Section A: Forces & Motion (NOT P1)

Quantities with only magnitude = SCALAR

Momentum
Momentum: the tendency of the
obj. to keep moving in the same
direction. It is a measure of
how difficult a moving obj. will
be to bring to rest.

Quantities with both magnitude and direction = VECTOR

Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)

Momentum is a VECTOR quantity, which comes from velocity.
Force (N) = change in momentum (kg m/s) / time (s)
The LONGER the force acts on a body, the GREATER the change in that
bodys momentum.

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Newtons 3rd Law means that each colliding obj. will experience equal but opposite changes in momentum.
Conservation of momentum
The PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM states that:
In any collision or explosion, the momentum in any direction before the collision will be the same as the
momentum in that direction after the collision, assuming that no external forces act on the bodies
involved. momentum before = momentum after so, m1v1 = m2v2

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Elastic and inelastic collisions

When objects collide, some of
the KE they possess is
converted into other forms,
typically heat and sound.
Collisions in which KE is
conserved = elastic collisions.
velocity before = velocity
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Some practical collisions are close to elastic in that a very small

proportion of KE is transferred into other types of energy. Collisions
between molecules in air are usually taken to be perfectly elastic.

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When an obj. collides and there is some sort of rebound, then it is a

partially elastic collision: a ball rebounds from the ground, regaining its
original shape, but loses some of its KE in the collision.
When 2 objects collide and stick together, KE is not conserved it is said
to be an inelastic collision. velocity before velocity after

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Explosions
Assuming the obj. is stationary, then before the explosion the obj. has no momentum and the expanding
cloud of fragments after the explosion must also have no momentum. Each individual fragment will of
course have some momentum, but as momentum is a vector quantity, if we add up all the individual momenta
of the fragments it would sum to zero.

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Rockets
As rockets burn its fuel, atoms of the products are propelled out of the rockets exhaust system. the
original momentum of these particles was zero (w/ respect to the rocket) so if they are projected
backwards, the rocket must be projected forwards to conserve momentum.
Momentum and safety
When we are in a collision, Newtons 1st Law will apply to both us and the vehicle in which we are travelling.
If a car contains passengers that are NOT wearing a seatbelt and is travelling at a constant velocity
when it hits a fixed stationary obj., then
Unbalanced force provided by stationary obj. will cause car to decelerate to rest rapidly.
There will be no force acting on passengers to slow them down, so they will continue to move forwards at
their original velocity until they hit the windscreen which provides the force to decelerate them,
damaging them in the process.
If the passengers are wearing a seatbelt,
the seat belt will provide a force to
decelerate them w/ the vehicle. This allows
them to be brought to rest much more gently
because force is spread over the whole area
of the seatbelt, reducing the risk of injury.

Airbags work in the same way. As sensors in a car detect

the much more rapid than normal deceleration of a crash, a
small explosive charge is detonated in the airbag. The
gases produced by the explosion are trapped in the bag
causing it to inflate and providing an even larger surface to
provide the force needed to decelerate the passengers.

Many of the safety features in cars are designed to lengthen the time that a vehicle takes to come to
rest. In a collision a cars momentum needs to fall to zero; from force = change in momentum / time this
can be achieved w/ a smaller force over a longer time. So by extending the time it takes to come to rest
using crumple zones, making a seatbelt a bit stretchy, etc. the occupants of a car experience lower forces
during a collision.

Moments
Moment: turning effect
of a force.

Moment (Nm) = force (N) x perpendicular distance from pivot (m)

FURTHER a force is from a pivot, GREATER the turning effect/moment.
LARGER the force, GREATER the the turning effect/moment.

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PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS - A.K.A. LAW OF MOMENTS states that:

If the sum of the clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments
about that pivot, an obj. will not turn.

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Forces on a beam
We use Newtons 3rd Law + Principle of Moments to understand how forces are distributed on a beam
when it is loaded.
When load = above pivot A, its weight only has a moment around pivot B (as load
is 0m away from A).

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Moment pushes beam onto A. From Ns 3rd Law, there will be an equal and
opposite reaction force from A to provide a counterbalancing moment + beam
will remain in equilibrium.

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As load moves from left to right, moment around pivot B REDUCES because
weight moves closer to pivot; weight is closer to pivot than reaction force, so
reaction force at A decreases.

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Simultaneously, at B, you start to get a reaction force. the distance between

load and pivot A is no longer 0m, so there is a moment about A that presses
down on pivot B.

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As distance between load and A was small, resulting moment was also small, so
reaction force at B started off small.

As load moves FURTHER away from A, reaction force at B progressively

INCREASES and force at A DECREASES.

Section B: Electricity (NOT P1)

Electrostatics

Insulating materials can be given charge by rubbing them. This is

known as charging by friction.
E.g., when an uncharged acetate rod is rubbed with an uncharged cloth,
electrons from the atoms of the rod may be transferred onto the
cloth as electrons are rubbed/knocked from where they were found on
the surface of insulating material by friction. +ve and -ve electrostatic
charges are now produced by the loss + gain of electrons, as the rod is
short of electrons +ve + cloth has excess electrons -ve.

Forces between charges

Charged forces can exert forces on other charged obj.s without being in contact with them. There are
forces of attraction between unlike charges and forces of repulsion between like charges.

Forces between charged and uncharged objects

It is possible to induce temporary charges by bringing a highly charged obj. close to an uncharged one.

As the highly charged obj. approaches, if it is +vely charged then electrons will be attracted to the
surface of the uncharged obj. These electrons cannot be transferred, so the obj. will (try to) stick
together while the positive charges are repelled. If the charged obj. carried a ve charge, then electrons
will be repelled away from the surface of the uncharged body with the same effect while the ve charges
are repelled.
This is how we can use static electricity to stick a balloon to the wall. The effect only work if both obj.s
are non-conductors.

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The gold leaf electroscope An electroscope can be used to investigate the charges on different obj.s
If a -vely charged rod touched the metal plate, it
would repel electrons from the plate to the leaf so
the leaf repels more.

If a +vely charged rod touched the metal plate

instead, it would attract electrons from the leaf so
leaf repels less.

If you touch the top of the electroscope some of

the electrons can run to earth. If you remove your
finger and then take the charged rod away, the gold
leaf is still deflected because the electroscope has
an overall +ve charge (from loss of electrons).
Now if you bring a -ve charged obj. close to the
electroscope it will repel the remaining electrons (
-ve charge) in the plate. These will cancel out some
of the +ve charge on the rod and gold leaf, so there
is less repulsion and the gold leaf will fall. If you
hold a +vely charged rod close to the plate again, it
will attract even more electrons away from the gold
leaf and metal rod, and the gold leaf will rise.
Uses of static electricity

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Electrostatic paint spraying: Droplets of paint from spray gun is charged. The
droplets all carry the same charge so they repel and spread out forming a
fine spray. The thing that you are painting will be charged oppositely, so the
paint droplets are attracted to it, so there is an even paint coverage.

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Inkjet printers: Each spot of ink is given a charge so that as it falls between
a pair of deflecting plates, electrostatic forces direct it to the correct
position. The charges on the plates change hundreds of times each second so
that each drop falls in a different position, forming pictures and words on
the paper as required.

Photocopiers: A rotating drum is given a static electrical charge. An

image of the document to be copied is projected onto the drum. Where
the light falls onto the plate, the electrical charge leaks away. The
remaining charged areas of the plate are able to attract tiny particles
of toner by inducing a charge in them. Surplus toner is removed. The
toner is then transferred to a sheet of paper using a roller and melted
to the paper by heating the paper, making it permanent.
Electrostatic precipitators: As smoke passes up a chimney it passes through a mesh of wires that are
highly charged. As they pass through the mesh, the ash and dust particles become -vely charged. Higher
up the chimney these charged particles are attracted by and stick to large metal earthed plates which are
+vely charged. The cleaner smoke is then released into the atmosphere. When the earthed plates are
completely covered with dust and ash, they are given a sharp rap.

Problems with static electricity

As aircraft fly though the air, they become charged with static
electricity. As the charge on an aircraft, so too does the p.d.
between it and earth. With high p.d.s there is the possibility of charges
escaping to earth as a spark during refuelling, which could cause an
explosion. The solution would be to earth the plane with a conductor as
soon as it lands and before refuelling commences. Fuel tankers that
transport the fuel on roads must also be earthed before any fuel is
transferred, to prevent sparks causing an explosion

TV screens and computer

monitors become charged with
Our clothing can, under certain circumstances, become charged with
static electricity as they are
used. These charges attract light static electricity. When we remove the clothes there is the possibility
of receiving a small electric shock as the charges escape to earth.
uncharged particles (i.e. dust).

Section C: Waves (NOT P1)

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Diffraction
All waves diffract (spread out) when they pass
through a gap or past the edge of an obj. The
amount of diffraction depends on the size of the
gap relative to the wavelength of the wave. The
narrower the gap, or the longer the wavelength,
the more the more the wave spreads out.

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When waves encounter obstacles (e.g. radio waves passing hills and tall buildings), diffraction is what
causes them to bend around the obstacle. The longer the wavelength of the wave, the more they diffract
and bend around.

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Analogue and Digital Signals

To communicate any kind of information over a long distance, it needs to be converted into electrical
pulses or light pulses before it is transmitted. These signals can be sent down telephone wires or carried
on EM waves. These signals can be either analogue or digital.

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Analogue signals
Analogue electrical signals are voltages or currents which vary
continuously. An analogue signal can take any value within a certain
range. The amplitude and frequency of an analogue wave can vary
continuously.

Digital signals
Digital electrical signals can only take 2 values. These values tend
to be called on/off, or 1/0. E.g. you can send data along optic
fibres as short pulses of light.
To send a message using a digital signal, the information is converted into a binary code (consisting of only
1s and 0s).
Advantages of using digital signals
All signals become weaker during transmission (as they
lose energy) and need to be amplified. With digital
signals, any unwanted noise is just ignored, so the signal
remains high quality.

However, when analogue signals are amplified, any

unwanted noise is also amplified. Eventually the
level of noise may drown out the original signal
or introduce errors in the information being
carried.

After amplification, they then are regenerated (as they picked up

unwanted interference or noise). Regeneration creates a clean,
accurate copy of the original signal. With digital signals, they can
be regenerated to their distinct 1/0 shape electronically hence
virtually eliminating the unwanted noise from the signal.

However, with analogue signals, it is hard to distinguish

after noise has been added what the original signal
looked like.
Therefore its easier to transmit multiple signals at the same time w/ just one cable or EM wave (a process
called multiplexing), if the signal is digital. If the analogue waves are of similar frequency, it can cause
interference when the signal loses quality. With digital signals, its much easier to tell them apart, so you
can transmit more information along the same channel.

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Quantisation is the process of rounding multiple values to a smaller set. This helps pack more information
into the same amount of space.
Because digital signals can only have 2 values (on/
off), quantisation doesnt lose much information.
However, w/ analogue, a lot of information is lost
when a continuous range is rounded off.

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Using an oscilloscope to display sound waves

A sound receiver, such as a microphone, can pick up sound waves travelling through the air. To display
these sound waves, and measure them, you can plug the microphone into an oscilloscope, and look as the
screen:
The greater the amplitude of a wave, the more energy it carries, the louder it is.
The more complete cycles displayed on the screen, the higher the frequency. A high frequency = high
pitch and a low frequency = low pitch.

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How to measure frequency on an oscilloscope

The horizontal axis on the display is time. The time between each
division on the scale can be adjusted to get a clear, readable
trace.

1) Adjust the time division setting until the display shows at

least 1 complete cycle, as shown on the right.
2) Read off the period (time taken for one complete cycle).
E.g. here 1 cycle crosses 20 divisions, where each division is
0.00001s (from the setting), so period
= 20 x 0.00001s = 0.0002s.
3) Frequency = 1/period 1/0.0002s = 5000Hz = 5kHz
Hydroelectric power:
ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is free
Can respond quickly to
increased demand
Can store electricity by
pumping extra water into
reservoir
Clean + renewable

Tidal power:
DISADVANTAGES
Building reservoirs and power
stations can spoil the landscape
Reservoir may destroy/alter the
natural habitat for wildlife
Prone to silting + evaporation
Needs natural hills, valleys or
basins

ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is free
Clean + renewable
DISADVANTAGES
Very expensive to build
Cant respond to demand
Destroys natura habitats
Needs large tidal range

Wind power:

Wave energy:

Solar power:

ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is free
Clean + renewable
Land can still be used for
farming
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive + requires many
turbines
Noisy
Less reliable and has to be
sited in windy places
Changes the appearance of
the landscape
May kill birds + bats

ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is
free
Clean + renewable
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive to build
Cant respond to
demand

ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is free
Clean + renewable
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive + not very efficient
Require quite bright sunlight to produce to
useful amounts of electrical energy.

Geothermal energy
ADVANTAGES
Energy resource is
free
Clean + renewable

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DISADVANTAGES
Not found everywhere in the world

Section E: Solids, Liquids and Gases (NOT P1)

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States of Matter

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Energy is used to break bonds during melting/evaporation and comes

from the making of bonds during freezing/condensation.
Solids:
- Tightly packed
- Held in a fixed crystal structure
by strong forces between
particles
- Vibrates around fixed positions in
the structure

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Liquids:
- Tightly packed
- Not held in fixed positions
but still bound together by
strong forces between
particles
- Move at random

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Gases:
- Very spread out
- No fixed positions and forces
between particles are very weak.
- Move with a rapid, random
motion
- Fills the container they are in

Particles of a solid are found vibrating on a fixed point.

When we heat a solid, its particles gain energy they vibrate more and more. If they vibrate hard enough,
physical bonds holding particles in place start to break and they start to separate from each other. THIS
IS MELTING.

Gay-Lussac's Law says temp. is directly proportional to pressure

when temp. is in Kelvin. Which tells us:

pressure = constant x temp.

P1/T1 = P2/T2

So if you know the initial pressure and temp. of the gas, you can calculate its new pressure when you heat
it. This is true assuming mass stays the same and vol. is constant (K).

Section F: Magnetism and Electromagnetism (NOT P1)

Magnetism + magnetic materials Magnets attract magnetic materials = iron, steel, nickel + cobalt.
Magnets cannot attract obj. made from non-magnetic materials = plastic, wood, paper or rubber.
Similar poles repel, dissimilar (opposite) poles attract.
Magnetism is induced in some materials when they are placed in a magnetic field. This may be done
deliberately to make a magnet. However, it can also happen to steel food cans - if they are left in one
position in a cupboard the Earths magnetic field will gradually induce magnetism in them.

Permanent magnets are made from a magnetically

hard material such as steel. They have domains that
do not easily move into line when the metal is placed
in a magnetic field - a strong field is needed for
some time - but then, when the field is removed the
domains retain the magnetic pattern once it has
been magnetised. The metal stays magnetic for a
long time. A lot of energy is required to magnetise it.

Electromagnetism

Iron = magnetically soft material and would not be

suitable for a permanent magnet and are useful as
temporary magnets. They have domains that easily
move into line when the metal is placed in a magnetic
field but as soon as the field is removed the
domains take on a random pattern again. It returns
to being unmagnetised straight away. Very little
energy is required to magnetise it.

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic

field is created around the wire.This
phenomenon is called electromagnetism. The
field around the magnet is quite weak and
circular in shape. The direction of the field
depends upon the direction of current and can
be found using the right-hand grip rule (for
fields) as shown on the right.

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If wire is made into a flat, circular coil, the magnetic field around the wire is as shown above on the left.
The strength of the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire can be by:
1) the current in the wire
2) Wrapping the wire into a coil or solenoid (a long coil)

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The shape of the magnetic field around a solenoid is the same as that
around a bar magnet. The positions of the poles can be determined using
the right-hand grip rule (for poles).

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If the direction of the current flowing through the solenoid is reversed,

so too are the positions of the poles.

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The strength of the field around a solenoid can beby:

1) the current flowing through the solenoid
2) the no. of turns in the solenoid.
3) Wrapping the solenoid around a magnetically soft core such as iron - this combination of soft
iron core and solenoid is often referred to as an electromagnet.

Using electromagnets

The electric bell

When the switch is closed, it completes the circuit and current flows. The
soft iron core of the electromagnet becomes magnetised and attracts the
iron armature. When the armature moves, the hammer strikes the bell
and at the same time a gap is created at the contact screw. The circuit is
incomplete and stops flowing. The electromagnet is now turned off so the
springs armature returns to its original position. The circuit is again
complete and the whole process starts again.
Circuit breaker
This uses an electromagnet to cut off current if it becomes larger
than a certain value. If the current is too high the electromagnet
becomes strong enough to pull the iron catch out of position so that
the contacts open and the circuit breaks. Once the problem in the
circuit has been corrected the catch is repositioned by pressing the
reset button.

The relay switch

When large currents flow in a circuit there is always the danger of

the user receiving a severe electric shock. Even turning the circuit
on and off can be hazardous. To get around this problem we often
use relay switches. A relay switch uses a small current in one circuit
to turn on a second circuit that may be carrying a much larger
current.
When the switch (S1) is closed a small current flows around the LH
circuit. As the current passes through the coil the soft iron core
becomes magnetised and attracts the iron armature which in turn
presses the two contacts together. The RH circuit is complete and
current flows without the user coming into contact with the
potentially more dangerous circuit.

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If S1 is opened the electromagnet is turned off. The iron armature

moves back into its original position and the contacts spring apart,
turning the RH circuit off.
An arrangement similar to this is used in car ignition circuits.

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The motor effect

A charged particle moving through a field
experiences a force, as long as its motion is not
parallel to the field. As an electric current is a flow
of electrons (which are charged particles), we can
see this effect when a wire carrying the current is
put into a magnetic field.

To increase the rate at which the motor turns we

can:
1) no. of turns or loops of wire (to make a coil).
2) the strength of the magnetic field.
3) the current flowing through the loop of wire.

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A much larger generator used in power stations to generate mains electricity we use in our homes
The size of the induced voltage is greater than in the bicycle
dynamo because these generators use much stronger magnets, have
many more turns of wire on the coil, and spin the coil much faster.
As coil rotates, its wires cut through the magnetic field lines and a
current is induced in them. If we watch just one side of the coil,
we see that the wire moves up through the field and then down for
each turn of the coil. As a result, the current induced in the coil is
a.c., therefore this a.c. generator is called an alternator.
The frequency of an a.c. is the no. of complete cycles it makes each
second. If an alternating coil rotates twice in a second, the
frequency of the a.c. it produces in 2Hz.

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The transformer

When a.c. is passed through a coil, the magnetic field around it is

continuously changing. As the size of the current in the coil the
field grows. As the size of the current in the coil the field
collapses.
If a secondary coil (2nd coil) is placed near the (1st coil) primary
coil, this changing magnetic field will pass through it. As it cuts
through the wires of the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across
that coil.
The size and direction of the induced voltage changes as the voltage
applied to the primary coil changes. The size of induced voltage
changes as number of turns on each coil changes.

An alternating voltage applied across the primary coil produces an alternating voltage across the
secondary coil. This combination of two magnetically linked coils is called a transformer.
The relationship between voltage across each of the coils is described by:
primary voltage / secondary voltage = primary turns / secondary turns
VP/VS = NP/NS
A transformer that is used to voltage = step-up transformer. One that is used to voltage = stepdown transformer.
input power = output power
primary voltage x primary current = secondary voltage x secondary current
VP IP = VS IS

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This is only true if we assume that something is 100% efficient and has lost no energy in other forms (like
heat).
Transformers and the UK National Grid

The UK National Grid is a network of wires and cables that carries electrical energy from power stations
to consumers such as such as factories and homes.

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As current passes through a wire, energy is lost in the form of heat. If the current flowing through the
wire is kept to a minimum, the heat losses are also reduced. Transformers are used in the National Grid so
that the electricity is transmitted as low currents are at high voltages.
Immediately after generation, electric currents
from the alternators are passed through step-up
transformers. Here the voltage of the electric
current is to approx. 400kV and the size of the
electric current is greatly .

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The voltages like these can be extremely dangerous

so the cables are supported high above the ground
on pylons. As the cables enter towns and cities they
are buried underground.

Close to where the electrical energy is needed, the supply is passed through a step-down transformer that
the voltage to approx. 230V, whilst at the same time the current.