IslamandDemocracy:AnObscureRelationshipFatimaAlSamak

Introduction
Democracyisdeterminedbymanydifferentelements:culture,wealth,equalities,education,andsomewillsayreligion.Religionasadeterminantof
democraticdevelopmenthasbeenextensivelystudiedandmanyargumentshavebeenpresentedsupportingtheclaimthatreligionhindersdemocracy,while
othersarelessconvinced.SinceSamuleP.Huntingtonpublishedhisbook,ClashofCivilization,therehasbeenanincreasedfocusontherelationshipbetween
th
Islamanddemocracy.Huntingtonarguedthattheworldorderinthe20 centuryhasshiftedintoaclashbetweentheWestandtheEast,specificallybetween
theWestandIslam.
HearguesthatthisclashishighlightedbyMuslimresistancetodemocraticdevelopmentandmodernity,whichheattributestothenatureofthereligionof
Islam.AlthoughHuntingtonissupportedbymanyinthisclaim,hefailedinprovidingaconcrete,practicalexplanationforthelackofdemocracyinMuslim
countries.ThisessaywillfirstanalyzetheargumentsHuntingtonmakesaboutIslamanddemocracy,second,itwilldiscussdebatesthatopposehisclaims,third,
itwillpresentempiricaldatatotesthisclaims,andlastly,theessaywillprovidealternativeexplanationsforthelackofdemocracyintheMuslimworld.

DefiningDemocracy
Inanydiscussionconcerningdemocracyitisessentialtodefinethetermandsetastandardforwhatconstitutesademocraticsystem.Scholarshavenotbeen
subtleabouttheirdebateovertherequirementsofdemocracy,butneverthelesstheyhavefoundsomecommongroundintheinstitutionofelections.Citizen
participationthroughelectionsisoneofthemostimportantindicatorsforademocraticsystem,butitisnotsufficientbecauseevenauthoritarianregimesmay
holdelectionsandfeigndemocracy.
Therefore,forthisdiscussion,twoimportantquestionsmustbeansweredaboutdemocracy:First,whatconstitutesademocraticsystem?andsecond,isthe
conceptofdemocracydichotomousorgraded?Inotherwords,arepoliticalsystemseitherdemocraticornondemocratic,oraretheyeithermoredemocratic
orlessdemocratic?
Theanswertothefirstquestionisthatdifferentscholarsandtheoristspresentdifferentcriteriaforwhatconstitutesademocraticsystem.Inthisessay,the
focuswillbeonaprocedural,minimalistdefinitionofademocracywhichpresumesfullycontestedelectionswithfullsuffrageandtheabsenceofmassive
fraud,combinedwitheffectiveguaranteesofcivilliberties,includingfreedomofspeech,assembly,andassociation.[1]GiovanniSartoriprovidesapersuasive
answertothesecondquestion.
Hearguesthatthedistinctionbetweendemocracyandnondemocracyshouldbetreatedasdichotomous.Hence,theessentialinitialtaskistoestablish
exhaustiveandmutuallyexclusivecategoriesofdemocracyandnondemocracy.[2]AccordingtoSartori,thereisafinelinebetweenwhatisademocratic
systemandwhatisnot,andthatiswheretheconceptofdemocracyisdichotomous.Buthealsosuggeststhatonceacountryisdeemeddemocratic,agraded
evaluationofitslevelofdemocracycanbeappliedtoit.Thus,whatmakesdemocracypossibleshouldnotbemixedupwithwhatmakesdemocracymore
democratic.[3]
Therefore,followingSartori'slogic,twoproceduresmusttakeplacewhenevaluatingdemocraticdevelopmentinanyregionaroundtheworld:Isthatregion
democraticbasedonaprocedural,minimalistdefinitionofdemocracyandifitisdemocratic,howdemocraticisit?Inthisessay,thesetwoprocedureswillbe
appliedtoMuslimcountriestoevaluatetheirstanceondemocracyaswellastheirlevelofdemocracy.

IslamandDemocracy
TheideaofthecoexistenceofdemocracyandIslamhasraisedcontroversyamongwritersandtheorists:ontheonehand,manypresentsignificantempirical
evidencetoprovethatinMuslimcountries,democracyiseitherweakornonexistentandtheyusereligiontoexplainthisphenomenon.Otherssuggestthat
religioncannotbeusedtoexplaindemocraticdevelopment,andhence,theyattributethelackofdemocracyinMuslimcountriesnottoIslam,buttoother
factors.

IslamHindersDemocraticDevelopment
ManybelievethatwhereIslamispresent,democracycannotbe.InhispaperentitledDoesGodMatter,andIfSoWhoseGod:ReligionandDemocratization,
JohnAndersonwrites,[w]ithregardtoIslamitwasarguedthatrelianceonafixedreligioustextandquasilegalordinances,theemphasisondivinesovereignty,
andthesupposedlackofdistinctionbetweenthereligiousandthepoliticalrealm,allworkedagainstdemocraticdevelopment.[4]
ThelackofdemocracyinMuslimcountriesisusedasevidencetosupportthisclaim.AndersonnotesthatwiththeexceptionofTurkeyandPakistanveryweak
'democracies',democracyhasgenerallyfailedtobeentrenchedinMuslimcountries.[5]
SamuelHuntingtonisoneofseveralwriterswhostronglyopposethenotionthatIslamcanbecompatiblewithdemocracy.InhisbookClashofCivilizations,he
repeatedlyassertsthatMuslimcountriesareinfertilegroundfordemocraticdevelopmentand,hence,theunderlyingproblemfortheWestisnotIslamic

fundamentalism.ItisIslam,adifferentcivilizationwhosepeopleareconvincedofthesuperiorityoftheircultureandareobsessedwiththeinferiorityoftheir
power.[6]
ThisleadsMuslimstorejectwesternvalues,includingdemocracy,whichleavesthemdisadvantagedandcontrolledbyanauthoritarian
regime.Furthermore,HuntingtonsuggeststhatthegeneralfailureofliberaldemocracytotakeholdinMuslimsocietiesisacontinuingandrepeated
phenomenon[...]
ThisfailurehasitssourceatleastinpartintheinhospitablenatureoftheIslamiccultureandsocietytoWesternliberalconcepts,[7]resultinginaclash
betweenIslamandtheWest.Huntingtondoesacknowledgethatinthe1970sand1980sthewaveofdemocratizationimpactedMuslimssocieties,buthe
suggeststhattheimpactwaslimited.[8]HisoverallargumentconcerningIslamanddemocracycanbesummarizedinonesentence:democraticprospectsin
Muslimrepublicsarebleak.[9]
Huntingtonisnotalone.AnotherwriterwhosharesthisviewisFrancisFukuyamawhoarguesthattheredoesseemtobesomethingaboutIslam,oratleast
thefundamentalistversionofIslamthathavebeendominantinrecentyears,thatmakesMuslimsocietiesparticularlyresistanttomodernity.[10]
FaresAlBraizatcommentsonthisandwrites,ForFukuyamamodernityischaracterizedbyinstitutionslikeliberaldemocracyandcapitalism[...]Fukuyamauses
Islamasa'yardstick'thatoffersaneasyculturalessentialistexplanationtotheabsenceofdemocracyfrommostofMuslimcountries.Inthisheconvergeswith
otherculturalistsblamingIslamforwhatevergoeswronginaMuslimcountry.[11]
BothwritersbelievethatIslamisthereasonMuslimcountriesarelackingmodernityanddemocracy,andthus,itisimportanttotesttheirclaimsbylookingat
authenticIslamicdoctrineandwhetherittrulyisincompatiblewithdemocracy,andsecond,byanalyzingempiricaldatatouncoverMuslimattitudestowards
democracy.

IslamSupportsDemocraticDevelopment
ThefirstprobleminHuntingtonandFukuyama'stheoriesabout'Islam'sundemocraticnature'isthatthattheybothfailedtounderstandthe
religion.Andersonrecountsasignificantcharacteristicofreligionthatmanyscholarsforgettoaddress.Hewrites,
ForBeetham,thetroublewithallsuch'negative'hypothesesaboutreligionanddemocratizationisthatthey[treat]'religionsasmonolithic,whentheircore
doctrinesaretypicallysubjecttoavarietyofschoolsofinterpretation;andasimmutable,whentheyarenotoriouslyrevisionistinthefaceofchanging
circumstancesandpoliticalcurrent.
Inawiderangingessaypublishedin2001AlfredStepansuggestedthatallreligioustraditionsweremultivocal,containingorganizationalandintellectual
resourcesthatcouldbecalleduponinsupportofdemocraticformsofgovernance[12]
InIslamandtheMythofConfrontation,FredHallidayalsopointsoutthisproblem,
Tobedrawnintoanargumentaboutanynecessaryincompatibility,orforthatmattercompatibility,betweenIslamanddemocracyistoacceptpreciselythe
falsepremisethatthereisonetrue,traditionallyestablished'Islamic'answertothequestion,andthatthistimeless'Islam'rulessocialandpolitical
practice.Thereisnosuchanswerandnosuch'Islam.'[13]
Manywriters,excludingHuntingtonandFukuyama,understandthatIslamcannotbereferredtoasoneform.True,theideal,authenticreligionhasitsown
politicaldoctrine,buttheIslamthatispracticedbyMuslimsaroundtheworldmaynotnecessarilyadheretothisauthenticity.
Forone,Islamhasseveraldifferentsectsanddifferentschoolsofthoughtwithineachsect:TheShiitesdifferfromSunnis,whichdiffer
fromIsmaelis,Sufis,Alawis,etc...Second,therearesignificantculturalandgeographicaldifferencesbetweenArabandnonArab,Gulf,nonGulfMuslims,
MiddleEastern,EastAsian,orAfricanMuslims:Forexample,IranianMuslimspracticeandimplementtheteachingsofIslamdifferentlyfromSaudi,Bangladeshi,
Iraqi,orTurkishMuslims.
Furthermore,Islam'sconceptofIjtihad,orindependentreasoning,allowsMuslimscholarstointerpretorreinterprettheIslamiclaws[14](toanextent)and
devisenewinterpretationsbasedontheirownreasoning.Theoutcomeisthatdifferentscholarswithinoneschoolofthoughtorwithinonesectwillcometo
twodifferentconclusionsabouttheIslamicpoliticaltradition.ThisiswhyformanywritersthereisnosuchthingasasingleIslamicpoliticaltradition,andthey
suggestthatwithinthevaryingIslamictraditionstherewereampleintellectualresourcesforthoseseekingtopromotedemocraticgovernance.[15]
JohnAndersonreferstotwowriters,JohnL.EspitoandJohnO.Voll,whopointoutthatitmightwellbepossibletodrawonIslamictraditionsthatwere
compatiblewiththecoreconcernofdemocracywithparticipationwhilstallowingittotakeintoaccountthespecificconcernsofMuslimsforrecognitionof
'specialidentitiesorauthenticcommunities.'[16]Andersonnotesthatthesetwowriters,likeothers,lookatthespecificconceptsofshura(consultation),Ijma
(consensus),andijtihad(independentreasoning)asprovidingsomeintellectualbasisforthedevelopmentofMuslimdemocracies.[17]Althoughallthree
conceptsareimportantinIslamicjurisprudenceandimplyademocraticculturewithinIslam,themostsignificantandrelevanttothisdiscussionistheconcept
ofshura.
Theliteraltranslationofshuraisconsultation.ItappearsintheQuran,severaltimes,orderingMuslimstoconsultoneanotherabouttheiraffairsinthree
spheresofsociety:Thepolitical,theeconomic,andthesocialandspiritual.TheversethatisrelevanttothisdiscussionisinChapter42:Andthosewhoanswer
thecalloftheirLordandestablishworship,andwhoseaffairsareamatterofcounsel[...][18]
ImamMohammadAlShirazi,averyprominentanddistinguishedMuslimscholar,writesinhisbookShurainIslam,Drawingfromthisholyverse,shuraisof
twokinds:thefirstistheMuslimgovernor'sconsultationoftheMuslimsaboutaffairsconcerningthem,andthesecondistheconsultationamongMuslims
abouthowtoadministertheiraffairs.Therefore,itisadutyonbothofthegovernorandthegoverned.[19]

ImamAlShirazirecountsdemocraticvaluesofparticipationingovernmentandcivilsociety.Democraticgovernmentscannotexistwithoutcitizenparticipation
throughelectionsand/orreferendums,andeachcitizenchoosesthegovernment,party,orpoliticianthatwilladvancetheirinterestsinissuesaroundhealth
care,education,economics,labour,nationalsecurity,liberalrights,etc...Furthermore,advanceddemocraciesvaluecivilsocietyanditsmerits.
Whencitizenssocialize,theybecomemoreinvolvedinsociety,triggeringcitizenparticipationinsocietythroughvolunteerwork,nongovernmentorganizations,
lobbying,andactivism.Thisinturnleadstoanincreaseinpoliticalparticipation.TheideaisthatafewAmericansinabowlingallycontributetoAmerica's
democracy.Evidently,theconceptshuraorconsultationisvaluedinIslamanddemocracyalike.
Basedonthisandotherconcepts,IslamwouldbeclosertodemocraticvaluesthanHuntingtonsuggests.LookingsolelyatauthenticIslamicdoctrine,itisclear
thatIslamisnotonlycompatiblewithdemocracybutisoneofitsstrongestproponents.AsSimonBromleywrites,[b]yvariousobviouscriteriauniversalism,
scripturalism,spiritualegalitarianism,theextensionoffullparticipationinthesacredcommunity,nottoone,orsome,buttoall,andtherational
systematizationofsociallifeIslamis,ofthethreegreatWesternmonotheisms,theoneclosesttomodernity'andbyimplicationtherefore,theoneclosestin
principletodemocracy.[20]HuntingtonandFukuyama'stheoriesarethereforeseverelychallenged.

IslamandDemocracyinEmpiricalData
Huntingtonhasarguedthatreligioustraditiondoeshaveanimpactuponthelikelysuccessofdemocratizationefforts,[21]butempiricaltestingrevealsthe
contrary.MyungheeKimrecountsthe19952001WorldValuesSurveywhichfoundthatMuslimsandmembersfromotherreligionsgiveaboutthesame
supportfordemocraticidealsandleadership.[22]
Shealsoconductedherownresearchtotesttheplausibilityofassumingthatreligiouscommitmentswillhaveaneffectondemocraticattitudes.Thetwo
variablessheusesarereligiouscommitment(independentvariable)whichincludesthreedimensionstheologicalorthodoxy,confidenceinchurches,and
religiouspractice,andsupportfordemocracy(independentvariable)whichmeansthat[r]espondentsapprovethedemocraticsystem,believingthatitis
superiortoanyotherformofgovernment.[23]Kim'sresearchfoundthatthefirstvariablehasnoorlimitedeffectondemocraticsupport,andalthough
spiritualvaluesmaybringmeaningandsolidaritytoanindividual,theyappearlessimportantforproducingdemocraticattitudes.[24]
Sheconcludesthat:GiventhestatisticalsignificanceofthesefindingsforProtestantsandMuslims,Huntington'sassertionabouttheMuslimrejectionof
democraticbeliefsremainsunsupportedbythesurveydatafromthesetwentycountries.Neitherreligionvaluesnorreligiouspracticesdeeplyshapesupportfor
democracy.Instead,othervariablessuchasperceivedgroupthreatsandpoliticalindicators(ideologicalselfplacementandpoliticalinvolvement)wieldthe
greaterimpact,particularlyamongindustrializedsocieties.[25]
Andersonalsopresentsdatathatassertthatupto40percentoftheworld'sMuslimsliveincountriesthataremoreorlessdemocraticoftenas
minorities.[26]AmoregeneroussurveypublishedinJohnEsposito'sbookentitled,WhoSpeaksforIslam:WhataBillionMuslimsReallyThink,suggeststhat
Muslimsironicallyevenmanyofthe7%classingthemselvesas'radical'infactadmiretheWestforitsdemocracyandfreedoms.However,theydonotwant
suchthingsimposedonthem.'Muslimswantselfdetermination,butnotanAmericanimposedanddefineddemocracy,'[saidEsposito.]'Whatthemajority
wantsisdemocracywithreligiousvalues.'[27]
Consequently,Muslimsthemselvesdonotrejectdemocracy,asHuntingtonclaims,andtheybelieveinandaspireforapoliticalsystemthatisdemocratic.
AsforFukuyama'snotionthatIslamisincompatiblewithmodernity,andbyimplication,todemocracy,heiscritiquedbyFaresAlBraizat,whoapaperentitled
MuslimsandDemocracy:AnempiricalcritiqueofFukuyamasculturalistapproach.AlBraizat'sresearchtestedFukayam'stheorybyusingthelatestdata
availableforeachcountryfromtheWorldValuesSurveytotestthecorrelationoftwovariables:preferencefordemocracyandreligiosity.Hispreferencefor
democracyvariablehasthreeindicators,twoofwhicharepreferenceforademocraticpoliticalsystem,anddemocracyisbetterthananyotherformof
government.
TheresultscontradictFukuyama'stheoryaswellasHuntington's.Forthefirstindicator,AlBraizatfoundthat[p]redominantlyIslamicsocietiesshowveryhigh
levelsofsupportfora[democraticpoliticalsystem]asaverygoodwayofgoverningtheircountries,whilesimultaneouslyshowinghighlevelsof
religiosity.[28]AmongtheMuslimcountrieswithhighsupportforademocraticpoliticalsystemareEgypt,Iran,Turkey,andJordan.
Asforthesecondindicator,AlBraizatobservedthatsupportfordemocracy(democracyisbetterthananyotherformofgovernment)isveryhighinIslamic
societies;withBangladesh98%,Jordan89%,Turkey88%comparedtotheUK78%USA87%,andCanada87%.[29]Althoughthestatisticsherecountsmay
seemsomewhatexaggerated,theoverallpresumptionisthatMuslimsocietiesdonotrejectdemocracy,butonthecontrary,theyendorseit.
Thus,AlBraizatconcludesthattheoveralltrendintherelationshipbetweenreligiosityandsupportfordemocracyisnegativeandinsignificant.Byandlarge,
Islamicsocieties:Bangladesh,Turkey,Morocco,EgyptandJordanarenotuniqueinshowinghighlevelsofsupportfordemocracysimultaneouslywithhighlevels
ofreligiosity.[30]Hefinallywrites,Fukuyama'sclaimaboutIslamasresistanttodemocracy,toputitmildly,isseriouslychallenged.[31]Itisthereforeclear
thatreligioncannotbeusedtoexplaindemocraticdevelopmentbecauseitisirrelevant.

AlternativeExplanations
WehavefoundthatIslamiscompatiblewithdemocracyandMuslimsattitudesarenotonlypositivetowardsit,butbyandlarge,Muslimspreferademocratic
politicalsystemoverothersystems.AndalthoughHuntingtonandFukuyamafailedintheirassumptionthatIslamhindersdemocraticdevelopment,they
correctlypointedoutthelackofdemocracyintheMuslimworld.IfIslamisnotthecauseofthisdemocraticdeficiency,thenwhatis?

WhataccountsforMuslimcountries'rejectionofdemocracy?AndwhatfactorsplayasignificantroleinshapingthepoliticaltraditionsofMuslim
countries?Scholarshaveofferedmanypotentialexplanationstothesequestions,threeofwhicharenegativefeelingstowardstheWest,economic
development,andauthoritarianleadership.
BecauseMuslimcountries'historicalexperienceshavebeengreatlyimpactedbytheWest,Muslimshavedevelopednegativefeelingstowardsit.Western
imperialism,war,exploitation,andpoliticalinterferenceintheMiddleEastledtoanentrenchedfeelingofdistrust,fear,andinsecurity.Becausedemocracyis
generallythoughtofasaproductoftheWest,thecountriesoftheMiddleEasthavebeenreluctanttoacceptaWesterndemocracy.
HuntingtonpointsoutthattheWest'ssimultaneouseffortstouniversalizeitsvaluesandinstitutions,tomaintainitsmilitaryandeconomicsuperiority,andto
interveneinconflictsintheMuslimworldgenerateintenseresentmentamongMuslims.[32]
Asnotedpreviously,Esposito'sresearchfoundthatMuslimsdonotwantaWesternimposeddemocracyandprefertobuildtheirownversionofademocratic
systemwhichwouldspeaktotheirissuesandconcernsratherthantoWesterninterests.Inaddition,[Muslims]seeWesterncultureasmaterialistic,corrupt,
decadent,andimmoral.Theyalsoseeitasseductive,andhencestressallthemoretheneedtoresistitsimpactontheirwayoflife.[33]
ThesenegativeimagesassociatedwiththeWest,somewhatexaggeratedbyHuntington,furtherimpactMuslims'acceptanceofaWesterndemocraticregime
thatmayoversteptheircultureorreligionthroughcertainliberalrightssuchassexualorientationandabortion.Accordingly,democracyitselfisacceptedby
Muslims,butcertainWesternvaluesassociatedwithdemocracyarenot.Thus,althoughreligiondoesnothinderdemocracyintheMuslimworld,certainsocio
culturalelementsinMuslimsocietiespreventthemfromunconditionallyacceptingdemocracy.
OneleadingfactortothelackofdemocracyintheMuslimworldisthepresenceofverypowerfulandhostileauthoritarianregimes.Insuchcases,althoughthe
citizensyearnfordemocracy,theexistingregimerejectsdemocracytoprotectitspowerandinterests.Therefore,somewillarguethatthefocusofdemocratic
studyshouldnotbeonculturalpreconditions,butratheronkeysocialandpoliticalactors.[34]
ThisisimportantfortheMuslimworldwhichishauntedbyauthoritarianregimesanddictatorships.[P]eopleinIslamicsocietiestendtohaveapropensity
towardsdemocracybutwhatmakesitlesspossibleforthemtoachievedemocraticpoliticalgovernanceisthenatureoftheoverstated,overblownandover
stretchedstatestructureandtheheavyhandedauthoritarianregimes(inmostcases)inpoweratpresent.[35]
Iraqisoneofmanyexamplesofthisphenomenon.Forover35years,SaddamHusseinruledwithanironfistandalthoughIraqisattemptedtooverthrow
Saddam'sregimeseveraltimes,theireffortsfailedmiserably.WiththefalloftheauthoritarianregimeinIraqin2003,Iraqisembraceddemocracyandtook
prideinthechangeofIraq'spoliticalsystem.ThemajorityofIraqisareMuslimbutthisdidnotimpacttheirresentofauthoritarianismandnortheirpreference
fordemocracy.Thisrevealsthateventoday,manyMuslimsactivelyseekademocraticpoliticalsystem,buthostiledictatorsactivelyseektosilencethem.

Conclusion
HuntingtonandFukuyama'sclaimthatIslamisincompatiblewithdemocracyandmodernityisfalse.Asareligion,Islamcontainsdemocraticconceptssuch
asshura,andIjtihad,whileMuslimstendtostronglyfavordemocracyoveranyothersystem.Kim'sresearchshowedthatreligionisnotastrongdeterminantof
democracy,whileAlBraizarevealedthatreligiousMuslimshaveverypositiveattitudestowardsdemocraticsystems.SinceIslamsupportsdemocracy,and
Muslimsfavorit,thenHuntington'sclaimthatIslamisresistanttodemocracyholdsnotruth.Nevertheless,thereisalackofdemocraticdevelopmentinthe
Muslimworldanditiscausedbymanyfactorsotherthanreligion,twoofwhicharesocioculturalpreferencesandstrong,hostileauthoritarian
regimes.DemocracyhasbecomeaneedforthemajorityofMuslimcitizenswhodesirepoliticalparticipation,liberalrights,andaccountablegovernment.With
anopportunitytobuildtheirowndemocracy,theirsocietieswillflourishandtheclashofcivilizationswillceasetoexist.

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Notes:
[1]DavidCollier,StevenLevitsky,DemocracywithAdjectives:ConceptualInnovationinComparativeResearch,WorldPolitics,Vol.49,No.3(Apr.,1997),6.
[2]DavidCollier,RobertAdcok,DemocracyandDichotimies:APragmaticApproachtoChoicesaboutConcepts,AnnualReviewofPoliticalScienceVolume2,(1999),12.
[3]Ibid,12
[4]JohnAnderson,DoesGodMatter,andIfSoWhoseGod?ReligionandDemocratization,Democratization,Vol.11No.4(2004),197.
[5]Ibid,197
[6]SamuelP.Huntington,TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder,(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1996),217.
[7]Ibid,114
[8]Ibid,114
[9]Ibid,193
[10]FaresalBraizat,MuslimsandDemocrac:AnempiricalcritiqueofFukuyamasculturalistapproach,WorldValuesSurvey,2,
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/upload/5_islamdem_2.pdf
[11]Ibid,2
[12]Anderson,201
[13]FredHaliday,IslamandtheMythofConfronation,(NewYork:I.B.Tauris&CoLtd:1999),116
[14]MuslimscholarsdependontwosourcestoderiveIslamiclaws:TheQuranandthetraditionsandnarrationsoftheProphetMuhammad.
[15]Anderson,202.
[16]Anderson,202.
[17]Anderson,202.
[18]TheHolyQuran,Chapter42,Verse38.
[19]ImamMohammadAlShirazi,ShurainIslam,(Qum,Iran:1999),http://www.alshirazi.com/compilations/patg/alshora/fehres.htm(accessedApril22,2010).
[20]QuotedinAnderson,202.
[21]Anderson,193.
[22]MyungheeKim,SpiritualValues,ReligiousPractices,andDemocraticAttitudes,PoliticsandReligion,1(2008),216.
[23]Ibid,220.
[24]Ibid,225
[25]Ibid,228.
[26]Anderson,203
[27]AssociatedPress,MostMuslims'desiredemocracy',BBCNews,February27,2008,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7267100.stm
[28]AlBraizat,20
[29]Fares,16
[30]Fares.21
[31]Fares,21
[32]Huntington,211.
[33]Huntington,213.
[34]Anderson,201.
[35]AlBraizat,20.