Ch 01 HW

Due: 11:59pm on Monday, August 22, 2016

You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy

A Trip to Europe
Learning Goal:
To understand how to use unit conversion to solve problems.
Unit conversion is not limited to physics problems but is part of our everyday life, correct use of conversion factors is
essential to working through problems of practical importance.
For example, unit conversion could be used in problems involving currency exchange. Say you want to calculate how
many euros you get if you exchange 3600 US dollars (USD ), given the exchange rate 1 EUR = 1.20 USD , that is,
1 euro to 1.20 US dollars . Begin by writing down the starting value, 3600 USD . This can also be written as a fraction:
3600 USD
.
1
Next, convert dollars to euros. This conversion involves multiplying by a simple conversion factor derived from the
exchange rate:
1.00 EUR
.
1.20 USD
Note that the "dollar" unit, USD , should appear on the bottom of this conversion factor, since USD appears on the top
of the starting value.
Finally, since dollars are divided by dollars, the units can be canceled and the final result is

3600 USD
1

)( 1.00 EUR ) = 3000 EUR .

1.20 USD

Currency exchange is only one example of many practical situations where unit conversion may help you to work through
problems. Remember that unit conversion involves multiplying a given value by a conversion factor, resulting in a value in
the new units. The conversion factor can be the ratio of any two quantities, as long as the ratio is equal to one.
You and your friends are organizing a trip to Europe. Your plan is to rent a car and drive through the major European
capitals. By consulting a map you estimate that you will cover a total distance of 5000 km. Consider the euro-dollar
exchange rate given in the introduction and use unit conversion to work through these simple problems.

Part A
You select a rental package that includes a car with an average consumption of 6.00 liters of fuel per 100 km.
Considering that in Europe the average fuel cost is 1.063 euros/liter , how much (in US dollars) will you spend in
fuel on your trip?
Express your answer numerically in US dollars to three significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Begin with writing the total distance in kilometers. Then multiply this by the consumption rate [in
liters/(100 km) ] of your rental car to calculate how many liters of fuel are needed. Then compute the total
cost of fuel (in euros) by multiplying your expression by the average fuel cost. Finally, convert the total cost of
fuel to dollars.

Hint 2. Find the unit factor to express the cost of fuel in euros
Which of these unit factors can be used to calculate the cost of fuel in euros?

Hint 1. Conversion factor

When calculating the total cost of fuel in euros, you divide kilometers by kilometers (and cancel out the
kilometer units) and multiply the resulting value in liters by a conversion factor that has the liter unit at
the bottom, so that again you can cancel out units.
ANSWER:
1 EUR
1.063 liters
1.063 EUR
1 liter
1 liter
1.063 EUR
1.063 liters
1 EUR

Hint 3. Find the unit factor to convert euros to dollars

Which of these unit factors can be used to convert the total cost of fuel to dollars?

Hint 1. Conversion factor

Since you are converting the cost of fuel from euros to dollars, you need to multiply by a conversion
factor that has the euro unit, EUR, on the bottom, so that you can cancel out units.
ANSWER:
1.20 USD
1 EUR
1.20 EUR
1 USD
1 USD
1.20 EUR
1 EUR
1.20 USD

Hint 4. Canceling units

You can avoid many mistakes in unit conversion problems if you are careful to cancel units.
ANSWER:
Cost of fuel = 383

USD

Correct

Part B
How many gallons of fuel would the rental car consume per mile?
Express your answer numerically in gallons per mile to three significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Begin with writing the consumption rate in liters per kilometer. Then multiply this by the unit factor needed to
convert kilometers to miles. Finally convert liters to gallons. Be sure to cancel units so that your answer is
dimensionally consistent.

Hint 2. Find the unit factor to convert kilometers to miles

Which of these unit factors can be used to convert kilometers to miles?

Hint 1. Conversion factor

Since you are converting the car's fuel consumption per kilometer to the car's fuel consumption per
mile you need to multiply by a conversion factor that has the kilometer unit on the top, so that you can
cancel out units.
ANSWER:
1 km
1.609 miles
1.609 km
1 mile
1 mile
1.609 km
1.609 miles
1 km

Hint 3. Find the unit factor to convert liters to gallons

Which of these unit factors can be used to convert liters to gallons?

Hint 1. Conversion factor

Since you are converting the car's consumption in liters to gallons, you need to multiply by a
conversion factor that has the liter unit at the bottom, so that you can cancel out units.
ANSWER:
3.785 gallons
1 liter
1 gallon
3.785 liters
1 liter
3.785 gallons
3.785 liters
1 gallons

ANSWER:
2.55102

gallons/mile

Correct

Part C
What is the average cost, in dollars per gallon, of fuel in Europe?
Express your answer numerically in dollars per gallon to three significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Begin with writing the cost of fuel in euros per liter. Then multiply this by the unit factor needed to convert
euros to dollars. Finally convert liters to gallons. Be sure to cancel units, to make sure that your answer is
dimensionally consistent.

Hint 2. Find the unit factor to convert euros to dollars

Which of these unit factors can be used to convert the price of fuel from euros to dollars?
ANSWER:
1.20 EUR
1 USD
1 USD
1.20 EUR
1.20 USD
1 EUR
1 EUR
1.20 USD

Hint 3. Find the unit factor to convert liters to gallons

Which of these unit factors can be used to convert the price of fuel per liter to a price per gallon?
ANSWER:
3.785 gallons
1 liter
1 gallon
3.785 liters
1 liter
3.785 gallons
3.785 liters
1 gallon

ANSWER:
4.83

USD/gallon

Correct

Neptunium
In the fall of 2002, a group of scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory determined that the critical mass of
neptunium-237 is about 60.0 kg . The critical mass of a fissionable material is the minimum amount that must be brought
together to start a chain reaction. Neptunium-237 has a density of 19.5 g/cm 3 .

Part A
What would be the radius r of a sphere of neptunium-237 that has a critical mass?
Express your answer in centimeters to three significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

You have the mass and the density in incompatible units. So, you need to convert one to make them
compatible. Mass is a simpler unit, so it will probably be easier to convert it. Once you have the two in
compatible units, use the definition of density and the volume of a sphere to determine the necessary radius
in centimeters.

Hint 2. Convert the critical mass to grams

Since the density is given in grams per cubic centimeter, convert the critical mass into grams. Use the fact
that 1 kg = 1000 g .
Express your answer in grams to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
mass = 60000

Correct
Hint 3. Find the needed volume
The density of a material is the ratio of its mass \texttip{m}{m} to its volume \texttip{V}{V} (i.e., \rho=m/V).
Solve this equation for \texttip{V}{V} and then plug in the critical mass in grams with the density in grams per
cubic centimeter to get the necessary volume.
Express your answer in cubic centimeters to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
\texttip{V}{V} = 3080

\rm cm^3

Hint 4. Volume of a sphere

Recall that the volume of a sphere is given by the equation
\large{V=\frac{4}{3}\pi r^3},
where \texttip{r}{r} is the radius of the sphere. Use the necessary volume, which you've found previously, to
determine the radius of the sphere.
ANSWER:

\texttip{r}{r} = 9.02

\rm cm

Correct

Made to Order (of Magnitude)

Learning Goal:
To be able to make order-of-magnitude calculations.
Imagine that a company wants to build a new factory. Such a complex project would involve significant investment in
terms of both time and money. Consequently, before construction can start the company asks for an estimate of the total
cost. Although estimate figures are not exact, they are still helpful: For instance, if the projected cost is three times the
amount of money that the company is willing to spend, the project will be canceled or substantially changed.
Individuals make such estimates all the time. For instance, when you need to drive somewhere for a meeting, you can
roughly predict how much time you will spend on the road and depart accordingly. Of course, the actual travel time is
unlikely to be exactly the same as the estimated onebut it still helps to make an estimate so that you can decide when
to leave.
Physicists must frequently make such estimatesknown as order-of-magnitude calculationsas part of their job.
Depending on the results of the estimate, a potentially lengthy and costly research project may be postponed, canceled,
or redesigned. Being able to make a quick calculation and get a "ball-park figure" of the expected result is an important
skill for a scientist, involving processes such as identifying relevant information, searching for this information, and using
your experience or background knowledge.
In this problem, you will practice making such order-of-magnitude calculations.

What is the total mass of all the people on earth?

It is impossible, of course, to give an accurate answer to this question. However, it is quite possible to find the order of
magnitude of the answer. All one needs to do is to use some common sense and, possibly, search for relevant reference
information. The calculation can proceed as follows:
There are about 7\times10^9 people on earth. An average adult male weighs, say, 75 {\rm kg}; an average adult female
weighs about 60 {\rm kg}, and an average child will weigh considerably less than 60 {\rm kg}. Figuring roughly one child
per adult, we can reasonably say that an average person's mass is about 50 {\rm kg}, which gives the total mass of all
humans on our planet as
7\times 10^9 \times 50=3.5\times 10^{11}\;{\rm kg}.
Of course, we may be off in our estimates of the average mass or number of people. While it would be unreasonable to
say that we know the total mass is 3.5\times 10^{11}\;\rm kg, we can be reasonably sure that we have the correct order of
magnitude; that is, we have the correct exponent to which the number 10 is raised.
In each of the following problems, you will be asked to make similar estimates.

Part A
How many people can fit into the Pentagon, which was once the largest office building in the world? Assume that
everybody must be standing on the floor.
Round the answer to the nearest power of 10 and then express your answer as the order of magnitude. For
instance, if your estimated answer is 3\times10^5, enter 5. If your estimated answer is 8.7\times10^5, you
should enter 6 (rounding up to the next power of 10).

Hint 1. What reference information should you be looking for?

What information should you be looking for?

Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
What is the tallest building in the world?
What is the most massive building in the world?
What building in the world has the largest floor area?
In which country is the largest building in the world located?
How many people can be found in the largest building in the world on a typical day?

Hint 2. What numeric quantities do you need to estimate?

What numeric quantities do you need to estimate?
Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
the mass of an average person
the height of an average person
the amount of space the average person needs to work efficiently
the the area that an average person takes up while standing
the volume of an average person

ANSWER:
6

Correct
Your process for solving this problem might have been something like this:
First, a simple library or Internet search would tell you that the largest building in the world (in terms of the total
floor area) is the Pentagon, the main building of the U.S. Department of Defense. Its total floor area is about
6.5\times10^6\;{\rm ft}^2 but only 3.8\times10^6\;{\rm ft}^2 can be occupied; it would be hard to stand inside a
wall! Assuming that an average person occupies about 2.0 {\rm ft}^2 when standing (a conservative estimate),
we can see that about 1.9\times10^6 people (more than three times the entire population of Washington, DC)
could fit into the Pentagonassuming the floors held up!
Your own answer may have been different from ours or used different details; however, the order of magnitude
was, hopefully, the same.

Part B
If the entire population of the United States forms a human chain by holding hands, how many times can such a
chain be wrapped around the earth's equator?
Round your answer to the nearest integer.

ANSWER:
6

Correct
Here is one way to solve this problem:
There are about 300 million people in the United States. The distance between the tips of a person's
outstretched hands is roughly equal to the height of the person. Counting children, we estimate the average
palm-to-palm distance as one meter. Since the equator is about 40 million meters long, division yields about 7.5.
However, in this part any answer between 5 and 15 is considered correctafter all, we are just estimating.

Part C
How many times does your heart beat during your lifetime?
Round the answer to the nearest power of 10 and then express your answer as the order of magnitude. For
instance, if your estimated answer is 3\times10^5, enter 5. If your estimated answer is 8.7\times10^5, you
should enter 6 (rounding up to the next power of 10).
ANSWER:
9

Correct
On average, your heart beats about once every second. The number of seconds in the lifetime of an average
U.S. resident is
\large{86,400\; \frac{\rm s}{\rm day}\times 365\; \frac{\rm days}{\rm year} \times 75\; \frac{\rm years}{\rm
lifetime}=2.4\times 10^9\;{\rm s}}
assuming a lifetime of 75 years. Of course, we didn't account for leap years since this is just an estimate.

Part D
Legend has it that, many centuries ago, Archimedes jumped out of his bathtub and ran across town naked screaming
"Eureka!" after he solved an especially difficult problem. Though you may not have thought of things this way before,
when you drink a glass of water, the water that you are drinking contains some water molecules that were in
Archimedes' bathwater that day, because water doesn't get created or destroyed on a large scale. It follows the water
cycle, which includes rain, evaporation, flowing of rivers into the ocean, and so on. In the more than two thousand
years since his discovery, the water molecules from Archimedes' bathwater have been through this cycle enough
times that they are probably about evenly distributed throughout all the water on the earth. When you buy a can of
soda, about how many molecules from that famous bathtub of Archimedes are there in that can?
Round the answer to the nearest power of 10 and then express your answer as the order of magnitude. For
instance, if your estimated answer is 3\times10^5, enter 5. If your estimated answer is 8.7\times10^5, you
should enter 6 (rounding up to the next power of 10).

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Assume that the water from that bathtub is evenly mixed with the water throughout the surface of the Earth-after all, it has had more than 2000 years to do so.

Hint 2. Avogadro's number

There are about 6.0\times10^{23} \;{\rm molecules} in 18 {\rm g} of water; in other words, 1 {\rm kg} of water
contains about 3.3\times10^{25} \;{\rm molecules}.

Hint 3. What to estimate

Estimate the mass of water in Archimedes' bathtub and the total mass of water on earth. (Note that most of
the earth's water is in its oceans.)
ANSWER:
6

Correct
We used the following assumptions: The total mass of water on the earth's surface is 1.4\times10^{21}\;{\rm kg}
(reference information available from many different sources); the mass of the water in the bathtub is guessed
to be 200 {\rm kg}; the mass of the water in the can of soda is estimated to be about 0.33 {\rm kg}; and 1 {\rm
kg} of water contains about 3.3\times10^{25} \;{\rm molecules}.
Thus the total number of molecules in the can is roughly 10^{25}. The fraction of the bathtub molecules in the
can is 200/(1.4\times10^{21}). Therefore, the number of bathtub molecules contained in the can is
\large{\frac{200 \times 10^{25} }{1.4 \times 10^{21}}\approx 1.4 \times 10^6}.
Your answer is most likely different but it should still have the same order of magnitude, equal to 6. In case of
some "wilder" assumptions, we count 5 and 7 as correct too.

Consistency of Units
In physics, every physical quantity is measured with respect to a unit. Time is measured in seconds, length is measured
in meters, and mass is measured in kilograms. Knowing the units of physical quantities will help you solve problems in
physics.

Part A
Gravity causes objects to be attracted to one another. This attraction keeps our feet firmly planted on the ground and
causes the moon to orbit the earth. The force of gravitational attraction is represented by the equation
\large{F = \frac {G m_1 m_2}{r^2}},
where \texttip{F}{F} is the magnitude of the gravitational attraction on either body, \texttip{m_{\rm 1}}{m_1} and
\texttip{m_{\rm 2}}{m_2} are the masses of the bodies, \texttip{r}{r} is the distance between them, and \texttip{G}{G} is
the gravitational constant. In SI units, the units of force are {\rm{kg} \cdot \rm{m}}/{\rm{s^2}}, the units of mass are
\rm{kg}, and the units of distance are \rm{m}. For this equation to have consistent units, the units of \texttip{G}{G}
must be which of the following?

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

To solve this problem, we start with the equation
\large{F = \frac {G m_1 m_2}{r^2}}.
For each symbol whose units we know, we replace the symbol with those units. For example, we replace
\texttip{m_{\rm 1}}{m_1} with \rm{kg}. We now solve this equation for \texttip{G}{G}.
ANSWER:

\large{\frac {\rm{kg^3}}{\rm{m}\cdot \rm{s^2}}}

\large{\frac {\rm{kg}\cdot \rm{s^2}}{\rm{m^3}}}
\large{\frac {\rm{m^3}}{\rm{kg}\cdot \rm{s^2}}}
\large{\frac {\rm{m}}{\rm{kg}\cdot \rm{s^2}}}

Correct

Part B
One consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity is that mass is a form of energy. This mass-energy
relationship is perhaps the most famous of all physics equations:
E = mc^2,
where \texttip{m}{m} is mass, \texttip{c}{c} is the speed of the light, and \texttip{E}{E} is the energy. In SI units, the
units of speed are \rm m/\rm s. For the preceding equation to have consistent units (the same units on both sides of
the equation), the units of \texttip{E}{E} must be which of the following?

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

To solve this problem, we start with the equation
E = mc^2.
For each symbol whose units we know, we replace the symbol with those units. For example, we replace
\texttip{m}{m} with \rm{kg}. We now solve this equation for \texttip{E}{E}.
ANSWER:
\large{\frac{\rm{kg} \cdot \rm {m}}{\rm{s}}}
\large{\frac {\rm{kg} \cdot \rm {m^2}}{ \rm{s^2}}}
\large{\frac {\rm {kg}\cdot \rm {s^2}}{\rm {m^2}}}
\large{\frac {\rm{kg} \cdot \rm {m^2}}{ \rm{s}}}

Correct
To solve the types of problems typified by these examples, we start with the given equation. For each symbol
whose units we know, we replace the symbol with those units. For example, we replace \texttip{m}{m} with
\rm{kg}. We now solve this equation for the units of the unknown variable.

Problem 1.23
The diameter of the Moon is 3480 {\rm km}.

Part A
What is the surface area of the Moon?
ANSWER:

A_{\rm Moon} = 3.801013

{\rm m^{2}}

Correct

Part B
How many times larger is the surface area of the Earth?
ANSWER:
\large{\frac{A_{\rm Earth}}{A_{\rm Moon}}} = 13.4

Correct

Problem 1.37
Three students derive the following equations in which x refers to distance traveled, v the speed, a the acceleration ({\rm
m/s^{2}}), t the time, and the subscript zero \left( {_0 } \right) means a quantity at time t = 0:
(a)x = vt^2 + 2at,
(b)x = v_0 t + {1 \over 2}at^2,
(c)x = v_0 t + 2at^2.

Part A
Which of these equations could possibly be correct according to a dimensional check?
ANSWER:

Correct

Problem 1.41

Part A
How many seconds are there in 1.00 year?
ANSWER:
t = 3.16107 {\rm s}

Correct

Part B
How many nanoseconds are there in 1.00 year?
ANSWER:
t = 3.161016 {\rm ns}

Correct

Part C
How many years are there in 1.00 second?
ANSWER:
t = 3.17108 {\rm y}

Correct

Problem 1.51
A certain audio compact disc (CD) contains 783.216 megabytes of digital information. Each byte consists of exactly 8 bits.
When played, a CD player reads the CD's digital information at a constant rate of 1.4 megabits per second.

Part A
How many minutes does it take the player to read the entire CD?
Express your answer using two significant figures.
ANSWER:
t = 75 {\rm min}

Correct

Problem 1.66
The density of an object is defined as its mass divided by its volume. Suppose the mass and volume of a rock are
measured to be 8 {\rm g} and 2.8325 {\rm cm^3}.

Part A
What is the correct number of significant figures for the rock's density?
Express your answer using one significant figure.
ANSWER:
n = 1 figures

Correct

Part B

Calculate the rock's density.

Express your answer using one significant figure.
ANSWER:
\rho = 3

{\rm g/cm^{3}}

Correct

Converting between Different Units

Unit conversion problems can seem tedious and unnecessary at times. However, different systems of units are used in
different parts of the world, so when dealing with international transactions, documents, software, etc., unit conversions
are often necessary.
Here is a simple example. The inhabitants of a small island begin exporting beautiful cloth made from a rare plant that
grows only on their island. Seeing how popular the small quantity that they export has been, they steadily raise their
prices. A clothing maker from New York, thinking that he can save money by "cutting out the middleman," decides to
travel to the small island and buy the cloth himself. Ignorant of the local custom of offering strangers outrageous prices
and then negotiating down, the clothing maker accepts (much to everyone's surpise) the initial price of 400 {\rm
tepizes/m^2}. The price of this cloth in New York is 120 {\rm dollars/yard}^2.

Part A
If the clothing maker bought 500 {\rm m^2} of this fabric, how much money did he lose? Use 1\; {\rm tepiz}= 0.625\;
{\rm dollar} and 0.9144\;{\rm m} = 1\;{\rm yard}.
Express your answer in dollars using two significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

To find how much money the clothing maker loses, you must find how much money he spent and how much
he would have spent in New York. Furthermore, since the problem asks how much he lost in dollars, you need
to determine both in dollars. This will require unit conversions.

Hint 2. Find how much he paid

If the clothing maker bought 500 {\rm m}^2 at a cost of 400 {\rm tepizes/m}^2, then simple multiplication will
give how much he spent in tepizes. Once you've found that, convert to dollars. How much did the clothing
maker spend in dollars?
Express your answer in dollars to three significant figures.

Hint 1. Find how much he paid in \rm tepizes

If the clothing maker bought 500 {\rm m}^2 at a cost of 400 {\rm tepizes/m}^2, then how much did he
pay in total, in \rm tepizes?
Express your answer in \rm tepizes.
ANSWER:
2.00105

\rm tepizes

ANSWER:
1.25105

\rm dollars

Hint 3. Find the price in New York

You know that the price of the fabric in New York is 120 {\rm dollars/yard^2}. Thus, you need only to find the
number of square yards that the clothing maker purchased and then multiply to find the price in New York.
What would it have cost him to buy the fabric in New York?
Express your answer in dollars to three significant figures.

Hint 1. Determine how much cloth he bought in \rm {yard}^2

You are given that 0.9144\;{\rm m} = 1\;{\rm yard}. Squaring both sides, you would get that 0.8361\;
{\rm m^2} = 1\;{\rm {yard}^2}. How much is 500 \; \rm m^2?
Express your answer in \rm {yard}^2 to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
598

\rm {yard}^2

ANSWER:
7.18104

\rm dollars

ANSWER:
5.3104

\rm dollars

Correct

Still think that unit conversion isn't important?

Here is a widely publicized, true story about how failing to convert units resulted in a huge loss. In 1998, the Mars Climate
Orbiter probe crashed into the surface of Mars, instead of entering orbit. The resulting inquiry revealed that NASA
navigators had been making minor course corrections in SI units, whereas the software written by the probe's makers
implicitly used British units. In the United States, most scientists use SI units, whereas most engineers use the British, or
Imperial, system of units. (Interestingly, British units are not used in Britain.) For these two groups to be able to
communicate to one another, unit conversions are necessary.
The unit of force in the SI system is the newton (\rm N), which is defined in terms of basic SI units as 1\;{\rm N}=1\;{\rm
kg\cdot m/s^2}. The unit of force in the British system is the pound (\rm lb), which is defined in terms of the slug (British
unit of mass), foot (\rm ft), and second (\rm s) as 1\;{\rm lb}=1\;{\rm slug \cdot ft/s^2}.

Part B
Find the value of 15.0 {\rm N} in pounds. Use the conversions 1\;{\rm slug}=14.59\;{\rm kg} and 1\;{\rm ft}=0.3048\;

{\rm m}.
Express your answer in pounds to three significant figures.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

When doing a unit conversion, you should begin by comparing the units you are starting with and the units
you need to finish with. In this problem, we have the following:
Starting units
Final units
\large{\rm \frac{kg \cdot m}{s^2}} \large{\rm \frac{slug \cdot ft}{s^2}}
Notice that both have seconds squared in the denominator. You will only have to change the units in the
numerator. Match up the units that measure the same quantity (e.g., kilograms and slugs both measure
mass). Once you've done this, create a fraction (e.g., 1\;{\rm hour}/60\;{\rm minutes}) based on conversion
factors such that the old unit is canceled out of the expression and the new unit appears in the position (i.e.,
numerator or denominator) of the old unit. In this problem, there are two pairs within the starting and final
units that must be converted in this way (i.e., kilograms/slugs and meters/feet).

Hint 2. Calculate the first conversion

The first step is to eliminate kilograms from the expression for newtons in favor of slugs. What is the value of
15 \rm kg \cdot m/s^2 in \rm slug \cdot m/s^2?
Express your answer in slug-meters per second squared to four significant figures.
ANSWER:
1.028

ANSWER:
15.0 {\rm N} = 3.37

\rm lb

Correct
Thus, if the NASA navigators believed that they were entering a force value of 15 \rm N (3.37 \rm lb), they were
actually entering a value nearly four and a half times higher, 15 \rm lb. Though these errors were only in tiny
course corrections, they added up during the trip of many millions of kilometers.
In the end, the blame for the loss of the 125-million-dollar probe was placed on the lack of communication
between people at NASA that allowed the units mismatch to go unnoticed. Nonetheless, this story makes
apparent how important it is to carefully label the units used to measure a number.

Problem 1.9
For small angles \theta, the numerical value of {\sin(\theta)} is approximately the same as the numerical value of {\tan
(\theta)}.

Part A
Find the largest angle for which sine and tangent agree to within two significant figures.
Express your answer using two significant figures.
ANSWER:

\theta_{\rm max} = 0.24 {\rm rad}

Correct

Significant Figures

Part A
To seven significant figures, the mass of a proton is 1.672623 \times 10^{-27} \;\rm{kg}. Which of the following
choices demonstrates correct rounding?
Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
1.672\times 10^{-27} \;\rm {kg}
1.67\times 10^{-27} \;\rm {kg}
1.67263\times 10^{-27} \;\rm {kg}

Correct
The number 1.672 \times 10^{-27} is incorrect because when we round to four significant figures we get 1.673,
not 1.672. Similarly, 1.67263 \times 10^{-27} is incorrect because when we round to six significant figures we get
1.67262, not 1.67263.

Part B
To eight significant figures, Avogadro's constant is 6.0221367 \times 10^{23} \;\rm {mol^{-1}}. Which of the following
choices demonstrates correct rounding?
Check all that apply.
ANSWER:
6.022 \times 10^{23} \;\rm {mol^{-1}}
6.0 \times 10^{23} \;\rm {mol^{-1}}
6.02214 \times 10^{23} \;\rm {mol^{-1}}

Correct
All these options are correct; they represent different levels of precision, even though the numerical value is the
same.

Significant Figures Conceptual Question

In the parts that follow select whether the number presented in statement A is greater than, less than, or equal to the

number presented in statement B. Be sure to follow all of the rules concerning significant figures.

Part A
Statement A: 2.567 {\rm km}, to two significant figures.
Statement B: 2.567 {\rm km}, to three significant figures.
Determine the correct relationship between the statements.

Hint 1. Rounding and significant figures

Rounding to a different number of significant figures changes a number. For example, consider the number
3.4536. This number has five significant figures. The following table illustrates the result of rounding this
number to different numbers of significant figures:
Four significant figures

\Longrightarrow 3.454

Three significant figures \Longrightarrow 3.45

Two significant figures

\Longrightarrow 3.5

One significant figure

\Longrightarrow 3

Notice that, when rounding 3.4536 to one significant figure, since 0.4536 is less than 0.5, the result is 3, even
though if you first rounded to two significant figures (3.5), the result would be 4.
ANSWER:
greater than
Statement A is

less than

Statement B.

equal to

Correct

Part B
Statement A: (2.567 \rm km + 3.146 \rm km), to two significant figures.
Statement B: (2.567 \rm km, to two significant figures) + (3.146 \rm km, to two significant figures).
Determine the correct relationship between the statements.
ANSWER:
greater than
Statement A is

less than
equal to

Statement B.

Correct
Evaluate statement A as follows: (2.567 \rm km + 3.146 \rm km ) = 5.713 \rm km to two significant figures is
5.7 \rm km . Statement B evaluates as 2.6 \rm km + 3.1 \rm km = 5.7 \rm km . Therefore, the two statements are
equal.

Part C
Statement A: Area of a rectangle with measured length = 2.536 {\rm m} and width = 1.4 {\rm m}.
Statement B: Area of a rectangle with measured length = 2.536 {\rm m} and width = 1.41 {\rm m}.
Since you are not told specific numbers of significant figures to round to, you must use the rules for multiplying
numbers while respecting significant figures. If you need a reminder, consult the hint.
Determine the correct relationship between the statements.

Hint 1. Significant figures and multiplication

When you multiply two numbers, the result should be rounded to the number of significant figures in the less
accurate of the two numbers. For instance, if you multiply 2.413 (four significant figures) times 3.81 (three
significant figures), the result should have three significant figures: 2.413 \times 3.81 = 9.19. Similarly, 2 \times
7.664323 = 20, when significant figures are respected (i.e., 15.328646 rounded to one significant figure).
ANSWER:
greater than
Statement A is

less than

Statement B.

equal to

Correct
Evaluate statement A as follows: (2.536 \rm m ) (1.4 \rm m ) = 3.5504 \rm m^2 to two significant figures is
3.6 \rm m^2 . Statement B evaluates as (2.536 \rm m ) (1.41 \rm m ) = 3.57576 \rm m^2 to three significant
figures is 3.58 \rm m^2 . Therefore, statement A is greater than statement B.

Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 99.3%.
You received 12.91 out of a possible total of 13 points.