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Production optimization
6.2.1 Introduction
Petroleum production engineering is the series of
activities concerned with the ability of a well to
produce or inject, often described through a
productivity or injectivity index (i.e. produced or
injected volumes per unit time per differential pressure
drop in the near wellbore region). As such, there is a
difference between reservoir engineering, which deals
with the reservoir-at-large and, in particular, the extent
and timeliness of hydrocarbon recovery. Production
well
choke
pipelines
gas
separator
oil
water
tubing
outflow
perforations
reservoir inflow
725
compressed gas
oil
gas processing
compression
flow station
gas
marketing
produced
fluids
injection gas
fuel gas
fuel gas
water
injection
water
steam
steam plants
water treatment
and compression
wells
Fig. 2. Petroleum production system: from the wells to the point of sales.
726
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
rs
rw
pe
Flow rates
kh(pepwf)
q1111111233333
re
141.2 Bm ln 1
rw s
[3]
kkroh(pepwf)o
qo 1111111123333
re
141.2 Bo mo ln 1
rw s
kkrwh(pepwf)w
qw1111111123333
re
141.2 Bw mw ln 1
rw s
pwf
Fig. 3. Wellbore measurement of interest:
qb
7.08kh 11
kro
111
J*111
pepwf (pDs) moBo ; for pwf pb
Skin effect
727
qo
pwf
pwf
1133
13
13
qo,max 10.2 p 0.8 p
2
qot
pwf
pwf
pbJ*
13
J*ppb11
10.2 13
pb 0.8 pb
1.8
2
2 n
J*
2
qotJ*ppb11 pb2pwf
2pb
728
qb=675 STB/D
1,000
0
0
500
1,000
flow rate (STB/D)
1,500
relationships
(after Vogel, 1968 and Fetkovich, 1973).
[10]
pwf
qo
1133
13
qo,max 1 p
2,000
pwf
pwf
13
qoqbqv 10.2 13
p 0.8 p
pb=3,000 psia
3,000
J*ppbp
pbJ*
11111132
113
p0.8pb ppb 1.8
[8]
4,000
pb 2
qo,b
pb
J* ppb
1133
113133
1
10.2 1
qo,max
qv
p 0.8 p
J*=0.48 STB/D/psia
Vogel (1968)
Fetkovich (1973)
J*ppbp
for pwf pb qv11111121113
p20.2p p0.8p 2
[7]
5,000
dp udu g
2ff u2dL
11321 dz1212
r
gc gc
gcD dWs0
g
r
2ff u2dL
Dpp1p21 rDz12Du2121
gc
2gc
gcD
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
[13]
0.0375ggsinqL
323
s1111111
ZT
1,000
pressure (psia)
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
2,000
depth (ft)
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
1,000 STB/D @ 500 SCF/STB; WOR=1
1,000 STB/D @ 1,000 SCF/STB; WOR=1
1,000 STB/D @ 500 SCF/STB; WOR=0
1,000 STB/D @ 1,000 SCF/STB; WOR=0
Fig. 5. Pressure vs. depth for different GLRs
and WORs using modified Hagedorn
and Brown, 1965;
generated in PPS Software, 2003.
729
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
0
4,000
8,000
12,000
flow rate (STB/D)
16,000
20,000
730
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Pres
inflow performa
n
Pres
ce
inflow per
f
downhole
flowing pressure
less drawdown
o u tflow perfor
m an
ce
productivity
enhancement
liquid rate BPD
downhole
flowing pressure
Fig. 7. Production
ormanc reduced
e restrictions
more drawdown
outflow
performance
production
increase
731
732
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
production
graphs
surface capacity
analysis
cross
section
reserves and
decline curves
project
management
preliminary
opportunity
identification
preliminary
candidate
selection plan
cost
management
operational
automation &
reliability analysis
buildup
tests
well
logs
production
logging
reserve
revision
well
completion
water
control
gas
control
fracturing
optimal conditions
for well and completion
drainage area
& completion
tubing
perform
artificial
lift
surface
network
open n-zone
stimulation
re-perforation
frac & pack
polymer, gels,
emulsions, silicates,
particles, hoz. wells,
change zones,
squeeze jobs
remove
solids,
change
tubing
sand
control
solid
control
acid
stimulation
surface artificial
network
lift
reperforating
economic
analysis
action plan
recommendation
risk
analysis
review
objectives
review
portfolio
acquire
data
optimize
plan
change
lines,
bottlenecking,
optimize
733
Table 1. General petroleum production system problems, manifestation and remadiation practices
General petroleum production system problems
Low productivity wells or field
Increasing operation and maintenance costs
734
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Table 1 (contd).
Diagnosed problem or cause
Crossflow
Solid precipitation
Surface bottlenecking
735
736
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
737
738
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
kf w
CfD11
kxf
739
740
pxsk
sfs113
bfskfs
where xs, bfs, kfs are the damaged fracture length (ft),
width of damaged fracture (ft) and damaged fracture
permeability (mD), respectively. Fig. 9 is a schematic
diagram of choke damage.
Fracture face damage. This kind of damage,
caused conventionally by fracturing fluid leak-off,
results in permeability impairment outside the
fracture, normal to the fracture face. Again Cinco-Ley
and Samaniego (1981) provided a means to account
for this damage by virtue of a skin effect, defined by:
[17]
pb k
sfs133s 1 1
2xf ks
p
b2kR
b1
b1b2kR
1
sd1 111111
1111112
2 b1k3xfb1k2 b1k1xfb1kR xf
[19]
stsdsf
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
fracture
k
bf
kf
kfs
xs
xf
damage zone
well
ks
bs
kf
bf
xf
fracture
fracture
radial
damage
fracture
face damage
sf ln(xf /rw)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0.1
rs
xf
Fig. 11. Vertical fracture with composite damage.
10
C fD
100
1,000
741
742
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
743
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
6.2.5 Perforating
The process of completing a well includes casing and
cementing the wellbore. Steel casing is installed in the
well and is cemented in place, totally isolating the
reservoir from the wellbore. Before any oil and/or gas
can be produced or injected into the reservoir,
communication between the wellbore and the reservoir
has to be re-established. This is done by perforating
or drilling the casing at the objective horizon. The
penetration of these perforations must extend beyond
the cement and into the formation.
One of the oldest methods of perforating
is the bullet gun kind. It was patented in 1926
and until the 1950s it was the most widely used
method. A short barrel (2'' or less) is loaded with
propellant and a bullet. Several of these barrels
are arranged on a steel carrier called the gun,
which is lowered into the well at the desired
horizon and the propellant is ignited by an electric
signal sent by wire. The bullet is accelerated
and shot into the casing, perforating both the
casing and the cement into the formation.
The bullet type perforator is suitable for wells
in softer formations, but its performance
diminishes in harder formations.
A second method of perforating is through
high-pressure water or sand laden slurry jets.
Water or slurry is pumped down the tubing.
A deflector and nozzle at the end of the tubing
directs the fluid stream, which impinges directly
explosive
case
liner
detonator
Fig. 13. Shaped charge for perforating.
745
rw
lperf
rperf
hperf
746
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
747
PT01
TT01
tubing head
pressure
DP01
pressure
depth
combined
fluid
gradient
dp/dznet
oil out
injected
gas
gradient
dp/dzgas
DP02
gas-lift
inlet
PT02
formation
fluid
gradient
dp/dz1
injection point
balance point
packer
sub-sea
safety
valve
gas-lift
pressure
conductor
bottom hole
surface
casing
valve
pressure
drop
gas-lift
valve
sliding
sleeve
pressure
sensor
well
flowing
pressure
intermediate
casing
well
flowing
pressure
tubing outflow
with no gas-lift
gas-lift quantity q
i1
Pwf1
Pwf2
Pwf3
qi2
qi3
IPR (Inflow
Performance
Relationship)
top-hole
packers
production
tubing
production
casing
gravel pack
A
production
zone
gas-lift
quantity
qi1
q1
q2 q3
well flow
rate
qi2
qi3
748
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
conventional
low profile
standard (type I)
749
PT01
TT01
tubing head
pressure
DP01
depth
flowing
gradient with
formation GOR
dp/dznet
oil out
PT02
pressure
DP02
gas out
packer
sub-sea
safety
valve
pumped liquid
flowing gradient
dp/dznet
annular
gas
gradient
dp/dzgas
conductor
DP
pump
pump depth
surface
casing
perforation depth
production
tubing
well flowing
pressure
@ pump depth
q1
q2
intermediate
casing
well
flowing
pressure
electric
motor
Pwf1
pump
production
casing
IPR
oil
rate
production
zone
tubing
outflow
inflow
with pump
Pwf2
q1
q2
oil rate
C
750
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
geometry
(1/2)
S geometry
dr
geometry
(2/3)
4er
geometry
(2/3)
D
d
D45 geometry
long
pitch
(1/2)
cross
section
single multilobe
geometry
751
752
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
753
754
into water. This last factor is important in thin, waterdrive pay sections where no more than a few feet of oil
zone penetration are desired. On the other hand, the
perforated completion offers a much higher degree of
control over the pay section, since the interval can be
perforated and tested as desired. Individual sections
can, in general, be isolated and selectively stimulated
much more easily and satisfactorily.
There is considerable evidence that hydraulic
fracturing is more useful in perforated completions.
Productivity ratios of perforated wells are about 50%
higher than those of similar open hole completions.
This superiority is apparently due to uniform treatment
over the entire pay section plus the stimulation benefit
gained from penetration of the perforations
themselves. The improved zonal control is also of
value when remedial measures, such as water or gas
exclusion, are undertaken.
With perhaps a few exceptions in low pressure or
thin water-drive pay areas, benefits of the perforated
completion overshadow those of the open hole type.
This advantage has been made possible by modern
perforating and stimulation techniques and advances
in drilling muds, cementing materials and methods, as
well as other aspects of petroleum technology.
Single zone versus commingled
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Iani
kH3
1
kV
755
Corrosion control
756
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Bibliography
Cinco-Ley H., Meng H.Z. (1988) Pressure transient analysis
of wells with finite conductivity vertical fractures in double
porosity reservoirs, in: Proceedings of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers annual technical conference and
exhibition, Houston (TX), 2-5 October, SPE 18172.
Crove C. et al. (1992) Trends in matrix acidizing, Oilfield
Review, October.
Fan Y. et al. (2000) Evaluation of frac-and-pack completions
in the Eugene Island, in: Proceedings of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers annual technical conference and
exhibition, Dallas (TX), 1-4 October, SPE 63107.
Firoozabadi A., Katz D.L. (1979) An analysis of high-velocity
gas flow through porous media, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, February, 211-216.
Lea J., Winkler H. (1995) Whats new in artificial lift? Part
2, World Oil, April.
757
References
Aggour T.M., Economides M.J. (1999) Impact of fluid
selection on high permeability facturing, Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Production & Facilities, February,
72-76.
Blom S.M.P. et al. (1997) Relative permeability at near-critical
conditions, in: Proceedings of the Society of Petroleum
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Antonio (TX), 5-8 October, 957-967, SPE 38935.
Brown J.E., Economides M.J. (1992) An analysis of
hydraulically fractured horizontal wells, in: Proceedings
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regional meeting, Casper (WY), 18-21 May, SPE 24322.
Chavez J.C., Lory A. (1991) Estudio sobre la depositacion
de material orgnico en instalaciones de produccion del
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analysis. Finite conductivity fracture case versus damage
fracture case, in: Proceedings of the Society of Petroleum
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San Antonio (TX), 5-7 October, SPE 10179.
Cinco-Ley H. et al. (1978) Transient pressure behavior for a
well with a finite-conductivity vertical fracture, Society
of Petroleum Engineers Journal, August, 253-264.
Dusterhoft R.G., Chapman B.J. (1994) Fracturing high
permeability reservoirs increases productivity, Oil & Gas
Journal, June.
Ebinger C.D. (1996) New frac-pack procedures reduce
completion costs, World Oil, April.
Economides M.J. (1993) Horizontal wells. Performance,
completions and stimulation, Boston (MA), International
Human Resources Development Corporation.
Economides M.J., Nolte K.G. (2000) Reservoir stimulation,
Chichester, John Wiley.
Economides M.J. et al. (1994) Petroleum production system,
Englewood Cliffs (NJ), Prentice Hall.
Economides M.J. et al. (edited by) (1998) Petroleum well
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Escobedo J. et al. (1997) Heavy organic deposition during oil
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petroleum engineering conference and exhibition, Rio de
Janeiro, 30 August-3 September, SPE 38989.
Fan Y., Economides M.J. (1995) Fracture dimensions in frac
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Proceedings of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of
758
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Michael J. Economides
Luigi Saputelli
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Houston
Houston, Texas, USA
759