PRIMARY STRUCTURE:

F
0.4

E, J, A
0.3

AS
5

4
2.4

L.C. 0:
8F Mo:

Difference occurs in the evaluation of o and .

It is demonstrated on the example of a cantilever
with a skew strut in Sketch 13. Realistic dimensions are adopted in order to provide an illustration
on the impact of normal forces neglect in practice.
Cross-section characteristics:
J = 1.6 103 A = 0.12

L.C. 1:
M1( M)

4F
N1( N)
0.8

No void everywhere

.0

M:

N:

4F

3.3 F
.12

1.87 F

Z
Mo
No
M dx +
N dx =
EJ
EJ


1
32 F
1 1
244F + 244F =
EJ 2
3
EJ

o =

Sketch 13 Cantilever with strut

Z

Z
1
1
7.7 2.56
M1
N1
1 1
5
12 5 =
M dx
N dx =
2 42 4 +
0.82 4 +
+
+
EJ
EJ
EJ 3
EA
EAs
EJ
EA
EAs
For simplicity the same cross-section area is assumed of the strut, As = A, although it hardly would be true
in practice. Then

moment

normal f orce contributions

1 z }| {
7.7 7.56
+
= ( 4800 +
=
EJ
EA
E
o
X=
= 4.12 F

and the nal internal forces are shown in Sketch 13.

Sketch 14 The

structure

substitute

z}|{

63

The effect of normal forces is nearly negligible and the strut could have been
considered rigid with nearly the same internal forces and displacements. It
would mean the solution of the substitute structure in Sketch 14. In practice,
the effect of normal forces very often is neglected.

3.4 Thermal effect homogeneous temperature change

The cantilever from section 3.3 can be used to demonstrate the effect of a homogeneous (uniform) temperature change. Recall that such change induced no forces in the beams dealt with in sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.4.
In the strict sense, homogeneous means the same in the whole structure. In a narrower sense, it means the
same just in a part of the structure, for example in a single beam. In order to distinguish this phenomenon
from the temperature gradient t, the homogeneous temperature change assumes symbol t. The temperature increase t = 10o C takes place in the strut in the present example, see Sketch 15.

13

PRIMARY STRUCTURE:

10

0.3

AS o

t=

0.4

E, J, A

4
2.4

L.C. 0:
Mt and t void everywhere

The same primary structure is adopted as in section 3.3.

L.C. 1:
M1( M)

o =

t N dx

{z

= 104 1 5 = 5 104

must not be neglected

N1( N)

M:
7.4

N:

0.8

.0
1

Z
M1
N1
M dx +
N dx
EJ
}
| EJ{z
can be neglected

2.47
.09
3

moment

7.7 7.56
1 z }| {
=
+
= ( 4800 +
EJ
EA
E

normal f orce

z}|{

63

Sketch 15 The strut is subject to homogeneous temperature increase

5 104 E
5 104 3 107
=
= 3.09
4863
4863
It is important to note that, exclusively, the terms with the actual, not virtual normal forces, can be
neglected. The former terms represent elastic axial deformation whereas the latter terms represent thermal
axial extensions/contraction.
X=

3.5 Single redundants in trusses

The paradigm of the force method remains valid without exceptions. Several specic features are pointed
out.
1. The virtual work of internal forces is simpler since just axial forces enter it. It is further assumed that
the axial forces are constant in each member.
2. Hinges are not shown by specic graphic symbols in diagrams. Each joint or vertex in the diagrams
is a hinge.
3. Temperature gradient in individual members induces no forces.
4. Notation rules:
(a) Basic numbering refers to joints
(b) Members are labeled by the pairs of adjacent joints numbers in numerical examples
(c) Members in formulas get simple subscripts for brevity. These simple subscripts are resolved to
the respective pairs of the joint numbers when the formulas are applied in examples
The formulas for deections are resumed for convenience:
o =

all mem

o,i Ni li =

No,i
Ni li ,
all mem EAi
X

all mem

1,i Ni li =

N1,i
Ni li
all mem EAi
X

(5)

Needless to say, Ni = N1,i . The two symbols are retained in equations (5) in order to remind of the origin
of the respective terms.
14