive index of its core. The refractive index of the cladding is 1.59. Also find
the acceptance cone half-angle when the fibre is in water. Refractive index of water
is 1.33.
10 The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30 when kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.

45
3. QUANTUM PHYSICS
OBJECTIVES:
To learn certain experimental results that can be understood only by particle
theory of electromagnetic waves.
To learn the particle properties of waves and the wave properties of the particles.
To understand the uncertainty principle.
3.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION AND PLANCKS HYPOTHESIS
A black body is an object that absorbs all incident radiation. A small hole cut into a cavity is
the most popular and realistic example. None of the incident radiation escapes. The radiation
is absorbed in the walls of the cavity. This causes a heating of the cavity walls. The oscillators
in the cavity walls vibrate and re-radiate at wavelengths corresponding to the temperature of
the cavity, thereby producing standing waves. Some of the energy from these standing waves
can leave through the opening. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the black body is
called
black-body
radiation.
Fig. 3.1: A physical model of a Ferrys blackbody

Properties:
The black body is an ideal absorber of incident radiation.
A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium with the surroundings when the incident
radiation power is balanced by the power re-radiated.
The emitted "thermal" radiation from a black body characterizes the equilibrium
temperature of the black-body.
Emitted radiation from a blackbody does not depend on the material of which the walls
are made. But, it depends on temperature
Basic laws of radiation
(1) All objects emit radiant energy.

46
(2) Hotter objects emit more energy (per unit area) than colder objects. The total power of the
emitted radiation is proportional to the fourth power of temperature. This is called Stefans
Law and is given by
P = A e T4
where P is power radiated from the surface of the object (W), T is equilibrium surface
temperature (K), is Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.670 x 108 Wm-2K-4 ), A is surface area
of
the object (m2) and e is emissivity of the surface (e =1 for a perfect blackbody).
(3) Wavelength corresponding to the maximum intensity shifts towards shorter wavelengths
as the black body temperature increases. This is Wiens Displacement Law and is given by
m T = constant = 2.898 103 m.K or m T1
where m is the wavelength corresponding to peak intensity and T is equilibrium temperature
of the blackbody.
Fig. 3.2: Intensity of blackbody radiation versus wavelength at two different temperatures
(4) Rayleigh-Jeans Law: This law tries to explain the distribution of energy from a black
body. The intensity or power per unit area I (,T)d, emitted in the wavelength interval to
+d from a blackbody is given by
2 c kB T
I( ,T )
4
kB is Boltzmann's constant=1.38 x 10-23 J K-1, c is speed of light in vacuum, T is blackbody

temperature(at thermal equilibrium). It agrees with experimental measurements only for long
wavelengths. It predicts an energy output that diverges towards infinity as wavelengths
become smaller and is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

47
Fig. 3.3: Comparison of

experimental results and the
curve predicted by the RayleighJeans law for the distribution of blackbody radiation
(5) Plancks Law: Max Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an
equation for I (,T) that is in complete agreement with experimental results. To derive the
law, Planck made two assumptions concerning the nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls:
(i) The energy of an oscillator is quantized hence it can have only certain discrete values:
En = n h f
where n is a positive integer called a quantum number, f is the frequency of cavity oscillators,
and h is a constant called Plancks constant. Each discrete energy value corresponds to a
different quantum state, represented by the quantum number n.
(ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy only when making a transition from one quantum
state to another. Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.
Fig. 3.4: Allowed energy levels for an oscillator with frequency f

Plancks law explains the distribution of energy from a black body which is given by,
I( ,T )
2 h c 2
hc
kB T

48
where I (,T) d is the intensity or power per unit area emitted in the wavelength interval d
from a blackbody, h is Plancks constant, kB is Boltzmann's constant, c is speed of light in
vacuum and T is temperature of blackbody (at thermal equilibrium) .
The Plancks Law gives a distribution that peaks at a certain wavelength, the peak shifts to
shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area under the curve grows rapidly with
increasing temperature. This law is in agreement with the experimental data.
The results of Planck's law:
The denominator [exp(hc/kBT)] tends to infinity faster than the numerator (5), thus
resolving the ultraviolet catastrophe and hence arriving at experimental observation:
I (, T) 0 as 0.
hc
For very large ,
exp( hckT ) 1 k T I( , T ) 2 c 4 k T
i.e. I (, T) 0 as .
From a fit between Planck's law and experimental data, Plancks constant was derived to be
h = 6.626 1034 J-s.
3.2 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Ejection of electrons from the surface of certain metals when it is irradiated by an
electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.
Evacuated glass/
quartz tube
Fig. 3.5: Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect (P- Photosensitive Plate / Cathode, C
Collector Plate / Anode, G sensitive galvanometer/ammeter)
Experimental Observations:
1.
2.
Photoemission is an instantaneous process.

No electrons are emitted if the incident light frequency falls below a cutoff frequency
called Threshold frequency.
3. As intensity of incident light increases, photocurrent also increases.
4. Kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons is independent of light intensity.
However, K. E. increases with light frequency.

49
5. Photocurrent produced vs potential difference graph shows that kinetic energy of the most
energetic photoelectrons is,
Kmax = e Vs
where Vs is stopping potential
Fig. 3.6: Photoelectric current versus applied potential difference for two light intensities
Classical Predictions:
1. If light is really a wave, it was thought that if one shine of light of any fixed wavelength,
at sufficient intensity on the emitter surface, electrons should absorb energy continuously
from the em waves and electrons should be ejected.
2. As the intensity of light is increased (made it brighter and hence classically, a more
energetic wave), kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase.
3. Measurable / larger time interval between incidence of light and ejection of
photoelectrons.
4. Ejection of photoelectron should not depend on light frequency
5. Photoelectron kinetic energy should not depend upon the frequency of the incident light.
6. In short experimental results contradict classical predictions.
Einsteins Interpretation of electromagnetic radiation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy packets (light quanta called photons now).
The energy E, per packet depends on frequency f: E = hf.
More intense light corresponds to more photons, not higher energy photons.
Each photon of energy E moves in vacuum at the speed of light: c = 3 x 10 8 m/s and each
photon carries a momentum, p = E/c.
Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect:

A photon of the incident light gives all its energy hf to a single electron (absorption of energy
by the electrons is not a continuous process as envisioned in the wave model) and the kinetic

50
energy of the most energetic photoelectron

Kmax = hf (Einsteins photoelectric
equation)
is called the work function of the metal. It is the minimum energy with which an electron is
bound in the metal.
All the observed features of photoelectric effect could be explained by Einsteins photoelectric
equation:
1. Equation shows that Kmax depends only on frequency of the incident light.
2. Almost instantaneous emission of photoelectrons due to one -to one interaction between
photons and electrons.
3. Ejection of electrons depends on light frequency since photons should have energy greater
than the work function in order to eject an electron.
4. The cutoff frequency fc is related to by fc = /h. If the incident frequency f is less
than fc , there is no emission of photoelectrons.
The graph of kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectron Kmax vs frequency f is a
straight line, according to Einsteins equation.
Fig. 3.7: A representative plot of Energy, Kmax versus frequency of incident light for two
different metals
3.3 COMPTON EFFECT
When X-rays are scattered by free/nearly free electrons, they suffer a change in their
wavelength which depends on the scattering angle. This scattering phenomenon is known as
Compton Effect.
Comptons experiment and observation: Compton measured the intensity of scattered X-rays
from a solid target (graphite) as a function of wavelength for different angles. The experimental
51
setup is shown in Figure 3.9. Contrary to the classical prediction, only one frequency for
scattered radiation was seen at a given angle. This is shown in the Figure 3.8.
The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks, one at o and the other at >o . The
shifted peak at is caused by the scattering of X-rays from free electrons. Shift in wavelength
was predicted by Compton to depend on scattering angle as
h
(1cos )
mc
where m is the mass of the electron, c is velocity of light, h is Plancks constant.
This is known as Compton shift equation, and the factor

is called the Compton
wavelength and = 2.43 pico metre.
Fig. 3.8: Scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength for Compton scattering at = 0, 45,
90, and 135 showing single frequency at a given angle
Fig. 3.9: Schematic diagram of Comptons apparatus.

Classical Predictions: Oscillating electromagnetic waves (classically, X-rays are em waves)
incident on electrons should have two effects: i) oscillating electromagnetic field causes
oscillations in electrons. Each electron first absorbs radiation as a moving particle and then reradiates in all directions as a moving particle and thereby exhibiting two Doppler shifts in the
frequency of radiation. ii) radiation pressure should cause the electrons to accelerate in the
direction of propagation of the waves.
Because different electrons will move at different speeds after the interaction, depending on
the amount of energy absorbed from electromagnetic waves, the scattered waves at a given
angle will have all frequencies (Doppler- shifted values).

52
Derivation of the Compton shift equation: Compton could explain the experimental result by
treating the X-rays not as waves but rather as point like particles (photons) having energy E =
hfo = hc/o , momentum p = hf/c = h/ and zero rest energy. Photons collide elastically with
free electrons initially at rest and moving relativistically after collision.
Fig. 3.10 Quantum model for X-ray scattering from an electron

Let o , po = h/o and Eo = hc/o be the wavelength, momentum and energy of the incident
photon respectively. , p = h/ and E = hc/ be the corresponding quantities for the
scattered photon.
We know that, for the electron, the total relativistic energy = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4
Kinetic energy K = E m c2
1
And momentum p = mv.
where
2
1 vc 2
v and m are the speed and mass of the electron respectively.
In the scattering process, the total energy and total linear momentum of the system must
be conserved.
For conservation of energy we must have, Eo = E + K
ie,
Or
Squaring both the sides,
Eo = E + (E m c2)
Eo E + m c2 = = 2 2 + 2 4
( )2 + 2( ) 2 + 2 4 = 2 2 + 2 4
For conservation of momentum,
x-component: = +
y-component: 0 =
Rewriting these two equations

=
=
Squaring both the sides and adding,
2 2 + 2 = 2
Substituting this 2 in the equation :
( )2 + 2( ) 2 = 2 2 , one gets

53

2
( ) + 2( )
(2
2 + 2 ) 2
Substituting photon energies and photon momenta one gets

(
) + 2(
) 2 = (
) 2(
) ( ) + ( )
Simplifying one gets

2
(
) 2 (
) (
) + (
) + 2 (
i.e.,
+ ( 1
) 2 =
( ) 2 =
OR,
) 2 = (
) 2 (
) (
) + (
)
(1 )
Compton shift:
=
( )
3.4 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES [DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT]
Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that are only explicable in terms of
wave properties.
Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can only be explained taking light as photons /
particle.
This means true nature of light is not describable in terms of any single picture, instead
both wave and particle nature have to be considered. In short, the particle model and the
wave model of light complement each other.
3.5 de BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS - WAVE PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES

We have seen that light comes in discrete units (photons) with particle properties (energy E
and momentum p) that are related to the wave-like properties of frequency and wavelength.
Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have both wave and particle characteristics,
perhaps all forms of matter have wave-like properties, with the wavelength related to
momentum p in the same way as for light.
de Broglie wavelength: =
where h is Plancks constant and p is momentum
of the quantum particle, m is mass of the particle, and v is speed of the particle. The electron
accelerated through a potential difference of V, has a non-relativistic kinetic energy
1
2 = where e is electron charge.
2
Hence, the momentum (p) of an electron accelerated through a potential difference of V is
= = 2
=

54
Frequency of the matter wave associated with the particle is
, where E is total relativistic
energy of the particle

Davisson-Germer experiment and G P Thomsons electron diffraction experiment confirmed
de Broglie relationship p = h /. Subsequently it was found that atomic beams, and beams of
neutrons, also exhibit diffraction when reflected from regular crystals. Thus de Broglie's
formula seems to apply to any kind of matter. Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is
an accepted fact and it is stated in the principle of complementarity. This states that wave and
particle models of either matter or radiation complement each other.
3.6 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
Quantum particle is a model by which particles having dual nature are represented. We must
choose one appropriate behavior for the quantum particle (particle or wave) in order to
understand a particular behavior.
To represent a quantum wave, we have to combine the essential features of both an ideal
particle and an ideal wave. An essential feature of a particle is that it is localized in space. But
an ideal wave is infinitely long (non-localized) as shown in Figure 3.11.
Fig. 3.11 Section of an ideal wave of single frequency

Now to build a localized entity from an infinitely long wave, waves of same amplitude, but
slightly different frequencies are superposed (Figure 3.12).
Fig. 3.12 Superposition of two waves Wave1 and Wave2

If we add up large number of waves in a similar way, the small localized region of space where
constructive interference takes place is called a wavepacket, which represents a quantum
particle (Figure 3.13).

55
Fig. 3.13 Wave packet

Mathematical representation of a wave packet: Superposition of two waves of equal
amplitude, but with slightly different frequencies, f1 and f2, traveling in the same direction
are considered. The waves are written as
1 = (1 1 ) and 2 = (2 2 )
where = 2/ ,
= 2
The resultant wave y = y1 + y2
= 2 [ ( 2
where k = k1 k2 and = 1 2.
)
2
1 +2
1 +2
)]
2
Fig. 3.14 Beat pattern due to superposition of wave trains y1 and y2

The resulting wave oscillates with the average frequency, and its amplitude envelope (in
square brackets, shown by the blue dotted curve in Figure 3.14) varies according to the
difference frequency. A realistic wave (one of finite extent in space) is characterized by two
different speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which wave crest of individual wave moves,
is given by
=
or
=
The envelope of group of waves can travel through space with a different speed than the
individual waves. This speed is called the group speed or the speed of the wave packet which
is given by
=
(
)
2
(
)
2
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a wave packet, this ratio is
In general these two speeds are not the same.

Relation between group speed (vg) and phase speed (vp):
= =
=
But
( )
Substituting for k in terms of , we get

= (
Relation between group speed (vg) and particle speed (u):

= 2 = 2
and

56
For a classical particle moving with speed u, the kinetic energy E is given by
=
1
2
2 =
and
2
2
or
i.e., we should identify the group speed with the particle speed, speed with which the energy
moves. To represent a realistic wave packet, confined to a finite region in space, we need the
superposition of large number of harmonic waves with a range of k-values.
3.7 DOUBLESLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
One way to confirm our ideas about the electrons waveparticle duality is through an
experiment in which electrons are fired at a double slit. Consider a parallel beam of monoenergetic electrons incident on a double slit as in Figure 3.15. Lets assume the slit widths are
small compared with the electron wavelength so that diffraction effects are negligible. An
electron detector screen (acts like the viewing screen of Youngs double-slit experiment) is
positioned far from the slits at a distance much greater than d, the separation distance of the
slits. If the detector screen collects electrons for a long enough time, we find a typical wave
interference pattern for the counts per minute, or probability of arrival of electrons. Such an
interference pattern would not be expected if the electrons behaved as classical particles,
giving clear evidence that electrons are interfering, a distinct wave-like behavior. The electron
detector is movable along the y direction in the drawing and so can detect electrons diffracted
at different values of .
In the interference pattern the minimum occurs when = /2
The electron wavelength is given by
= /
For small angle ,
Fig. 3.15 (a) Schematic of eelectron beam interference experiment, (b) Photograph of a
double-slit interference pattern produced by electrons

57
This experiment proves the dual nature of electrons. The electrons are detected as particles
at a localized spot at some instant of time, but the probability of arrival at that spot is
determined by finding the intensity of two interfering waves. If slit 2 is blocked half the time,
keeping slit 1 open, and slit 1 blocked for remaining half the time, keeping 2 open, the
accumulated pattern of counts/ min is shown by blue curve in Figure 3.16. That is interference
pattern is lost and the result is simply the sum of the individual results.
Fig. 3.16 Results of the two-slit electron diffraction experiment with each slit closed half the
time (blue) the result with both slits open (interference pattern is shown in brown)
The observed interference pattern when both the slits are open, suggests that each particle
goes through both slits at once. We are forced to conclude that an electron interacts with both
the slits simultaneously shedding its localized behaviour. If we try to find out which slit the
particle goes through, the interference pattern vanishes. Means, if we know which path the
particle takes, we lose the fringes. We can only say that the electron passes through both the
slits.
3.7 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
It is fundamentally impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a particles position
and momentum with infinite accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
The uncertainties arise from the quantum structure of matter.
For a particle represented by a single wavelength wave existing throughout space, is
precisely known, and according to de Broglie hypothesis, its p is also known accurately. But
the position of the particle in this case becomes completely uncertain.
This means = 0, p =0; but x =
In contrast, if a particle whose momentum is uncertain (combination of waves / a range of
wavelengths are taken to form a wave packet), so that x is small, but is large. If x is
made zero, and thereby p will become .
In short
( x ) ( px) h / 4
where x is uncertainty in the measurement of position x of the particle and px is uncertainty
in the measurement of momentum px of the particle.
One more relation expressing uncertainty principle is related to energy and time which is given
by
( E ) ( t ) h / 4
where E is uncertainty in the measurement of energy E of the system when the
measurement is done over the time interval t.
58
QUESTIONS:
3.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCKS HYPOTHESIS
1 Explain (a) Stefans law (b) Wiens displacement law (c) Rayleigh-Jeans law. [1 EACH]
2 Sketch schematically the graph of wavelength vs intensity of radiation from a
blackbody.
[1]
3 Explain Plancks radiation law.
[2]
4 Write the assumptions made in Plancks hypothesis of blackbody radiation.
[2]
3.2. THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

5 Explain photoelectric effect.
[1]
6 What are the observations in the experiment on photoelectric effect?
[5]
7 What are the classical predictions about the photoelectric effect?
[3]
8 Explain Einsteins photoelectric equation.
[2]
9 Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment explained by Einsteins

photoelectric equation?
[2]
10 Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to the photoelectric effect:
(a) photoelectric current vs applied voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic
electron vs frequency of incident light.
[1 each]
3.3 THE COMPTON EFFECT
11 Explain compton effect.
[2]
12 Explain the experiment on compton effect.
[5]
13 Derive the compton shift equation.
[5]
3.4 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

14 Explain the wave properties of the particles.
[2]

15 Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically.
[2]
16 Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.

[1+1]
17 Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the particle speed.
[3]

59
3.6 THE DOUBLESLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
3.7 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

18 Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
[1]
19 Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and momentum (b) energy and
time.
[1]
PROBLEMS
3.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCKS HYPOTHESIS
1 THERMAL RADIATION FROM DIFFERENT OBJECTS
Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by each of the following.
A. The human body when the skin temperature is 35C
B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which operates at 2000 K
C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of about 5800 K.
Ans: 9.4 m, 1.4 m, 0.50 m
2 THE QUANTIZED OSCILLATOR

A 2.0- kg block is attached to a spring that has a force constant of k = 25 N/m.
spring is stretched 0.40 m from its equilibrium position and released.
The
A. Find the total energy of the system and the frequency of oscillation according to
classical calculations.
B. Assuming that the energy is quantized, find the quantum number n for the
system oscillating with this amplitude.
C. Suppose the oscillator makes a transition from the n = 5.4 x 1033 state to the
state corresponding to n = 5.4 x 1033 1. By how much does the energy of the
oscillator change in this one-quantum change.
Ans: 2.0 J, 0.56 Hz, 5.4 x 1033, 3.7 x 1034 J
3 The human eye is most sensitive to 560 nm light. What is the temperature of a black
body that would radiate most intensely at this wavelength?
Ans: 5180 K

60
4 A blackbody at 7500 K consists of an opening of diameter 0.050 mm, looking into an

oven. Find the number of photons per second escaping the hole and having
wavelengths between 500 nm and 501 nm.
Ans: 1.30 x 1015/s
5 The radius of our Sun is 6.96 x 108 m, and its total power output s 3.77 x 1026 W. (a)
Assuming that the Suns surface emits as a black body, calculate its surface
temperature. (b) Using the result, find max for the Sun.
Ans: 5750 K, 504 nm
6 Calculate the energy in electron volts, of a photon whose frequency is (a) 620 THz,
3.10 GHz, (c) 46.0 MHz. (d) Determine the corresponding wavelengths for these
photons and state the classification of each on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Ans: 2.57 eV, 1.28 x 105 eV, 1.91 x 107 eV,
484 nm, 9.68 cm,
(b)
6.52 m
7 An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 150 kW and operates at a frequency of

99.7 MHz. How many photons per second does the transmitter emit?
Ans: 2.27 x 1030 photons/s
3.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
8 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT FOR SODIUM: A sodium surface is illuminated with light
having a wavelength of 300 nm. The work function for sodium metal is 2.46 eV. Find
A. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons and
B. The cutoff wavelength for sodium.
Ans: 1.67 eV, 504 nm
9 Molybdenum has a work function of 4.2eV. (a) Find the cut off wavelength and cut off
frequency for the photoelectric effect. (b) What is the stopping potential if the incident
light has wavelength of 180 nm?
Ans: 296 nm, 1.01 x 1015 Hz, 2.71 V
10 Electrons are ejected from a metallic surface with speeds up to 4.60 x 105 m/s when
light with a wavelength of 625 nm is used. (a) What is the work function of the surface?
(b) What is the cut-off frequency for this surface?
Ans: 1.38 eV, 3.34 x 1014 Hz
11 The stopping potential for photoelectrons released from a metal is 1.48 V larger
compared to that in another metal. If the threshold frequency for the first metal is 40.0
% smaller than for the second metal, determine the work function for each metal.
Ans: 3.70 eV, 2.22 eV

61
3.3 THE COMPTON EFFECT

12 COMPTON SCATTERING AT 45: X-rays of wavelength o = 0.20 nm are scattered from
a block of material. The scattered X-rays are observed at an angle of 45 to the incident
beam. Calculate their wavelength.
What if we move the detector so that scattered X-rays are detected at an angle larger
than 45? Does the wavelength of the scattered X-rays increase or decrease as the angle
increase?
Ans: 0.200710 nm, INCREASES
13 Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of wavelength 700 nm.
Ans: 1.78 eV, 9.47 x 1028kg.m/s
14 A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free electron. For what photon scattering angle
does the recoiling electron have kinetic energy equal to the energy of the scattered
photon?
Ans: 70
15 A 0.880 MeV photon is scattered by a free electron initially at rest such that the
scattering angle of the scattered electron is equal to that of the scattered photon ( =
).
(a) Determine the angles & . (b) Determine the energy and momentum of the
scattered electron and photon.
Ans: 43, 43, 0.602 MeV, 3.21 x 1022 kg.m/s, 0.278 MeV, 3.21 x 1022 kg.m/s
3.4 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
16 THE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON: Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength for an
electron moving at 1.0 x 107 m/s.
Ans: 7.28 x 1011 m
17 THE WAVELENGTH OF A ROCK: A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of 40 m/s.
What is its de Broglie wavelength?
Ans: 3.3 x 1034 m
18 AN ACCELERATED CHARGED PARTICLE: A particle of charge q and mass m has been
accelerated from rest to a nonrelativistic speed through a potential difference of V.
Find an expression for its de Broglie wavelength.
Ans: =
h
2 m q v

62
19 (a) An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the
wavelength of a photon having the same energy.
Ans: 7.09 x 1010 m, 4.14 x 107 m

20 Consider a freely moving quantum particle with mass m and speed u. Its energy is E= K=
mu2/2. Determine the phase speed of the quantum wave representing the particle and
show that it is different from the speed at which the particle transports mass and
energy.
Ans: vGROUP = u vPHASE
3.6 THE DOUBLESLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
21 Electrons are incident on a pair of narrow slits 0.060 m apart. The bright bands in the
interference pattern are separated by 0.40 mm on a screen 20.0 cm from the slits.
Determine the potential difference through which the electrons were accelerated to
give this pattern.
Ans: 105 V
3.7 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
22 LOCATING AN ELECTRON: The speed of an electron is measured to be 5.00 x 103 m/s to
an accuracy of 0.0030%. Find the minimum uncertainty in determining the position of
this electron.
Ans: 0.383 mm
23 THE LINE WIDTH OF ATOMIC EMISSIONS: The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0
x 10-8 s. Using the uncertainty principle, compute the line width f produced by this
finite lifetime?
Ans: 8.0 x 106 Hz
24 Use the uncertainty principle to show that if an electron were confined inside an atomic
nucleus of diameter 2 x 1015 m, it would have to be moving relativistically, while a
proton confined to the same nucleus can be moving nonrelativistically.
Ans: vELECTRON 0.99996 c,
vPROTON 1.8 x 107 m/s
25 Find the minimum kinetic energy of a proton confined within a nucleus having a
diameter of 1.0 x 1015 m.
Ans: 5.2 MeV

63
4. QUANTUM MECHANICS
OBJECTIVES:
To learn the application of Schrdinger equation to a bound particle and to learn
the quantized nature of the bound particle, its expectation values and physical
significance.
To understand the tunneling behavior of a particle incident on a potential barrier.
To learn the quantum model of H-atom and its wave functions.
4.1 AN INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
Experimental evidences proved that both matter and electromagnetic radiation exhibit wave
and particle nature depending on the phenomenon being observed. Making a conceptual
connection between particles and waves, for an electromagnetic radiation of amplitude E, the
probability per unit volume of finding a photon in a given region of space at an instant of time
as
PROBABILITY
Fig. 4.1 Wave packet

Taking the analogy between electromagnetic radiation and matter-the probability per unit
volume of finding the particle is proportional to the square of the amplitude of a wave
representing the particle, even if the amplitude of the de Broglie wave associated with a
particle is generally not a measureable quantity. The amplitude of the de Broglie wave
associated with a particle is called probability amplitude, or the wave function, and is denoted
by .
In general, the complete wave function for a system depends on the positions of all the
particles in the system and on time. This can be written as
(r1,r2,rj,,t) = (rj) eit
where rj is the position vector of the jth particle in the system.
The wave function contains within it all the information that can be known about the
particle. ||2 is always real and positive, and is proportional to the probability per unit
volume, of finding the particle at a given point at some instant. If represents a single

64
||2
particle, then
-called the probability density- is the relative probability per unit volume
that the particle will be found at any given point in the volume.
One-dimensional wave functions and expectation values:Let be the wave function for a
particle moving along the x axis. Then P(x) dx = ||2 dx is the probability to find the particle
in the infinitesimal interval dx around the point x. The probability of finding the particle in the
arbitrary interval a x b is
= ||2 .
The probability of a particle being in the interval a x b is the area under the probability
density curve from a to b. The total probability of finding the particle is one. Forcing this
condition on the wave function is called normalization.
+
||2 = 1 .
Fig. 4.2 An arbitrary probability density curve for a particle

All the measureable quantities of a particle, such as its position, momentum and energy can
be derived from the knowledge of . eg, the average position at which one expects to find
the particle after many measurements is called the expectation value of x and is defined by
the equation
+
.
The important mathematical features of a physically reasonable wave function (x) for a
system are
(x) may be a complex function or a real function, depending on the system.
(x) must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
The space derivatives of , must be finite, continuous and single valued
everywhere.
must be normalizable.
4.2 THE SCHRDINGER EQUATION

65
The appropriate wave equation for matter waves was developed by Schrdinger. Schrdinger
equation as it applies to a particle of mass m confined to move along x axis and interacting
with its environment through a potential energy function U(x) is
+ =
where E is a constant equal to the total energy of the system (the particle and its
environment) and = h/2. This equation is referred to as the onedimensional, timeindependent Schrdinger equation.
Application of Schrdinger equation:
1. Particle in an infinite potential well (particle in a box)
2. Particle in a finite potential well
3. Tunneling
4.3 PARTICLE IN AN INFINITE POTENTIAL WELL (PARTICLE IN A BOX)
U=
U=
U=0
x=0
x=L
Fig. 4.3 Sketch of potential well

Consider a particle of mass m and velocity v, confined to bounce between two impenetrable
walls separated by a distance L. Figure shows the potential energy function for the system.
U(x) = 0,
for 0 < x < L,
U (x) = ,
for x 0, x L
Since U (x) = , for x < 0, x > L , (x) = 0 in these regions. Also (0) =0 and (L) =0. Only those
wave functions that satisfy these boundary conditions are allowed. In the region 0 < x < L,
where U = 0, the Schrdinger equation takes the form
2
2
Or
2
2
2
2
= 0
= 2 ,
where
2 =
2
2
or
The most general form of the solution to the above equation is

(x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
where A and B are constants determined by the boundary and normalization conditions.

66
Applying the first boundary condition,

i.e., at x = 0, = 0 leads to
0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
or
B=0 ,
And at x = L , = 0 ,
0 = A sin(kL) + B cos(kL) = A sin(kL) + 0 ,
Since A 0 , sin(kL) = 0 .
k L = n ; ( n = 1, 2, 3, .. )
Now the wave function reduces to
() = (
To find the constant A, apply normalization condition

+
||2 dx = 1
1
2 0
or
2
[1 (
Solving we get
We get,
)] = 1 .
)] = 1
Since
() = (
Thus
0 2 [ (
) is the wave function for particle in a box.
and k L = n
.
= ( 8 2) 2 ,
n = 1, 2, 3,
. . . . .
Each value of the integer n corresponds to a quantized energy value, E n .

The lowest allowed energy (n = 1),
1 =
2
8 2
This is the ground state energy for the particle in a box.

Excited states correspond to n = 2, 3, 4, which have energies given by 4E1 , 9E1 , 16E1.
respectively.
Energy level diagram, wave function and probability density sketches are shown below.
Fig. 4.4 Energy level diagram for a particle in potential well of infinite height

67
Since ground state energy E1 0, the particle can never be at rest.
Fig. 4.5 Sketch of (a) wave function, (b) Probability density for a particle in potential well of
infinite height
4.4 A PARTICLE IN A POTENTIAL WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT
Fig. 4.6 Potential well of finite height U and length L

Consider a particle with the total energy E, trapped in a finite potential well of height U such
that
U(x) = 0 , 0 < x < L,
U(x) = U , x 0, x L
Classically, for energy E < U, the particle is permanently bound in the potential well. However,
according to quantum mechanics, a finite probability exists that the particle can be found
outside the well even if E < U. That is, the wave function is generally nonzero in the regions I
and III. In region II, where U = 0, the allowed wave functions are again sinusoidal. But the
boundary conditions no longer require that the wave function must be zero at the ends of the
well.
Schrdinger equation outside the finite well in regions I & III

68

2
2
2
2
2
2
( ) ,
or
= 2
where
2 =
( )
General solution of the above equation is

(x) = A eCx + B eCx
where A and B are constants.
A must be zero in Region III and B must be zero in Region I, otherwise, the probabilities
would be infinite in those regions. For solution to be finite,
I = A eCx
for x 0
-Cx
III = B e
for x L
This shows that the wave function outside the potential well decay exponentially with
distance.
Schrodinger equation inside the square well potential in region II, where U = 0
2
2
+ (
2
2
) = 0 ,
= 2
General solution of the above equation

= [] + []
To determine the constants A, B, F, G and the allowed values of energy E, apply the four
boundary conditions and the normalization condition:
]
=0
At x = 0 , I(0) = II(0)
and
[ ]
At x = L , II(L) = III(L)
and
]
=
=0
]
=
||2 = 1
Figure shows the plots of wave functions and their respective probability densities.

69
Fig. 4.7 Sketch of (a) wave function, (b) Probability density for a particle in potential well of
finite height
It is seen that wavelengths of the wave functions are longer than those of wave functions of
infinite potential well of same length and hence the quantized energies of the particle in a
finite well are lower than those for a particle in an infinite well.
4.5 TUNNELING THROUGH A POTENTIAL ENERGY BARRIER
Consider a particle of energy E approaching a potential barrier of height U, (E < U). Potential
energy has a constant value of U in the region of width L and is zero in all other regions. This
is called a square barrier and U is called the barrier height. Since E < U, classically the regions
II and III shown in the figure are forbidden to the particle incident from left. But according
to quantum mechanics, all regions are accessible to the particle, regardless of its energy.
Fig. 4.8 Tunneling through a potential barrier of finite height

By applying the boundary conditions, i.e. and its first derivative must be continuous at
boundaries (at x = 0 and
x = L), full solution to the Schrdinger equation can be found
which is shown in figure. The wave function is sinusoidal in regions I and III but exponentially
decaying in region II. The probability of locating the particle beyond the barrier in region III
is nonzero. The movement of the particle to the far side of the barrier is called tunneling or

70
barrier penetration. The probability of tunneling can be described with a transmission

coefficient T and a reflection coefficient R.
The transmission coefficient represents the probability that the particle penetrates to the
other side of the barrier, and reflection coefficient is the probability that the particle is
reflected by the barrier. Because the particles must be either reflected or transmitted we
have, R + T = 1.
An approximate expression for the transmission coefficient, when T << 1 is
2 ()
T e2CL , where =
4.6 THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

The potential energy function for the H-atom is
() =
where ke = 1/40 = 8.99 x 109 N.m2/C2 Coulomb constant and r is radial distance of
electron from H-nucleus.
Fig. 4.9 Spherical polar coordinate system

The time-independent Schrdinger equation in 3-dimensional space is
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
) + =
Since U has spherical symmetry, it is easier to solve the Schrdinger equation in

spherical polar coordinates (r, , ) where = 2 + 2 + 2 ,
.
is the angle between z-axis and
onto the xy-plane.
is the angle between the x-axis and the projection of
It is possible to separate the variables r, , as follows:
(r, , ) = R(r) f() g()

By solving the three separate ordinary differential equations for R(r), f(), g(), with
conditions that the normalized and its first derivative are continuous and finite
everywhere, one gets three different quantum numbers for each allowed state of the
H-atom. The quantum numbers are integers and correspond to the three independent
degrees of freedom.

71
The radial function R(r) of is associated with the principal quantum number n. Solving
R(r), we get an expression for energy as,
= (
2
2
1
2
13.606
2
n = 1, 2, 3,
. . .
which is in agreement with Bohr theory.

The polar function f() is associated with the orbital quantum number . The azimuthal
function g() is associated with the orbital magnetic quantum number m.
The
application of boundary conditions on the three parts of leads to important
relationships among the three quantum numbers: n can range from 1 to . can range
from 0 to n1 ; [n allowed values]. m can range from to + ; [(2+1) allowed values].
All states having the same principal quantum number are said to form a shell. All
states having the same values of n and are said to form a subshell:
n = 1 K shell
= 0 s subshell
n = 2 L shell
= 1 p subshell
n = 3 M shell
= 2 d subshell
n = 4 N shell
= 3 f subshell
n = 5 O shell
= 4 g subshell
n = 6 P shell
= 5 h subshell
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
4.7 WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN
The potential energy for H-atom depends only on the radial distance r between nucleus
and electron. Therefore some of the allowed states for the H-atom can be represented
by wave functions that depend only on r (spherically symmetric function). The simplest
wave function for H-atom is the 1s-state (ground state) wave function (n = 1, = 0):
1 () =
1
3
( ) where ao is Bohr radius ( = 0.0529 nm).
|1s|2 is the probability density for H-atom in 1s-state:

1
2
|1 |2 =
3 ( )

The radial probability density P(r) is the probability per unit radial length of finding
the electron in a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr. P(r) dr is the probability
of finding the electron in this shell.
P(r) dr = ||2 dv = ||2 4r2 dr
P(r) = 4r2 ||2

72
Fig. 4.10 A spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr has a volume equal to 4 r2dr
Radial probability density for H-atom in its ground state:
1 = (
4 2
3
) ( 2 )
Fig. 4.11 The probability of finding the electron as a function of distance from the nucleus for
the hydrogen atom in the 1s (ground) state.
The next simplest wave function for the H-atom is the 2s-state wave function (n = 2,
= 0):
2 () =
1
323
(2
) ( )
2s is spherically symmetric (depends only on r). Energy corresponding to n = 2 (first excited

state is E2 = E1/4 = 3.401 eV.

73
Fig. 4.12 Plot of radial probability density versus r/a0 (normalized radius) for 1s and 2s states
of hydrogen atom
QUESTIONS:
1 What is a wave function ? What is its physical interpretation ?
[2]
2 What are the mathematical features of a wave function?
[2]
4.2 THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
4.3 THE PARTICLE IN A BOX

3 By solving the schrdinger equation, obtain the wave-functions for a particle of
mass m in a one-dimensional box of length L.
[5]
4 Apply the schrodinger equation to a particle in a one-dimensional box of
length L and obtain the energy values of the particle.
[5]
5 Sketch the lowest three energy states, wave-functions, probability densities for
the particle in a one-dimensional box.
[3]
6 The wave-function for a particle confined to moving in a one-dimensional box
is

74
(x) = A sin(
nx
L
) . Use the normalization condition on to show that =
2 .
[2]
7 The wave-function of an electron is (x) = A sin(nx

) . Obtain an expression
L
for the probability of finding the electron between x = a and x = b.
[3]
4.4 A PARTICLE IN A WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT

8 Sketch the potential-well diagram of finite height U and length L, obtain the
general solution of the schrodinger equation for a particle of mass m in it. [5]
9 Sketch the wave-functions and the probability densities for the lowest three
energy states of a particle in a potential well of finite height.
[3]

10 Give a brief account of tunneling of a particle through a potential energy
barrier.
[4]

11 Give a brief account of quantum model of H-atom.
[2]
4.7 THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN

12 The wave function for H-atom in ground state is 1S (r) =
1
a3o
exp ( aro) .
Obtain an expression for the radial probability density of H-atom in ground state.
Sketch schematically the plot of this vs. radial distance.
13 The
wave
function
for
H-atom
in
2s
state is
[4]
2S (r) =
1
32a3o
(2
) exp ( aro) . Write the expression for the radial probability density of H-
atom in 2s state. Sketch schematically the plot of this vs. radial distance.
[3]

75
14 Sketch schematically the plot of the radial probability density

distance for H-atom in 1s-state and 2s-state.
[3]
vs.
radial
PROBLEMS
1 A free electron has a wave function
(x) = A exp[(5.0 1010 )]
where x is in meters. Find (a) its de Broglie wavelength, (b) its momentum, and (c) its
kinetic energy in electron volts.
Ans: 1.26 x 1010m,
5.27 x 1024kg.m/s, 95.5 eV
4.2 THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION

4.3 THE PARTICLE IN A BOX
2 A BOUND ELECTRON
An electron is confined between two impenetrable walls 0.20 nm apart. Determine the
energy levels for the states n =1 ,2 , and 3.
Ans: 9.2 eV, 37.7 eV, 84.8 eV
3 ENERGY QUANTIZATION FOR A MACROSCOPIC OBJECT
A 0.50 kg baseball is confined between two rigid walls of a stadium that can be modeled
as a box of length 100 m. Calculate the minimum speed of the baseball. If the baseball
is moving with a speed of 150 m/s, what is the quantum number of the state in which the
baseball will be?
Ans: 6.63 x 1036 m/s, 2.26 x 1037
4 A proton is confined to move in a one-dimensional box of length 0.20 nm. (a) Find the
lowest possible energy of the proton. (b) What is the lowest possible energy for an
electron confined to the same box? (c) Account for the great difference in results for (a)
and (b).
Ans: 5.13 x 103 eV,
9.41 eV
5 MODEL OF AN ATOM
(A) Using the simple model of a particle in a box to represent an atom, estimate the
energy (in eV) required to raise an atom from the state n =1 to the state n =2. Assume

76
the atom has a radius of 0.10 nm and that the moving electron carries the energy that
has been added to the atom.
(B) Atoms may be excited to higher energy states by absorbing photon energy. Calculate
the wavelength of the photon that would cause the transition from the state n =1 to
the state n =2.
Ans: 28.3 eV, 43.8 nm
4.4 A PARTICLE IN A WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT
6 TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT FOR AN ELECTRON
A 30-eV electron is incident on a square barrier of height 40 eV. What is the probability
that the electron will tunnel through the barrier if its width is (A) 1.0 nm? (B) 0.10 nm?
Ans: 8.5 x 1015, 0.039
7 An electron with kinetic energy E = 5.0 eV is incident on a
barrier with thickness L = 0.20 nm and height U = 10.0 eV
as shown in the figure. What is the probability that the
electron (a) will tunnel through the barrier? (b) will be
reflected?
Ans: 0.0103, 0.990
8 THE n = 2 LEVEL OF HYDROGEN:
For a H-atom, determine the number of allowed states corresponding to the
principal quantum number n = 2, and calculate the energies of these states.
Ans: 4 states (one 2s-state + three 2p-states),
3.401 eV
4.7 THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN

9 THE GROUND STATE OF H-ATOM:
Calculate the most probable value of r (= distance from nucleus) for an electron in
the ground state of the H-atom. Also calculate the average value r for the electron
in the ground state.
Ans: ao , 3 ao/2
10 PROBABILITIES FOR THE ELECTRON IN H-ATOM:

77
Calculate the probability that the electron in the ground state of H-atom will be
found outside the Bohr radius.
Ans: 0.677
11 For a spherically symmetric state of a H-atom the schrodinger equation in spherical
coordinates is
2
2m
2
r2
)
r
function for an electron in H-atom
k 2
= E . Show that the 1s wave
1S (r) =
1
a3o
exp ( aro) satisfies the
schrodinger equation.

78
CHAPTER 5
SOLID STATE PHYSICS

OBJECTIVES:
To comprehend the electrical properties of metals, semiconductors and insulators

To understand the effect of doping on electrical properties of semiconductors
To understand superconductivity and its engineering applications
5.1 FREE-ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

Classical free electron theory was first proposed by Paul Drude (1863-1906) in 1900.
According to this theory, a metal is modeled as a classical gas of conduction electrons
(concentration of which is of the order of 1028 /m3 ) moving (with an average speeds of the
order of 106 m/s ) through a fixed lattice ion cores. Although this theory predicts the correct
functional form of Ohms law, it does not predict the correct values of electrical and thermal
conductivities. To overcome the shortcomings of classical model a quantum based free
electron theory was proposed.
Quantum based free electron theory of metals is centered on wave nature of electrons. In this
model, it is considered that the outer-shell electrons are free to move through the metal
but are trapped within a three-dimensional box formed by the metal surfaces. Therefore,
each electron is represented as a particle in a box and is restricted to quantized energy
levels. Statistical physics can be applied to a collection of large number of particles in an effort
to relate microscopic properties to macroscopic properties. In the case electrons, it is
necessary to use quantum statistics, with the requirement that each energy state of the
system can be occupied by only two electrons (one with spin up & the other with spin
down) as a consequence of exclusion principle.
In quantum statistics, it is shown that the probability of a particular energy state E being
occupied by an electrons is given by
f E
1
E EF
exp
1
kT
[5.1]
where f(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and EF is called the Fermi energy.
To define EF consider two cases : i) T = 0 and E EF , In such a case f(E) = 1
and ii) T= 0 and E EF , In such a case f(E) = 0. Thus in words, at zero kelvin, all states having
energies less than the Fermi energy are occupied, and all states having energies greater
than the Fermi energy are vacant. i.e. Fermi energy is the highest energy possessed by an
electron at 0 K (Figure 5.1a). This definition of EF is more of abstract in nature because it is

79
defined at 0 K. So, let us define EF at non zero temperatures : when T 0 and E = EF then f(E)
= 0.5 . Thus in words, Fermi energy is that energy state at which probability of electron
occupation is half. This is because, as temperature increases above 0 K , due to thermal
excitation some of the electrons are able move beyond Fermi level. As a result states near and
below EF losing population and states near and above EF gaining population and hence
probability of Fermi level being occupied by an electron becomes half. The square distribution
at 0 K rounds off slightly as shown in the Figure 5.1b. The Fermi energy EF also depends on
temperature, but the dependence is weak in metals. The order of magnitude of the Fermi
energy for metals is about 5eV.
Plot of f(E) versus E is shown in figure 5.1.
Fig. 5.1 Plot of Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) versus energy E at (a) T = 0K and (b) T >
0K
Density of states: From particle in a box problem, for a particle of mass m, confined to move
in a one-dimensional box of length L, the allowed states have quantized energy levels given
by,
En
h2
2 2 2
2
n
n
8 m L2
2 m L2
n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
[5.2]
According to quantum based free electron theory, an electron moving freely in a metal cube
of side L, can be modeled as particle in a three-dimensional box. It can be shown that the
energy for such an electron is
2 2
nx2 ny2 nz2
E
2
2mL
[5.3]
where m is mass of the electron and nx, ny, nz are quantum numbers(positive integers).
Because of the macroscopic size L of the box, the energy levels are very close together. As a
result, we can treat the quantum numbers as continuous variables. Under this assumption,
the number of allowed states per unit volume per unit energy range is called density of states
function.

80
Imagine a three-dimensional quantum number space. Each point in this space is

characterized by a set of three quantum numbers (nx, ny, nz - one for each degree of
freedom) represents a an energy state of an electron. That is, allowed energy states in this
space can be represented as dots located at positive integral values of the three
quantum numbers as shown in the Figure 5.2.
Fig. 5.2 Representation of the allowed energy states in a quantum number space (dots
represent the allowed states)
Eq. 5.3 can be written as
n x2 ny2 nz2
where E o
E
n2
Eo
2 2
and n
2 m L2
[5.4]
E
Eo
Eq. 5.4 represents a sphere of radius n. Thus, the number of allowed energy states having
energies between E and E+dE is equal to the number of points in a spherical shell of
radius n and thickness dn. It can be seen that each point is at the corners of a unit cube and
each corner point is shared by eight unit cubes and as such the contribution of each point to
the cube is 1/8 th. Since there are eight corners, the effective point per unit cube and hence
unit volume is one. In other words, number of points in the shell ( = number of energy states)
is equal to the volume of the shell. The volume of this shell, denoted by G(E)dE is,
1
1
G(E) dE = 4 n 2 dn n 2 dn
8
2

81
G( E ) dE
1
2
E E 2
d
E o E o
G( E ) dE
1
2
G( E ) dE
1
4
2 2

2
2
mL
using the relation n
E 12 1 12
E o 2 E dE
E
o
3 2
1
4
3 2
Eo
E
Eo
dE
dE
2 m 2 L3 1 2
G( E ) dE
E dE ,
2 2 3
L3 V
Now, the density of states g(E) = Number of states per unit volume per unit energy range,
is given by
g(E) = G(E)/V
3
G( E )
2 m 2 12
g( E ) dE
dE
E dE
V
2 2 3
4 2 m
or, g ( E ) dE
h3
dE
h
2
Finally, we multiply by 2 for the two possible spin states of each particle.
8 2 m
g( E ) dE
h3
dE
[5.5]
g(E) is called the density-of-states function.

Electron density For a metal in thermal equilibrium, the number of electrons N(E) dE,
per unit volume, that have energy between E and E+dE is equal to the product of the
density of states and the probability that the state is occupied. that is,
N(E)dE = [ g(E)dE ] f(E)
8 2 m
N( E ) dE
h3
dE
E EF
1
exp
kT
2
[5.6]
Plots of N(E) versus E for two temperatures are given in figure 5.3.

82
Fig. 5.3 Plots of N(E) versus E for (a) T = 0K (b) T = 300K

If ne is the total number of electrons per unit volume, we require that
8 2 m
ne N( E ) dE
h3
0
dE
E EF
1
exp
kT
2
[5.7]
At T = 0K, the Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) = 1 for E <EF and f(E) = 0 for E >EF. Therefore,
at T = 0K, Equation 5.7 becomes
8 2 m
ne
h3
EF
E
0
8 2 m
dE
h3
EF
2
3
16 2 m
3 h3
EF 2
[5.8]
Solving for Fermi energy at 0K, we obtain
h2
EF 0
2m
3 ne
[5.9]
The average energy of a free electron in a metal at 0K is Eav = (3/5)EF.

5.2 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
When a quantum system is represented by wave function, probability density ||2 for that
system is physically significant while the probability amplitude not. Consider an atom such
as sodium that has a single s electron outside of a closed shell. Both the wave functions S ( r )
and S ( r ) are valid for such an atom [ S ( r ) and S ( r ) are symmetric and anti symmetric
wave functions]. As the two sodium atoms are brought closer together, their wave functions
begin to overlap. Figure 5.4 represents two possible combinations : i) symmetric - symmetric
and ii) symmetric antisymmetric . These two possible combinations of wave functions
represent two possible states of the two-atom system. Thus, the states are split into two

83
energy levels. The energy difference between these states is relatively small, so the two states
are close together on an energy scale.
Fig. 5.4 The wave functions of two atoms combine to form a composite wave function : a)
symmetric-symmetric b) symmetric-antisymmetric
When two atoms are brought together, each energy level will split into 2 energy levels. (In
general, when N atoms are brought together N split levels will occur which can hold 2N
electrons). The split levels are so close that they may be regarded as a continuous band of
energy levels. Following figure shows the splitting of 1s and 2s levels of sodium atom
when : (a) two sodium atoms are brought together (b)five sodium atoms are brought
together (c) a large number of sodium atoms are assembled to form a solid. The close
energy levels forming a band are seen clearly in (c).
Fig.5.5 Splitting of 1s and 2s levels of sodium atoms due to interaction between them
Some bands may be wide enough in energy so that there is an overlap between the
adjacent bands. Some other bands are narrow so that a gap may occur between the allowed
bands, and is known as forbidden energy gap. The 1s, 2s, and 2p bands of solid sodium
are filled completely with electrons. The 3s band (2N states) of solid sodium has only
N electrons and is partially full; The 3p band, which is the higher region of the overlapping
bands, is completely empty as shown in Figure 5.6

84
Fig. 5.6 Energy bands of a sodium crystal

5.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN METALS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
Good electrical conductors contain high density of free charge carriers, and the density
of free charge carriers in insulators is nearly zero. In semiconductors free-charge-carrier
densities are intermediate between those of insulators and those of conductors.
Metals: Metal has a partially filled energy band (Figure 5.7a). At 0K Fermi level is the
highest electron-occupied energy level. If a potential difference is applied to the metal,
electrons having energies near the Fermi energy require only a small amount of
additional energy to reach nearby empty energy states above the Fermi-level. Therefore,
electrons in a metal experiencing a small force (from a weak applied electric field) are free to
move because many empty levels are available close to the occupied energy levels. The model
of metals based on band theory demonstrates that metals are excellent electrical conductors.
Insulators: Consider the two outermost energy bands of a material in which the lower band is
filled with electrons and the higher band is empty at 0 K (Figure5.7b). The lower, filled band is
called the valence band, and the upper, empty band is the conduction band. The energy
separation between the valence and conduction band, called energy gap Eg, is large for
insulating materials. The Fermi level lies somewhere in the energy gap. Due to larger energy
gap compare to thermal energy kT (26meV) at room temperature, excitation of electrons from
valence band to conduction band is hardly possible. Since the free-electron density is nearly
zero, these materials are bad conductors of electricity.
Semiconductors: Semiconductors have the same type of band structure as an insulator, but
the energy gap is much smaller, of the order of 1 eV. The band structure of a semiconductor
is shown in Figure 5.7c. Because the Fermi level is located near the middle of the gap for a
semiconductor and Eg is small, appreciable numbers of electrons are thermally excited from
the valence band to the conduction band. Because of the many empty levels above the

85
thermally filled levels in the conduction band, a small applied potential difference can easily
raise the energy of the electrons in the conduction band, resulting in a moderate conduction.
At T = 0 K, all electrons in these materials are in the valence band and no energy is available
to excite them across the energy gap. Therefore, semiconductors are poor conductors at very
low temperatures. Because the thermal excitation of electrons across the narrow gap is more
probable at higher temperatures, the conductivity of semiconductors increases rapidly with
temperature. This is in sharp contrast with the conductivity of metals, where it decreases with
increasing temperature. Charge carriers in a semiconductor can be negative, positive, or both.
When an electron moves from the valence band into the conduction band, it leaves behind a
vacant site, called a hole, in the otherwise filled valence band.
Fig. 5.7 Band structure of (a) Metals (b) Insulators (c) Semiconductors
In an intrinsic semiconductor (pure semiconductor) there are equal number of conduction
electrons and holes. In the presence of an external electric field, the holes move in
the direction of field and the conduction electrons move opposite to the direction of
the field. Both these motions correspond to the current in the same direction (Figure
5.8).
Fig. 5.8 Movement of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor

86
Doped Semiconductors (Extrinsic semiconductors) : Semiconductors in their pure form are

called intrinsic semiconductors while doped semiconductors are called extrinsic
semiconductors. Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor. By
doping both the band structure of the semiconductor and its resistivity are modified.
If a tetravalent semiconductor (Si or Ge) is doped with a pentavalent impurity atom
(donor atom), four of the electrons form covalent bonds with atoms of the
semiconductor and one is left over (Figure 5.9). At zero K, this extra electron resides in
the donor-levels, that lie in the energy gap, just below the conduction band. Since the
energy Ed between the donor levels and the bottom of the conduction band is small,
at room temperature, the extra electron is thermally excited to the conduction band.
This type of semiconductors are called n-type semiconductors because the majority of
charge carriers are electrons (negatively charged).
Fig. 5.9 n-type semiconductor two dimensional representation and band structure
If a tetravalent semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity atom (acceptor atom),
the three electrons form covalent bonds with neighboring semiconductor atoms, leaving
an electron deficiency (a hole) at the site of fourth bond (Figure 5.10). At zero K, this
hole resides in the acceptor levels that lie in the energy gap just above the valence
band. Since the energy Ea between the acceptor levels and the top of the valence band
is small, at room temperature, an electron from the valence band is thermally excited
to the acceptor levels leaving behind a hole in the valence band. This type of
semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors because the majority of charge carriers
are holes (positively charged).The doped semiconductors are called extrinsic
semiconductors.

87
Fig. 5.10 p-type semiconductor two dimensional representation and band structure
5.4 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The resistance of normal conductors decreases with decrease in temperature however, there
is always some residual resistance left over even at 0 K as shown in the Fig.5.11.
Fig. 5.11 Plot of Resistance Vs Temperature for normal metal and a superconductor
But there is a class of metals and compounds whose electrical resistance decreases to virtually
zero below a certain temperature called the critical temperature Tc and such materials are
called superconductors. The critical temperature is different for different superconductors as
given below.
Element/Compound
Tc (K)
Zn
0.88

88
Sn
3.72
Hg
4.2
La
6.0
Pb
7.18
Nb3Sn
18.05
Nb3Ge
23.2
YBa2Cu3O7
92
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8
134
Meissner Effect When the material in a weak magnetic field B, is cooled below the critical
temperature so as to render it into superconducting stage, the field lines are spontaneously
expelled from the interior of the superconductor (B=0, Figure 5.12). Therefore, a
superconductor is more than a perfect conductor it is also a perfect dia-magnet. This property
of expulsion of magnetic lines from the interior of a superconductor is called Meisner effect
and is as fundamental as the property of zero resistance. If the magnitude of the applied
magnetic field exceeds a critical value Bc, defined as the value of B that destroys a materials
superconducting properties, the field again penetrates the sample. Meissner effect can be
explained in the following way.
A good conductor expels static electric fields by moving charges to its surface. In effect, the
surface charges produce an electric field that exactly cancels the externally applied field inside
the conductor. In a similar manner, a superconductor expels magnetic fields by forming
surface currents. Consider the superconductor shown in Figure 5.12. Lets assume the sample
is initially at a temperature T>Tc so that the magnetic field penetrates the cylinder. As the
cylinder is cooled to a temperature T<Tc, the field is expelled. Surface currents induced on the
superconductors surface produce a magnetic field that exactly cancels the externally applied
field inside the superconductor. As expected, the surface currents disappear when the
external magnetic field is removed.

89
Fig. 5.12 A superconductor in the form of a long cylinder in the presence of an external
magnetic field.
Because a superconductor is a perfect dia-magnet having a negative magnetic susceptibility,
it repels a permanent magnet and this property is used in achieving magnetic levitation.
BCS Theory In 1957. Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer gave a successful theory to explain the
phenomenon of superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory. According to this theory, two
electrons can interact via distortions in the array of lattice ions so that there is a net attractive
force between the electrons. As a result, the two electrons are bound into an entity called a
Cooper pair, which behaves like a single particle with integral spin. Particles with integral spin
are called bosons. An important feature of bosons is that they do not obey the Pauli exclusion
principle. Consequently, at very low temperatures, it is possible for all bosons in a collection
of such particles to be in the lowest quantum state and as such the entire collection of Cooper
pairs in the metal is described by a single wave function. There is an energy gap equal to the
binding energy of a Cooper pair between this lowest state and the next higher state. Under
the action of an applied electric field, the Cooper pairs experience an electric force and move
through the metal. A random scattering event of a Cooper pair from a lattice ion would
represent resistance to the electric current. Such a collision would change the energy of the
Cooper pair because some energy would be transferred to the lattice ion. There are no
available energy levels below that of the Cooper pair (it is already in the lowest state),
however, and none available above because of the energy gap. As a result, collisions do not
occur and there is no resistance to the movement of Cooper pairs.
Applications Most important and basic application of superconductors is in high field
solenoids which can be used to produce intense magnetic field. Superconducting magnets are
used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. Magnetic levitation, based on Meissner
effect, is another important application of superconductors. This principle is used in maglev
vehicles. Detection of a weak magnetic field and lossless power transmission are some other
important applications of superconductors.

90
EXERCISES
QUESTIONS
1 Write the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Sketch
schematically the plots of this function for zero kelvin and for
temperature above zero kelvin.
[3]
2 Derive an expression for density-of-states.
[5]
3 Assuming the Fermi-Dirac distribution function , obtain an expression

for the density of free-electrons in a metal with Fermi energy EF, at
zero K and, hence obtain expression for Fermi energy EF in a metal at
zero K. [ Given: density-of-states function
8 2 m
g( E ) dE
h3
dE ]
[5]
5.2 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

4 Explain the formation of energy bands in solids with necessary diagrams.
[5]
5.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN METALS, INSULATORS AND

SEMICONDUCTORS
5 Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the

basis of band theory
[3]
6 Indicate the position of (a) donor levels (b) acceptor levels, in the
energy band diagram of a semiconductor.
[2]
7 What is the difference between p-type and n-type semiconductors?

Explain with band diagram.
[3]
8 With necessary diagrams, explain doping in semiconductors.
[5]
8 Why the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor increases

with increasing temperature?
[2]
5.4 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY-PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS

9 What are superconductors? Draw a representative graph of Resistance Vs
Temperature for a superconductor.
10 Explain Meissner effect.
[2]
[3]

91
11 Explain briefly the BCS theory of superconductivity in metals.
[3]
PROBLEMS
1 Each atom of gold (Au) contributes one free-electron to the metal. The
concentration of free-electron in gold is 5.90 x 1028/m3. Compute the Fermi
Energy of gold.
Ans: 5.53 eV
2 Sodium is a monovalent metal having a density of 971 kg/m3 and a molar mass
of 0.023 kg/mol. Use this information to calculate (a) the density of charge
carriers and (b) the Fermi energy.
Ans: 2.54 x 1028/m3, 3.15 eV
3 Calculate the energy of a conduction electron in silver at 800 K, assuming the
probability of finding an electron in that state is 0.950. The Fermi energy is
5.48 eV at this temperature.
Ans: 5.28 eV
4 Show that the average kinetic energy of a conduction electron in a metal at
zero K is (3/5) EF
Suggestion: In general, the average kinetic energy is
1
E N( E ) dE
ne
E AV
where the density of particles
ne N( E ) dE
0
N( E ) dE
8 2 m
h3
3
2
1
2
E dE
E EF
exp
kT
5 (a) Consider a system of electrons confined to a three-dimensional box. Calculate

the ratio of the number of allowed energy levels at 8.50 eV to the number at
7.00 eV. (b) Copper has a Fermi energy of 7.0 eV at 300 K. Calculate the ratio

92
of the number of occupied levels at an energy of 8.50 eV to the number at

Fermi energy. Compare your answer with that obtained in part (a).
Ans: (a) 1.10 (b) 1.46x10-25
5.2. BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
5.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN METALS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

6 Most solar radiation has a wavelength of 1 m or less. What energy gap should
the material in solar cell have in order to absorb this radiation ? Is silicon (E g=
1.14 eV) appropriate ?
Ans: 1.24 eV or less; yes
7 The energy gap for silicon at 300 K is 1.14 eV. (a) Find the lowest-frequency photon
that can promote an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. (b) What
is the wavelength of this photon?
Ans: 2.7x1014 Hz, 1090 nm
8 The longest wavelength of radiation absorbed by a certain semiconductor is 512 nm.
Calculate the energy gap for this semiconductor.
Ans: 2.42 eV
5.4 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY-PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
9 Niobium metal becomes a super conductor when cooled below 9K. Its
superconductivity is destroyed when the surface magnetic field exceeds 0.100T.
Determine the maximum current a 2.00 mm diameter Niobium wire can carry and
remain super conducting, in the absence of any external magnetic field.

93

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ENGINEERING

Quantum Mechanics: An interpretation of quantum mechanics, Wave function and its

Introduction : course contents, assessments, AMS, availability etc.

Light as an EM (electro-magnetic) wave. Interference of light waves. Coherence. Double-slit

Intensity in double-slit interference.

Interference from thin films. Newton rings.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-01 to L-03.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-05.

Diffraction at a circular aperture. Double-slit interference and diffraction combined.

Multiple slits. Diffraction gratings.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-07 & L-08.

Types of optical fiber. Attenuation in optical fibers. Applications of optical fibers.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-12 & L-13.

The photoelectric effect.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-15 & L-16.

The Compton effect.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-18 & L-19.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-21.

An interpretation of quantum mechanics. Wave function and its significance.

The Schrodinger equation. The particle in a well of infinite height.

A particle in a well of finite height.

Tunneling through a potential energy barrier. Applications.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-24 to L-26.

The quantum model of the hydrogen atom.

The wave functions for hydrogen atom.

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-28 & L-29.

Free-electron theory of metals.

Band theory of solids

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-31& L-32.

Electrical conduction in metals, insulators and semiconductors.

Superconductivity properties and applications

Tutorial: Problems on topics in L-34 & L-35.

Solid State Physics

2 Sessional of 15 marks each

End Semester Examination

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

To understand the principles of interference and diffraction.

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Laser light is highly coherent (coherent length of few centimeters to meters).

Degree of coherence is very important in telecommunications and holography.

How to produce coherent waves?

Fig. 1.2 Production of coherent waves by division of wave front

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.3 Production of coherent waves by division of amplitude

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Thus, the phase differences of 0, 2, 4, .. is equivalent to path differences of 0, ,

1.1.2 DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE

Fig. 1.5 Double slit arrangement and interference pattern

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

m = 0, 1, 2, . . .m = 0 is the central maximum.

For minimum at point P

For small value of , we can make following approximation

In such a case, the path difference

For mth maximum located at ym , we can write

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.7 Youngs interference experimental set up

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal

PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Fig. 1.8 Schematic of double slit arrangement

Dept. of Physics, MIT Manipal