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LAB MANUAL

MEC320P
Sensors and Control Engineering Practice

Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram


Chennai - 600 127

MEC320P Sensors and Control Engineering Practice

1. Study of Capacitive, Inductive pick up and LVDT


2. Calibration of Rotary Position Sensors
3. Study of Encoder
4. Study of Strain Gauge
5. Study of Thermocouple
6. Modeling And Control of DC Servo Motor
7. Study of Relay control system
8. Study of Lag Compensating Networks
9. Study of Step, Ramp and Impulse Responses
10. Tuning controller
11. Air flow control
12. Solar Cell/ Fuel cell

Experiment No.1
Study of Capacitive and Inductive Pick up
Objective:
To study the variation of output voltage with displacement using passive sensors like
capacitive pick up, inductive pick up and LVDT.
Equipments Required
1. Capacitance changing arrangement and its Signal conditioning unit.
2. Inductive pickup arrangement and its Signal processing unit.
3. LVDT and its Signal processing unit.
4. NI ELVIS board (measurements of signals).
THEORY
Capacitive pick-up
A capacitive transducer is used for the measurement of liquid level. Here, the principle
involved is change of capacitance with the charge in dielectric medium between the plates. This
change in capacitance is sensed by a Schering bridge circuit see Fig. 1. Zu is the unknown
impedance (here capacitance Cv) and Z1 is a known capacitance Cf. The bridge is excited by a
sine wave oscillator of amplitude 20 Vpp (Vi). Let Vo be the bridge unbalance voltage
depending on the ratio of values of varying capacitance (C v) and fixed capacitance (Cf).
When Cv has minimum value, the bridge is at maximum unbalanced condition. When the
value of C v increases (as the plates are immersed), the bridge is driven to the unbalanced
condition. Note that, the value of C v never equal Cf to give a bridge output of zero volts at
perfectly balanced condition. The variation of Cv when compared to Cf is very small. Hence, the
variation in the bridge output voltage is also very less (in the order of few hundredth volts). Using
a differential amplifier at the output of the bridge, this variation is amplified. The AC output is
rectified using a precision rectifier circuit and the output is adjusted by offset for proper calibration.
Hence, the output voltage is a measure of level of liquid in the tank. The signal conditioning
circuit is designed so as to display a voltage signal proportional to liquid level.

Fig.1: Block diagram of inductive/Capacitive pickup transducer.

Inductive pick-up
The inductance is varied by moving the core inside the inductor. This causes a change in the
reluctance of the magnetic path and hence a change in overall self inductance of the coil. Thus, this
sensor senses a linear displacement of the core and gives a proportional change in inductance of
the coil. This change in inductance is sensed by an AC bridge circuit shown in Fig.1. Zu is the
unknown impedance (here inductance of the coil) and Z1 is a known inductance.
The coil is connected in one of the arms of the AC bridge which is excited by a 4KHz
sine wave of amplitude 2Vp-p. There is an inverse relation of the core movement with respect to the
bridge unbalanced voltage. Initially the bridge is unbalanced without the core. This gives a
maximum output voltage due to the unbalanced bridge condition. Gradually when the core is
moved inside the coil, the inductance of the coil increases and the bridge is driven to balanced
condition. Hence the bridge unbalance voltage is proportional to the change in inductance of the
coil which is caused by the linear movement of core inside the coil.
The bridge excitation voltage acts as a carrier wave which is amplitude modulated by
the inductance pick-up of the coil. This AC wave is converted to DC by using a precision rectifier
circuit. After the signal conditioning circuit, the DC signal proportional to the inductance pick-up is
terminated at a test point. This voltage is connected to a digital voltmeter (DVM) to display the DC
voltage. In order to give a voltage signal proportional to the movement of the core inside the coil,
the dc signal is inverted. By offset voltage adjustments, the output voltage is calibrated to give
zero voltage at zero displacement though the bridge is still unbalanced. After this signal
conditioning circuit, the dc signal proportional to the reluctance offered by the core movement is

terminated at a test point. This voltage is displayed on a Digital Voltmeter (DVM) to display the
final dc voltage of the circuit.
LVDT:
Linear variable differential transformer LVDT is a transducer as shown in Fig 2. Basically
it is passive inductive transformer working on the principle of mutual induction.
LVDT consists of three windings, one primary and two secondaries of equal turns.
Primary is wound centrally between two secondaries. All the three windings are wound on
a hollow tubular former through which magnetic core slides. Core affects magnetic
coupling between primary and the secondaries while primary is connected to an AC signal.
Null position of core causes equal induced voltage in both the secondaries. Hence
the total difference voltage of both the secondaries becomes zero. Any deviation in core
position from its null position induces unequal voltage from both secondaries and hence the
difference signal of it is a non-zero quantity, this non-zero quantity varies with core
position. Ideally displacement versus change in difference signal should be linear.

Fig.2: Block diagram of LVDT.


When ES1 = E S2 (CORE AT NULL POSITION OR CENTRAL POSITION)
Ediff = 0;
When core is moved left E s1 >Es2 & Ediff. (Es1 Es2 ) is in phase with E s1
When core is moved right E sl<Es2 , Ediff = (Es1 Es2) is in phase with E s1.
Amount of Ediff is proportional to the displacement of core. Phase angle of the output
voltage decides the direction of core from its normal null position. Electronic ci rcuit can be
used to recover appreciable difference signal from LVDT: LVDT offers linearity in the

output for certain Range of displacement. Change in its output voltage is step less and
resolution depends on test equipment. Higher magnitude output is possible. LVDT can
tolerate high degree of vibration and shorts and hence more rugged. Repeat accuracy is
better due to low hysteresis.
Disadvantages of LVDT are its sensitivity towards stray magnetic field (magnetic
shielding is possible), large displacement is required for appreciable differential output.

PROCEDURE
Capacitive pick-up
1. Plug in the mains chord to a regulated power source.
2. Position the plates fully out of the liquid, so that, the dielectric medium is air.
3. Now, switch on the supply and adjust the offset to indicate a zero display on the DVM to
nullify the capacitance due to air.
4. Gradually, immerse the plates into the tank containing the non-conducting liquid and fix
it at a particular position. Note, the corresponding voltage displayed on the DVM and o/p
voltage of the bridge. Also measure the capacitance using NI DMM or NI impedance
analyzer.
5. Repeat step-4 for various displacements and tabulate the readings in Table 1.
6. Plot a graph of displacement (mm) versus voltage (V) or capacitance.

Table 1

Displacement (mm)

Capacitance (pF)

Capacitive pick-up
output (V)

Inductive pick-up
1. Position the pointer on the core to zero point on the scale provided and switch on the
supply.
2. Adjust the offset to indicate a zero display on the DVM to nullify the bridge unbalance
voltage due to air cored inductor.
3. Now, gradually move the core inside the coil and note the corresponding voltage on the
DVM.
7. The reading can be taken with a 1mm resolution of the displacement. The maximum
displacement of 40/50 is possible. Also measure the inductance using NI DMM or NI
impedance analyzer.
4. Repeat step-4 for various displacements and tabulate the readings in Table 2.
5. Plot the graph of linear displacement (mm) vs output voltage (V).

Table 2
Displacement (mm)

Self-inductance

Inductive pick-up

(mH)

output (V)

LVDT
1. LVDT primary winding is driven by sinusoidal signal of about 1kHz at 2Vpp. Voltage
induced in secondary S 1 & S2 is rectified by precision rectifier. Voltage induced in
secondary S 1 and S2 depends on core position which couples primary turns to the number
of secondary turns. Secondary are connected in Anti series to achieve difference signal.
This difference signal is further amplified by Op-Amp and then phase sensitively rectified.
Final amplifier is provided with zero output adjustment & span adjustment to adjust 0 -2V
swing.
2. Adjust micrometer to 10mm mark and adjust zero adjustment pot for zero output voltage on
voltmeter. Now move micrometer to extreme right position i.e. near 20mm and adjust

output to 2V with the help of span, adjust potentiometer. Move the micrometer towards left
to 0mm and see whether voltmeter reads -2V.
3. After ensuring 2V for micrometer position 20mm, take the voltmeter readings by
decreasing the micrometer positions in steps of 5mm and tabulate the readings in Table 3
and plot the graph distance versus output voltage.

Table 3
Micrometer readings
distance in mm

Output voltage (mV)

Displacement(mm) =
o/p voltage x10

Experiment No.2
Rotary Position Sensors
Objective:
To calibrate the given Rotary potentiometer, Optical sensor and Magnetic field sensor to
measure the angular position.

Equipments Required
QNET-MECHKIT
Theory
Rotary Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) is used for the purpose of voltage division. It consists of a
resistive element with a sliding contact (wiper). The motion of this wiper may be linear or
rotational. In some pots the wiper has linear as well as rotational motion. In them the resistive
element is in helical form and is called helipot. Pot is a passive transducer as it requires external
activation energy.
Rotary potentiometers are absolute analog sensors used to measure angular position, such as a
load shaft of a motor. They are great to obtain a unique position measurement. However, caution
must be used as their signal is discontinuous. That is, after a few revolutions potentiometers will
reset their signal back to zero. This sensor used here can give a measurement of 300 with a
linearity of 5%.
The humble potentiometer (or pot, as it is more commonly known) is a simple electromechanical transducer. It converts rotary or linear motion from the operator into a change of
resistance, and this change is (or can be) used to control anything from the volume of a hi-fi
system to the direction of a huge container ship.
The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat essentially a variable wire
wound resistor. The very first variable resistors were either a block of carbon (or some other
resistive material) with a sliding contact, or a box full of carbon granules, with a threaded screw
to compress the granules. More compression leads to lower resistance, and vice versa. These are
rare in modern equipment.

Procedure
1. Ensure Jumper (J10) of QNET-MECHKIT is set to Potentiometer.
2. Create a VI (Fig.1) to acquire data from the sensor. The channel for potentiometer should
be selected as ai5 in input DAQ assistant. The samples should be continuous. Choose
proper sampling rates. View the signal in a waveform graph/chart.
3. Ensure the correct Device, channel, samples and sampling rate is chosen in the DAQ
Assistant. Study what happens with higher and lower sampling rates.
4. To collect the data rotate the arrowhead of the potentiometer to a certain position, e.g. 45
degrees.
5. In your programme create an array for angle of rotation and Sensor measurement and
enter Table 1 readings. Also plot the graph.
6. A linear curve is automatically fitted to the data and its slope and intercept are generated.
Display this linear fit also along with the sensor readings as shown in Fig.2
7. Enter the slope and intercept from Table 2 into the Gain and Offset control provided in
your programme to make the sensor data linear.
8. Verify that the sensor is reading properly, e.g. when pot arrow is turned to any angle, the
Display: Potentiometer (deg) knob indicator should read that angle.

Table 1
Pot Angle

Sensor

(deg)

Measurement

(V)
0
45
90
135
180
Table 2
Linear curve Fitting results
Slope
Intercept

Fig. 1. Block diagram for Potentiometer calibration.

Fig. 2. Linear fit of collected data from Potentiometer.

Optical position
An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into electrical signals. Similar to a
photo resistor, it measures the physical quantity of light and translates it into a form read by the
instrument. Usually, the optical sensor is part of a larger system integrating a measuring device, a
source of light and the sensor itself. This is generally connected to an electrical trigger, which
reacts to a change in the signal within the light sensor.
One of the features of an optical sensor is its ability to measure the changes from one or
more light beams. This change is most often based around alterations to the intensity of the light.
When a phase change occurs, the light sensor acts as a photoelectric trigger, either increasing or
decreasing the electrical output, depending on the type of sensor. Optical sensors can work either
on the single point method or through a distribution of points. With the single point method, a
sole phase change is needed to activate the sensor. In terms of the distribution concept, the sensor
is reactive along a long series of sensors or single fiber-optic array.
Other features of optical sensors include the distinction of whether it is placed internally
or externally in a device. External transducers register and transmit the necessary quantity of
light. These are known as extrinsic sensors. Intrinsic sensors are those that are embedded within
a optical device. These are generally used to measure smaller changes such as a bend or slight
change in direction. The major importance to the proper use of an optical sensor is that it retains

certain facets of measured properties. It must always remain sensitive to the property. To the
same point, it must be insensitive to any other property. In addition, it cannot influence what
measurement is normally being made. That is, it cannot alter the amount of light impacting the
photoelectric property.
Optical sensors have a variety of uses. They can be found in everything from computers to
motion detectors. For example, when the door to a completely darkened area such as the inside
of a copy machine is opened, light impacts the sensor, causing an increase in electrical
productivity. This will trigger an electric response and stop the machine for safety. Due to the
nature of photoelectric sensors, the registration head of the device must remain clean at all times.
Things like dust and materials can prevent the proper reception of light, limiting the success of
the sensor to perform its job. Without the proper level of light, a photosensitive device cannot
create or limit adequate amounts of electricity.

Procedure

1. Ensure Jumper (J7) is set to Optical position.


2. Ensure the correct Device is chosen.
3. The channel for this sensor should be selected as ai0. The samples should be continuous.
4. To collect the data, gently turn the knob of the optical position sensor clockwise until the
flat metal surface gently rests on top of the tube. Then, rotate the knob slightly counterclockwise so the 0 mark on the knob faces up. At this point, the reflective target is very
close to the optical sensor and will be the reference 0 cm position. Enter the 0 position in
the first element of the Target Range (cm) array.
5. Enter the voltage measured by the optical position sensor, when the target is 0 cm away, in
the Sensor Measurement (V) array.
6. Turn the knob counter-clockwise one rotation to move the target further from the sensor.
The target moves 1-inch for every 20 turns. Enter the position the target has moved from
the reference in the Target Range (cm) array.
7. Record the measured sensor voltage in the Sensor Measurement (V) array.
8. Take samples for the entire range of the target (i.e. until the knob cannot be rotated CCW
anymore).Remark that the optical position sensor is exponential. As data is being entered,
the exponential parameters are generated and the fitted curve is automatically plotted.

9. Enter the measured sensor data in Table 1 and capture the Sensor Readings response.
9. Enter the exponential values in Table 2.
10. To calibrate Sensor tab and enter the values of exponential a and b in the Collect Data
Amplitude and Damping controls, to correctly measure the distance of the target, e.g. when
target is 0.10-inch away then display should read 0.10-inch.

Table 1
Target
(inch)

Range Sensor
Measurement (V)

Table 2
Exponential curve Fitting results
a
b

Fig. 5. Block diagram for calibration of optical position sensor.

Fig. 6. Exponential curve fit of collected data from optical position sensor.

Magnetic field
A magnet produces a vector field, the magnetic field, at all points in the space around it. It can
be defined by measuring the force the field exerts on a moving charged particle, such as an
electron. A magnetic field transducer outputs a voltage proportional to the magnetic field that is
applied to the target. It applies a magnetic field perpendicular to the flat screw head. The position
of the screw head is changed by rotating the knob. This magnetic field transducer has a similar
range to the optical sensor position.
Here the magnetic sensor is based on Hall effect. The effect is based on the interaction
between moving electric carriers and an external magnetic field

Fig. 7. Principle of magnetic field sensor.

Procedure

1. Ensure Jumper (J8) is set to Magnetic Field position.


2. The channel for the sensor should be selected as ai1. The samples should be continuous.
4. To collect the data, gently turn the knob of the magnetic field sensor clockwise until it is at
its limit. Then, rotate the knob slightly counter-clockwise so the 0 mark on the knob faces
up. This will be reference 0 cm target position. Enter this in the Target Range (cm) array.
5. Enter the voltage measured from the magnetic field position sensor for the reference 0 cm
position in the Sensor Measurement (V) array.
6. Turn the knob counter-clockwise one rotation to move the target further from the sensor.
The target moves 1-inch for every 20 turns. Enter the position the target has moved from
the reference in the Target Range (cm) array.
7. Record the measured sensor voltage in the Sensor Measurement (V) array.
8. Take samples for the entire range of the target (i.e. until the knob cannot be rotated CCW
anymore). The magnetic field sensor is exponential. The parameters of the exponential
function are outputted and the fitted curve is automatically plotted as data is entered.
9. Enter the range and measured sensor voltage in Table 1 and 2, below, and capture the
Sensor Readings scope.
10. To calibrate the sensor, enter Gain and Damping exponential function parameters to
correctly measure the distance of the target. For instance, when target is at 0.10-inch from
the reference then the display should read 0.10-inch.

Fig. 8. Block diagram of Magnetic field sensor calibration.

Table 1
Target
(inch)

Table 2

Range Sensor
Measurement (V)

Exponential curve Fitting results


a
b

Fig. 9. Exponential curve fit of collected data from magnetic field sensor.

Experiment No.3
Study of Encoder
Objective
To calibrate the given rotary encoder to measure the angular position.
Equipments Required
QNET-MECHKIT
Theory
Similar to rotary potentiometers, encoders can also be used to measure angular position.
There are many types of encoders but one of the common is the rotary incremental optical
encoder. Unlike potentiometers, encoders are relative. The angle they measure depends on the
last position and when it was last powered. It should be noted, however, that absolute encoders
are available.

The encoder has a coded disk that is marked with a radial pattern. As the disk rotates (with the
shaft), the light from an LED shines through the pattern and is picked up by a photo sensor. This
effectively generates the A and B. An index pulse is triggered once for every full rotation of the
disk, which can be used for calibration or homing a system. The optical incremental encoder
signal is shown in Fig.3.

Fig. 3. Optical incremental encoder.

The A and B signals that are generated as the shaft rotates are used in a decoder algorithm to
generate a count. The resolution of the encoder depends on the coding of the disk and the
decoder. For example, an encoder with 1024 lines on the disk can generate a total of 1024 counts
for every rotation of the encoder shaft. However, in a quadrature decoder the number of counts
quadruples, therefore the encoder, would generate 4098 counts per revolution.

Procedure

1. Ensure Jumper (J7) of QNET-MECHKIT is set to Encoder.


2. Create a VI (Fig.4) to acquire data from the sensor. The channel for encoder should be
selected as ai5 in input DAQ assistant. The samples should be continuous. Choose proper
sampling rates. View the signal in a waveform graph/chart. 16 bit decoder is available in a
separate path.
3. To collect the data Turn the encoder knob clockwise and examine the response of the A
and B signals.
4. Note that the signals are offset by 2.5 V for display purposes. Enter your observation in
Table 3.
5. Similarly, turn the encoder knob counter-clockwise and enter your observation.
6. Using the 16-bit Position (counts) indicator on the VI, rotate the knob and determine how
many counts there are per revolution. Enter your result in the Counts per rev box in the
VI. Rotate the knob and confirm that the Angle (deg) indicator is displaying an accurate
angle.
7. Turn the knob such that the 0 is in the upward position and reset the counter by clicking on
the Reset button.
8. Enable the index by clicking on the Enable Index button.
9. Rotate the knob a full CW turn until the index is triggered. Keep turning the knob until the
0 mark on the knob is pointing upwards. What do you notice about the 16-bit Position
(counts) and the Angle (deg) indicator values?
10. Adjust the Reload Value such that Angle (deg) measures 0 degrees when the 0 mark of the
knob is pointing up. Confirm this by moving the knob CW.
11. Enter the Count per rev and the Reload Value values used for a calibrated measurement in

Table 4.

Table 3

Encoder

knob A or B signal

Rotation

leads?

Clockwise
Counter-clockwise
Table 4

Parameter

Value

Counts per rev


Reload value

Fig. 4. Block diagram for calibration of encoder.

Experiment No.4
Study of Strain Gauge
Objective
1. To Study Strain gauge as a displacement transducer to measure strain and stress.
2. Using Lab View calibrate the strain gauge attached to the flexible link. Also find the
natural frequency of the link.
Equipments Required
1. Strain gauge and signal conditioning circuit.
2. QNET-MECHKIT
3. Jumper
Theory:
Strain Gauge:
Strain gauge is a passive electrical transducer. It gives variation in electrical resistance between
its two terminals as effect of strain on sensor (gauge) on application of external force. When a
metal conductor is stretched or compressed, a change in its resistance occurs due to change in its
diameter and length. A change in its resistivity can be observed if subjected to strain, this
property is called as piezo resistive effect. Thus resistive strain gauge is also known as piezo
resistive gauge. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section. The resistance of gauge increases with positive strain.
Change in resistance is more than for an increase in its length due to its dimensional change.
Transducers/detectors like load cells, pressure gauges, Torque meters employ strain gauges.
Different types of strain gauges are available of which wire strain gauge, foil strain gauge and
semiconductor strain gauges are important. Wire and foil type gauges (Fig.1) are similar in
construction `and in its electrical characteristics but foil type gauges possess more dissipation
capacity due to large surface area than wire type.

Fig. 1. Wire type and foil type strain gauges


Foil type strain gauges are flexible and can be mounted on curved surfaces. Strain gauge
possess hysterisis i.e. the value of resistance of gauge without strain differs from the value that
after application and removal of strain. Foil thickness of foil type gauge is few micrometer,
Resistance value of commercially available strain gauges ranges from 50 to 1k.
Here strain gauge is mounted on a spring steel strip. This strip is fixed at one end and other end
is kept free to move. Movement or displacement of free end strip is connected to a micrometer.
Strain gauges are connected to the strip from both the surfaces, two from each side, Thus on
application of force, strip bends and offers elongation on one side and compression from other
side. Thus gauges are connected in full bridge and half bridge as shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2. Full and Half bridge configuration of strain gauges.

Full bridge and half bridge circuits are driven by a constant voltage source of around 1.3 V.
The difference signal output from bridge is amplified by an instrumentation amplifier with

variable gain. Gain (Span) is required to be adjusted during experiment. A zero adjustment
potentiometer is provided in final amplifier and is to be adjusted for zero input condition.
Procedure:
1. To Study Strain gauge as a displacement transducer to measure strain and stress.
Stress is the force per unit area and strain is the elongation or compression per unit length of any
object under pressure and is related to the modulus of elasticity. Strain measurement is easier as
compared to that of stress measurement is possible using variable resistance transducers. Such
transducers are known as strain gauges.
A metal conductor changes its resistance if stretched or compressed. Expansion or compression
changes its length and diameter also change occur in its resistivity when subjected to a strain
(Piezo resistive effect). Change in value of resistance is more due to strain than change due to its
dimensional changes (elongation compression and cross sectional area). This property of change
(more) in resistance due to strain is called as piezo resistive effect.
Measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is known as gauge factor and is fairly
constant over a change of strain for each transducer. Gauge factor is the ratio of per unit change
in resistance to per unit change in length.

( )

( )

Determination of R/R

Fig. 3
By observing the circuit shown in Fig. 3, we can write
(

)
(

( )

( )
By following equation 2, applying the same logic for test point V9, we get

(Here negative sign due to reversed position of C and E elements).


Therefore

Bridge o/p (V0) = V11 V9 =

( )
By measuring V0 and Vs we can calculate R/R for various values of displacement.

Determination of Longitudinal strain L/L


The arrangement of equipment in laboratory is shown in Fig.4.

Fig. 4. Canteliver with strain gauges.

( )
Where = stress due to bending moment

( )

Where
GL = Displacement of gauge from point of push
b = width
d = thickness

P = force applied (push)


By substituting for force P in terms of deflection ()
= deflection at free end of Cantilever

Where L = distance of pivot from point of push and


I = Moment of Inertia =

( )

Substituting (7), (6) in (5) and assuming GL = L for all practical purposes.

( )

By substituting for d and L (geometrical figures) d = 0.5mm and L = 70mm. we get

Now after multiplying by 106 to get micro strain we get


(

( )

Thus strain can be determined for various values of () displacement.

1. Select the full bridge (strain) sensor by setting rotary position switch at correct location
(i.e at 1) and switch ON power supply.
2. Adjust micrometer to 25mm (zero strain) and measure output voltage. Now make the
output voltage zero by adjusting the Zero Knob.
3. Now adjust micrometer to zero of its scale to get full displacement. Measure V0 and make
it equal to 2V by adjusting the Span Knob.
4. Adjust micrometer to various positions and note down corresponding output voltages V0
in mV.
5. Measure VS (tp10) = 1.22V (typically)
6. Express L/L in strain (longitudinal) and not in strain to determine GF.

7. Subtract V0 value obtained at zero displacement (VZ) from all others displacement so as
to get rid of zero error before calculating strain.
8. The micro strain can be displayed on a 2V range DPM by following span and zero
adjustment.
9. The output voltage 2000 will display micro strain directly.
10. Plot graph of displacement reading versus strain.

Displacement Micro
mm ()

V0 in

reading mV
in mm

V0 - VZ

R/R =

L/L

(V0 - VZ) / Vs (strain) =

GF (k) =

O/P V [ 2000]
= strain

(150)

2) Using Lab View calibrate the strain gauge attached to the flexible link. Also find the natural
frequency of the link:

Procedure

1. Ensure Jumper (J7) of QNET-MECHKIT is set to Strain Gauge.


2. Create a VI (Fig.5) to acquire data from the strain gauge sensor. The channel for Strain
gauge should be selected as ai0 in input DAQ assistant. The samples should be
continuous. Choose proper sampling rates. View the signal in a waveform graph/chart.
3. Ensure the correct Device, channel, samples and sampling rate is chosen in the DAQ
Assistant. Study what happens with higher and lower sampling rates.
4. To collect the data move the flexible link to -1 cm, for -0.5 cm, 0 cm, 0.5 cm, and 1.0 cm.
Note down the reading in Table1.
5. In your programme create an array for Link position and Sensor measurement and enter
Table 1 readings. Also plot the graph.
6. A linear curve is automatically fitted to the data being entered and its slope and intercept
are generated. Display this linear fit also along with the sensor readings as shown in Fig.6.

Table 1

Link Position

Sensor
Measurement (V)

-1.0 cm
-0.5 cm
0 cm
0.5 cm
1.0 cm

Table 2

Linear curve Fitting results


Slope
Intercept

Fig.5.Block diagram for strain gauge calibration and natural frequency calculation.

7. Enter the slope and intercept from Table 2 into the Gain and Offset control provided in
your program to make the sensor data linear.
8. When the link is moved, the slider indicator in the VI should match up with the actual
location of the flexible link on the QNET module.
9. To measure the natural frequency of the flexible link , the data from strain gauge is given
to a power spectrum analyzer and manually perturb the flexible link while your VI is

running and stop the VI when it stops resonating (after about 5 seconds). The spectrum
should then load in the chart as shown in Fig.7
10. Find the natural frequency and draw the resulting power spectrum response.

Fig. 6. Linear fit of collected data from Strain Gauge.

Fig. 7. Natural Frequency of Oscillation of the flexible link

Experiment No.5
Thermocouple
Objective
To study the variation of output voltage of thermocouple with the change in temperature with
and without ambient temperature compensation.
Equipments Required

1. Water heater and Thermometer


2. J type Thermocouple and Signal conditioning circuit
3. Digital multimeter
4. Multi-meter
5. Proximity pickup

Theory

The thermocouple is one of the simplest and most commonly used methods of measuring process
temperatures. The operation of a thermocouple is based on Seebeck effect which states that
when heat is applied to junction (hot junction) of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated
which can be measured at the other junction (cold junction). The two dissimilar metals form an
electric circuit, and current flows as a result of the generated emf as shown in the figure below.

Fig.1. Thermocouple principle.


The emf produced is function of the difference in temperature of hot and cold junctions and
is given by:
where

difference between temperatures of hot and cold junctions.

The key element in the thermocouple is that the output voltage is very small, typically less
than 50mV. This means that considerable amplification will be necessary for practical
application. In addition, the small signal levels make the devices susceptible to electrical noise. In
most cases the thermocouple is used with a high-gain differential amplifier. In addition, the
input impedance should be high, particularly if extension wires are used to reduce errors from
voltage drops because of current drawn by the thermocouple.
The most commonly used method for measurement of temperature with thermocouple
employs a DC self balancing potentiometer. There are no loading errors as at balance no current is
drawn from the thermocouple whose emf is being measured. The resistance variation problems
are also absent when potentiometers are used.
The thermocouple used here is J-type. This active transducer is made of Iron and Constantan
metals. There are two junctions, one kept as a reference and the other is subjected to the
temperature. Depending on the difference in the temperature of the two junctions, it develops an
output voltage without the need of any excitation. Hence is called an active transducer. The
output voltage is in millivolts. This voltage is suitably signal conditioned to give an output in
volts.

The thermocouple senses the temperature from the temperature source (Water bath) in terms
of millivolts. This millivolts output which is obtained from thermocouple is given to inverting
amplifier for further amplification. This amplifier amplifies the given millivolts in the range of (03.5)V

Fig.2. Block diagram for temperature measurement using thermocouple.


1. Connect the thermocouple across terminal1(T1) and terminal2(T2).
2. Insert the thermocouple and thermometer into the water bath.
3. At room temperature adjust the digital display to 0 C using zero adjustment, when there
is no temperature compensation (NO normally open).
4. Switch ON the water heater and when the temperature in thermometer (actual
temperature) is increased by 10C, note down the temperature display and thermocouple
voltage with and without temperature compensation.
5. Step 4 is repeated until the temperature reaches 100C and readings are tabulated.
6. Plot the graph % error vs actual temperature and output voltage vs actual temperature in
both the cases.

S.No

Actual

Without compensation

With compensation

temperature

O/P voltage

O/P voltage

Temperature

Temperature

Q.1 For type J & type K thermocouples, write in the answers to the following:Materials used ________________________ _______________________
Sensitivity (approx) ___________________V/oC
Thermoelectric Voltage difference (0oC to 100oC) ___________________mV
Approx. operating temperature range ________________________

Q.2 Describe briefly the two main methods used for Cold Junction Compensation when using
thermocouples.

Experiment No.6

Modeling and Control of DC Servo Motor


Aim
To derive the transfer function of the DC servomotor by conducting suitable experiments
and thereby to validate the model using simulation.
Equipments Required
1. DC Servo Motor and signal conditioning unit
2. Digital Multimeter / CRO
Specifications of DC Servomotor
1.

Input to the DC servo motor control unit is 230V 10%, 50Hz, AC, single phase.

2.

DC Power supply to the motor is 12V, by a PWM power converter.

3.

DC Motor: 12V, Permanent Magnet DC motor


a. Max. Current : 1.5A.
b. Max Torque : 1.5 kg-cm
c. Max Speed : 1500 rpm at rated voltage (12V) and current (1.5A)

4.

Optical speed sensor for sensing speed: 800 pulse / 100 revolutions

5.

Armature resistance Ra = 1.2 ohm

6.

Armature inductance La = 2.3 mH

7.

Back emf constant Kb = 5.66 V/k-rpm

8.

Torque constant Kt = 5.54 N-cm/A

9.

Damping constant(eata) = 0.3 N-cm/k-rpm

10.

Moment of inertia J = 0.39 kg cm2

11.

Viscous coefficient of friction B = 1.5 N-cm

Theory
For the study of the closed loop control system, a DC motor is used as the system to be controlled.
The DC motor can be modeled as a linear system, if the magnetic saturation is neglected and the
field flux is assumed to be constant. For this purpose, a permanent magnet DC motor is used.
Here the flux produced by the permanent magnets which is constant.

The DC motor can be represented by the equivalent circuit shown below. The armature resistance
and inductance are represented as lumped parameters as R and L . The field current is assumed to
be constant. This sets the constant flux in the machine.

Fig 1. Armature controlled DC motor.


Ra - Armature resistance (ohms)
L a - Armature inductance (Henrys)
Va - Voltage applied to the armature (volts)
Ia - Armature current (Amps.)
eb - back emf (volts)
if - field current (amps) - Assumed as constant for wound field motor.
- angular speed of the motor in Rad/sec.
N - angular speed of the motor in RPM
J - Equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load (kg-m2)
B - Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of the motor and the load (Nm/rad/sec)
The equations governing the behaviour of the motor are given below.
The electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is
Te = kt kf if ia

----- (1)

If the flux is assumed to be constant


Te = kt ia N.m

------ (2)

when

kt = Te / ia
Torque constant in N.m / A

------ (3)

The back emf developed is


eb = kb

----- (4)

where kb - back emf constant V / rad / s.


The differential equation governing the armature circuit is
La (dia / dt) + Ra ia + eb = Va

------- (5)

The differential equation governing the mechanical system comprising armature and load is
J (d / dt) + B + TL = Te

------- (6)

where TL = Load torque . N.m


Taking Laplace transform, assuming zero initial condition for equations (2), (4), (5) and (6)
Te (s) = kt Ia (s)

------ (7)

Eb (s) = kb (s)

------ (8)

(s La + Ra) Ia (s) + Eb (s) = Va (s)

------ (9)

(sJ + B) (s) + TL(s) = Te (s)

------ (10)

From equation (9)


Ia (s) = (Va(s) - Eb(s)) / (sLa + Ra)

------ (11)

From equation (10)


(s) = (Te(s) - TL(s)) / (sJ + B)

------ (12)

From (9) and (12)


(s) / Va(s) = kt / [(sLa+Ra) (sJ+B) + kb.kt]

------ (13)

(s) / Va(s) = (kt / Ra.B) / [(sa + 1) (sm + 1) + (kb.kt) / (Ra.B )]

------ (14)

Generally armature electrical constant is much smaller than the mechanical time constant.
Therefore assuming a = 0, by letting La = 0, equation (14) becomes
(s) / Va(s) = (kt / Ra.B) / [(sm + 1) + (kb.kt) / (Ra.B )]

------ (15)

On further simplified way


(s) / Va(s) = km / (1 + s)

------ (16)

where the gain of the motor km = kt / (Ra.B+ kb.kt) and


the effective time constant of the motor = m .Ra.B / (Ra.B+ kb.kt) = J Ra/ kb.kt
The closed loop control system of DC servomotor contains error amplifier, controller, power
amplifier and the feedback element. In the transfer function of closed loop system, we should
consider the above mentioned elements as shown in the figure below.

(s) / Vr(s) = {[ km / (1 + s)].G.[kp(1+sTi)/sTi] }/{1+K.[ km / (1 + s)].G.[kp(1+sTi)/sTi]


--- (17)
Under steady state s=0
(s) / Vr(s) = 1 / K
(s) = Vr(s) / K

is the set speed.

Procedure:
A) To determine motor gain constant and time constant (Motor transfer function)

---

1. Before Switch ON the unit,


a. EXT/INT switch should be in INT mode.
b. Integral open/close switch in open (OL) mode.
c. Signal conditioner switch in open (OL) mode.
d. Interface the motor supply sensor with module.
2.

Initially, pulse ON/OFF switch should be in OFF module.

3. Set the proportional gain k p at minimum.


4. Switch ON the unit, and keep the pulse ON/OFF to ON mode.
5. Set Vref = 1V. Slowly increase the gain kp by adjusting the proportional gain pot and find
at what voltage the motor just starts running.
6. Vary the reference voltage in steps and note down the motor speed and armature voltage
(multimeter) to calculate back emf using Eb = Vref - IaRa.
Va = IaRa.
Also observe and measure the time period T and on time T on using CRO for power
amplifier gain calculation shown below. To determine speed feedback gain k, measure
the feedback voltage at terminal PV using multimeter and measure the time period of the
pulses from the optical sensor using CRO.
7. Plot back emf Eb vs Va characteristic, slope of which gives kb.
8. Neglecting losses, input power = output power.
Eb Ia = T.
This leads to kb = kt.
9. Calculate Motor time constant using = J Ra/ kb.kt - J and Ra given.
10. Calculate Motor gain constant using km = kt / (Ra.B+ kb.kt),
neglecting Ra.B, we get km = 1 / kb.

B) To determine power amplifier gain G


1. From the CRO measurements Va can be calculated from the on time and time period of
the Va waveform using Va = Vdc.Ton/T, where Vdc = 12V
2. Plot Va vs Vref.

Slope of this gives amplifier gain G = Va / Vref.

S.No

Vref

Va (V)

(V)

measure

Ia (A)

Eb

Speed

(V)

(rad/s)

Ton (s)

T (s)

Va (V)
calculate
d

C) To determine speed feedback gain k


1. Plot Vf vs . Speed feedback gain can be obtained from k = Vf/.
S.No. Speed (rpm) Vf (V) (rad/s) K = Vf /

D) Verification of error amplifier


1. Before Switch ON the unit,
e. EXT/INT switch should be in INT mode.
f. Integral open/close switch in open (OL) mode.
g. Signal conditioner switch in close (CL) mode.
h. Interface the motor supply sensor with module.
2.

Initially, pulse ON/OFF switch should be in OFF module.

3. Set the proportional gain kp at minimum.


4. Switch ON the unit, and keep the pulse ON/OFF to ON mode.
5. Now set the proportional gain kp at middle position.
6. Set Vref = 1V. Slowly increase the gain kp by adjusting the proportional gain pot so that
motor runs at 300rpm without any oscillations.
7. Vary Vref and note down the speed and measure reference voltage (Vref), feedback
voltage (Vf) and calculate the error voltage er1 = - (Vref Vf).
Also er2 = K * d
Compare er1 and er2.

Set speed Nset = 1500*Vref/5 rpm


s = 2**1500*Vref/(60*5) rad/s
Let N rpm be the actual speed.
= 2**N/60 rad/s
Difference in speed d = s - rad/s
S.No. Vref Vf Speed (rpm) s d er1 er2

E) Determination of Controller Gain


1. After the usual 4 steps, keeping kp minimum, note down the speed and measure the error
voltage, reference voltage and the amplifier output voltage.
2. Vary the reference voltage in steps and measure the error voltage, reference voltage and
the amplifier output voltage.
3. Calculate the controller gain Vref = kp. er
kp = Vref/er
S.No. er Vref (V) Va (V) Speed (rpm) kp

F) To study the steady state error and transient response of this system
1. Steady state error ess = Vref/(1+kp.G.km.k)
2. The speed (t) for a step input of Vref is given by (t) = k(1-e-at)
Where k = kp.G.km.Vref/(1+ kp.G.km.k) and a = (1+ kp.G.km.k)/
3. Calculate and tabulate (t) for t 6a, and plot the transient response (t) vs t.

4. From the graph measure rise time and settling time. Rise time tr is the time taken by
the motor speed to rise from 10% to 90% of the final steady state value and settling
time is the time taken for the motor speed to reach the final stedy stae value.
From these gains, assuming load torque on the motor zero, we can modify the block
diagram as shown down. Substituting the gain values obtained experimentally derive the
transfer function of the closed loop system. Also develop the block diagram as shown
using MATLAB Simulink as well as using m-file and study the response of the system
with step input.

Simulink Realization
1. Drag and drop the following blocks into a new model file. [Simulink Sources Step
for Vr, Math Operations Sum for summing amplifier and gain for kp, k and G,
Simulink continuous -transfer function block for motor model].
2. Now double click on each element and enter the values you have got experimentally.
3. Wire them and observe the response in for a step change in input.
4. Also include an integral controller and study the behavior.
5. Plot the response.
M-file realization
kp= ; % Value of proportional gain
km= ; % Value of motor gain constant
= ; % Value of motor time constant

num_m=[0 km];%numerator of motor transfer function enter km value from expt.


den_m=[1 ];]; % denominator of motor transfer function enter value from expt.
num_c=[kp*G];% controller and power amplifier gain
den_c=[0 0];% no denominator for controller and power amplifier gain
num1=conv (num_m,num_c); %open loop transfer function numerator
den1=conv (den_m,den_c); %open loop transfer function denominator
[numc,denc] = cloop (num1,den1); % closed loop transfer function
t=0:0.01:10; % assigning simulation time.
step (numc,denc,t)% step response
Compare the responses of simulations with those from experiment and write the inference.

Experiment No. 7
Study of Relay Control System
Aim
To study the open loop characteristics of relay with the inclusion of various nonlinearities.

Equipment / Materials Required


1. Relay Control System.
2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope.
3. Probes and Patch chords.

Theory
A linear system possess two properties: superposition and homogeneity. A nonlinear system is a
system which does not satisfy the superposition and homogeneity principle, or whose output is
not proportional to its input. Many practical systems are sufficiently non-linear. The linear
systems mostly designed to perform satisfactorily, when excited by standard test signals.
Furthermore, the amplitude of the test signal is unimportant since any change of input signal
amplitude, results simply in change of response of scale with no change in basic response
characteristics.

In fact the non-linear system response may be highly sensitive to input

amplitude. Example a non-linear system giving its best response for a certain step input may
exhibit highly unsatisfactory response when the input amplitude is changed.

Further the Laplace and Z-transform which are simple and powerful tools in linear theory
become inapplicable and hence the system analysis of non-linear system for different time
varying inputs is quite difficult. The stability of the linear system is determined solely by the
location of the simple poles, and it is independent entirely of whether or not the system is driven.
Here the stability is very much dependent on the input and also the initial state. Further the nonlinear system may exhibit limit cycles which are self-sustained oscillations of fixed frequency
and amplitude. The stability study of non-linear system in fact requires the information about the
type of input, and amplitude of anticipated inputs, initial conditions etc. in addition to the usual
requirements of physical and mathematical model of the system. Even for a stable non-linear
system the transient and frequency response may exhibit certain peculiar features which are not
found in linear systems.

In control systems, nonlinearities can be classified as incidental and intentional.


Incidental nonlinearities are those which inherently present in the system. The designer strives to
design the system so as to limit the adverse effects of these nonlinearities. Common examples of
incidental nonlinearities are saturation, dead zone, coulomb friction, stiction, backlash, etc. The
intentional non-linearities, on the other hand, are those which are deliberately inserted in the
system to modify system characteristics. The most common example of this type of non
linearities is relay.
Characteristics of Nonlinear Control System
Saturation
All practical systems, when driven by sufficiently large signals, exhibit the phenomenon
of saturation due to limitation of physical capabilities of their components. Many components
such as amplifiers have output proportional to input in a limited range of input signals. When the
input exceeds this range, the output tends to become nearly constant as shown in Fig.1. Though
the change over from one range to another is gradual, it is sufficiently accurate in most cases to
approximate the saturation phenomenon by straight line segment.

Fig.1. Saturation nonlinearity.


Friction
Friction is another important characteristic of the non-linear control system. Retarding
friction forces exists whenever mechanical surfaces come in sliding contact. The predominant
friction force called viscous friction is proportional to the relative velocity of sliding surfaces. In
addition to viscous friction, there exist two nonlinear frictions. One is the coulomb friction which

is a constant retarding force and other is stiction which is the force required to initiate motion. The
composite characteristic of friction is shown in fig.2.

Fig.2. Friction nonlinearity.


Backlash
This non-linearity is analogous to magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as
backlash. It is easily seen from fig.3, that for a given input, the output is multi-valued, which
particular output will result for a given input depends upon the history of the output. The width of
the input-output curve equal to the total backlash while its heights correspond to the limit of the
input angle i. Gears that do not fit tightly exhibit this non-linearity.

Fig.3.Backlash nonlinearity.

Dead Zone
This dead zone non linearity occurs in many devices which are insensitive to small
signals. Fig.4, illustrates the relationship between input and output motions which exhibits the
phenomenon of dead-zone. A motor that does not respond at very low input voltages due to
frictional forces exhibits this non-linearity.

Fig.4.Dead-zone nonlinearity.
Relay
A relay is a non-linear power amplifier which can provide large power amplification in a
control system. A relay-controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete
states viz., OFF, full forward, full reverse. Relay-controlled systems find wide applications in the
control field.

Fig. 5. I-O characteristics of (a) Ideal relay (b) Ideal relay with friction (c) Ideal relay with dead
zone (d) Ideal relay with dead zone and backlash.

Procedure
1. Sine / Square wave input is given to the relay and observe the input and output of the
ideal relay in a CRO. Also observe the same by keeping CRO in XY mode, so that
Lissajous pattern giving I-O characteristics of relay can be seen. For this part patch the
following in the trainer kit:
(+ve) of the output to the Rin. Connect Digital Storage Channel 1 positive to the Rin

and negative should be grounded. Connect Channel 2 Positive to the Rout, negative
should be grounded.
2. Keep the slow/fast switch is to set the frequency of 90 to 120HZ.
3. Set the sine/square wave switch in sine wave mode and apply the amplitude at 1Vpp.
4. Observe the waveforms simultaneously.
5. Introduce the dead band, limiter and hysteresis and observe the variations in the
waveform from the Digital Storage Oscilloscope and plot the characteristic.

Model Graph

Fig.8 (a).Ideal relay.

Fig.8 (b).with pure Hysteresis.

Fig.8 (c). With Dead Zone.

Fig.8 (d). Dead zone and Hysteresis.

Simulation Study

From Simulink Discontinuities, drag and drop the elements seen in the following diagram.
Study the effect of these non-linearities on to a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1 and frequency
2Hz.
Change the parameters in each and every non-linearity and observe the output along with input
in XY Graph as well as scope.
Also Study the effect of these non-linearities along with relay for the same sinusoidal signal.
Plot the wave forms and XY graph side by side in a graph sheet.

Experiment No. 8
Study of lag Compensating Networks
Aim
To study the frequency response and compensation of the lag processes.
Equipment / Materials Required
1. Lead Lag network

2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope


3. Patch Chords
Theory
LAG PROCESS
A Process having the characteristics of a lag network is called a lag Process. If a sinusoidal
signal is applied to a lag network, the output at steady state will have a phase lag with respect to
its input. Lag Process results in a large improvement in steady state performance but results in
slower response due to reduced bandwidth. The attenuation due to the lag compensator will shift
the gain crossover frequency to a lower frequency point where the phase margin is acceptable.
Thus, the lag Process will reduce the bandwidth of the system and will result in slower transient
response. Lag Process includes essentially a low pass filter which attenuates high frequency
noise signals. If the pole introduced by the process is not cancelled by a zero in the system, then
lag compensator increases the order of the system by one.
The lag Process has a pole S = -1/T and a zero S = -1/T. With respect to >1, the zero is located
to the left of the pole on the negative real axis. The general form of lag Process transfer function
is given by equation
The transfer function of the lag Process,

where, T > 0 and > 1


The zero of lag compensator,
Zc = 1 / T

-------- (5)

The pole of lag compensator,


Pc = 1 / (T) = (1 / ) Zc ------ (6)

From equation (5),


T = 1 / Zc
From equation (6),
= Zc / Pc

.
Block diagram representation of Lag-Lead network.

Procedure to study the Frequency Response for lead, lag and lead lag processes
1. Give a sine wave input to the lead and lag process individually and observe the output in
CRO along with the input.
2. Note down the amplitude and range of frequency of the input signal for which the
processes shows their behavior (i.e in lag process output lags the input and in lead process
output leads the input).
3. Measure the phase shift using cursor.
4. Conduct the experiment for various frequencies.
5. The gain is measured from the formula,

6. Plot the bode plot and conclude the behavior of each process.

Tabulation
S.NO Frequency (Hz)

Phase Shift ()

Vo (V)

Vi (V)

Gain (dB)

Procedure to Study Compensation for lag process


1. Give a sinusoidal input of any frequency to the lag process and switch ON the unit.
2. Measure the amplitude and phase shift of the output signal, which lags the input by ,
with respect to the input sine wave using CRO in X-Y mode.
3. Calculate the values of R1, C1, R2 and C2 to compensate for the phase shift of the output
signal.
We know that for a lag process the pole zero to be located as shown

Now the compensator should be such a way that, it should act as a lead process i.e the polezero located in the reverse way. Real part of zero closer to origin.
Design
Frequency of sine wave = 108 Hz
Phase Angle to be compensated = lag= 70

= tan-1 (2fT1 ) tan-1 (2fT2)


Compensator transfer function = (1+sT1)/ (1+sT2)
Zero is located at s = -1/T1
Pole is located at s = -1/T2
Depending on time constants of T1 and T2, we will decide the process or its compensator.
For a lag process -1/T1 < -1/T2 or T1 < T2.
Hence for the compensator -1/T1 < -1/T2 or T1 > T2.
Let T1 = 0.1 sec
Where T1 = R1 C1
assume the value of R1 & C1 as 1M and 0.1F respectively
70 = tan-1 (2fT1 ) tan-1 (2fT2) = 89.16 - tan-1 (2fT2)
tan-1 (2fT2) = 19.16; tan-1 (2*108*T2) = 19.16
So, T2 = 0.5ms; but T2 = R2 C2 ; assume C2 = 0.01F; So, R2 = 50k
4. Connect the components at the points provided.
5. Give the sine input of 108 Hz to the compensator and check its output and calculate the
phase shift of output from input using CRO. These values of R1, C1, R2 and C2 produce a
phase lead of which is the desired compensation angle.
6. Include compensator, lag process and inverter in the loop. Observe the lissajous pattern
through CRO by keeping it in X-Y mode.
7. Now measure the phase shift () of the output signal with the input and verify for
compensation.
8. After compensation the Lissajous pattern will be as shown below.

Experiment No.9
Study of Step, Ramp and Impulse Responses
Aim
To study the response of a process using Step, Ramp and Impulse signals.
Equipment / Materials Required
1.

Step, Ramp and Impulse source and a plant.

2.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope.

3.

Probes and Patch chords.

Theory
The time domain investigation of a control system involves
1. Transient response analysis and
2. Steady state analysis
These are used in the design of a feed back control system for a specified input signal. These two
analysis methods are used to study the characteristics of a system and to compare its
performance with another system.
For a closed loop system the transfer function C(s)/R(s) = G(s)/(1+G(s))
Time response of the system c(t) = L-1 [G(s) R(s) /(1+G(s))]
c(t) = Transient solution + Steady state solution
Transient solution gives the deviation of output from ideal input and the interval for which the
system remains in disturbed state. Transient response is analysed from t=0 to t=t1 corresponding
to a specified state.
Steady state response is the behavior of the system for t. The difference between the steady
state solution and the input gives steady state error (ess).
Test / input signals are used to excite the system for investigating and controlling the system
performance. The various test signals are:

Step Signal: The step is a signal whose value changes from zero to another level A in negligible
time. The functional representation of a step signal is given by
r(t) = A u(t)
u(t) = 1, t > 0

--- (1)

= 0, t < 0
where, u(t) represents a unit step function.
Taking Laplace Transform of Eq (1), we obtain
R(s) = A [u(t)] = A / s

--- (2)

The graphical representation of a step signal is given in Fig. 1(a).


Ramp Signal: The ramp signal starts at a value of zero and increases linearly with time.
Functional representation of a ramp is
r(t) = Bt, t > 0
= 0, t < 0

--- (3)

Taking Laplace Transform of Eq (3), we get


R(s) = [Bt] = B [t]
= B [1 / (s2)]

--- (4)

= B / s2
The graphical representation of a ramp signal is given in Fig. 1(b).
Impulse Signal : A unit-impulse is defined mathematically as
(t) = 1, t = 0
= 0, t 0

--- (5)

An impulse is the derivative of a step function, which is written as

(t) = du(t) / dt
The Laplace Transform of a unit impulse is
[(t)] = 1
The graphical representation of a ramp signal is given in Fig. 1(c).

Fig. 1(a)

Fig. 1(b)

Fig. 1(c)

Fig. 2. Block diagram representation of Control system.


Transient response is normally described in terms of the unit step input. The specifications used
for transient performance analysis are:
Rise time (tr) For under damped systems, it is the time taken by the response to attain 10%90% of the final steady state value.
Peak time (tp) it is the time taken by the response to reach the first maximum value.
Delay time (td) it is the time taken by the response to attain 50% of the final value.
Settling time (ts) time taken by the response to damp out all transients. Theoretically this time =
. In practical cases assume tolerance band of 2% or 5% of the final value. Time taken to attain
this tolerance band is called ts.
Over shoot (Mp) it is the peak value measured from unity.
Steady state error (ess) it is the difference between the ideal and final value of the system after
the transient has expired.

Time constant (T) time taken by the response to attain 63.2% of the final value.

M p e ( /

1 2 )

From this calculate . Substitute in ts (2% tolerance) = 4/n

This expression gives n. For a second order system the transfer function is of the form
n2/s2+2ns +n2. Now we could get the transfer function of the system. Use this transfer
function for simulation study of second order system.

Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the block diagram given in Fig. 2.
2. Switch on the unit.
3. To find the response of the process for different input signals, set the input as Step,
Ramp and Impulse to 1 Vpp with a particular frequency setting.
4. For each case, study the response of the process for different proportional gains (Kp)
by varying the pot.
5. Observe and plot the output waveform of the process for a particular K p with the
three different sources and calculate the Delay time (td), Rise time (tr), Peak time (tp),
Maximum Overshoot (Mp) and Settling time (ts).
6. Observe the responses of the process for three different settings of Kp and tabulate
the readings.
7. Step, Ramp and Impulse responses of the process for various proportional gains at a
particular frequency are shown in Fig 3, 4 and 5.

Tabulation

Response

Delay Time

Rise Time

Peak Time

(td)

(tr)

(tp)

Maximum

Settling Time

Overshoot

(ts)

(Mp)

Step
Step

Fig. 3. Step responses for various Proportional gains

Ramp

Fig. 4. Ramp responses for various Proportional gains

Impulse

Fig. 5. Impulse responses for various Proportional gains

Simulation Study using Simulink


Do simulation using simulink for the system whose transfer function has been obtained from the
response.
Steps for simulation
1. Generate unit source as shown using simulink library blocks. [Simulink Sources

Step and repeating sequence] The parameters to be entered are shown just below each
block so as to generate these signals.
2. Select all these and right click and click on create subsystem and name it unit source,
content of which is shown in the following diagram.

3. Now create first and second order systems having transfer functions 1/(s+1) and
1/(s2+2s+1) using transfer function block from Simulink continuous. Sum and gain
block can be taken from math operations. Now make the circuit as shown below and
run the simulations for 10s and plot the curves in each case.

4. Study the behavior of first and second order plants with different values of kp. For higher
order systems also you can check the response. Paste the plots and inference in your

observations for three different values of kp, when you come for practical study of this
experiment.

Experiment No.10
Tuning of Controllers
Aim
Also to investigate the dynamic response of a different process using continuous
oscillation method (Zeiglers procedure).
Equipment / Materials Required
1. Tuning of controllers (PCC-2 )
2. Date Acquisition card (VAD-104)
3. Process control software
4. Patch chords.

5. Personnel computer

Theory
In a control system, the output depends on the selection of controller and dynamic
parameter of the process. In this experiment, the variation in the system response is studied by
varying the process parameters using continuous oscillation method. Continuous oscillation
method is also known as closed loop response or automatic mode. In this mode, dynamic
characteristics of the process are represented by ultimate gain (Ku) and ultimate time period (Tu).
Ultimate gain is the minimum value of the gain which gives sustained sinusoidal oscillation as
the response and ultimate time period is the time period of this sinusoidal signal. The tuning of
controller includes a PC based controller in which the process variables can be varied using
process control software. This software package for PC based controller tuning, senses the
process variable, displays it on the screen and issues control action to the controller. The value of
Kp is increased until it reaches the minimum value Ku at which output response attains sustained
oscillations. These values of Ku and Tu are substituted into Zeigler-Nicholas chart and the P, PI
and PID parameters can be evaluated.

Block diagram of PID Controller.


The transfer function of a PID controller could be written as:
GR = kR (1 + Td s + (1/sTi) )
(1) Set Td = 0 and [1 / Ti] = 0.
(2) Increase kR so that the system goes into sinusoidal oscillations. Note down this value of
kR = Ku.
(3) Record the frequency of oscillations in radians per seconds.
u = oscillations

u = 2. .fu

where fu = 1 / Tu

(4) Define Tu = 2 / u
The recommended control settings for various types of controller are given in the table.
Zeigler-Nicholas Table for Response of Continuous Oscillation method
Controller

Gain (KR)

[1/ Integral Time] (1/TI)

Derivative Time (TD)

0.5Ku

PI

0.45Ku

Tu / 1.2

PID

0.6Ku

Tu / 2

Tu / 8

Block diagram of Tuning of Controller

Procedure for tuning of controllers


1. Connections are made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch ON the main unit and VAD-104 Cards power supply.
3. Involve the Tuning of controller software.
4. Select control proportional control.
5. Enter the Kp value from minimum to Ku. At one particular value of Ku output waveform
attains the sustained oscillations.
6. Now, input and output are displayed in graphical form on the screen.
7. Save the current file, load the file & by using continuous oscillation method determine Ku
and Tu values.
8. Substitute and calculate Ku and Tu values as per Zeigler table.

9. Find the values of Kp, Ki, Kd and enter into the text box.
10. Start the simulation process and see the response of an appropriate controller.
Tabulation

S.No Set Point KR Tu

Controller Gain (KR) [1/Integral Time] (1/Ti) Derivative Time (TD)


P
PI
PID

Simulation Exercise using MATLAB to be done in LAB


Determine PID settings for a unity feedback control system whose open loop transfer function is
G(s) = k/(s+1) (s2 +5s+6) using Zeiglers procedure.

Experiment No.11
Air Flow Control
Aim:
To study the closed loop control of Air flow (turbine flow sensor) using digital
proportional, proportional-integral and proportional-integral-differential controllers.
Theory:
Closed loop control of airflow using feedback from an external process is done using an
intelligent instrument. Following diagram shows the closed loop control of a plant. Here
airflow process is the plant. From this plant airflow is fed into as a feedback and compared
with a set value of airflow. The controller here can be P, PI or PID type. The response of
the system with different controllers can be learned from this. The controller, set value and
feedback are in digital form in this intelligent instrument whereas the plant is a physical
system.

The overall block diagram of the process is as shown. The blocks in dotted box show the
digital part built in the software, available in PC. External blocks can be seen on the
instrument panel.

Air Flow control:

Two turbine type flow sensors in series with two rotameters are

provided for flow measurement. One is controlled flow through the control valve and the
other is wild flow. The flow is controlled to the process tank through the flow sensor by
pneumatic control valve. Each flow range is 0-50 LPM (litre/min). The wild flow is
returned to atmosphere. The turbine flow sensors produce train of pulses when rotated.
These pulses are fed to the signal conditioning unit. Here frequency to voltage converter is
used to convert the output of the sensor to 0-2.5V signal.
This intelligent instrument consists of different resource panels like:
Instrumentation Power Supply (EMT8)
Signal Conditioning cum Thyristor Actuator Panel (EMT9)
Computer Interface Panel (CIP)
To understand how the airflow control is implemented, at first we should be familiar with
the equipment. The main parts of this intelligent instrument and their importance are given
below:
a) Air distribution & Air filter regulators: The system is provided with three AFR (Air
filter regulator) units because the incoming pressure from compressor is around 0 to 8 bars.
Current to pressure (I to P) converter operate on 0 to 1.4 bar so as to reduce pressure from
8 to 1.4 bar AFR1 is used. AFR2 is used to reduce 8 bar to 2 bar for controlling flow and
pressure. AFR3 is used to reduce 8 bars to 2 bars for wild flow measurement. Rotate the
pressure setting knob at the top in clockwise (CW as seen from top) direction to increase
the pressure, counter clockwise to decrease the pressure.
b) Drain control of process tank: There are two valves, one at the top (V5) and one at the
bottom (V4). The bottom valve V4 is useful for draining the water from the vessel while
top valve V5 is used to simulate leakages during pressure experiment and to fill water
before temperature experiment.
d) Control valve:. Control valve is utilized in both pressure and flow control loop to
control pressure as well as flow of air through it. This air flow is used as cooling medium
during temperature experiment (air bubbler).

e) I to P converter: Current to pressure converter used is of following specification

(1

pound per square inch psi = 6 894.75729 pascals)


input = 4 to 20 mA, output = 3 to 15 psi, supply = l8 to 100 psi. This I to P converter input
is coupled at the output of AFR1. The output is given to the control valve by 6x4 plastic
tube for control action.

f) Instrumentation Power supply cum Multi channel DPM panel EMT9


Electronic circuits used in this process control trainer needs power supplies and AC
synchronizing signals. This panel accepts 220 / 240 volts AC input. The circuit employed is
a conventional step down transformer and linear power supply. 12Volts and variable 7 14V or fixed 24V (optional) are derived along with a low voltage AC SCR synchronizing
signal. Another block on this module is a 6-channel digital display master. This block
accepts 0 2.5V input and is calibrated to display flow in LPM, Pressure in Kg/cm 2, temp
in C. At a time you may connect signal-conditioned outputs from two sensors to this block
and select one of it for display using a DPDT slide switch located in between.
g) Computer interface panel (CIP) & digital PID controller:
A PC can be interfaced with real world through its Parallel Port which supports adequate
number of I/O Pins to implement the Computer Interface.
Specifications
Interfacing through 25 pin parallel port (LPT) 4 No.
ADC Channels : 0 to 2.5 V full Scale. Conversion time 401_tsec
1 DAC Channel : O/P 2.5 V full scale or 12 V full scale.
V to I Function Block : Input : 0 - 2.5 V dc

: Output : 0-20mA or 4-20 mA up to max


8VDC GND compliance @12 V Supply.
Operating Voltage

: +5 V DC for TTL Buffers, ADC,DAC 12 V DC for OP Amps.

Procedure:
Keeping temperature/Intensity/flow switch at flow position do the Calibration of Airflow
sensor.
Calibration procedure:
1. Keep the valves V 1 , V3 and V5 fully open and V 2, V4 fully closed.
2. Connect the turbine flow sensor to signal conditioning panel EMT9 using 5-pin DIN
male connector.
3. Connect the tag no 14 ( sensor output) of EMT9 (+) to 8 of EMT8 and 15 of EMT9
to 9 of EMT8. (providing power supply to the sensor)
4. By keeping control valve fully open make the compressor ON.
5. Adjust AFR1 air pressure using knob on AFR1 about 1.4 bars seeing dial on
pressure gauge.
6. Now adjust AFR3 airflow such that the rotameter shows 0 LPM by using knob on
AFR3.
7. Now adjust the sensor output at tag no 14 of signal conditioning panel to 0V for 0
LPM of airflow by using VR9.
8. Now increase the airflow of AFR3 until the rotameter shows 50LPM.
9. Now adjust the output at tag no 14 of signal conditioning panel to 2.5V for 50 LPM
of airflow using span pot VR10.
10. Repeat the above procedure 2-3 times & confirm Zero.
11. After calibration observe the sensor output at tag no.14 for different airflow setting
using knob on AFR3.
S.

Rotameter

Voltage at

DPM Reading in

no.

Reading in LPM

tag no 14

LPM

+0.02

+3

1.
2.
3.

0
10
etc up to 50

Warning: There are chances of I to P getting damaged due to continuous oscillatory


setting of PID parameters leading to continuous dance of I to P plunger. Very small Pb
gives faster response but it will also make control valve work more quickly leading to
fatigue. Hence following values of Pb are recommended.
12. Now make the wiring as given below.
Wiring seq.: Airflow sensor O/P(14 of signal conditioningEMT9)CIP CH0, CIP6 CIP9,
CIP10 (+ve) of I to P, (-ve) of I to P CIP20, Airflow O/P(14 of EMT9)-DPM +ve, DPM (
ve)GND (as shown in the block diagram)
13. Switch on PC and open up the settings window. In the settings window enter the
following settings. Select channel 0 for measure variable. Source for set value from
panel, unit=%, ratio factor =1.
In main PID windows select Ts=0.10, Kd=10, o/p lower limit (Un) = 0%, o/p upper limit
(Un) = 100%, pwm o/p cycle time = l, Ti=64000, Td=0.
i)

For P controller only : Pb=40%

ii)

For P+I controller : Pb = 40 %, Ti =2 Sec.

iii)

For P+I+D controller : Pb = 40 %, Ti = 2 Sec, Td=0.3 Sec.

14. For P controller alone set Pb = 40 % & observe the system response by changing the
set point.
15. Vary the set point on the panel from 30 to 70 % manually. Observe and plot the
graph of measured variable vs set point. From the graph it can be observed that at 40
% Pb system settles with constant error.
16. Observe and plot the wave forms for different controller settings and different set
points.

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