CHAPTER-2

Principle-Operation-Applications of Different Stepper Motors and

Significance of Permanent Magnet Hybrid Stepper Motor
2.1 Introduction
Stepper motor is defined [1] as a brushless dc motor whose rotor rotates in discrete
angular increments when its stator windings are energized in a programmed manner. Rotation
occurs because of magnetic interaction between rotor poles and poles of the sequentially
energized stator windings. The rotor has no electrical windings, but has salient and / or
magnetized poles.
A stepper motor moves in increments, or steps, rather than turning smoothly as a conventional
motor. The size of the increment is measured in mechanical degrees and can vary depending on
the application. A stepper motor is a constant output power transducer and its torque is inversely
proportional to the motor speed. In this chapter different types of stepper motors and their
applications are discussed. Here the significance of PMH stepper motor is discussed among other
types of stepper motors. Constraints in the design of PMH stepper motor are also discussed.
Finally the reasons for the selection of PMH stepper motor for design and how to overcome the
constraints in its design are explained.

2.2 Stepper Motor Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications

2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stepper Motors
The Advantages and disadvantages of stepper motor [2] are as mentioned below.

Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
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2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
3. It requires little or no maintenance.
4. It has excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. It is highly reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
6. The life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.
7. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the
motor less costly and simpler to control.
8. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is
directly coupled to the shaft.
9. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.
Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur in the motor if it is not properly controlled.
2. It is not easy to operate motor at very high speeds.
3. It has limited ability to handle large inertia load.
2.2.2 Applications of Stepper Motor
Stepper motors are used in a wide variety of applications in industry, including computer
peripherals, business machines, solar array tracking system, motion control and robotics [2]
which are included in process control and machine tool applications.
2.2.2 (A) Computer Peripherals
Table 2.1 shows applications of stepper motor for different computer peripherals like
floppy disk, printer, recorder and plotter etc.

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Table 2.1 Applications of stepper motor for different computer peripherals

Application

Use

Floppy Disk

Position Magnetic Pickup

Printer

Carriage Drive

Printer

Rotate Character Wheel

Printer

Paper Feed

Printer

Ribbon Wind/Rewind

Printer

Position Matrix Print Head

Tape Reader

Index Tape

Plotter

X-Y-Z Positioning

Plotter

Paper Feed

2.2.2 (B) Business Machines

Table 2.2 shows applications of stepper motor for different business machines like card
reader, copy machine, banking systems, automatic type writers and card sorter etc.
Table 2.2 Applications of stepper motor for different business machines
Application

Use

Card Reader

Position Cards

Copy Machine

Paper Feed

Banking Systems

Credit Card Positioning

Banking Systems

Paper Feed

Typewriters (automatic)

Head Positioning

Typewriters (automatic)

Paper Feed

Copy Machine

Lens Positioning

Card Sorter

Route Card Flow

2.2.2 (C) Process Control

Table 2.3 shows applications of stepper motor for different process control applications
like adjustments for air-fuel mixture in carburetor, valve control, process gaze, I.C. Bonding,
laser trimming etc.
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Table 2.3 Applications of stepper motor for different process controls

Application

Use

Carburetor Adjusting

Air-fuel Mixture Adjust

Valve Control

Fluid Gas Metering

Conveyor

Main Drive

In-Process Gazing

Parts Positioning

Assembly Lines

Parts Positioning

Silicon Processing

I. C. Wafer Slicing

I. C. Bonding

Chip Positioning

Laser Trimming

X-Y Positioning

Liquid Gasket Dispensing

Valve Cover Positioning

Mail Handling Systems

Feeding and Positioning Letters

2.2.2 (D) Machine Tool

Table 2.4 shows applications of stepper motor for different machine tool applications like
milling, drilling, grinding, laser cutting, sewing, mail handling etc.
Table 2.4 Applications of stepper motor for different machine tools
Application

Use

Milling Machines

X-Y-Z Table Positioning

Drilling Machines

X-Y Table Positioning

Grinding Machines

Down-feed Grinding Wheel

Grinding Machines automatic wheel dressing

X-Y-Z Positioning

Electron Beam Welder

Laser Cutting

X-Y-Z Positioning

Lathes

X-Y Positioning

Sewing

Chip Positioning

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2.3 Types of Stepper Motors

Stepper motors are classified according to their rotor design and stator winding type
[3-10]. There are three basic types of stepping motors according to the rotor design, namely
variable reluctance Stepper motors (VR), permanent magnet stepper motors (PM) and permanent
magnet hybrid (PMH) stepper motors. Permanent magnet motors have a permanent magnet rotor,
while variable reluctance motors have salient pole soft-iron rotors. Hybrid stepping motors
combine features of both permanent magnet and variable reluctance motors technology. Both
permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motors are classified according to their stator winding as
unipolar winding motors, bipolar windings motors and bifilar winding motors.
2.3.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
Variable Reluctance Motors (also called variable switched reluctance motors) have three
to five windings connected to a common terminal. Fig. 2.1 shows the cross section of a three
winding, 300 per step variable reluctance motor. The rotor in this motor has four teeth and the
stator has six poles, with each winding wrapped around opposing poles.

Fig. 2.1 Cross section of a three winding 6/4 pole, 300 per step variable reluctance stepper motor

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The rotor teeth are attracted to winding 1 when it is energized. This attraction is caused
by the magnetic flux path generated around the coil and the rotor. The rotor experiences a torque
and moves the rotor in line with the energized coils, minimizing the flux path. The motor moves
clockwise when winding 1 is turned off and winding 2 in energized. The rotor teeth are attracted
to winding 2. Continuous clockwise motion is achieved by sequentially energizing and
de-energizing windings around the stator.
2.3.2 PM Stepper
The permanent-magnet stepper motor operates on the reaction between a permanentmagnet rotor and an electromagnetic field. Fig. 2.2 shows a basic two-pole PM stepper motor.
The rotor shown in Fig. 2.2 (a) has a permanent magnet mounted at each end. The stator is
illustrated in Fig. 2.2 (b). Both the stator and rotor are shown as having teeth. The teeth on the
rotor surface and the stator pole faces are offset so that there will be only a limited number of
rotor teeth aligning themselves with an energized stator pole. The number of teeth on the rotor
and stator determine the step angle that will occur each time the polarity of the winding is
reversed. Greater the number of teeth, smaller the step angle for the motor.

Fig. 2.2 Two pole permanent magnet stepper motor; (a) Rotor; (b) Stator
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When a PM stepper motor has a steady DC signal applied to one stator winding, the rotor
will overcome the residual torque and lineup with that stator field. The holding torque is
defined as the amount of torque required to move the rotor one full step with the stator energized.
An important characteristic of the PM stepper motor is that it can maintain the holding torque
indefinitely when the rotor is stopped. When no power is applied to the windings, a small
magnetic force is developed between th
thee permanent magnet and the stator. This magnetic force
is called a residual, or detent torque. The detent torque can be noticed by turning a stepper motor
by hand and is generally about one
one-tenth of the holding torque. Fig. 2.3 shows a permanent
magnet stepper
pper motor with four stator windings. By giving pulses the stator coils in a desired
sequence, it is possible to control the speed and direction of the motor. It shows the timing
diagram for the pulses required to rotate the PM stepper motor. This sequence of positive and
negative pulses causes the motor shaft to rotate counterclockwise in 90 steps.

Fig. 2.3 PM stepper motor excitation for 900 step

More
ore recent development in PM stepper motor technology is the thin-disk
thin
rotor. This
type of stepper motor dissipates much less power in losses such as heat than the cylindrical rotor
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and as a result, it is considerably more efficient. Efficiency is a primary concern in industrial

circuits such as robotics, because a highly efficient motor will run cooler and produce more
torque or speed for its size. Thin-disk rotor PM stepper motors are also capable of producing
almost double the steps per second of a conventional PM stepper motor. Fig. 2.4 shows the basic
construction of a thin-disk rotor PM motor. The rotor is constructed of a special type of cobaltsteel, and the stator poles are offset by one-half of a rotor segment.

Fig. 2.4 Thin-disk type rotor PM stepper motor

2.3.3 Unipolar Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
Unipolar permanent magnet stepper motors are equipped of two windings, each with a
center tap. The center taps are either brought outside the motor as two separate wires or are
connected to each other internally and brought outside the motor as one wire. As a result,
unipolar motors have 5 or 6 wires. Regardless of the number of wires, unipolar motors are driven
in the same way. The center tap wire(s) is tied to a power supply and the ends of the coils are
alternately grounded. Unipolar stepping motors operate by attracting the north or south poles of
the permanently magnetized rotor to the stator poles. Thus, in these motors, the direction of the
current through the stator windings determines which rotor poles will be attracted to which stator
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poles. Current direction in unipolar motors is dependent on which half of a winding is energized.
Physically, the halves of the windings are wound parallel to one another. Therefore, one winding
acts as either a north or south pole depending on which half is powered. Fig. 2.5 shows the cross
section of a 300 per step unipolar permanent magnet stepper motor. Current flowing through the
center tap of winding 1 to terminal a cause top stator pole as north pole and the bottom stator
pole as a south pole. This attracts the rotor into the position shown. If the power to winding 1 is
disconnected and winding 2 is energized, the rotor will turn 300, or one step. To rotate the motor
continuously, apply power to the two windings in sequence.

Fig. 2.5 Cross section of a 300 per step unipolar permanent magnet stepper motor
2.3.4 Bipolar Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
Bipolar permanent magnet motors are constructed with exactly the same mechanism as is
used in unipolar motors, but the two windings are wired more simply, with no center taps. Thus,
the motor itself is simpler but the drive circuitry required to reverse the polarity of each pair of
motor poles is more complex. The schematic diagram in Fig. 2.6 illustrates cross section of a 300
per step bipolar permanent magnet stepper motor and shows how such a motor is wired, while
the motor cross section shown here is exactly the same as the cross section shown of a unipolar
motor. Current flow in the winding of a bipolar motor is bidirectional. This requires changing the
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polarity of each end of the windings. The current will flow from left to right in winding 1 when
1a is positive and 1b is negative. Current will flow in the opposite direction when the polarity on
each end is swapped.

Fig. 2.6 Cross section of a 300 per step bipolar permanent magnet stepper motor
2.3.5 Bifilar Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
Bifilar windings on a stepping motor are applied to the same rotor and stator geometry as
a bipolar motor, but instead of winding each coil in the stator with a single wire, two wires are
wound in parallel with each other. As a result, the motor has 8 wires, not four. To use a bifilar
motor as a bipolar motor, the two wires of each winding are connected either in parallel or in
series. The schematic diagram in Fig. 2.7 illustrates cross section of a 300 per step bifilar
permanent magnet stepper motor and shows how such a motor is wired. Winding 2 in Fig. 2.7 is
shown with a parallel connection; this allows low voltage high-current operation. Winding 1 in
Fig. 2.7 is shown with a series connection; if the center tap is ignored, this allows operation at a
higher voltage and lower current than would be used with the windings in parallel.

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Fig. 2.7 Cross section of a 300 per step bifilar permanent magnet stepper motor

2.4 Permanent Magnet Hybrid (PMH) Stepper Motor

2.4.1 Significance of PMH Stepper Motor
The motor having the permanent magnet rotor and multiple teeth both on the stator and
rotor poles, with excitation in stator poles is called the permanent magnet hybrid stepper motor.
The term hybrid is derived from the fact that the motor is operated under the combined principles
of permanent magnet and variable reluctance motors. Hybrid stepper motors are widely used in
space applications, office and factory automation applications. Hybrid stepper motors are highly
preferred in space applications as they can provide accurate positioning in open loop system. The
positional accuracy of the stepper motors will be high only when its step angle is very small.
Hence for space applications hybrid stepper motor is the best choice as it can offer small step
angles in the ranges of 0.50 to 1.80. The other classes of stepper motors such as variable
reluctance stepper motor and permanent magnet stepper motor will be suitable only for
applications which require large step angles.

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2.4.2 Working Principle of PMH Stepper Motor

The simple model of hybrid stepper motor is shown in Fig. 2.8 (for only the winding of
phase A) [11]. A larger number of teeth on the stator and rotor give a smaller basic step size. The
stator has a two-phase winding. Each phase winding consists of two sections. The stator has 8
poles each with 5 teeth, making a total of 40 teeth. If a tooth is placed in each of the zones
between the stator poles, there would be a total of 48 stator teeth. The rotor consists of an axially
magnetized PM located between two ferro-magnetic disks with 50 teeth per disk, two more than
the number of uniformly distributed stator teeth. There is a half-tooth displacement between the
two sections of the rotor. If rotor and stator teeth are aligned at 12 o'clock, they will also be
aligned at 6 o'clock. At 3 o'clock and 9 o'clock the teeth will be misaligned. However, due to the
displacement between the sets of rotor teeth, alignment will occur at 3 o'clock and 9 o'clock at
the other end of the rotor.
The windings are arranged in sets of four, and wound such that diametrically opposite
poles are the same. Referring to Fig. 2.8, the North poles at 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock attract the
South-pole teeth at the front of the rotor; the South poles at 3 o'clock and 9 o'clock attract the
North-pole teeth at the back. By switching current to the second set of coils, the stator field
pattern rotates through 450 but to align with this new field the rotor only has to turn through a
step angle of 1.80 mechanical (m) as shown in eqn (2.1)
m =

(2.1)

For 2-phase motor having 50 rotor teeth per disk, step angle is 1.80 mechanical. This is
equivalent to one quarter of a tooth pitch or 7.20 mechanical on the rotor, giving 200 full steps
per revolution. There are as many detent positions as there are full steps per revolution, normally
200. The detent positions correspond to rotor teeth being fully aligned with stator teeth. When
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the power is applied, there is usually current in both phases (zero phase state). The resulting rotor
position does not correspond with a natural detent position, so an unloaded motor will always
move by at least one half a step at power-on. If the system is turned off other than at the zero
phase state, or if the motor is moved in the meantime, a greater movement may be seen.

Fig. 2.8 Hybrid stepper motor performing 200 steps per revolution: (a) Cross Section
(b) Rotor.1- Stator core 2- Permanent magnet (PM) 3- Ferro magnetic rotor disk
with teeth 4- Shaft
For a given current pattern in the windings, there are as many stable positions as there
are rotor teeth (50 for a 200-step motor). If a motor is desynchronized, the resulting positional
error will always be a whole number of rotor teeth or a multiple of 7.20 mechanical. Torque is
created in the hybrid motor by the interaction of the magnetic field of the permanent magnet and
the magnetic field produced by the stator.

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2.5 Constraints in the Design of PMH Stepper Motor

2.5.1 Double Slotting
The design of a hybrid stepper motor is not easy because of the complex air gap geometry
which results in complex air gap permeance variation unlike that of conventional ac motors such
as induction motor and synchronous motor using equivalent magnetic circuit analysis [12].
Hybrid stepper motor has many variations in the stator-rotor teeth configuration and that the
operating characteristics, especially the torque characteristics, are significantly affected by the
teeth and winding arrangements.
2.5.2 Presence of Permanent Magnet on Rotor and Saturation Effect
When permanent magnet is placed between rotor disks, investigation of operating point
for the permanent magnet flux before and after excitation of stator coil is very difficult by
equivalent magnetic circuit model [13, 14].When there are two magnetic circuits both in stator
and rotor, it is very difficult to estimate saturation limits with equivalent circuit model of PMH
stepper motor complex geometry.

2.6 Summary
Stepper motors are discrete torque motors used for different industrial applications in
different fields. They are categorized according to their rotor. PMH stepper motor is widely used
stepper motor because of its narrow stepping angle, good steady-state and dynamic
performances. Design and analysis of PMH stepper motor is difficult with equivalent circuit
model. Finite element method (FEM) is used to overcome the constraints in the design and
analysis of the PMH stepper motor.

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