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MEC320P
Sensors and Control Engineering Practice
Experiment No.1
Study of Capacitive and Inductive Pick up
Objective:
To study the variation of output voltage with displacement using passive sensors like
capacitive pick up, inductive pick up and LVDT.
Equipments Required
1. Capacitance changing arrangement and its Signal conditioning unit.
2. Inductive pickup arrangement and its Signal processing unit.
3. LVDT and its Signal processing unit.
4. NI ELVIS board (measurements of signals).
THEORY
Capacitive pick-up
A capacitive transducer is used for the measurement of liquid level. Here, the principle
involved is change of capacitance with the charge in dielectric medium between the plates. This
change in capacitance is sensed by a Schering bridge circuit see Fig. 1. Zu is the unknown
impedance (here capacitance Cv) and Z1 is a known capacitance Cf. The bridge is excited by a
sine wave oscillator of amplitude 20 Vpp (Vi). Let Vo be the bridge unbalance voltage
depending on the ratio of values of varying capacitance (C v) and fixed capacitance (Cf).
When Cv has minimum value, the bridge is at maximum unbalanced condition. When the
value of C v increases (as the plates are immersed), the bridge is driven to the unbalanced
condition. Note that, the value of C v never equal Cf to give a bridge output of zero volts at
perfectly balanced condition. The variation of Cv when compared to Cf is very small. Hence, the
variation in the bridge output voltage is also very less (in the order of few hundredth volts). Using
a differential amplifier at the output of the bridge, this variation is amplified. The AC output is
rectified using a precision rectifier circuit and the output is adjusted by offset for proper calibration.
Hence, the output voltage is a measure of level of liquid in the tank. The signal conditioning
circuit is designed so as to display a voltage signal proportional to liquid level.
Inductive pick-up
The inductance is varied by moving the core inside the inductor. This causes a change in the
reluctance of the magnetic path and hence a change in overall self inductance of the coil. Thus, this
sensor senses a linear displacement of the core and gives a proportional change in inductance of
the coil. This change in inductance is sensed by an AC bridge circuit shown in Fig.1. Zu is the
unknown impedance (here inductance of the coil) and Z1 is a known inductance.
The coil is connected in one of the arms of the AC bridge which is excited by a 4KHz
sine wave of amplitude 2Vp-p. There is an inverse relation of the core movement with respect to the
bridge unbalanced voltage. Initially the bridge is unbalanced without the core. This gives a
maximum output voltage due to the unbalanced bridge condition. Gradually when the core is
moved inside the coil, the inductance of the coil increases and the bridge is driven to balanced
condition. Hence the bridge unbalance voltage is proportional to the change in inductance of the
coil which is caused by the linear movement of core inside the coil.
The bridge excitation voltage acts as a carrier wave which is amplitude modulated by
the inductance pick-up of the coil. This AC wave is converted to DC by using a precision rectifier
circuit. After the signal conditioning circuit, the DC signal proportional to the inductance pick-up is
terminated at a test point. This voltage is connected to a digital voltmeter (DVM) to display the DC
voltage. In order to give a voltage signal proportional to the movement of the core inside the coil,
the dc signal is inverted. By offset voltage adjustments, the output voltage is calibrated to give
zero voltage at zero displacement though the bridge is still unbalanced. After this signal
conditioning circuit, the dc signal proportional to the reluctance offered by the core movement is
terminated at a test point. This voltage is displayed on a Digital Voltmeter (DVM) to display the
final dc voltage of the circuit.
LVDT:
Linear variable differential transformer LVDT is a transducer as shown in Fig 2. Basically
it is passive inductive transformer working on the principle of mutual induction.
LVDT consists of three windings, one primary and two secondaries of equal turns.
Primary is wound centrally between two secondaries. All the three windings are wound on
a hollow tubular former through which magnetic core slides. Core affects magnetic
coupling between primary and the secondaries while primary is connected to an AC signal.
Null position of core causes equal induced voltage in both the secondaries. Hence
the total difference voltage of both the secondaries becomes zero. Any deviation in core
position from its null position induces unequal voltage from both secondaries and hence the
difference signal of it is a non-zero quantity, this non-zero quantity varies with core
position. Ideally displacement versus change in difference signal should be linear.
output for certain Range of displacement. Change in its output voltage is step less and
resolution depends on test equipment. Higher magnitude output is possible. LVDT can
tolerate high degree of vibration and shorts and hence more rugged. Repeat accuracy is
better due to low hysteresis.
Disadvantages of LVDT are its sensitivity towards stray magnetic field (magnetic
shielding is possible), large displacement is required for appreciable differential output.
PROCEDURE
Capacitive pick-up
1. Plug in the mains chord to a regulated power source.
2. Position the plates fully out of the liquid, so that, the dielectric medium is air.
3. Now, switch on the supply and adjust the offset to indicate a zero display on the DVM to
nullify the capacitance due to air.
4. Gradually, immerse the plates into the tank containing the non-conducting liquid and fix
it at a particular position. Note, the corresponding voltage displayed on the DVM and o/p
voltage of the bridge. Also measure the capacitance using NI DMM or NI impedance
analyzer.
5. Repeat step-4 for various displacements and tabulate the readings in Table 1.
6. Plot a graph of displacement (mm) versus voltage (V) or capacitance.
Table 1
Displacement (mm)
Capacitance (pF)
Capacitive pick-up
output (V)
Inductive pick-up
1. Position the pointer on the core to zero point on the scale provided and switch on the
supply.
2. Adjust the offset to indicate a zero display on the DVM to nullify the bridge unbalance
voltage due to air cored inductor.
3. Now, gradually move the core inside the coil and note the corresponding voltage on the
DVM.
7. The reading can be taken with a 1mm resolution of the displacement. The maximum
displacement of 40/50 is possible. Also measure the inductance using NI DMM or NI
impedance analyzer.
4. Repeat step-4 for various displacements and tabulate the readings in Table 2.
5. Plot the graph of linear displacement (mm) vs output voltage (V).
Table 2
Displacement (mm)
Self-inductance
Inductive pick-up
(mH)
output (V)
LVDT
1. LVDT primary winding is driven by sinusoidal signal of about 1kHz at 2Vpp. Voltage
induced in secondary S 1 & S2 is rectified by precision rectifier. Voltage induced in
secondary S 1 and S2 depends on core position which couples primary turns to the number
of secondary turns. Secondary are connected in Anti series to achieve difference signal.
This difference signal is further amplified by Op-Amp and then phase sensitively rectified.
Final amplifier is provided with zero output adjustment & span adjustment to adjust 0 -2V
swing.
2. Adjust micrometer to 10mm mark and adjust zero adjustment pot for zero output voltage on
voltmeter. Now move micrometer to extreme right position i.e. near 20mm and adjust
output to 2V with the help of span, adjust potentiometer. Move the micrometer towards left
to 0mm and see whether voltmeter reads -2V.
3. After ensuring 2V for micrometer position 20mm, take the voltmeter readings by
decreasing the micrometer positions in steps of 5mm and tabulate the readings in Table 3
and plot the graph distance versus output voltage.
Table 3
Micrometer readings
distance in mm
Displacement(mm) =
o/p voltage x10
Experiment No.2
Rotary Position Sensors
Objective:
To calibrate the given Rotary potentiometer, Optical sensor and Magnetic field sensor to
measure the angular position.
Equipments Required
QNET-MECHKIT
Theory
Rotary Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) is used for the purpose of voltage division. It consists of a
resistive element with a sliding contact (wiper). The motion of this wiper may be linear or
rotational. In some pots the wiper has linear as well as rotational motion. In them the resistive
element is in helical form and is called helipot. Pot is a passive transducer as it requires external
activation energy.
Rotary potentiometers are absolute analog sensors used to measure angular position, such as a
load shaft of a motor. They are great to obtain a unique position measurement. However, caution
must be used as their signal is discontinuous. That is, after a few revolutions potentiometers will
reset their signal back to zero. This sensor used here can give a measurement of 300 with a
linearity of 5%.
The humble potentiometer (or pot, as it is more commonly known) is a simple electromechanical transducer. It converts rotary or linear motion from the operator into a change of
resistance, and this change is (or can be) used to control anything from the volume of a hi-fi
system to the direction of a huge container ship.
The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat essentially a variable wire
wound resistor. The very first variable resistors were either a block of carbon (or some other
resistive material) with a sliding contact, or a box full of carbon granules, with a threaded screw
to compress the granules. More compression leads to lower resistance, and vice versa. These are
rare in modern equipment.
Procedure
1. Ensure Jumper (J10) of QNET-MECHKIT is set to Potentiometer.
2. Create a VI (Fig.1) to acquire data from the sensor. The channel for potentiometer should
be selected as ai5 in input DAQ assistant. The samples should be continuous. Choose
proper sampling rates. View the signal in a waveform graph/chart.
3. Ensure the correct Device, channel, samples and sampling rate is chosen in the DAQ
Assistant. Study what happens with higher and lower sampling rates.
4. To collect the data rotate the arrowhead of the potentiometer to a certain position, e.g. 45
degrees.
5. In your programme create an array for angle of rotation and Sensor measurement and
enter Table 1 readings. Also plot the graph.
6. A linear curve is automatically fitted to the data and its slope and intercept are generated.
Display this linear fit also along with the sensor readings as shown in Fig.2
7. Enter the slope and intercept from Table 2 into the Gain and Offset control provided in
your programme to make the sensor data linear.
8. Verify that the sensor is reading properly, e.g. when pot arrow is turned to any angle, the
Display: Potentiometer (deg) knob indicator should read that angle.
Table 1
Pot Angle
Sensor
(deg)
Measurement
(V)
0
45
90
135
180
Table 2
Linear curve Fitting results
Slope
Intercept
Optical position
An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into electrical signals. Similar to a
photo resistor, it measures the physical quantity of light and translates it into a form read by the
instrument. Usually, the optical sensor is part of a larger system integrating a measuring device, a
source of light and the sensor itself. This is generally connected to an electrical trigger, which
reacts to a change in the signal within the light sensor.
One of the features of an optical sensor is its ability to measure the changes from one or
more light beams. This change is most often based around alterations to the intensity of the light.
When a phase change occurs, the light sensor acts as a photoelectric trigger, either increasing or
decreasing the electrical output, depending on the type of sensor. Optical sensors can work either
on the single point method or through a distribution of points. With the single point method, a
sole phase change is needed to activate the sensor. In terms of the distribution concept, the sensor
is reactive along a long series of sensors or single fiber-optic array.
Other features of optical sensors include the distinction of whether it is placed internally
or externally in a device. External transducers register and transmit the necessary quantity of
light. These are known as extrinsic sensors. Intrinsic sensors are those that are embedded within
a optical device. These are generally used to measure smaller changes such as a bend or slight
change in direction. The major importance to the proper use of an optical sensor is that it retains
certain facets of measured properties. It must always remain sensitive to the property. To the
same point, it must be insensitive to any other property. In addition, it cannot influence what
measurement is normally being made. That is, it cannot alter the amount of light impacting the
photoelectric property.
Optical sensors have a variety of uses. They can be found in everything from computers to
motion detectors. For example, when the door to a completely darkened area such as the inside
of a copy machine is opened, light impacts the sensor, causing an increase in electrical
productivity. This will trigger an electric response and stop the machine for safety. Due to the
nature of photoelectric sensors, the registration head of the device must remain clean at all times.
Things like dust and materials can prevent the proper reception of light, limiting the success of
the sensor to perform its job. Without the proper level of light, a photosensitive device cannot
create or limit adequate amounts of electricity.
Procedure
9. Enter the measured sensor data in Table 1 and capture the Sensor Readings response.
9. Enter the exponential values in Table 2.
10. To calibrate Sensor tab and enter the values of exponential a and b in the Collect Data
Amplitude and Damping controls, to correctly measure the distance of the target, e.g. when
target is 0.10-inch away then display should read 0.10-inch.
Table 1
Target
(inch)
Range Sensor
Measurement (V)
Table 2
Exponential curve Fitting results
a
b
Fig. 6. Exponential curve fit of collected data from optical position sensor.
Magnetic field
A magnet produces a vector field, the magnetic field, at all points in the space around it. It can
be defined by measuring the force the field exerts on a moving charged particle, such as an
electron. A magnetic field transducer outputs a voltage proportional to the magnetic field that is
applied to the target. It applies a magnetic field perpendicular to the flat screw head. The position
of the screw head is changed by rotating the knob. This magnetic field transducer has a similar
range to the optical sensor position.
Here the magnetic sensor is based on Hall effect. The effect is based on the interaction
between moving electric carriers and an external magnetic field
Procedure
Table 1
Target
(inch)
Table 2
Range Sensor
Measurement (V)
Fig. 9. Exponential curve fit of collected data from magnetic field sensor.
Experiment No.3
Study of Encoder
Objective
To calibrate the given rotary encoder to measure the angular position.
Equipments Required
QNET-MECHKIT
Theory
Similar to rotary potentiometers, encoders can also be used to measure angular position.
There are many types of encoders but one of the common is the rotary incremental optical
encoder. Unlike potentiometers, encoders are relative. The angle they measure depends on the
last position and when it was last powered. It should be noted, however, that absolute encoders
are available.
The encoder has a coded disk that is marked with a radial pattern. As the disk rotates (with the
shaft), the light from an LED shines through the pattern and is picked up by a photo sensor. This
effectively generates the A and B. An index pulse is triggered once for every full rotation of the
disk, which can be used for calibration or homing a system. The optical incremental encoder
signal is shown in Fig.3.
The A and B signals that are generated as the shaft rotates are used in a decoder algorithm to
generate a count. The resolution of the encoder depends on the coding of the disk and the
decoder. For example, an encoder with 1024 lines on the disk can generate a total of 1024 counts
for every rotation of the encoder shaft. However, in a quadrature decoder the number of counts
quadruples, therefore the encoder, would generate 4098 counts per revolution.
Procedure
Table 4.
Table 3
Encoder
knob A or B signal
Rotation
leads?
Clockwise
Counter-clockwise
Table 4
Parameter
Value
Experiment No.4
Study of Strain Gauge
Objective
1. To Study Strain gauge as a displacement transducer to measure strain and stress.
2. Using Lab View calibrate the strain gauge attached to the flexible link. Also find the
natural frequency of the link.
Equipments Required
1. Strain gauge and signal conditioning circuit.
2. QNET-MECHKIT
3. Jumper
Theory:
Strain Gauge:
Strain gauge is a passive electrical transducer. It gives variation in electrical resistance between
its two terminals as effect of strain on sensor (gauge) on application of external force. When a
metal conductor is stretched or compressed, a change in its resistance occurs due to change in its
diameter and length. A change in its resistivity can be observed if subjected to strain, this
property is called as piezo resistive effect. Thus resistive strain gauge is also known as piezo
resistive gauge. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section. The resistance of gauge increases with positive strain.
Change in resistance is more than for an increase in its length due to its dimensional change.
Transducers/detectors like load cells, pressure gauges, Torque meters employ strain gauges.
Different types of strain gauges are available of which wire strain gauge, foil strain gauge and
semiconductor strain gauges are important. Wire and foil type gauges (Fig.1) are similar in
construction `and in its electrical characteristics but foil type gauges possess more dissipation
capacity due to large surface area than wire type.
Full bridge and half bridge circuits are driven by a constant voltage source of around 1.3 V.
The difference signal output from bridge is amplified by an instrumentation amplifier with
variable gain. Gain (Span) is required to be adjusted during experiment. A zero adjustment
potentiometer is provided in final amplifier and is to be adjusted for zero input condition.
Procedure:
1. To Study Strain gauge as a displacement transducer to measure strain and stress.
Stress is the force per unit area and strain is the elongation or compression per unit length of any
object under pressure and is related to the modulus of elasticity. Strain measurement is easier as
compared to that of stress measurement is possible using variable resistance transducers. Such
transducers are known as strain gauges.
A metal conductor changes its resistance if stretched or compressed. Expansion or compression
changes its length and diameter also change occur in its resistivity when subjected to a strain
(Piezo resistive effect). Change in value of resistance is more due to strain than change due to its
dimensional changes (elongation compression and cross sectional area). This property of change
(more) in resistance due to strain is called as piezo resistive effect.
Measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is known as gauge factor and is fairly
constant over a change of strain for each transducer. Gauge factor is the ratio of per unit change
in resistance to per unit change in length.
( )
( )
Determination of R/R
Fig. 3
By observing the circuit shown in Fig. 3, we can write
(
)
(
( )
( )
By following equation 2, applying the same logic for test point V9, we get
( )
By measuring V0 and Vs we can calculate R/R for various values of displacement.
( )
Where = stress due to bending moment
( )
Where
GL = Displacement of gauge from point of push
b = width
d = thickness
( )
Substituting (7), (6) in (5) and assuming GL = L for all practical purposes.
( )
( )
1. Select the full bridge (strain) sensor by setting rotary position switch at correct location
(i.e at 1) and switch ON power supply.
2. Adjust micrometer to 25mm (zero strain) and measure output voltage. Now make the
output voltage zero by adjusting the Zero Knob.
3. Now adjust micrometer to zero of its scale to get full displacement. Measure V0 and make
it equal to 2V by adjusting the Span Knob.
4. Adjust micrometer to various positions and note down corresponding output voltages V0
in mV.
5. Measure VS (tp10) = 1.22V (typically)
6. Express L/L in strain (longitudinal) and not in strain to determine GF.
7. Subtract V0 value obtained at zero displacement (VZ) from all others displacement so as
to get rid of zero error before calculating strain.
8. The micro strain can be displayed on a 2V range DPM by following span and zero
adjustment.
9. The output voltage 2000 will display micro strain directly.
10. Plot graph of displacement reading versus strain.
Displacement Micro
mm ()
V0 in
reading mV
in mm
V0 - VZ
R/R =
L/L
GF (k) =
O/P V [ 2000]
= strain
(150)
2) Using Lab View calibrate the strain gauge attached to the flexible link. Also find the natural
frequency of the link:
Procedure
Table 1
Link Position
Sensor
Measurement (V)
-1.0 cm
-0.5 cm
0 cm
0.5 cm
1.0 cm
Table 2
Fig.5.Block diagram for strain gauge calibration and natural frequency calculation.
7. Enter the slope and intercept from Table 2 into the Gain and Offset control provided in
your program to make the sensor data linear.
8. When the link is moved, the slider indicator in the VI should match up with the actual
location of the flexible link on the QNET module.
9. To measure the natural frequency of the flexible link , the data from strain gauge is given
to a power spectrum analyzer and manually perturb the flexible link while your VI is
running and stop the VI when it stops resonating (after about 5 seconds). The spectrum
should then load in the chart as shown in Fig.7
10. Find the natural frequency and draw the resulting power spectrum response.
Experiment No.5
Thermocouple
Objective
To study the variation of output voltage of thermocouple with the change in temperature with
and without ambient temperature compensation.
Equipments Required
Theory
The thermocouple is one of the simplest and most commonly used methods of measuring process
temperatures. The operation of a thermocouple is based on Seebeck effect which states that
when heat is applied to junction (hot junction) of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated
which can be measured at the other junction (cold junction). The two dissimilar metals form an
electric circuit, and current flows as a result of the generated emf as shown in the figure below.
The key element in the thermocouple is that the output voltage is very small, typically less
than 50mV. This means that considerable amplification will be necessary for practical
application. In addition, the small signal levels make the devices susceptible to electrical noise. In
most cases the thermocouple is used with a high-gain differential amplifier. In addition, the
input impedance should be high, particularly if extension wires are used to reduce errors from
voltage drops because of current drawn by the thermocouple.
The most commonly used method for measurement of temperature with thermocouple
employs a DC self balancing potentiometer. There are no loading errors as at balance no current is
drawn from the thermocouple whose emf is being measured. The resistance variation problems
are also absent when potentiometers are used.
The thermocouple used here is J-type. This active transducer is made of Iron and Constantan
metals. There are two junctions, one kept as a reference and the other is subjected to the
temperature. Depending on the difference in the temperature of the two junctions, it develops an
output voltage without the need of any excitation. Hence is called an active transducer. The
output voltage is in millivolts. This voltage is suitably signal conditioned to give an output in
volts.
The thermocouple senses the temperature from the temperature source (Water bath) in terms
of millivolts. This millivolts output which is obtained from thermocouple is given to inverting
amplifier for further amplification. This amplifier amplifies the given millivolts in the range of (03.5)V
S.No
Actual
Without compensation
With compensation
temperature
O/P voltage
O/P voltage
Temperature
Temperature
Q.1 For type J & type K thermocouples, write in the answers to the following:Materials used ________________________ _______________________
Sensitivity (approx) ___________________V/oC
Thermoelectric Voltage difference (0oC to 100oC) ___________________mV
Approx. operating temperature range ________________________
Q.2 Describe briefly the two main methods used for Cold Junction Compensation when using
thermocouples.
Experiment No.6
Input to the DC servo motor control unit is 230V 10%, 50Hz, AC, single phase.
2.
3.
4.
Optical speed sensor for sensing speed: 800 pulse / 100 revolutions
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Theory
For the study of the closed loop control system, a DC motor is used as the system to be controlled.
The DC motor can be modeled as a linear system, if the magnetic saturation is neglected and the
field flux is assumed to be constant. For this purpose, a permanent magnet DC motor is used.
Here the flux produced by the permanent magnets which is constant.
The DC motor can be represented by the equivalent circuit shown below. The armature resistance
and inductance are represented as lumped parameters as R and L . The field current is assumed to
be constant. This sets the constant flux in the machine.
----- (1)
------ (2)
when
kt = Te / ia
Torque constant in N.m / A
------ (3)
----- (4)
------- (5)
The differential equation governing the mechanical system comprising armature and load is
J (d / dt) + B + TL = Te
------- (6)
------ (7)
Eb (s) = kb (s)
------ (8)
------ (9)
------ (10)
------ (11)
------ (12)
------ (13)
------ (14)
Generally armature electrical constant is much smaller than the mechanical time constant.
Therefore assuming a = 0, by letting La = 0, equation (14) becomes
(s) / Va(s) = (kt / Ra.B) / [(sm + 1) + (kb.kt) / (Ra.B )]
------ (15)
------ (16)
Procedure:
A) To determine motor gain constant and time constant (Motor transfer function)
---
S.No
Vref
Va (V)
(V)
measure
Ia (A)
Eb
Speed
(V)
(rad/s)
Ton (s)
T (s)
Va (V)
calculate
d
F) To study the steady state error and transient response of this system
1. Steady state error ess = Vref/(1+kp.G.km.k)
2. The speed (t) for a step input of Vref is given by (t) = k(1-e-at)
Where k = kp.G.km.Vref/(1+ kp.G.km.k) and a = (1+ kp.G.km.k)/
3. Calculate and tabulate (t) for t 6a, and plot the transient response (t) vs t.
4. From the graph measure rise time and settling time. Rise time tr is the time taken by
the motor speed to rise from 10% to 90% of the final steady state value and settling
time is the time taken for the motor speed to reach the final stedy stae value.
From these gains, assuming load torque on the motor zero, we can modify the block
diagram as shown down. Substituting the gain values obtained experimentally derive the
transfer function of the closed loop system. Also develop the block diagram as shown
using MATLAB Simulink as well as using m-file and study the response of the system
with step input.
Simulink Realization
1. Drag and drop the following blocks into a new model file. [Simulink Sources Step
for Vr, Math Operations Sum for summing amplifier and gain for kp, k and G,
Simulink continuous -transfer function block for motor model].
2. Now double click on each element and enter the values you have got experimentally.
3. Wire them and observe the response in for a step change in input.
4. Also include an integral controller and study the behavior.
5. Plot the response.
M-file realization
kp= ; % Value of proportional gain
km= ; % Value of motor gain constant
= ; % Value of motor time constant
Experiment No. 7
Study of Relay Control System
Aim
To study the open loop characteristics of relay with the inclusion of various nonlinearities.
Theory
A linear system possess two properties: superposition and homogeneity. A nonlinear system is a
system which does not satisfy the superposition and homogeneity principle, or whose output is
not proportional to its input. Many practical systems are sufficiently non-linear. The linear
systems mostly designed to perform satisfactorily, when excited by standard test signals.
Furthermore, the amplitude of the test signal is unimportant since any change of input signal
amplitude, results simply in change of response of scale with no change in basic response
characteristics.
amplitude. Example a non-linear system giving its best response for a certain step input may
exhibit highly unsatisfactory response when the input amplitude is changed.
Further the Laplace and Z-transform which are simple and powerful tools in linear theory
become inapplicable and hence the system analysis of non-linear system for different time
varying inputs is quite difficult. The stability of the linear system is determined solely by the
location of the simple poles, and it is independent entirely of whether or not the system is driven.
Here the stability is very much dependent on the input and also the initial state. Further the nonlinear system may exhibit limit cycles which are self-sustained oscillations of fixed frequency
and amplitude. The stability study of non-linear system in fact requires the information about the
type of input, and amplitude of anticipated inputs, initial conditions etc. in addition to the usual
requirements of physical and mathematical model of the system. Even for a stable non-linear
system the transient and frequency response may exhibit certain peculiar features which are not
found in linear systems.
is a constant retarding force and other is stiction which is the force required to initiate motion. The
composite characteristic of friction is shown in fig.2.
Fig.3.Backlash nonlinearity.
Dead Zone
This dead zone non linearity occurs in many devices which are insensitive to small
signals. Fig.4, illustrates the relationship between input and output motions which exhibits the
phenomenon of dead-zone. A motor that does not respond at very low input voltages due to
frictional forces exhibits this non-linearity.
Fig.4.Dead-zone nonlinearity.
Relay
A relay is a non-linear power amplifier which can provide large power amplification in a
control system. A relay-controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete
states viz., OFF, full forward, full reverse. Relay-controlled systems find wide applications in the
control field.
Fig. 5. I-O characteristics of (a) Ideal relay (b) Ideal relay with friction (c) Ideal relay with dead
zone (d) Ideal relay with dead zone and backlash.
Procedure
1. Sine / Square wave input is given to the relay and observe the input and output of the
ideal relay in a CRO. Also observe the same by keeping CRO in XY mode, so that
Lissajous pattern giving I-O characteristics of relay can be seen. For this part patch the
following in the trainer kit:
(+ve) of the output to the Rin. Connect Digital Storage Channel 1 positive to the Rin
and negative should be grounded. Connect Channel 2 Positive to the Rout, negative
should be grounded.
2. Keep the slow/fast switch is to set the frequency of 90 to 120HZ.
3. Set the sine/square wave switch in sine wave mode and apply the amplitude at 1Vpp.
4. Observe the waveforms simultaneously.
5. Introduce the dead band, limiter and hysteresis and observe the variations in the
waveform from the Digital Storage Oscilloscope and plot the characteristic.
Model Graph
Simulation Study
From Simulink Discontinuities, drag and drop the elements seen in the following diagram.
Study the effect of these non-linearities on to a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1 and frequency
2Hz.
Change the parameters in each and every non-linearity and observe the output along with input
in XY Graph as well as scope.
Also Study the effect of these non-linearities along with relay for the same sinusoidal signal.
Plot the wave forms and XY graph side by side in a graph sheet.
Experiment No. 8
Study of lag Compensating Networks
Aim
To study the frequency response and compensation of the lag processes.
Equipment / Materials Required
1. Lead Lag network
-------- (5)
.
Block diagram representation of Lag-Lead network.
Procedure to study the Frequency Response for lead, lag and lead lag processes
1. Give a sine wave input to the lead and lag process individually and observe the output in
CRO along with the input.
2. Note down the amplitude and range of frequency of the input signal for which the
processes shows their behavior (i.e in lag process output lags the input and in lead process
output leads the input).
3. Measure the phase shift using cursor.
4. Conduct the experiment for various frequencies.
5. The gain is measured from the formula,
6. Plot the bode plot and conclude the behavior of each process.
Tabulation
S.NO Frequency (Hz)
Phase Shift ()
Vo (V)
Vi (V)
Gain (dB)
Now the compensator should be such a way that, it should act as a lead process i.e the polezero located in the reverse way. Real part of zero closer to origin.
Design
Frequency of sine wave = 108 Hz
Phase Angle to be compensated = lag= 70
Experiment No.9
Study of Step, Ramp and Impulse Responses
Aim
To study the response of a process using Step, Ramp and Impulse signals.
Equipment / Materials Required
1.
2.
3.
Theory
The time domain investigation of a control system involves
1. Transient response analysis and
2. Steady state analysis
These are used in the design of a feed back control system for a specified input signal. These two
analysis methods are used to study the characteristics of a system and to compare its
performance with another system.
For a closed loop system the transfer function C(s)/R(s) = G(s)/(1+G(s))
Time response of the system c(t) = L-1 [G(s) R(s) /(1+G(s))]
c(t) = Transient solution + Steady state solution
Transient solution gives the deviation of output from ideal input and the interval for which the
system remains in disturbed state. Transient response is analysed from t=0 to t=t1 corresponding
to a specified state.
Steady state response is the behavior of the system for t. The difference between the steady
state solution and the input gives steady state error (ess).
Test / input signals are used to excite the system for investigating and controlling the system
performance. The various test signals are:
Step Signal: The step is a signal whose value changes from zero to another level A in negligible
time. The functional representation of a step signal is given by
r(t) = A u(t)
u(t) = 1, t > 0
--- (1)
= 0, t < 0
where, u(t) represents a unit step function.
Taking Laplace Transform of Eq (1), we obtain
R(s) = A [u(t)] = A / s
--- (2)
--- (3)
--- (4)
= B / s2
The graphical representation of a ramp signal is given in Fig. 1(b).
Impulse Signal : A unit-impulse is defined mathematically as
(t) = 1, t = 0
= 0, t 0
--- (5)
(t) = du(t) / dt
The Laplace Transform of a unit impulse is
[(t)] = 1
The graphical representation of a ramp signal is given in Fig. 1(c).
Fig. 1(a)
Fig. 1(b)
Fig. 1(c)
Time constant (T) time taken by the response to attain 63.2% of the final value.
M p e ( /
1 2 )
This expression gives n. For a second order system the transfer function is of the form
n2/s2+2ns +n2. Now we could get the transfer function of the system. Use this transfer
function for simulation study of second order system.
Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the block diagram given in Fig. 2.
2. Switch on the unit.
3. To find the response of the process for different input signals, set the input as Step,
Ramp and Impulse to 1 Vpp with a particular frequency setting.
4. For each case, study the response of the process for different proportional gains (Kp)
by varying the pot.
5. Observe and plot the output waveform of the process for a particular K p with the
three different sources and calculate the Delay time (td), Rise time (tr), Peak time (tp),
Maximum Overshoot (Mp) and Settling time (ts).
6. Observe the responses of the process for three different settings of Kp and tabulate
the readings.
7. Step, Ramp and Impulse responses of the process for various proportional gains at a
particular frequency are shown in Fig 3, 4 and 5.
Tabulation
Response
Delay Time
Rise Time
Peak Time
(td)
(tr)
(tp)
Maximum
Settling Time
Overshoot
(ts)
(Mp)
Step
Step
Ramp
Impulse
Step and repeating sequence] The parameters to be entered are shown just below each
block so as to generate these signals.
2. Select all these and right click and click on create subsystem and name it unit source,
content of which is shown in the following diagram.
3. Now create first and second order systems having transfer functions 1/(s+1) and
1/(s2+2s+1) using transfer function block from Simulink continuous. Sum and gain
block can be taken from math operations. Now make the circuit as shown below and
run the simulations for 10s and plot the curves in each case.
4. Study the behavior of first and second order plants with different values of kp. For higher
order systems also you can check the response. Paste the plots and inference in your
observations for three different values of kp, when you come for practical study of this
experiment.
Experiment No.10
Tuning of Controllers
Aim
Also to investigate the dynamic response of a different process using continuous
oscillation method (Zeiglers procedure).
Equipment / Materials Required
1. Tuning of controllers (PCC-2 )
2. Date Acquisition card (VAD-104)
3. Process control software
4. Patch chords.
5. Personnel computer
Theory
In a control system, the output depends on the selection of controller and dynamic
parameter of the process. In this experiment, the variation in the system response is studied by
varying the process parameters using continuous oscillation method. Continuous oscillation
method is also known as closed loop response or automatic mode. In this mode, dynamic
characteristics of the process are represented by ultimate gain (Ku) and ultimate time period (Tu).
Ultimate gain is the minimum value of the gain which gives sustained sinusoidal oscillation as
the response and ultimate time period is the time period of this sinusoidal signal. The tuning of
controller includes a PC based controller in which the process variables can be varied using
process control software. This software package for PC based controller tuning, senses the
process variable, displays it on the screen and issues control action to the controller. The value of
Kp is increased until it reaches the minimum value Ku at which output response attains sustained
oscillations. These values of Ku and Tu are substituted into Zeigler-Nicholas chart and the P, PI
and PID parameters can be evaluated.
u = 2. .fu
where fu = 1 / Tu
(4) Define Tu = 2 / u
The recommended control settings for various types of controller are given in the table.
Zeigler-Nicholas Table for Response of Continuous Oscillation method
Controller
Gain (KR)
0.5Ku
PI
0.45Ku
Tu / 1.2
PID
0.6Ku
Tu / 2
Tu / 8
9. Find the values of Kp, Ki, Kd and enter into the text box.
10. Start the simulation process and see the response of an appropriate controller.
Tabulation
Experiment No.11
Air Flow Control
Aim:
To study the closed loop control of Air flow (turbine flow sensor) using digital
proportional, proportional-integral and proportional-integral-differential controllers.
Theory:
Closed loop control of airflow using feedback from an external process is done using an
intelligent instrument. Following diagram shows the closed loop control of a plant. Here
airflow process is the plant. From this plant airflow is fed into as a feedback and compared
with a set value of airflow. The controller here can be P, PI or PID type. The response of
the system with different controllers can be learned from this. The controller, set value and
feedback are in digital form in this intelligent instrument whereas the plant is a physical
system.
The overall block diagram of the process is as shown. The blocks in dotted box show the
digital part built in the software, available in PC. External blocks can be seen on the
instrument panel.
Two turbine type flow sensors in series with two rotameters are
provided for flow measurement. One is controlled flow through the control valve and the
other is wild flow. The flow is controlled to the process tank through the flow sensor by
pneumatic control valve. Each flow range is 0-50 LPM (litre/min). The wild flow is
returned to atmosphere. The turbine flow sensors produce train of pulses when rotated.
These pulses are fed to the signal conditioning unit. Here frequency to voltage converter is
used to convert the output of the sensor to 0-2.5V signal.
This intelligent instrument consists of different resource panels like:
Instrumentation Power Supply (EMT8)
Signal Conditioning cum Thyristor Actuator Panel (EMT9)
Computer Interface Panel (CIP)
To understand how the airflow control is implemented, at first we should be familiar with
the equipment. The main parts of this intelligent instrument and their importance are given
below:
a) Air distribution & Air filter regulators: The system is provided with three AFR (Air
filter regulator) units because the incoming pressure from compressor is around 0 to 8 bars.
Current to pressure (I to P) converter operate on 0 to 1.4 bar so as to reduce pressure from
8 to 1.4 bar AFR1 is used. AFR2 is used to reduce 8 bar to 2 bar for controlling flow and
pressure. AFR3 is used to reduce 8 bars to 2 bars for wild flow measurement. Rotate the
pressure setting knob at the top in clockwise (CW as seen from top) direction to increase
the pressure, counter clockwise to decrease the pressure.
b) Drain control of process tank: There are two valves, one at the top (V5) and one at the
bottom (V4). The bottom valve V4 is useful for draining the water from the vessel while
top valve V5 is used to simulate leakages during pressure experiment and to fill water
before temperature experiment.
d) Control valve:. Control valve is utilized in both pressure and flow control loop to
control pressure as well as flow of air through it. This air flow is used as cooling medium
during temperature experiment (air bubbler).
(1
Procedure:
Keeping temperature/Intensity/flow switch at flow position do the Calibration of Airflow
sensor.
Calibration procedure:
1. Keep the valves V 1 , V3 and V5 fully open and V 2, V4 fully closed.
2. Connect the turbine flow sensor to signal conditioning panel EMT9 using 5-pin DIN
male connector.
3. Connect the tag no 14 ( sensor output) of EMT9 (+) to 8 of EMT8 and 15 of EMT9
to 9 of EMT8. (providing power supply to the sensor)
4. By keeping control valve fully open make the compressor ON.
5. Adjust AFR1 air pressure using knob on AFR1 about 1.4 bars seeing dial on
pressure gauge.
6. Now adjust AFR3 airflow such that the rotameter shows 0 LPM by using knob on
AFR3.
7. Now adjust the sensor output at tag no 14 of signal conditioning panel to 0V for 0
LPM of airflow by using VR9.
8. Now increase the airflow of AFR3 until the rotameter shows 50LPM.
9. Now adjust the output at tag no 14 of signal conditioning panel to 2.5V for 50 LPM
of airflow using span pot VR10.
10. Repeat the above procedure 2-3 times & confirm Zero.
11. After calibration observe the sensor output at tag no.14 for different airflow setting
using knob on AFR3.
S.
Rotameter
Voltage at
DPM Reading in
no.
Reading in LPM
tag no 14
LPM
+0.02
+3
1.
2.
3.
0
10
etc up to 50
ii)
iii)
14. For P controller alone set Pb = 40 % & observe the system response by changing the
set point.
15. Vary the set point on the panel from 30 to 70 % manually. Observe and plot the
graph of measured variable vs set point. From the graph it can be observed that at 40
% Pb system settles with constant error.
16. Observe and plot the wave forms for different controller settings and different set
points.