Applying communication theory for professional life

Marianne Daiton
Elain D. Zelley

Chapter 1
Introduction to communication theory
Communication = the process by which people interactively create, sustain and manage
meaning.
There are 3 types of theories:
- Commonsense theory
o Created by an individuals own personal experience.
o Useful to us and are often a basis for our decisions about how to
communicate.
- Working theory
o Generalizations made in particular professions about the best techniques
for doing something.
- Scholarly theory
o The theory has undergone systematic research
o Provides more thorough accurate and abstract explanations for
communication.
o They are often more complex and difficult to understand
Inductive theory development ( grounded theory) research comes before theory. Study
on a particular topic and based on the results of the research, develop a theory.
Deductive theory development a hypothesis, or a working theory must be developed
before any research is conducted.
Research the methodical gathering of data as well as the careful reporting of the results
of the data analysis.
Primary research research reported by the person who conducted it. Often published in
academic journals.
Secondary research research reported by someone other than the person who
conducted it. This is published in newspapers or textbooks.
There are different research methods in communication. Below you can see the different
ones.
Experiments
Experimentation is ultimately concerned with causation and control. An experiment is the
only research method that allows researches to conclude that one thing causes another.
There are 2 possible settings for an experiment, a laboratory experiment or a field
experiment.
Laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled setting, so that the researcher might
better control his or her efforts at manipulations.
Field experiments take place in participants natural surroundings.
There are always 2 variables within a research.
Variable any concepts that has 2 or more values, such as gender.
Independent variable presumed cause
Dependent variable presumed effect
If you are interested in knowing whether bright colors in advertisements cause increased
sales, your independent variable is the color and the dependent variable is the amount of
sales dollars.

Survey research
The most common means of studying communication is through the use of surveys.
Market research and other surveys are an example of this. In general, there are 2 types of
surveys.
Interviews participants respond orally.
Questionnaires respond in writing.
- Open ended questions answer in their own words
- Closed ended questions
Sampling small number of people in the population of interest. If the sample is well
selected, the results of the survey are likely also to hold true for the entire group.
Random samples every member of the target group has an equal chance of being
selected.
Non random samples volunteers.
Random samples are more likely to use, because they give a more representative view of
the situation.
Textual analysis
Is used to uncover the content, nature or structure of messages.
There are 3 distinct forms that textual analyses take in the communication discipline:
- Rhetorical criticism a systematic method for describing, analyzing, interpreting
and evaluating the persuasive force of messages.
- Content analysis indentify, classify and analyze the occurrence of particular
types of messages. Developed to study mass mediated messages.
- Interaction analysis ( conversation analysis) focus on interpersonal or group
communication interactions that have been recorded, with a specific emphasis on
the nature or structure of interaction.
Ethnography
Used by scholars of communication. The researcher must place him or herself into a
particular culture or context to understand the communication rules and meanings for
that culture or context.
Complete participants researcher is fully involved in the social setting and the
participants do not know that someone is studying them.
Participant observer researcher becomes fully involved with the culture or contexts,
but she or he has admitted his or her research agenda before entering the environment.
Are more frequently chosen.
Complete observers do not interact with the members of the culture or context.
Research method
Experiment

What it reveals
Cause and effect

Survey

Respondents thoughts,
feelings and intentions

Textual analysis

The content, nature and

structure of messages
Rules and meanings of
communication in a culture
or context

Ethnography

What it conceals
Whether the cause-effect
relationship holds true in
less controlled
environments
Cannot establish causality,
cannot determine what
people actually do
The effect of the message
on the receiver
May provide a highly
subjective ( and therefore
biased) view of the culture
and context

Subjectivity ones own interpretation ois of interest.

Objectivity a central feature of social science.
Quantitative methods rely on numbers of statistics as the source of data
Qualitative methods reject the limitations on individual interpretation that control
requires.
Evaluating theory
Evaluating the usefulness of the theory.
There are some criteria for evaluating theory, which are shown below.
Area of evaluation
Accuracy
Practicality
Simplicity
Consistency

Acuity

Chapter 2

What to look for

Has the research supported that the theory
works the way it says it does. Look at the
research studies that have sued the theory.
Have real-world applications been found for
the theory?
Is the theory formulated as simply as
possible.
Internal ideas of the theory are logically
built on one another
External refers to the theorys
consistency with other widely held
theories.
To what extent does the theory make clear
an otherwise complex experience?

Explaining theories of intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication = communication with oneself. Individuals analyze others

behavior, attitudes and messages to assign meaning to a given event. There are 4
theories that examine the intrapersonal aspects of communication.
1.
Message design logics
Your belief about communication that, in turn, links thoughts to the construction of
messages. People who have different views about the nature and function of
communication will have different views about the nature and function of communication
that will construct different types of messages.
There are 3 message design logics:
- Expressive message design logic a sender-focused pattern. A person using this
pattern is concerned primarily with self-expression. If it is in their head, its out
their mouth.
- Conventional message design logic communication as a game that is played
cooperatively these individuals view communication contexts, roles and
relationships as having particular guidelines for behavior. They are concerned
about saying and doing the right thing in any given situation.
- Rhetorical message design logic as the means to create situations and negotiate
multiple goals. This theory is noted for flexibility as well as for in depth of
communications skills. Pay close attention to other peoples communication in an
effort to figure out others points of view.

When 2 parties use the same MDL, these individuals recognize that the problems are
communication problems. When 2 parties use different MLDL, they often do not realize
they have communication problems, they blame it on mistaken beliefs or undesirable
personality characteristics.

2.
Attribution theory
Explains the cognitive process one uses when trying to make causal explanations for
behavior.
1.
Attribution as nave psychology
The assumptions individuals make regarding the causes of behavior as well as the
judgments made about who is responsible for that behavior. When you see a person act,
you immediately make judgments about the causal nature of the conduct.
Dispositional factors refer to internal or personal features, such as ones personality,
character or biological traits. These factors are relatively stable and unique to each
individual.
Situational factors external dynamics that are relatively uncontrollable and determined
by the environment or circumstance at hand. These factors vary to much a greater extent
than do internal factors.
2.
Correspondent inference theory
Correspondent inferences judgments of intention. Did the person intentionally act in a
certain way, knowing the effects the behavior would have?
There are several factors that one can consider when determining the purpose of
anothers behavior:
- Choice whether the actor had any alternatives
- Assumed social desirability behaves in a manner contrary to social conventions,
you are more likely to infer that the behavior reflects the persons true character.
- Social role public position.
- Prior expectations previous encounters with an actor or the knowledge about
the persons background.
- Hedonic relevance the degree to which you believe an actors behavior directly
affects you, also shapes your assessment of the actors intentions.
- Personalism the belief that an actor specifically and intentionally behaves in
ways to hurt or help you.
3.
Covariation model
Explains the causal nature of the complete attribution process. Individuals judge the
causality of anothers behavior by examining 4 factors: consensus, consistency,
distinctiveness and controllability. When the first three are combined, a perceiver can
judge whether the actions were internally controlled ( disposition) or externally controlled
( situational)
Consensus would other people react similarly if placed in the same situation. Example
one person out of a whole meeting is angry about something, while others are quite
satisfied with the outcome of the meeting. That means a low consensus. But when all
members of the meeting are smiling and satisfied, that means a high consensus.
Consistency whether the person in questions engages in similar behaviors over time. If
a person always seems to be angry and rude to colleagues, then you would say that her
ill-tempered behavior after the sales meeting is highly consistent with her previous
behavior.
Distinctiveness whether the person acts differently in one situation than in others. This
increase with others conformity and number of observances over the time.
Interior locus of control the actor could have controlled the behavior.
Exterior locus of control the behavior appears to have been unavoidable.

3.
Uncertainty reduction theory
Social life is filled with ambiguities. This theory seeks to explain and predict when, why
and how individuals use communication to minimize their doubts when interacting with
others. There are several ways to guide the uncertainty reduction framework.
1.
Reducing uncertainty
Antecedent conditions
- Anticipation of future interaction you are more motivated to reduce uncertainty
about someone who you are likely to see again.
- Incentive value you are prompted to learn more about someone when the
individual in question has the potential to provide you with rewards. What can this
person do for you or to you?
- Deviance if a person is odd, bizarre or unusual in some way that counters your
expectations, this theory suggests that individuals will be more likely to reduce
their uncertainty about this person.
Types of uncertainty
- Behavioral uncertainty your insecurity about which actions are appropriate in
given situation.
- Cognitive uncertainty when individuals question how they should act in a given
situation, what to think and so on.
Uncertainty reduction strategies:
- Passive strategy individuals observe their surroundings an gather clues about
which behaviors are appropriate as well as which attitudes and beliefs others hold.
- Active strategy seeking information from the third party. You go to someone else
who may know more about the person or situation in question.
- Interactive strategy when you go straight to the source in question and ask for
as much information as possible.
Example December holiday season approaches, you begin to wonder whether you
should give a gift to your boss. You could wait and see if others give gifts (passive) or you
could ask several peers what they do for their supervisors (active) or you could directly
ask you r boss what the company culture is and what he or she expects (interactive).
4.
Expectancy violation theory
Explains the various meanings that people attribute to the violation, of their personal
space.
Assumptions
Humans have competing needs for personal space and for affiliation.
Reciprocate moving closer or turning toward the individual when he or she is violating
your personal space.
Compensate doing the opposite of your partners behavior.
Core concepts of expectancy violations theory
Expectancy what individual anticipates will happen in a given situation. Context,
relationship and communicators characteristics are important in this expectancy.
Violation valence positive or negative evaluation you make about a behavior that you
did not anticipate.
Communicator reward valence = an evaluation you make about the person who
committed the violation. Does this person have the ability to reward ( or punish) you in
the future.
Look at figure 2.1 on page 43 for the picture.

Chapter 3

Explaining theories of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication knows different interpretations about what the exact

meaning of the word combination is:
- According to Miller (1978), IPC occurs between 2 individuals when they are close in
proximity, able to provide immediate feedback an utilize multiple senses.
- According to Peters (1974), IPC includes communication that is personal and
occurring between people who are more than acquaintances.
The main explanation in the book is: PC includes those messages that occur between 2,
interdependent persons. IPC messages are offered to initiate, define, maintain or further a
relationship. IPC is more than just saying a polite hello to the salesclerk in our favorite
department store and then scurrying away never to be seen again. There are 4 theories
that are critical to current understandings of interpersonal communication and the
relationships that develop from these communications.
1.
Systems perspective
System theories are used to explain nearly all communication contexts. A focus on the
interdependence that develops whenever people interact with each other.
Assumptions of the systems perspective
Communication is the means by which systems are created and sustained. Provide moth
macro and micro approaches to studying the communication that takes place in
relationships.
Micro approach how individuals and interpersonal relationships between individuals
may influence the group as a whole
Macro approach a recognition of how a larger social institution (company) might
influence smaller groups of people such a s work groups or families.
System = a group of individuals who interrelate to form a whole. Examples are a family,
work group or sports team.
Subsystem = a smaller part of the group as a whole, such as partners in a family.
Supra system = the larger system within which the system operates, such as the national
football league for an individual football team.
Nonsummativity = the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Some sports teams
have a few superstars, but when they work together, they win a lot of games. The point of
nonsummativity is that the whole is qualitatively and quantatively different from the
individual components.
Positive synergy = the system as a whole might work together to create more than what
might be accomplished by those individuals alone.
Negative synergy = the group achieves less than the individual parts would suggest.
Interdependence = all system members are dependent on all other system members.
This is the major reason of nonsummativity.
Homeostatis = the natural balance or equilibrium within a group. It is the tendency for a
given system to maintain stability in the face of change. Stability can be either functional
or dysfunctional for the system.
The system theory recognizes that when a system experiences a novel situation, whether
positive or negative, its members will somehow adjust to maintain stability, whether that
stability is positive or negative.

Equifinality = there are multiple ways to achieve the same goal.

System approaches focus on the communication that takes place among groups of
interacting individuals. It focuses on patterns of communication that exist to sustain
homeostatis and achieve systemic goals. The approach also recognizes the influences of
larger suprasystems as well as subsystems. As a theoretical approach, it is typically
perceived as a description of interpersonal communication, rather than as providing
specific testable principles.
There
-

are 5 axioms of communicating:

The impossibility of not communicating it will affect your relationship
Content and relationship levels how you say what you say
The problem of punctuation forget about assigning blame
Digital and analogical communication analogy comm. Can express powerful
feelings directly
Complementary and symmetrical communication power in the relationship.

2.
Politeness theory
The politeness theory explains how and why individuals try to promote, protect or save
face, especially when embarrassing or shameful situations arise unexpectedly. This theory
clarifies how we manage our own and others identities through interaction, in particular,
through the use of politeness strategies.
Assumptions of the politeness theory
- Face refers to the desired self-image that you wish to present to others.
o Positive face a persons need to be liked, appreciated and admired by
select persons.
o Negative face a persons desire to act rely, within constraints from
others.
o It is difficult to achieve positive and negative face simultaneously.
- Human beings are rational and goal oriented, at least with respect to achieving
face needs.
o Face management works the best when everyone involved helps to
maintain the face of others.
- Maintains that some behaviors are fundamentally face threatening.
o Face threatening acts (FTAs) include common behaviors such as apologies,
compliments, criticisms, requests and threats.
There are several strategies:
1.
Preserving face
Preventive facework communications that a person can use to help oneself or another
avert face threatening acts.
Corrective facework consist of messages that an individual can use to restore ones
own face or to help another restore face after an FTA has occurred. Use of strategies such
as avoidance, humor.
Individuals can choose one of 5 suprastrategies when communication in a manner that
could potentially threaten the face of another.
- Avoidance chooses not to communicate in a way that would create
embarrassment or a loss of face for another.
- Goes off record subtly hints or indirectly mentions the face-threatening topic.
- Negative politeness when a speaker makes an effort to recognize the others
negative face need, you appeal to the receivers negative face needs through
apologies and self-effacement to make yourself appear vulnerable to the other.
- Positive politeness the speaker emphasizes the receivers need fo positive face,
the need to be liked.

Bald on record the communicator makes no attempt to protect the others face
and simply commits the face threatening act.

There are several factors which influence the politeness theory, such as prestige, power
and risk.

3.
Social exchange theory
A broad approach used to explain and predict relationship maintenance. SET clarifies
when and why individuals continue and develop some personal relationships while ending
others. The theory takes into account how satisfied you will be with the relationship that
you choose to maintain.
Assumptions of the social exchange theory
- Personal relationships are a function of comparing benefitgs gained vs. costs to
attain those benefits.
- Minimax principle people want to make the most of benefits while lessening the
costs.
- Humans are selfish.
Core components of the socials exchange theory
1. Social relationships bring both rewards and costs.
The outcome of a relationship = rewards costs
2. Comparison level represents what rewards a person expects to receive in a
particular relationship. Predicting ones satisfaction with a relationship is based on
a positive outcome value that also meets or exceeds ones expectations.
3. Comparison level of alternatives -> determining ones satisfaction with a
relationship is still not enough to predict whether the relationship will continue or
end. Only when you perceive that the alternatives are greater than our outcome
and greater than our comparison level will you end a relationship.
4.
Dialectical perspective
Relationships are dynamic, it is impossible for a relationship to maintain a certain level of
satisfaction or reach a constant statis quo.
There are 4 primary assumptions which guide to a dialectical approach:
- Praxis relationship trajectories are neither linear, nor repetitive. A dialectical
perspective assumes that relationships can become more intimate or less intimate
over time.
- Change the only guarantee in a relationship is that it will change
- Contradictions within every relationship, both partners have essential, yet
opposing needs.
- Totality interdependence between relationship partners. Without
interdependence, a relationship cannot exist.
There are 3 tensions thought to exists between relationship partners:
- Autonomy connections the tension between the desire to feel connected to
ones partner vs. the desire to maintain a sense of independence.
- Openness closedness the pull between wanting to open up and self-disclose
while also wanting to maintain ones privacy.
- Predictability novelty the tension between wanting stability or steadiness
while also wanting opportunities for spontaneity.
There are 3 central tensions to exist between the relational partners as a unit and their
social world:
- Inclusion seclusion the tension partners experience when they want to spend
time with friends family vs. wanting time to spend alone together as a couple.
- Revelation concealment the tension between relationship partners who want
to reveal aspects of their relationship to the outside world while also wanting to
keep some aspects of their relationship private.

Internal dialectics
Corresponding external dialectics
Autonomy connection
Inclusion seclusion
Openness closedness
Revelation concealment
Predictability novelty
Conventionality uniqueness
- Conventionality uniqueness the tension partners feel between wanting to
behave in ways that are considered normative or traditional vs. wanting to
emphasize their relationships uniqueness by doing something differently.
To manage or sustain a relationship, these tensions must be managed. There are 4
primary strategies used to handle the internal and external tensions:
1. Selection involves choosing for favor one pole or need at the expense of the
other.
2. Cyclic alternation fulfill one pole or need now and will shift to fulfill the other
pole at a later time, creating back-and-forth.
3. Segmentation certain issues coincide with one pole or need, and other issues
are appropriate for the opposite pole.
4. Integration incorporating aspects of both poles so as to create a more fulfilling
experience.
Chapter 4

Explaining theories of culture

Culture = ones identification with and acceptance into a group that shares symbols,
meanings, experiences and behavior.
cross cultural communication = the comparison of 2 or more cultural communities,
comparing conflict styles of US managers with those of Korean managers.
Intercultural communication = the actual interaction between members of different
cultures, for instance, examining what happens when a German executive reprimands a
Chinese subordinate.
There are 4 theories which examine broadly defined notions of culture and emphasize
how culture shapes and is shaped by communication.
1.
Hofstedes cultural dimensions
His analysis concluded that there are 5 dimensions that can be used to differentiate and
rate various cultures.
1.
Individualism - collectivism
How people define themselves and their relationships with others. There are 4
characteristics of cultures that fall on the individualism side:
- The belief that the individual is the most important entity in any social setting.
Focus is on the self before all other relationships.
- Independence is more important than dependence.
- Individualistic cultures reward individual achievement
- These cultures value the uniqueness of each individual.
- Low context communication style values the direct and explicit expression of
ideas.
Collectivism is the opposite of what is just mentioned above.
2.
Uncertainty avoidance
Refers to the extent to which people within a culture are made nervous by situation which
they perceive as unstructured, unclear or unpredictable.
High uncertainty avoidance maintain strict codes for behavior, and are quite punctual.
Low uncertainty avoidance cultures more inclined to take risk, innovate and value
thinking outside of the box.

3.
Power distance
Quite clear to me
4.
Masculinity femininity
Masculine cultures are those that use the reality of biological sex in the creation of
distinct roles for men and women. The USA is a masculine culture. There is still a
significant wage difference between the both sexes.

5.
Long term vs. short term orientation
Long term orientation associated with thrift, savings and the willingness to subordinate
on self to achieve a goal.
Short term orientation a desire for immediate gratification.
2.
Communication accommodation theory
This theory can explain many of the changes in your speech and language use. This
theory provides and informative platform from which to understand cultural differences
and similarities with regard to speech and language.
In groups = social affiliations to which an individual feels that he or she belongs.
Out groups = those social affiliations to which a person feels that he or she does not
belong.
When a person wants to be viewed as part of an in-group, this theory predicts that this
person will accommodate by convergence.
Convergence = you will alter your speech an behavior so that it matches that of your
conversational partner.
When individuals dont want to be associated with a certain group or do find a person
interpersonally unattractive, you want to differentiate yourself from a particular crowd.
This is divergence.
Divergence = you will seek to make your speech different. A kindergarten teacher may
use a more stern tone when disciplining the class for misbehavior.
Below you can see some consequences of accommodation.
Convergence
Divergence

Positive effects
- Increased attraction
- Social approval
- Increased persuasion
- Protects cultural identity
- Asserts power
differences

Negative effects
- Incorrect stereotypes of
out-group
Loss of personal identity
- Perceived lack of effort
- Increased psychological
distance

3.
Face-negotiation theory
Face-negotiation theory begins with an understanding of face.
Face = the desired self-image that an individual wants to present to others.
Positive face your need to be liked, appreciated and admired.
Negative face your desire to act freely, without constraints or imposition from other.
Face concern = awareness of others face needs
Face concern dilemma = how do you address your own face needs when they may
compromise your partners face needs.

Conflict management
Conflict either the perceived or actual incompatibility of values, expectations, processes
or outcomes between 2 or more individuals.
Among North American relationships there are 5 conflict styles vary on 2 dimensions:
assertiveness(concern for self) or cooperation (concern for others):
- Avoid conflict lack assertiveness and cooperation; they withdraw from or seek to
evade conflict all together. There is little concern for self or for others.
- Accommodating cooperate with others but demonstrate little assertiveness,
typically conceding to their partners request.
- Compete highly assertive but lack cooperation. They push their viewpoints on
others
- Compromising moderate concern for self and others. Involves willingness to
give up some demands to gain others.
- Collaborating style high regards for self and others, making the person very
assertive and also very cooperative. Occurs when one actively seeks to create new
solution that meet both partners interest without having to make the sacrifices
involved with compromise.
Western understanding of conflict management looks at different kinds of view:
- Self face concern individuals must consider their own positive and negative face
needs
- Others face concern their partners positive and negative face needs.
Mutual face needs = the recognition of both self and others-face need.
The face negotiation theory predicts a causal relationship between culture, face and
conflict style. Look at the picture at page 90 to see what the most commonly used
theories are for the different cultures.
4.
Gender and communication : a two-culture perspective
One of the most controversial and widely debated areas of communication research in
recent decades. By distinguishing between sex and gender, a two-culture perspective
illustrates that many differences in peoples communication are socially constructed, not
biologically determined.

Chapter 5

Explaining theories of persuasion

Persuasion = human communication that is designed to influence others by modifying

their beliefs, values or attitudes.
Persuasion involves:
- A goal and the intent to achieve that goal on the part of the message sender.
- Communication is the means to achieve that goal.
- The message recipient must have free will.
Attitude = relatively enduring predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward
something. We have attitudes toward people. Places, events and so forth.
In this chapter are 4 kinds of theirs that explored aspects of persuasive communication.
1.
Social judgment theory
This theory suggest that knowing a persons attitudes on subjects can provide you with
clues about how to approach a persuasive effort. People make judgments about the
content of messages based on their anchors, on a particular topic message.
In addition to an individuals anchor, each persons attitude can be placed into 3
categories:
- Latitude of acceptance all those ideas that a person finds acceptable.
- Latitude of rejection all those ideas that a person finds unacceptable.
- Latitude of non commitment ideas for which you have no opinion.
A persons reaction to a persuasive message depends on his or her position to the topic,
there are several steps involved in the process:
1. To map receivers attitudes toward a topic. This can be accomplished through an
ordered alternative questionnaire.
2. How ego involved that individual is about a certain topic. When an individual is
highly ego involved with a topic, she or he believes that the issue is important.
3. The more ego involved a person is, the larger the latitude of rejection that person
will have.
4. The more ego involved a person is, the smaller the latitude of noncommitment.
Contrast effect = when a message is perceived as further away from that persons anchor
that it really is. This response happens when the message falls within an individuals
latitude of rejection.
Assimilation effect = when a message is received that falls within the individuals latitude
of acceptance, the receiver minimizes the difference between the messages position and
his or her own position.
Boomerang effect = when the message actually causes a person to change his or her
mind in the direction opposite that desired.

2.
Elaboration likelihood model
This model depicts persuasion as a process in which the success of influence depends
largely on the ways the receiver make sense of a message. There are 2 ways in this
model.
Central route.
These messages include a wealth of information, rational arguments and evidence to
support a particular conclusion. These messages are designed to create a long-term
change. However, not all individuals are capable of receiving centrally routed messages.
These messages will only succeed when:
- The target must be highly motivated to the process all of the information being
given.
- The target must be able to process the message cognitively.
Types of elaborated arguments:
- Strong arguments < create a positive cognitive response in the minds of
receivers.
- Neutral arguments create a noncommittal cognitive response from the receiver.
No attitude change occurs
- Weak arguments produce a negative cognitive response to the persuasive
message.
Peripheral route
Rely on a receivers emotional involvement and persuade through more superficial
means. This route leads to only short-term change, if any change at all.
Types of peripheral cues:
- Authority the persuader uses the perception of authority to convince the
audience to accept the beliefs or behaviors presented.
- Commitment a persons dedication to a product, social cause, political party.
- Persuading through contrast the communicator needs to set up uneven points
of comparison.
- Liking messages stress affinity toward a person, place or object. If we like you,
we will like your ideas.
- Messages of reciprocation try to influence by emphasizing a give-and-take
relationship.
- Scarcity a peripheral message that preys on peoples worry of missing out
something. Example: Quick! Get is before theyre all gone.
- Social proof the age old notion of peer pressure. Everyone is doing it.
Types of peripheral messages:
- Positive peripheral messages perceived favorably by the audience and create a
positive affective state. They want to make a positive change in attitude.
- Neutral peripheral message leave the receivers feeling emotionally ambivalent,
they dont know or care about the cue used to capture their interest.
- Negative peripheral message produce negative or disapproving emotional
responses within the receiver.
Look at figure 5.1 at page 115.
3.
Cognitive dissonance theory
This theory predicts that influence is often an intrapersonal event, occurring when
incongruence between our attitudes and behavior creates a tension that is resolved by
altering either our beliefs or our behaviors, thereby effecting a change.
Schemata = cognitive structures for organizing new information. For information to be
understood or useful, we must find a schemata with which to link the new stimulus to
previously understood experiences.
There are 3 possible relationships between beliefs and behaviors:

Irrelevance refers to beliefs and behaviors that have nothing to do with each
other.
- Consonance when 2 stimuli or pieces of information are in balance or achieve
congruence.
- Dissonance two stimuli or pieces of information contradict each other.
The amount of dissonance one experiences is affected by:
- Perceived importance of an issue everyone experiences different topics in
another way.
- Dissonance ratio effects the amount of discomfort one feels.
- Rationalize ones ability to rationalize or justify, dissonance also affects the
amount of discomfort experienced when faced with conflicting beliefs and
behaviors.
Selective exposure = a person actively avoids information that is inconsistent with
previously established beliefs or behavior.
Selective attention = suggest that if you have to expose yourself to a situation that is
incongruent with your beliefs, you will only attend to information that reaffirms your
beliefs, disregarding any information that fails to support your views.
Selective interpretation = individuals will carefully decipher ambiguous information so
that it is perceived to be consistent with our established beliefs.
Selective retain = individuals selectively retain information that upholds their viewpoints
while more easily dismissing or forgetting information that creates dissonance.
Persuasion through dissonance
The Cognitive dissonance theory is often considered a post decision theory, meaning that
individuals attempt to persuade themselves after a decision has been made or course of
action has been enacted that the decision or behavior was okay.
If a persuader can create or exploit dissonance while also offering a solution to minimize
the disparity, it is likely that the receiver will adopt these suggested new behaviors.
Within an organizational context, the theory predicts that by increasing employee
commitments and loyalties, employee turnover could be reduced and satisfaction
improved.
By offering a solution, product or course of action that bridges the gap between receivers
incongruent beliefs and behaviors, communicators may influence receivers to use these
methods to create cognitive harmony.
4.
Narrative paradigm
The narrative paradigm stresses the effectiveness of influence through narration that is
persuasion trough storytelling. The most persuasive or influential message is not that of
rational fact, but instead a narrative that convinces us of good reasons for engaging in
a particular action or belief.
Narration = the symbolic words and actions that people use to assign meaning.
Narrative rationality = a logical method of reasoning by which a person can determine
how believable anothers narrative is. This relies on good reasons.
Narrative coherence = when the narrative being used appears to flow smoothly, makes
sense and is believable.
Narrative fidelity when the narrative appears truthful and congruent with our own
expierence.
There are 5 assumptions which drive Fishers (1987) explanation of the narrative
paradigm:

What makes humans unique from other creatures is our ability and drive to tell
stories. Your values, emotions and aesthetic preferences shape your beliefs and
actions.
People need a way to judge which stories are believable and which are not.
Individuals use narrative rationality.
What a person accepts is as a good reason is based on that individuals culture,
character, history, values and experience.
Rationality is determined by the nature of persons as narrative beings.
The world as humans know is based primarily on sets of both cooperative and
competing stories.

Chapter 6

Explaining theories of leadership

Management = a formal position in an organizational hierarchy, whereas leadership is not

based on a structural position.
Challenge of management :
- Managers need planning skills
- Budgetary skills
- Organizational skills
Major
-

challenge of leadership is to cope with change. Leaders must:

Demonstrate vision
Motivate people
Empower people to accomplice what is necessary to achieve the vision.

There are several theories, which consider tow hat extent each is describing good
management vs. good leadership.
1.
Likerts four systems
This theory suggest that there are 4 distinct leadership systems within an organization.
System 1 Tells Exploitative authoritative system
- Leaders motivate employees through threats and fear appeals.
- Communication is downward, from upper management down.
- Decision making made at upper levels
- Tells style leaders tells employees what to do.
- Workers are often hostile toward organizational goals and mat actively behave
contrary to this goals.
- Satisfaction and productivity are not high.
- High level of employee turnover.
System 2 Sells benevolent authoritative system
Classical thinking about organizations.
- Leaders tends to be less controlling
- Communication is still downwards
- Lower level employees may make decisions, but only using the mechanism
prescribed by upper levels
- Leaders tend to sell their point of view rather than telling employees what to do
- Motivation is achieved both through rewards and punishments
- Satisfaction and turnover tend to be slightly better than in system one
- Productivity is fair to good.
System 3 Consults consultative system
- Leaders use rewards to motivate workers
- Leadership is characterized by involving lower level employees in some decision
making and goal setting.
- Leaders set goals after having discussed problems and plans with their
subordinates
- Communication moves both upwards and downwards.
- Productivity, satisfaction and employees turnover rates are good.
System 4 Joins participative system
- All employees are encouraged to interact with each others
- Although a hierarchy may exist, all organizational members are respected and
have a say in how the corporation operates
- Leads to the highest productivity and satisfaction and the least employee
turnover.

2.
Transformational leadership
Bass(1997) argued that the global economy has shifted the type of leadership needed in
current organizations. This theory is about the contrast between two leadership styles,
transactional and transformational, arguing that, although both can assist organizations
in achieving goals, transformational leadership is superior for todays businesses. Both
leaderships are effective, but transformational leadership is associated with higher
personal and organizational outcomes.
Transactional leaders
Seek to achieve solid, consistent performance from subordinates. A transactional leader is
responsive to employees and is clear and structured in terms of expectations. There are 3
primary characteristics of transactional leaders:
1. Work with subordinates to develop clears and specific objectives and promise
rewards if these objectives are met.
2. Exchange rewards and promises of rewards for employee effort
3. These leaders are responsive to the immediate self-interests of workers,
particularly if the workers needs can be met while also getting the job done.
Transformational leaders
Transformational leadership is founded on particular attitudes and behaviors that support
organizational change. These leaders seek to inspire exceptional performance. At the
center of transformational leadership is the ability to use subordinates ideas and actions
as a catalyst for transformation moving ideas and actions toward the greater good of
the organization.
There are 4 facets of transformational leadership:
1. Idealized influence efforts to establish positive attitudes among employees
towards each other and toward the work itself. Idealized influence involves taking
risks, establishing trust. The leader models ideal behavior for employees.
2. Inspirational motivation requires leaders to present employees with a clear
vision and a desirable future. Followers are motivated by the attainment of this
vision and receive encouragement and support for doing so.
3. Intellectual stimulation challenge their own assumptions and encourage new
approaches. Differences of opinion are addressed openly and without fear.
4. Individualized consideration the leader considers each individuals needs and
abilities, while supporting development and mentoring efforts.
Both types of leadership are associated with achievement of organizational goals.
Transactional leadership is rules based, competitive and regulation driven, it lacks
flexibility. The transactional system provides little incentive to change unless the change
benefits the individual directly.
Emotional intelligence refers to a set of beliefs and skills that facilitate organizational
performance. There are several components of EQ at work:
Component
Definition
Qualities
SelfThe ability to recognize and understand
- Self confidence
awareness
your moods, emotions and drives, as well
- Self depreciation
as their effects on others
SelfThe ability to control or redirect disruptive
- Comfort with
regulation
impulses and moods; the propensity to
ambiguity
think before acting
- Openness to change
Motivation
A passion for work for reasons beyond
- Optimism
money or status
- Commitment
Empathy
The ability to understand the emotional
- Cultural sensitivity
makeup of others; skill in treating people
- People centeredness
based on their emotional actions
Social skills
Proficiency in managing relationships and
- Persuasiveness
building network
- Belief in cooperation

3.
Contingency model
This model suggest that leaders should adapt their behavior to situational constraints.
Fiedler(1967) recognized 2 distinct approaches of leadership.
Task leader focuses primarily on accomplishing particular organizational goals. This
leadership is associated with productivity.
Relationship leader emphasizes positive relations between all members of the group.
These leaders are more concerned with satisfaction than achievement, focusing on
maintaining group harmony.
Leader-member relations refers to the degree of trust and support followers provide to
the leader. If the relation is good, the leader can expect members to comply with
directions.
Task structure has 4 dimensions:
- Clarity of groups goals
- Path multiplicity, number of potential courses of action available to the group
- Effect verifiability, the extent to which the effects of decisions are clear
- Specificity of decisions to be made.
In overall, there are 4 combinations in the contingency model:
- Leader-member relation either good or poor
- Task structure either structured or unstructured
- Formal leader-position power either strong or weak
- Leadership either task, relation or both.
Look on page 144 of the book to see the combinations of the different styles.
4.
Leader-member exchange
This theory was developed in response to the majority of traditional leadership models
that typically focused on leadership traits (enduring qualities that make a good leader)
and leadership states
(particular styles that can be developed by leaders to match
particular situations). This theory sggest that leaders actually treat each of their
subordinates differently. However, the theory recognizes that leadership consist of an
interpersonal relationship between a superior and a subordinate and that not all
relationships are created equally.
Leader member exchange in-group relationships. Characterized by mutual trust, social
support and liking. There is much more interaction between organizational members.
Supervisory exchange out-group relationships. Impersonal in nature, with little
superior-subordinate interaction taking place.
Middle-group relationship interaction is often impersonal, but there are occasional
provisions of social support.

Chapter 7

Explaining theories of group communication

Group = a system of three or more individuals who are focused on achieving a common
purpose and who influence and are influenced by each other.
There are 4 theories of group communication discussed in this chapter.
1.
Interaction process analysis (symlog)
This theory was developed to explain patterns of group discussion, particularly in terms of
leadership.
There are 2 goals seek to be achieved by groups:
- Task goals productivity
- Maintenance goals evidence by cohesion
Bales proposed a method for analyzing the functions of group communication. There are
12 categories, but they are divided into 4 main parts:
- Positive and mixed actions
- Attempted answers
- Questions
- Negative and mixed answers
The 1st and 4th refer to socioemotional behavior. The 2nd and 3rd refer to task behaviors.
The theory suggest that a team might have 2 leaders, a socioemotional and a task leader.
Symlog = technique focusing on the same variables indentified as important in the
interaction process analysis. All group members evaluate themselves and all other
members of the group on either their values or heir behaviors to understand the group
better, improved productivity or increase satisfaction. This evaluation centers on three
dimensions:
- Forward backward accepting or rejecting authority.
- Positive negative friendly vs. unfriendly behavior
- Upward downward dominance vs. submissive.
In sum, ales presented a theory grounded in his own research about the nature of
communication in groups.
2.
Symbolic convergence theory
This theory was developed within the traditions of small group communication and has
been developed. The theory focuses on 2 aspects of group communication: the creation
of a group identity and the ways that group identity influence norms for behavior.
Central concepts
1. Fantasy theme
According to this theory, fantasy does not refer to something that is desired or something
that is fictional; rather, it refers to a creative understanding of events that fulfills a
psychological or rhetorical need.
The fantasy theme starts with a dramatizing message a joke, pun, figure of speech,
metaphor. These messages do not refer to present happening, instead they reference
events that have happened in the past or that are anticipated to the future.
Fantasy chain when the fantasy theme is developed through group interaction and
enters group consciousness. Building fantasy chains results in group cohesion.
Symbolic convergence = the emergence of a fantasy chain transforms the group from a
collection of individuals to an identifiable group with a group consciousness. In this way,
group identity can be established symbolically.
Rhetorical vision = a unified way of viewing the world.

3.
Functional group decision making
Function = refers to what communication does. An apology serves the function of
relationship repair. What does the communication within a group? Why do some groups
make good decisions while other make bad ones?
There are 4 functions of decision making:

Function
Problem analysis

Means of achievement
Focus on the nature, extent and causes of
the problem.
Goal setting
Identify what an ideal solution would look
like
Identifying alternatives
Generate a large number of possible
solutions
Evaluate and select
Evaluate each alternative using the
established goals
This theory states that all four functions need to be accomplished to maximize the
likelihood of an effective decision and that no one function is more important than
another.
The authors set 3 types of communication within small groups:
- Promotive discussion communication geared toward one of the requisite
functions.
- Disruptive communication diverts, retards or frustrates the ability of the group
to achieve the requisite functions.
- Counteractive communication the message that return a disrupted group back
to the requisite functions, is likely to be most important for group decision making.
4.
Groupthink
Groupthink is a dysfunctional way of deliberating that group members use when their
desire for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of actions.
Groupthink was designed to explain and predict how bad decisions are made by groups.
There are 3 antecedent conditions to groupthink. These preexisting conditions make it
more likely that groupthink will occur.
1. Cohesion the degree of connection between group members, or a sense of
solidarity. A high degree of cohesion is necessary for groupthink to occur.
2. Structural flaws problems with the way a group is organized.
a. Group insulation the group is somehow isolated from the larger world.
b. Biased leadership if the leader has his mind made up or has a personal
stake in the decision, the group might defer to the leader simply because of
the power differential, regardless of whether the leaders solution is good.
c. Lack of procedural norms not having a process in place for how to make
a decision can happen either because the group has not taken the time to
create the process or because the group fails to follow the process.

d. Homogeneity similarity, the group members are very similar to each

other.
3. Situational characteristics group think might occur in times of high stress or
time pressure.

However, there are also symptoms involved in the whole process:

1. Overestimation of the group
a. Illusion of invulnerability the group will not fail
b. Inherent morality of the group the group is good, so the decisions are
too.
2. Closed-mindedness
a. Stereotyping out-groups
b. Collective rationalizations tend to justify their decision by talking
themselves into it.
3. Pressures toward uniformity
a. Self-censorship tend to keep their mouths shut when experiencing
doubts
b. Illusion of unanimity group members perceive that consensus has been
reached, even if it really hasnt.
c. Self-appointed mind guards not to present any contrary information,
even if then know it exists.
d. Pressure on dissenters challenges to the group are squashed.
Chapter 8

Explaining theories of organizational communication

Organization= a group of people who coordinate activities to achieve individual and

collective goals.
Communication within organizations typically serves three functions or purposes:
- Relationship the centrality of communication in socializing organizational
members and integrating them into their work environment
- Organizing communication guides, directs and controls organizational activity
- Change organizational members analyzes, problem-solve, adapt and innovate.
There are 4 theories involving organizational communication.
1.
Organizational identification and control
This theory centers on the way that an individuals connection to the organization
influences behavior and decision making in team-based structures. There are 3 main
concept:
1.
Control
An organization needs control to get things done. There are 3 methods to get and gain
control within an organization.
Simple control direct, authoritarian control. This method is analogous to Likerts system
1 and sytem 2 forms of management. It is the classic way of controlling employees.
Technological control the use of technology to manage what can and cant be done in
the work place. An example is in a factory. Employees must take the exact orders,
otherwise the whole process will go wrong.
Bureaucratic control modern organizations are served best by a hierarchical system of
rules, with rewards and punishments drawn from those rules.
Unobtrusive control based on shared values within the organization. When
organizational members make decisions based on the mission and vision of the
organization, they do so because they believe in those values.
Concertive control interpersonal relationships and teamwork.
2.
Identification
Refers to the sense of oneness with or belongingness to an organization. When
individuals experience identification, they define themselves in terms of the organization.

3.
Discipline
Discipline is achieve through a sense of responsibility to the work group because member
identify within their organization and because they share common values and a vision for
the organization.
2.
Organizational culture
Culture refers to a pattern of shared assumptions that have been invented, discovered or
developed by a given group and are taught to new members as the correct way to
perceive, think and behave. There are 3 levels of culture, artifact, values and
assumptions.
Artifacts
Artifacts refer to the observable evidence of culture. In table 8.2 on page 179 of the book
you can see examples of the different artifacts and examples of those artifacts. One
example is technology, and type of phone system used, computer systems used are
examples of artifacts within an organization.
Values
Preferences about how situations should be handle. These preferences represent shared
beliefs about how things ought to happen. Leadership is, the ability to shape members
perceptions of the taks and the mission of the organization.
Basic assumptions
Basic assumptions refer to the viewpoints organizational members hold about the world,
including perceptions, thought, feelings and beliefs.
3.
Structuration theory
This theory explains organizational communication processes. Structures serve 5 primary
functions in the organization:
- They provide a means for coordination and control
- They assist members in defining their identities within the organization
- They help the organization to relate to its environment
- They provide a means to monitor member performance
- They serve a symbolic function
There are 2 major assumptions of structuration theory.
1. Humans are actors who make choices in their behavior. Also called agency. People have
free will in terms of their communicative behavior.
2. organizations are produced and reproduces through structures in interaction.
Structure = a set of rules and resources used by an organization in order to meet its
goals.
Rule = how an organization should accomplish its goals.
Resources = the properties that organizational members rely on to get things done. There
are 2 types: Allocative resources ( material forms of assistance, time / money) and
authoritative resources
( interpersonal characteristics of organizational members, such as cohesion, experience
and status.
Influences on structure
- Structures are often borrowed from larger groups. A group may borrow from the
structures of a larger group, such as an organizational culture.
- All social interactions included elements of communication, morality and power.
o Communication -> organizational members operate within a given set of
meanings or understandings. Their language choices are important.
o Morality organizational norms about what is and what is not acceptable
behavior affect the agency or actions of members.
o Power implicit power structures affect the interactional choices made by
organizational members.

Applications of structuration
There are some practical implications of structurations. These can been seen in table 8.3
on page 187.
Organizational climate what it feels like to be in a particular organization. An
organization can be described as stressful, friendly or formal. Climate is a structure of an
organization, it is produced and reproduced by organizational members.
4.
Organizing theory
This theory is stating that communication is the organization. Weick argued that
communication is what constitutes an organization. This theory is concerned with the
massive amount of information that organizations have available to them.
Equivocality = the ambiguity of information available to organizations. There may be
multiple understandings of the information. Individuals must decide which of the multiple
interpretations is the best fit. A way to reduce equivocality is to rely on rules. However,
rules dont always work and there isnt a rule for every situation.
Another way to reduce equivocality is: double interacts. These interacts are suited for
instances of high equivocality because they require organizational members to develop
interdependent relationships in the process of communication. A double interact consist
of an act, response and adjustment
Act a communication behavior initiated by one person or group of people.
Response the receivers of the message communicate in return. This 2 way exchange of
message is the one most typically used to understand the communication process.
Adjustment communication requires a third step, adjustment to the information that
was originally received. It might be a confirmation that the information has been
understood.
Sociocultural evolution for organizations
1.
Enactment occurs when members of an organization take not equivocal
information in
their information environment.
2.
Selection members must choose how to response.
3.
Retention a form of organizational memory. What was done and how it was
done is stored
so that organizational members can refer to it again.
Chapter 9

Explaining theories of mediated communication

Mediated communication = any communication in which something exist between the

source and receiver. This something can be technology, which is the case when talking
about the media, but can also refer to other things.
Mass communication = mediated communication between a source and a large audience
that is often unknown by the source. The notion of unknown is important, message
senders dont necessarily know their audiences motivations and so on. The opportunity
for audience members to provide feedback to the source is limited and slow.
1.
Agenda setting theory
News media present audience with an agenda for what events the public should consider
as important. There are several assumptions, but there are 2 key assumptions in this
theory.
The news media have an agenda. The new media tell audiences what news to consider as
important. The medias agenda is viewed as somewhat limited.

Most people would like help when trying to understand and evaluated politics and political
reality. Because people need assistance with determining their political viewpoints,
audience members come to rely on new media to point out topics of importance.
There are 2 primary criteria for measuring the medias agenda: length and position of a
new story.
Framing the news
The media are believed to frame news events, news media gatekeepers the handful of
new editors who set the agenda, also select, emphasize, elaborate and exclude news
stories or parts of new stories to create a certain effect for the audience.
Individuals have differing needs for exernal advice or directions need for orientation.
2.
Cultivation theory
The cultivation theory almost only emphasizes on one medium: television. There are
several assumptions in the cultivation theory:
- Television has become central to American life and culture.
- Television influences audience perceptions of social reality
- Televisions effects are limited, TV is not the only factor that affects an individuals
view of social reality.
Violence = overt expression of physical force ( with or without weapon, against self or
others) compelling action against ones will on pain of being hurt and/or killed or
threatened to be so victimized as part of the plot.
There was an violence index created, an objective research instrument that uses content
analysis to measure the prevalence, frequency and role of characters that are involved in
TV violence.
Violent TV doesnt affect everyone; cultivation theory predicts that individuals social
attitudes grown more pessimistic as their TV viewing increases. The more TV you watch,
the more likely you are to view the world with suspicion and believe that danger lurks
around every corner.
Mean world syndrome = pessimistic television types suffer from this syndrome. Televised
reality doesnt match actual reality and heavy viewers are partially influence dby
television reality, whereas light viewers are not.
Mainstreaming = viewer, heavy viewers in particular, develop a common view of social
reality based on their frequent exposure to the repetitive and dominating images, stories
and messages depicted on television .These types are likely to perceive the world in ways
that parallel TVs theatrical portrayal of life.
Resonance = involves congruency between viewers own violent experiences and that
which they see on TV. When individuals who have actually faced acts of violence in their
own lives then watch violent television programming, they are forced to replay their own
life situation again and again.
3.
Social learning theory
This theory states that people learn and use aggression as a result of viewing violent
media. Watching violent behavior on TV means viewers learn that aggression is a
successful means of solving problems, in turn, these viewers may become more prone to
act aggressively.
Modeling = from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
preformed, and on later occasion, this coded information serves as a guide for action.
There are 4 stages in the social learning process:

Attention determined by both the observers characteristics and the

arrangement of intended behaviors.
Retention learning by observing. Humans can learn within actually engaging in
a particular behavior if they can visually and verbally store the images to which
they have attended.
Reproduction individuals can execute a fairly accurate demonstration of a new
behavior through modeling.
Motivation to go from observation to action requires the ability to replicate the
behavior as well as the desire or motivation to use the learned action.

4.
Uses and gratifications theory
This theory focuses on why a person uses the media. Individuals will make specific
decisions about which media to use and when to use them.
There
-

are 3 primary assumption for this theory:

Media use is active and goal driven, based on individuals needs.
A person must identify his or her need and make a media choice.
Media outlets compete with other available means of satisfying personal needs.

There are 4 common reasons that humans use the mass media:
1.
Entertainment
2.
Information
3.
Personal identity reading the Vogue, so you know what to wear
4.
Personal relationships and social interaction listening to the Sports radio on
your drive to
work, so you can talk about it with your coworkers.