Physics

Chapter 9: Electronics

SPM 2015

CHAPTER 9: ELECTRONICS
9.1

Cathode Rays

9.1.1 Thermionic Emission

Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a heated metal
surface.
Factors that influence the rate of thermionic emission:
Temperature (dependent on current) the hotter the temperature, the
higher the rate
Surface area the larger the area, the higher the rate
Type of metal different metals have different rates of emission
Metal surface if coated with a mixture of barium oxide or strontium oxide, the rate is increased

Cathode rays are the beam of electrons which move at high speed from the cathode to the anode.

9.1.2 Maltese Cross Tube

Situation

Results seen on
the fluorescent
screen

Explanation

The low voltage is

switched on; the
extra high voltage is
off

Shadow of the Maltese cross caused by the light

emitted from the hot filament.
No green shadow as there are no cathode rays.

Both low voltage

and extra high
voltage are
switched on

Green shadow of the Maltese cross caused by the

electron beams overlap the shadow caused by the light
emitted.
This proves that cathode rays travel in a straight line.

A magnetic bar is
placed near the
fluorescent screen

The green shadow of the Maltese cross is deflected.

Deflection is downwards if the north pole is placed near
the screen.
Direction of deflection can be determined by the lefthand Fleming rule.

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SPM 2015

Chapter 9: Electronics

9.1.3 Perrin Tube (Deflection tube)

Situation
The extra high voltage is
switched off

Results seen on the fluorescent screen

The extra high voltage is

switched on

(If P is positive)

(If Q is positive)

9.1.4 Characteristics of Cathode Rays

Movement is in a straight line because it is light and has high velocity.

Has momentum and energy; produces fluorescent effect when connects with fluorescent items.
Can be deflected by magnetic fields (determine using Flemings Left Hand Rule)
Can be deflected by electric fields (deflected towards positive plates).
When colliding with metal targets: kinetic energy 99% light and 1% X-rays

9.1.5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Uses:
Measure potential difference
Measure short time intervals
Display wave forms

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 Physics

Chapter 9: Electronics

SPM 2015

Functions of the components in a cathode ray oscilloscope

Part

Component

Function

Electron gun

Filament

Heat up the cathode

Cathode

Release electrons (via thermionic emission)

Control grid

Control number of electrons that flow (controls brightness

of the bright spot on the screen)

Focusing anode

Focus the cathode rays

Accelerating anode

Accelerate the cathode rays

X-plates

Deflects the cathode rays horizontally.

Deflection system

Connected to the time-base.

Y-plates

Deflects the cathode rays vertically.

Connected to the external input.

Fluorescent screen

Converts the kinetic energy of the electrons to light energy

Graphite coating

CRO Reading

Traps stray electrons

No input

Direct current (from

dry cell)

Alternating current

Time-based
switched off

Time-based
switched on

9.1.6 Speed of Cathode Rays

If potential energy provided by the potential difference =
2
eV and kinetic energy is mv , the relationship of a
cathode ray is:
eV = mv

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Note:
The time-base is connected to the Xplates and generates a time varying
voltage as below:

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 Physics

9.2

Chapter 9: Electronics

SPM 2015

Semiconductors

9.2.1 Doping of Semiconductors

Materials usually used in the electronics industry as
semiconductors are silicone and germanium.
Doping process is the addition of a small quantity of foreign
objects into a semiconductor to increase its conductivity. The
atom size of the foreign object has to be about the same size
as the atom size of the semiconductor.

Type of foreign atoms

added
Examples
Major charge carrier
Minor charge carrier

Typical semiconductor: Silicone

n-type semiconductor

p-type semiconductor

Pentavalent atoms

Trivalent atoms

Antimony, arsenic, phosphorus

Free electrons
Positively-charged holes

Boron, gallium, indium, aluminium

Positively-charged holes
Free electrons

9.2.2 Diodes

Symbol of a diode

A semiconductor diode is also known as a p-n junction.

A diode allows current to flow in one direction only.

A diode consists of a combination of an n-type and a p-type semiconductor.

At the junction of these two semiconductors, the electrons from the n-type
semiconductor will float over to fill up the holes in the p-type semiconductor.
This creates a layer known as the depletion layer.
The potential difference across the depletion layer is known as junction
voltage. This is the minimum voltage that must be supplied before current can
flow through the diode.
Junction voltages for silicone and germanium are approximately 0.6 V and 0.1
V respectively.

Forward Bias

Current can flow in forward bias

connection because the
depletion layer is thin

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Reverse Bias

Current cannot flow in reverse

bias connection because the
depletion layer is thick

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Silicone diode graph which shows a

junction voltage of 0.6 V

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9.2.3 Diodes as Rectifiers

Rectification is the process of converting alternating current to direct current. This is done with a
diode as diodes allow current to flow only in one direction.

Potential difference from an alternating current source

Half-wave Rectification
Using a single diode:

Half-wave Rectification with capacitor

Full-wave Rectification
Using four diodes (bridge rectifier):

Full-wave Rectification with capacitor

Note: The four-diode arrangement can be

combined into a bridge rectifier. There
are four terminals on a bridge rectifier: 2
to the a.c. source, and 2 to the resistor.

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9.2.4 Capacitors
Capacitors are used to smoothen the current. Using capacitors with full-wave rectification creates
smoother current flows for optimal use with electrical appliances.
Capacitor charging

Capacitor discharging

For the positive half-cycle, the diode is in

forward bias
Current flows through the capacitor and the
resistor
Capacitor is charged and energy is stored

For the negative half-cycle, the diode is in

reverse bias
Current is not allowed to flow through the
diode
Capacitor discharges and the energy stored
is used to maintain the potential difference across
the resistor

9.3

Transistors

Transistors are electronic devices that act as a transfer resistor to control the current and potential
difference within an electronic circuit.
Transistors are a combination of two types of semiconductors, i.e. type p and type n. Transistors have
three electrodes:
Base (B)
Collector (C)
Emitter (E)
Things you need to know about transistors:
The collector current depends on the base current. When base current is zero, the collector
current is zero. (The base current on the other hand does not depend on the collector current)
A small change in the base current causes a big change in the collector current.
There are two types of transistors:
n-p-n transistor

p-n-p transistor

For both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors:

IE = IB + IC
Current magnification =

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where

IC
IB

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IE = emitter current [A]

IB = base current [A]
IC = collector current [A}

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Chapter 9: Electronics

SPM 2015

9.3.1 Transistors as amplifiers

Transistor as a current amplifier

Transistor as a sound amplifier

Component
Microphone
Capacitor
Transistor
Loudspeaker

Function
Converts sound signals to electrical
signals
Prevents d.c. from flowing into the
microphone and loudspeaker
Amplifies input signal
Converts electrical signals to sound

9.3.2 Transistors as automatic switches

When resistance of R2 increases, the base voltage
increases. This causes base current to flow into the
transistor.
If there is base current, there will be collector current;
therefore the light bulb will light up
R1 and R2 act as potential dividers. To calculate base
voltage:

Vbase Vtotal

Rbase Rtotal
Light sensitive switch
Light-dependent resistor (LDR) changes resistance
depending on presence of light.
Low resistance when bright
High resistance when dark
When bright:
LDR resistance
Base voltage
IB flows, IC flows
Light bulb does not light up

When dark:
LDR resistance
Base voltage
IB flows, IC flows
Light bulb lights up

.
Heat sensitive switch
Thermistor is a heat-dependent resistor
Low resistance when hot
High resistance when cold
When hot:
Thermistor resistance
Base voltage
IB flows, IC flows
Alarm rings

When cold:
Thermistor resistance
Base voltage
IB flows, IC flows
Alarm does not ring

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 Physics

9.4

SPM 2015

Chapter 9: Electronics

Logic Gates

Logic gates: electronic switches that have one or more input and only one output
Truth table: a table which lists all possible situations for input and output through logic gates

Gate

Symbol

Equivalent circuit

Boolean
equation

X=

NOT

OR

X=A+B

X=AB

AND

X = A B

NOR

X = A B

NAND

Truth table

Input
0
1

Output
1
0

Input
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Output
0
1
1
1

Input
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Output
0
0
0
1

Input
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Output
1
0
0
0

Input
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Output
1
1
1
0

END OF CHAPTER

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