Lecture 3

Lecture 3
Sensation and Perception
Sensation and Perception

sensation the process by which our sense
organs receive information from the
environment
receptor cell - a specialized cell that
responds to a particular type of energy
(hair cell, rods and cones, taste cell, pain receptors,)
transduction - the process by which

physical energy is converted into coded
neural signals
perception - the brains interpretation of
sensory information so as to give it meaning
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Sensation & Perception Processes
Sensory Thresholds
!
In order for sensation to occur the physical energy

within a receptor cell must reach a minimum level of
intensity.
absolute threshold - The smallest amount of

stimulation that can be detected.
just-noticeable difference (jnd) - the smallest

change in stimulation that can be detected
Webers law-size of jnd proportional to size of

initial stimulus (the greater the stimulus, the
greater change is necessary to produce a jnd)
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JND
The
concept of Just Noticeable Difference

can be illustrated in Spot the Difference
Games.
Its
also used in marketing
Subliminal Perception
!
The concept of absolute threshold implies that it is

possible to present stimuli below the level of
awareness--subliminally.
Research suggests that under controlled laboratory
settings, the presentation of subliminal stimuli may
have a subtle effect on behavior.
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Copyright
2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
rights reserved
reserved
The Eye
!
Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes

through the pupil, and is focused by the lens onto the
retina.
Components:
Cornea:
where light enters the eye

Lens: focuses the light rays on the retina
Iris: colored ring of muscle, constricts or dilates via
amount of light
Pupil: regulates amount of light entering the eye
retina - the lining of the eye containing receptor
cells that are sensitive to light
Fovea- on the retina; the center
of visual field
Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes through

the pupil, and is focused by the lens onto the retina.
The Receptor Cells

!
Two types of receptor cells in the retina are sensitive

to electromagnetic energy (rods and cones).
rods
-responsible for night vision

-perception of brightness
-more rods than cones
-not in fovea
cones
-responsible for color vision

-very useful in daylight
-mainly in fovea
The eye is sensitive only to a very small segment of the

spectrum, known as visible light.
wavelengths - the different energies represented in the

electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelength of visible light determines color
Longer = red / shorter = violet
Vision
The Retina
The rear
of the eye
where
rods and
cones
convert
light into
neural
impulses.
Adaptation
Our eyes adjust to different levels of

stimulation based on changes in the sensitivity
of rods and cones.
dark adaptation - increased sensitivity of
rods and cones in darkness
light adaptation - decreased sensitivity of
rods and cones in bright light
!
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The Retina and the Brain:

Visual Information Processing
Light rods and cones neural
signals bipolar cells ganglion cells
optic nerve optic chiasm
opposite half brain optic pathways
occipital lobe
Optic chiasm- here optic fibers cross
to the opposite side of the brain
Color Vision
!
Our perception of color depends on the

wavelength of light entering the eyes.
hues
- the aspects of color that correspond to

names such as red, green, and blue
saturation
- the vividness or richness of a hue

(max. saturation has no gray)
brightness
(lightness)-how much white or

black is in the color
Copyright
Copyright
2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
rights reserved
reserved
Vision
Trichromatic Theory
T. Young & H. von
Helmholtz both proposed
that the eye detects 3
primary colors: red,
blue, & green.
All other colors can be
derived by combining
these three.
Unanswered: why cant
we see yellowish-blue?
opponent-process theory
Herings theory of color vision holds that

three pairs of color receptors (yellowblue,
redgreen, blackwhite) respond to
determine the color you experience
The
opponent-process theory explains the

experience of color afterimages.
Afterimage
Hearing
Sound
!
The experience of sound depends on the

physical properties of sound waves.
sound
- a psychological experience created by

the brain in response to changes in air pressure
that are received by the auditory system
sound
waves - changes in pressure caused

when molecules of air or fluid collide with one
another and then move apart again
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights

reserved
! Properties
of sound waves
frequency
- the number of cycles per second in a

wave; in sound (how fast).
Determines the pitch (how high or how low the
sound is)
measured in hertz (Hz)
amplitude
big)
- the magnitude of a wave; in sound; (how
Determines
loudness
! Properties
of sound
Pitch-
auditory experience corresponding primarily

to frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher
or lower tone; (how low or how high)
Loudness-how
loud
- measured in decibels (dB)
Timbre-
quality or texture of sound (e.g. the same

note played on the piano or a guitar sounds different)
The Ear
Outer
Ear:
-Pinna
-Ear canal
-Ear drum
Middle
Ear:
-Hammer
-Anvil
-Stirrup
Inner
3 bones
Ear:
-Oval Window
-cochlea
-Basilar membrane
-organ of Corti
-auditory nerve
The human ear
cochlea
The Ear
- part of the inner ear containing fluid

that vibrates, which in turn causes the basilar
membrane to vibrate
basilar membrane - vibrating membrane in the
cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense
receptors for sound
oval window - membrane across the opening
between the middle ear and inner ear that
conducts vibrations to the cochlea
auditory nerve - the bundle of axons that carries
signals from each ear to the brain
organ of Corti - structure on the surface of the
basilar membrane that contains the receptor
cells for hearing
The Inner Ear
Theories of Hearing
place
theory - theory that pitch is

determined by the location of greatest
vibration on the basilar membrane
(high frequencies =vibration of basilar m. near the oval

window)
frequency
theory - theory that pitch is

determined by the frequency with which
hair cells in the cochlea fire
Auditory Localization
The ability to judge from

which direction a sound is
coming
Sounds from different

directions are not identical as
they arrive at left and right
ears.
The brain calculates a
sounds location by using
differences in timing and
intensity
Smell
!
Smell is a chemical sense that occurs when

odor molecules in the air reach the
olfactory receptors in the nose.
olfactory
bulb - the smell center in the
brain
pheromones - chemicals that communicate
information to other organisms through
smell
Taste
Taste
is a chemical sense.
Sour, bitter, sweet, salty, umami
taste
buds - structures on the tip, sides, and back of

tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste
Taste buds release a neurotransmitter that causes
adjacent neurons to fire sending nerve impulses to
the parietal lobe and limbic system
Perception
!
Sensation involves the experience of the

brain receiving raw data from the sensory
receptors in the different senses.
Perception involves the brain organizing and
interpreting this raw data or giving it
meaning.
Perception
Perceptual
Organization
Perceptual Constancies
Depth and Dimension
The World of Illusions
Perception Organization
Perception transforms sensations into
meaningful wholes
-We look for patterns
-we tend to create a complete perception by
mentally filling in the missing information
-Our perception is influenced by what we
know and what we expect to see
Copyright
Copyright
2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
rights reserved
reserved
Perceptual Organization
!
Gestalt psychologists explain that the

perceptual process involves distinguishing
between figures from the ground against which
they appear.
Reversible figures demonstrate that the same
visual stimulus can result in very different
perceptions
Figure-Ground
Both interpretations are possible but not at

the same time.
Figure-Ground
One of the stimuli must be the ground

against which the figure is perceived.
Gestalt Principles of
Perceptual Organization
Proximity
Similarity
Closure
Continuity
Gestalt Principle of Proximity

When objects are close to one another,
we tend to perceive them together rather
than separately
Gestalt Principle of Similarity

Objects that are of a similar color, size,
or shape are usually perceived as part of
a pattern
Gestalt Principle of Closure

We tend to see complete objects even
when part of the information is missing.
We overlook incompleteness
Gestalt Principle of Continuity

Items that continue a pattern or
direction tend to be grouped together as
part of the pattern
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
Perceptual Constancies
perceptual
constancy - a tendency to perceive

objects as stable and unchanging despite changes
in sensory stimulation
we see objects as essentially the same regardless

of differences in viewing angle, distance, lighting,
and so forth
size
constancy
shape constancy
color constancy
brightness constancy
help us better to understand and relate to the

world
Size Constancies
We see objects as the same size regardless
of the distance from which we view them
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2010
2010 Pearson
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Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
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reserved
Shape Constancies
We see objects as the same shape no
matter what angle we view them from
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2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
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reserved
Color Constancies
We tend to perceive familiar objects as retaining
their color despite changes in sensory information
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2010
2010 Pearson
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Education, Inc.
Inc. All
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reserved
Brightness Constancies
We perceive brightness as the same, even
though the amount of light reaching the
retina changes
Copyright
Copyright
2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
rights reserved
reserved
Memory and
experience also
help perceptual
constancy.
Our focus on shape
of head, hair, and
context make it
appear that Al Gore
is present in the
photo, rather than
Clintons face
superimposed over
Gores
Perception of Distance and

Depth
There are two types of visual cues we use
to determine distance and depth.
monocular cues - visual cues requiring the
use of one eye
binocular cues - visual cues requiring the
use of both eyes
!
Monocular Cues
interposition occurs when one object
partially blocks a second object. The first
object is perceived as being closer.
Monocular Cues
linear perspective - two parallel lines that
extend into the distance seem to come
together at the horizon.
Monocular Cues
aerial perspective - more distant objects
are likely to appear hazy and blurred.
Monocular Cues
elevation - the higher on the horizontal plane
an object is, the farther away it appears.
stereoscopic
vision - combination of two retinal

images to give a three-dimensional perceptual
experience
We
see the same scene with both eyes but in a

slightly different way
Binocular Cues
retinal
disparity - binocular distance cue

based on the difference between the images
cast on the two retinas when both eyes are
focused on the same object
Binocular Cues
convergence - is when the eyes turn inward
to look at an object close up. The closer the
object, the more the eye muscles tense to
turn the eyes inward. Information sent from
the eye muscles to the brain helps to
determine the distance to the object
Perception of Movement
!
Perception of movement is a complex

process that involves the integration of
visual messages from the retina and
messages from the muscles around the
eyes as they follow movement.
Also, we must distinguish between real
movement-the physical displacement of an
object and apparent movement-the
perception of movement in objects that
are actually standing still.
Perception of Real Movements

Perception of movements depends on:
-movement of images across the retina
-Messages from the muscles around the
eyes as they shift to follow a moving
object
- A change in the position of objects in
relation to their background
!
! apparent movement:
autokinetic illusion - the perception that a single
stationary object is actually moving
Absence of visual cues around an object (darkness)
object will appear to move
e.g.
observing a small spot of light in a dark room;
Many
sightings of UFOs have also been attributed to

the autokinetic effect's action on looking at stars or
planets.
apparent movement:
stroboscopic
motion - apparent movement

that results from flashing a series of still
pictures in rapid succession, as in a motion
picture
apparent movement:
phi
phenomenon - apparent movement caused

by flashing lights in sequence, as on theater
marquees
Visual Illusions
perceptual
illusions - inaccurate or impossible

perceptions that occur when a stimulus or object
contains false or misleading cues
Observer Characteristics
!
Many personal factors influence perceptions:

Motivation
and emotion
Values
Expectations
Cognitive
style
Experience and culture
Personality
Copyright
Copyright
2010
2010 Pearson
Pearson Education,
Education, Inc.
Inc. All
All rights
rights reserved
reserved

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Sensation and Perception

Sensation and Perception

transduction - the process by which

Sensation & Perception Processes

In order for sensation to occur the physical energy

absolute threshold - The smallest amount of

just-noticeable difference (jnd) - the smallest

Webers law-size of jnd proportional to size of

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

concept of Just Noticeable Difference

also used in marketing

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

The concept of absolute threshold implies that it is

Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes

where light enters the eye

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes through

The Receptor Cells

Two types of receptor cells in the retina are sensitive

-responsible for night vision

-responsible for color vision

The eye is sensitive only to a very small segment of the

wavelengths - the different energies represented in the

Our eyes adjust to different levels of

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Retina and the Brain:

Our perception of color depends on the

- the aspects of color that correspond to

- the vividness or richness of a hue

(lightness)-how much white or

Herings theory of color vision holds that

opponent-process theory explains the

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

The experience of sound depends on the

- a psychological experience created by

waves - changes in pressure caused

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights

- the number of cycles per second in a

- the magnitude of a wave; in sound; (how

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

auditory experience corresponding primarily

- measured in decibels (dB)

quality or texture of sound (e.g. the same

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

The human ear

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

- part of the inner ear containing fluid

The Inner Ear

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

theory - theory that pitch is

(high frequencies =vibration of basilar m. near the oval

theory - theory that pitch is

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

The ability to judge from

Sounds from different

Smell is a chemical sense that occurs when

bulb - the smell center in the

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved