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Methods of Dewatering
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ajinkya gaikwad
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Published on Dec 21, 2014

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1. 1. 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERAL Ground water conditions
play an important part in the stability of foundations. If the water table lies
very close to the base of footings, the bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics of the soil would be affected. The level of the water table
fluctuates with season. During the end of monsoons, the water table level will
be closer to the ground surface as compared to the period just before the

monsoons. The difference in levels between the maximum and the minimum
may fluctuate from year to year. In many big projects, it is sometimes very
essential to know these fluctuations. Piezometers are therefore required to be
installed in such areas for measuring the level of water table for one or more
years. In some cases clients may demand the depth of water table during the
period of site investigation. The depth can be measured fairly accurately
during boring operation.. In a fairly draining material such as sand and gravel,
the water level returns to its original position in a matter of few minutes or
hours, whereas, in soils of low permeability it may take several days. Insuch
cases, the water table level has to be located by some reliable method. In
some cases, the ground water flows under pressure through a pervious layer
of soil confined from its top and bottom between impermeable geological
formations. If the water flows from a higher elevation to a lower level, an
artesian pressures created and such a ground water is termed as artesian
water. It is essential to investigate the possibility of existence of artesian
water in a project area. Permeability of soils is another important factor,
which needs to be known in many of the major projects. Selection of pumps
for pumping out water from excavated trenches or pits depends on the
permeability of soils. The settlement and stability of foundations also depend
on the permeability of soils. Construction of buildings, powerhouses, dams,
locks and many other structures requires excavation below the water table
into water-bearing soils. Such excavations require lowering the water table
below the slopes and bottom of the excavation to prevent raveling or
sloughing of the slope and to ensure dry, firm working conditions for
construction operations.Groundwater can be controlled by means of one or
more types of dewatering
2. 2. 2 systems appropriate to the size and depth of the excavation, geological
conditions, and characteristics of the soil. 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1) To
know the concept of Dewatering 2) To know the dewatering methods
available for construction of dewatering 3) To know which type of dewatering
methods are appropriate for various soil conditions. 1.3 DEFINITION
Dewatering means the separation of water from the soil, or perhaps taking
the water out of a particular construction problem completely. Many
excavations are carried below groundwater level. Techniques for dealing with
the problems that result depend on theexcavation dimensions, the soil type,
and the groundwater control requirements, among otherfactors. The simplest
dewatering operations are carried out with little planning Major operations in
difficult conditions require advanced engineering and construction methods.
1.4 GROUND WATER TABLE Ground water is sub-surface water, but not all
sub-surface water is ground water. The upper surface of ground water is the
water table. Below this surface, all the pore spaces and cracks in sediments
and rocks are completely filled (saturated) with water. These saturated
layers, known as the saturated zone (or the phreatic zone), are where ground
water occurs. Strictly speaking only water found in the saturated zone is
ground water. 1.5 WATER TABLE LOCATION Borehole observation is the
simplest technique. Boreholes drilled during a subsurface investigation can
be kept open for 24 hours. The level of water is normally determined by
lowering a tape with a float or by an electrical switching device, which is,
actuated on contact with water. In a cohesive soil stratum, the stabilization of

water table may take time. In such situations, the location may be
ascertained by adopting the extrapolation method. In this case, a plot of
water level versus time is made and the groundwater level is estimated by
extrapolating the curve until it becomes parallel to the time axis. If several
levels are noted at equal time intervals the following computational method
is used.
3. 3. 3 1.6 PURPOSES FOR DEWATERING 1.6.1 During Construction Stage 1)
Provide a dry excavation and permit construction to proceed efficiently. 2)
Reduce lateral loads on sheeting and bracing in excavations. 3) Stabilize
quick bottom conditions and prevent heaving and piping. 4) Improve
supporting characteristics of foundation materials. 5) Increase stability of
excavation slopes and side-hill fills. 6) Cut off capillary rise and prevent piping
and frost heaving in pavements. 7) Reduce air pressure in tunneling
operations. 1.6.2 Post Construction Stage 1) Reduce or eliminate uplift
pressures on bottom slabs and permit economics from the reduction of slab
thicknesses fro basements, buried structures, canal linings, spillways, dry
docks, etc. 2) Provide for dry basements. 3) Reduce lateral pressures on
retaining structures. 4) Control embankment seepage in all dams. 5) Control
seepage and pore pressures beneath pavements, side-hill fills, and cut
slopes. 1.7 PERMEABILITY OF SOIL The ability of soil to allow the water to flow
through it is called Permeability. It is very important for the structures which
are in contact with water e.g. Dams, Bridge, and Canals etc. Soils have
interconnected voids through which water can flow from points of high energy
to points of low energy. It is necessary to estimate the quantity of
underground seepage for investigating problems involving the pumping of
water for underground construction, and making stability analysis of earth
dams and earth-retaining structures that are subjected to seepage forces.
Range of permeability for various soils is shown in Table1.1 and fig. 1.1
4. 4. 4 Table 1.1 Range Of Permeability for Various Type of Soil. Type of Soil
Permeability Coefficient(k)(cm/sec) Relative Permeability Coarse gravel
Exceeds 10^-1 High Clean sand 10^-1 to 10^-3 Medium Dirty sand 10^-3 to
10^-5 Low Silt 10^-5 to 10^-7 Very low Clay Less than 10^-7 Impervious
Figure 1.1 Range of Permeability for Various Dewatering Methods
5. 5. 5 CHAPTER TWO METHODS OF DEWATERING 2.1 INTRODUCTION
Construction dewatering has existed as a specialty industry for a long time.
Consequently, anumber of well established techniques have been developed
to lower the ground water table during excavation. The geology, ground
water conditions, and type of excavation all influence the selection of
dewatering technology. The most common methods for dewatering include
sumps, wells and well-points. 1) Sumps provide localized, very shallow
dewatering (less than 3 feet) and consist of pumping from perforated drums
or casings in a gravel-filled backhoe pit. Sumps work best in tight, fine
grained soils, or very coarse, boulder deposits. 2) Wells are large-diameter
(greater than 6 inches) holes, drilled relatively deep (greater than 10 feet),
and contain slotted casings and down hole pumps. Wells work best in soils
consisting of sand, or sand and gravel mixtures and can dewater large areas
to great depths. 3) Well-points are small-diameter (less than 6 inches),

shallow wells, and are closely spaced (2 to 10 feet apart). Well-points

effectively dewater coarse sands and gravels, or silts and clays. They have a
wide range of applications. However, well-points use a vacuum system and
their depth is limited to about 25 feet. Well-point systems generally cost more
than either sumps or wells, and require near-continual maintenance. A
number of other dewatering techniques are available including ground
freezing and electro osmosis. However, such techniques are very costly and
used only for particularly difficult dewatering applications. The Available
Methods of Groundwater Control Fall into the Following Basic Groups: 1.
Surface water control like ditches, training walls, embankments. Simple
methods of diverting surface water, open excavations. Simple pumping
equipment. 2. Gravity drainage. Relatively impermeable soils. Open
excavations especially on sloping sites. Simple pumping equipment. 3. Sump
pumping 4. Well-point systems with suction pumps.
6. 6. 6 5. Shallow (bored) wells with pumps. 6. Deep (bored) wells with pumps.
7. Eductor system. 8. Drainage galleries. Removal of large quantities of water
for dam abutments, cut-offs landslides etc. Large quantities of water can be
drained into gallery (small diameter tunnel) and disposed of by conventional
large scale pumps. 9. Electro-osmosis. Used in low permeability soils (silts,
silty clays, some peats) when no other method is suitable. Direct current
electricity is applied from anodes (steel rods) to cathodes (well-points, i.e.
small diameter filter wells) Exclusion Methods 1. Ground freezing (ammonium
brine refrigeration or liquid nitrogen refrigeration). All types of saturated soils.
2. Slurry trench cut-off walls with betonies or native clay and Diaphragm
concrete walls. All soils. Curtain walls around excavations with flat buckets. 3.
Impervious soil barrier. All soils.Relatively shallow applications (5-6m max.).
Backhoes form the clay filled barriers some distance from the excavation
boundaries. 4. Sheet piling. All soils except soils with large boulders. 5.
Secant (interlocked) piling or tangent piling with grouting in between. All soils
except boulders. 6. Compressed air. All types of saturated soils and rock.
Applications in tunnels, shafts and caissons. 7. Grouted cut-offs (jet grouting,
cementations grouts, chemical grouts etc.)
7. 7. 7 2.2 SUMPS AND SUMP PUMPING A sump is merely a hole in the ground
from which water is being pumped for the purpose of removing water from
the adjoining area as shown in fig.2.1. They are used with ditches leading to
them in large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump installation
level; for greater depths a submersible pump is required. Shallow slopes may
be required for unsupported excavations in silts and fine sands. Gravels and
coarse sands are more suitable. Fines may be easily removed from ground
and soils containing large percent of fines are not suitable. If there are
existing foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement of these
foundations. Subsidence of adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part
of a slope (sloped pits) may occur. The sump should be preferably lined with a
filter material which has grain size gradations in compatible with the filter
rules. For prolonged pumping the sump should be prepared by first driving
sheeting around the sump area for the full depth of the sump and installing a
cage inside the sump made of wire mesh with internal strutting or a
perforating pipe filling the filter material in the space outside the cage and at

the bottom of the cage and withdrawing the sheeting. Two simple sumping.
Fig.2.1 Sump Well Method OfDewatering.
8. 8. 8 2.2.1 Advantages of Open Sump and Ditches 1. Widely used method. 2.
Most economical method for installation and maintenance. 3. Can be applied
for most soil and rock conditions. 4. Most appropriate method in situation
where boulders or massive obstructions are met Within the ground. Greatest
depth to which the water table can be lowered by this method isabout 8 m
below the pump. 2.2.2 Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches 1. Ground
water flows towards the excavation with high head or a steep slope and
hence there is a risk of collapse of sides. 2. In open or timbered excavations
there is risk of instability of the base due to upward. 2.3 WELLPOINT SYSTEMS
A well-point is 5.0-7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe 60 cm 120 cm long
which is perforated and covered with a screen. The lower end of the pipe has
a driving head with water holes for jetting as shown in fig.2.2. Well-points are
connected to 5.0-7.5 cm diameter pipes known as riser pipes and are
inserted into the ground by driving or jetting. The upper ends of the riser
pipes lead to a header pipe which, in turn, connected to a pump. The ground
water is drawn by the pump into the well-points through the header pipe and
discharged as shown in fig. 2.3. The well-points are usually installed with
0.75m 3m spacing. This type of dewatering system is effective in soils
constituted primarily of sand fraction or other soil containing seams of such
materials. In gravels spacing required may be too close and impracticable. In
clays it is also not used because it is too slow. In silts and silt clay mixtures
the use of well points are aided by upper (0.60m 0.90m long) compacted
clay seals and sand- filtered boreholes (20cm 60cm diameter). Upper clay
seals help to maintain higher suction (vacuum) pressures and sand filters
increase the amount of discharge. Filtered boreholes are also functional in
layered soil profiles approximate time required for effective drawdown The
header pipe (15-30 cm diameter, connecting all well-points) is connected to a
vacuum (Suction assisted self priming centrifugal or piston) pump. The wellpoints can lower a water level to a maximum of 5.5 m below the centerline of
the header pipe. In silty fine sands this limit is 3-4 m. Multiple stage system
of well-points are used for
9. 9. 9 lowering water level to a greater depth. Two or more tiers (stages) are
used as shown in fig.2.4. More pumps are needed and due to the berms
required the excavation width becomes wider. A single well-point handles
between 4 and 0.6 m3/hr depending on soil type. For a 120 m length (40 at 3
m centers) flowis therefore between 160 and 24 m3/hr. Nomograms for
selecting preliminary wellpoint spacing in clean uniform sand and gravel, and
stratified clean sand and gravel are shown in horizontal well-points are used
mainly for pipeline water. They consist of perforated pipes laid horizontally in
a trench and connected to a suitable pump. Fig 2.2 Single Stage Wellpoint
System
10.10. 10 Fig 2.3 Multi Stage Wellpoint System Fig.2.4 Cross Section of Wellpoint
System

11.11. 11 2.3.1 Design Considerations of Well-Point System of Dewatering When

designing a well point system, it is necessary to give first consideration tothe
physical conditions of the site to be dewatered. Following is the list of
information to be collected: a) The physical layout b) Adjacent areas c) Soil
conditions d) Permeability of the soil e) The amount of water to be pumped f)
Depth to imperviousness g) Stratification 2.3.2 Advantages of Well Point
System a) Installation is very rapid b) Requires reasonably simple and less
costly equipment c) Water is filtered and carries little or no soil particles. d)
There is less danger of subsidence of the surrounding ground than with opensump pumping 2.3.3 Limitations of Well Point System 1) A lowering of about 6
m (20 ft) below pump level is generally possible beyondwhich excessive air
shall be drawn into the system through the joints in the pipes,valves, etc.,
resulting in the loss of pumping efficiency. 2) If the ground is consisting
mainly of large gravel, stiff clay or soil containingcobbles or boulders it is not
possible to install well points.
12.12. 12 Table 2.1 Spacing of Well-points According To Type of Soil Soil Type
Spacing of well-points (in m) Silty sand 1.5-2.0 Sandy gravel 1.0-1.5 Fine to
coarse gravel 0.5-1.0 2.4 EDUCTOR SYSTEM This system also known as the
jet eductor system or ejector system or eductor wellpoint system is
similar to the wellpoint system. Instead of employing a vacuum to draw water
to the well-points, the eductor system uses high pressure water and riser
units, each about 30-40mm in diameter. A high pressure supply main feeds
water through a venturi tube immediately above the perforated well screen,
creating a reduction in pressure which draws water through the large
diameter rise pipe. The high pressure main feeds off the return water. The
advantage of the eductor system is that in operating many wellpointsfrom a
single pump station, the water table can be lowered in one stage from depths
of 10-45 m. This method becomes economically competitive at depth in soils
of low permeability. Fig 2.5 Installed EductorWell Point System
13.13. 13 2.4.1 Working of Eductor Dewatering System Supply pumps at ground
level feed high-pressure water to each Eductor well head via a supply main.
The supply flow passes down the well and through a nozzle and venturi in the
Eductor. The flow of water through the nozzle generates a vacuum in the well
and draws in groundwater. The supply flow and extracted groundwater mix,
return to the surface and feed back to the pumping station via a return main.
The return flow is used to prime the supply pumps and the excess water
extracted is discharged by overflow from the priming tank. A single pumping
station can be used to operate up to about 75 Eductor wells installed in an
appropriate array around the works. 2.4.2 Advantages of Eductor Dewatering
System 1) They are flexible in level and layout 2) Stable in operation 3) Able
to run dry without damage 4) Not limited by depth. Also effective to greater
depths 5) Best in low-yielding wells 6) Energy intensive 7) Venturi in base of
well creates vacuum 2.5 GROUND FREEZING The principle of ground freezing
is to change the water in the soil into a solid wall of ice. This wall of ice is
completely impermeable. The chemical used for freezing of ground is
ammonium brine refrigeration or liquid nitrogen refrigeration.Ground freezing
is used for groundwater cutoff, for earth support, for temporary underpinning,
for stabilization of earth for tunnel excavation, to arrest landslides and to

stabilize abandoned mineshafts. The principals of ground freezing are

analogous to pumping groundwater from wells. To freeze the ground, a row of
freeze pipes are placed vertically in the soil and heat energy is removed
through these pipes. Isotherms (an isotherm is a line connecting locations
with equal temperature) move out from the freeze pipes with time similar to
groundwater contours around a well.Once the earth temperature reaches 32
F (0 C), water in the soil pores turns to ice. Then further cooling proceeds.
The groundwater in the pores readily freezes in granular soils, such as sands.
14.14. 14 For instance, saturated sand achieves excellent strength at only a few
degrees below the freezing point. If the temperature is lowered further, the
strength increases marginally. In cohesive soils, such as clays, the ground
water is molecularly bonded at least in part to the soil particles. If soft clay is
cooled down to freezing temperature, some portions of its pore water to
begin to freeze and it causes the clay to stiffen. With further reduction in
temperature, more pore water freezes and consequently more strength gain
is achieved. When designing for frozen earth structures in cohesive soils, it
may be necessary to specify substantially lower temperatures to achieve the
required strength, than in cohesion less soils. A temperature of +20 F may
be sufficient in sands, whereas temperatures as low as 20 F may be
required in soft clays. The design of a frozen earth barrier is governed by the
thermal properties of the underlying soils and related response to the
freezing system. Formation of frozen earth barrier developsat different rates
depending on the thermal and hydraulic properties of each stratum.Typically,
rock and coarse-grained soils freeze faster than clays and silts as shown in
fig.2.6. Fig. 2.6 Formation Of Frozen Earth Barrier In Different Soils
15.15. 15 Fig. 2.7 Freeze Pipes When soft clay is cooled to the freezing point,
some portion of its pore water begins to freeze and clay begins to stiffen. If
the temperature is further reduced, more of the pore water freezes and the
strength of the clay markedly increases. When designing frozen earth
structures in clay it may be necessary to provide for substantially lower
temperatures to achieve the required strengths. A temperature of +20 F
may be adequate in sands, whereas temperatures as low as 20 F may be
required in soft clay. If the heat extraction is continued at a high rate, the
thickness of the frozen wall will expandwith time. Once the wall has achieved
its design thickness, the freeze plant is operated at a reduced rate to remove
the heat flowing toward the wall, to maintain the condition as shown in
fig.2.7. 2.5.1 Freezing Applications The freezing method is remarkably
versatile, and with ingenuity it can be adapted to a great many project
conditions. The penetration of a freeze does not vary greatly with
permeability, so it is much more effective as a cutoff than grout. In stratified
soils, cutoff by freezing
16.16. 16 encounters fewer problems than drainage by dewatering. Freezing can
perform the dual function of water cutoff and earth support, eliminating
sheeting and bracing. 2.6 DEEP-WELL DEWATERING Deep well systems
consist of one or more individual wells, each of which has its own
Submersible pump at the bottom of the well shaft. Such systems are
particularly suitable. Where large volumes of water in highly permeable sand

and gravel areas permitting Rapid recharging of ground water from

surrounding areas exist. The Range of permeability under which the deep well
system is applicable. 2.6.1 DeepWell System A typical deep well consists of a
drilled hole within which is a lower screened casing which admits water to the
pump; an upper casing which prevents soil from reaching the pump and,
within the casing, the pump and its discharge pipe. The discharge pipe
supports the pump to which it is attached. Electrical wiring for the pump
motor runs between the discharge pipe and the casing. The space between
the drilled hole and the casing is normally packed with filter material (for
example, coarse sand and/or gravel) to minimize the pumping of solid
material from the soil surrounding the well. 2.6.2 Spacing of deep well point
system Normally, individual wells are spaced at an approximate distance of
15 m (50 feet) apart. However, depending upon soil conditions and the
dewatering plan the spacing may need to be just a few meters apart. 2.6.3
Dewatering Capacity of Deep Well Point System Individual well capacities are
from 21 to 3000 gallons per minute and with total systems the capacities can
be as high as 60 000 gallons per minute. Deep well pumps can lift water 30 m
(100 feet) or more in a single stage and the variation of the typical deep well
system is a pressure within an aquifer. Deep well points require no pump as
the water is forced to the surface by its own pressure. To boost the water flow
a vacuum pump is frequently used.
17.17. 17 Fig. 2.8 Details of A Deep Well Fig 2.9 Installed Deep Well Point
18.18. 18 2.6.4 Design Considerations of Deep Well-Point System of Dewatering
When designing a deep well point system, it is necessary to take into
consideration the Following: 1) The soil investigation report 2) The grain size
analysis and permeability tests 3) The hydrology of the area 4) The
topography 5) The space limitations of the site and surrounding structure. 6)
The projected method of excavation and shoring if any 7) The construction
schedule
19.19. 19 CHAPTER THREE SELECTION OF DEWATERING SYSTEM. 3.1
INTRODUCTION The method most suitable for dewatering an excavation
depends upon the location, type size, and depth of the excavation; thickness,
stratification, and permeability of the foundation soils below methods the
water table into which the excavation extends or is underlain; potential
damage resulting from failure of the dewatering system; and the cost of
installation and of the system. The cost of a dewatering method or system
will depend upon: (1) Type, size, and pumping requirements of project. (2)
Type and availability of power. (3) Labor requirements. (4) Duration of
required The rapid development of slurry cutoff walls has made this method
of groundwater control, combined with a certain amount of pumping, a
practical and economical alternative for some projects, especially those
where pumping costs would otherwise be great. 3.2 FACTORS CONTROLLING
SELECTION Where foundations must be constructed on soils below the
groundwater level, it will generally be necessary to dewater the excavation
by means of a deep well or Well-point system rather than trenching and sump
pumping, Dewatering is usually essential to prevent damage to foundation
soils caused by equipment operations and sloughing or sliding in of the side

slopes. Conventional deep-well and Well-point systems designed and installed

by companies specializing in this work are generally satisfactory, and detailed
designs need not be prepared by the engineer. However, where unusual
pressure relief or dewatering requirements must be achieved, the engineer
should make detailed analyses and specify the dewatering system or detailed
results to be achieved in the contract documents. Where unusual equipment
and procedures are required to achieve desired results, they should be
described in detail in the contract documents.
20.20. 20 3.2.1 Type of Excavation Small open excavations, or excavations
where the depth of water table lowering is small, can generally be dewatering
most economically and safely by means of a conventional wellpoint system. If
the excavation requires that the water table or artesian pressure be lowered
more than 20 or 30 feet, a system of jet eductor type well-points or deep
wells may be more suitable. Either well-points, deep wells, or a combination
thereof can be used to dewater an excavation surrounded by a cofferdam.
Excavations for deep shafts, caissons, or tunnels that penetrate stratified
pervious soil or rock can generally best be dewatered with either a deep-well
system (with or without an auxiliary vacuum) or a jet eductor wellpoint
system depending on the soil formation and required rate of pumping, but
slurry cutoff walls and freezing should be evaluated as alternative
procedures. Other factors relating to selection of a dewatering system are
interference of the system with construction operations, space available for
the system, sequence of construction operations, durations of dewatering,
and cost of the installation and its operation. Where groundwater lowering is
expensive and where cofferdams are required, caisson construction may be
more economical. Caissons are being used more frequently, even for small
structures. 3.2.2 Geological and Soil Conditions The geologic and soil
formations at a site may dictate the type of dewatering or drainage system. If
the soil below the water table is a deep, more or less homogeneous, freedraining sand, it can be effectively dewatered with either a conventional well
or wellpoint system. If, on the other hand, the formation is highly stratified, or
the saturated soil to be dewatered is underlain by an impervious stratum of
clay, shale, or rock, well-points or wells on relatively close centers may be
required. Where soil and groundwater conditions require only the relief of
artesian pressure beneath an excavation, this pressure relief can be
accomplished by means of relatively few deep wells or jet eductor well-points
installed around and at the top of the excavation. (a) If an aquifer is thick so
that the penetration of a system of well-points is small, the small ratio of
screen length to aquifer thickness may result in relatively little drawdown
within the excavation, even though the water table is lowered 15 to 20 feet at
the line of well- points. For deep aquifers, a deep-well system will generally
be more applicable, or the length
21.21. 21 of the well-points should be increased and the well-points set deep
and surrounded with a high-capacity filter. On the other hand, if the aquifer is
relatively thin or stratified well-points may be best suited to the situation. (b)
The perviousness and drainability of a soil or rock may dictate the general
type of a dewatering system to be used for a project. A guide for the
selection of a dewatering system related to the grain size of soils is presented

in figure 2-12. Some gravels and rock formations may be so permeable that a
barrier to flow, such as a slurry trench, grout curtain, sheet pile cutoff, or
freezing, may be necessary to reduce the quantity of flow to the dewatering
system to reasonable proportions. Clean, free draining sands can be
effectively dewatered by wells or well-points. Drainage of sandy silts and silts
will usually require the application of additional vacuum to well or wellpoint
dewatering systems, or possibly the use of the electroosmotic method of
dewatering where soils are silty or clayey. However, where thin sand layers
are present, special requirements may be unnecessary. Electroosmosis should
never be used until a test of a conventional system of well- points, wells with
vacuum or jet eductor well-points has been attempted. 3.2.3 Depth of
Groundwater Lowering The magnitude of the drawdown required is an
important consideration in selecting a dewatering system. If the drawdown
required is large, deep wells or jet eductor well-points may be the best
because of their ability to achieve large drawdowns from the top of an
excavation, whereas many stages of well-points would be required to
accomplish the same drawdown. Deep wells can be used for a wide range of
flows by selecting pumps of appropriate size, but jet eductor well-points are
not as flexible. Since jet eductor pumps are relatively inefficient, they are
most applicable where well flows are small as in silty to fine sand formations.
3.2.4 Reliability Requirements The reliability of groundwater control required
for a project will have a significant bearing on the design of the dewatering
pumps, power supply, and standby power and equipment. If the dewatering
problem is one involving the relief of artesian pressure to prevent a blowup
of the bottom of an excavation, the rate of water table rebound, in event of
failure of the system, may be extremely rapid. Such a situation may influence
the type of pressure relief system
22.22. 22 selected and require inclusion of standby equipment with automatic
power transfer and starting equipment. 3.2.5 Required Rate of Pumping The
rate of pumping required to dewater an excavation may vary from 5 to
50,000 gallons per minute or more. Thus, flow to a drainage system will have
an important effect on the design and selection of the wells, pumps, and
piping system. Turbine or submersible pumps for pumping deep wells are
available in sizes from 3 to 14 inches with capacities ranging from 5 to 5000
gallons per minute at heads up to 500 feet. Wellpoint pumps are available in
sizes from 6 to 12 inches with capacities ranging from 500 to 5000 gallons
per minute depending upon vacuum and discharge heads. Jet eductor pumps
are available that will pump from 3 to 20 gallons per minute for lift up to 100
feet. Where soil conditions dictate the use of vacuum or electroosmotic
wellpoint systems, the rate of pumpage will be very small. The rate of
pumpage will depend largely on the distance to the effective source of
seepage, amount of drawdown or pressure relief required, and thickness and
perviousness of the aquifer through which the flow is occurring. 3.2.6
Intermittent Pumping Pumping labor costs can occasionally be materially
reduced by pumping a dewatering system only one or two shifts per day.
While this operation is not generally possible, nor advantageous, it can be
economical where the dewatered area is large; subsoils below subgrade
elevation are deep, pervious, and homogeneous; and the pumping plant is
oversize. Where these conditions exist, the pumping system can be operated

to produce an abnormally large drawdown during one or two shifts. The

recovery during nonpumping shifts raises the ground water level, but not
sufficiently to approach subgrade elevation. This type of pumping plant
operation should be permitted only where adequate piezometers have been
installed and are read frequently. 3.2.7 Effect of Ground Water Lowering on
Adjacent Structures and Wells Lowering the groundwater table increases the
load on foundation soils below the original groundwater table. As most soils
consolidate upon application of additional load, structures located within the
radius of influence of a dewatering system may settle. The possibility of
23.23. 23 such settlement should be investigated before a dewatering system is
designed. Establishing reference hubs on adjacent structures prior to the
start of dewatering operations will permit measuring any settlement that
occurs during dewatering, and provides a warning of possible distress or
failure of a structure that might be affected. Recharge of the groundwater, as
illustrated in figure 2-13, may be necessary to reduce or eliminate distress to
adjacent structures, or it may be necessary to use positive cutoffs to avoid
lowering the groundwater level outside of an excavation. Positive cutoffs
include soil freezing and slurry cutoff techniques. Observations should be
made of the water level in nearby wells before and during dewatering to
determine any effect of dewatering. This information will provide a basis for
evaluating any claims that may be made. 3.2.8 Dewatering Cutoffs and Other
Procedures While dewatering is generally the most expeditious and
economical procedure for controlling water, it is sometimes possible to
excavate more economically in the wet inside of a cofferdam or caisson and
then seal the bottom of the excavation with a tremie seal, or use a
combination of slurry wall or other type of cutoff and dewatering. Where
subsurface construction extends to a considerable depth or where high uplift
pressures or large flows are anticipated, it may occasionally be advantageous
to: substitute a caisson for a conventional foundation and sink it to the design
elevation without lowering the groundwater level; use a combination
ofconcrete cutoff walls constructed in slurry-supported trenches, and a
tremied concrete foundation slab, in which case the cutoff walls may serve
also as part of the completed structure; use large rotary drilling machines for
excavating purposes, without lowering the groundwater level; or use freezing
techniques. Cofferdams, caissons, and cutoff walls may have difficulty
penetrating formations containing numerous boulders. Foundation designs
requiring compressed air will rarely be needed, although compressed air may
be economical or necessary for some tunnel construction work.
24.24. 24 CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION The concept of dewatering, purpose of
dewatering, various methods of dewatering andselection of method of
dewatering for various types of soil strata and according to permeability of
soil are studied.The selection of method of dewatering according to suitability
of ground is as shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Various Methods with Their
Suitability Method of Dewatering Suitability of Soil Sump pumping Gravel or
well graded sandy gravel, partially cemented material , porous rock formation
etc Well point systems Sandy soilDrawdown limit 15 ft Ejector system Fine
sand conditionDewater up to depth of 100 ft Ground freezing groundwater
cutoff, stabilization of earth for tunnel excavation,arrest landslides and to

stabilize mineshafts Deep (bored) wells Artesian waterPumping capacity

(3000 to 60,000 gallons/min)Dewater up to depth of 300 ft
25.25. 25 REFERENCES 1) Mansur, C.I. and Kaufman R.I. (1962), Dewatering, in
Foundation Engineering, pp.241- 350. 2) Powers, J.P. (1992), Construction
Dewatering, 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons Inc., pp 1- 17. 3) Quinion, D.W. and
Quinion, G.R.(1987), Control of Groundwater, ICE Works Construction
Guides, Thomas Telford Pub.Co., London., pp 113-129 4) Teng, V.C.(1962)
Foundation Design,Prentice-Hall, IAC,Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp 318- 332
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