Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
AT
JETKING
SEC 34 , CHANDIGARH
SUBMITTED AS A PART OF COURSE CURRICULUM
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
Submitted By:
Saroj Dogra
(697041917)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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I feel deeply indedted to Mr. Baljit Singh, Microsoft trainer who delivered valuable
lesson on MCSE, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the
subject in better way. His method of teaching the minute details helped me a lot to
acquire the insight into the subject.
I am also grateful to Mr. Inder Gulati, CCNA trainer for giving best knowledge about
CCNA.the way he instilled knowledge of the subject was undoubtly praise worthy and
valuable.
I am also thankful to Jetking institution as a whole that is doing yeomans service by
teaching the learner avreast with the computer , networking and hardware knowledge that
is the need of the day.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge my husband Mr. Nardev Singh Rana
who always stood by my side during my studies. I am indepted to my sons Anirudh Rana
and Romil Rana who never clamed my time and get bore by my long absence rather
silent.
Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at Jetking for extending kind cooperation.
SAROJ DOGRA
List of Figures
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Figure No.
Name of Figure
Page No.
Computer network
LAN Classification
10
11
24
Tree structure
25
36
Multi-Master Mode
37
10
40
11
43
12
ICS scenario
44
13
45
14
NAT Server
46
15
VPN server
48
16
LAN routing
52
17
Static routing
53
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18
Architecture of router
60
19
75
20
Scenario of Telnet
76
21
81
22
Routing table
86
23
86
24
Routing loops
87
25
OSPF Scenario
99
26
VLAN Operation
105
27
VTP Configuration
110
28
VTP Pruning
111
29
114
List of tables
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Table No.
Name of table
Page No.
12
Address Classes
13
17
18
19
20
Operating Systems
21
34
10
56
11
62
12
Router Ports
63
13
71
14
72
15
74
16
Routing table
86
17
90
18
91
CONTENTS
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Sr. No.
Topic
INTRODUCTION
Company Profile
LITERATURE RIEVIEW
NETWORKING
1.1
2
3
8
12
3.2.2
15
MAC Addressing
NETWORKING MEDIA
Ethernet Cabling
3.8
12
3.2.1 IPAddressClasses
3.7
6
6
3.3.1
3.5
1
1
5
6
3.3
Page No.
15
17
20
20
22
23
26
28
29
3.6.2 InstallationStepsofDHCPServer
31
ACTIVE DIRECTORY
33
3.7.1ActiveDirectoryServices
34
3.7.2
40
CHILD DOMAIN
INTERNET SHAREING
42
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42
43
45
45
VPN components
48
3.9.2
Types of VPN
49
3.10 ROUTING
3.10.1
51
Types of Routing
51
56
56
3.11.2
Exchange Version
56
3.11.3
57
3.14
47
57
58
60
60
62
63
65
66
SUBNETTING
3.14.1
Advantages of subnetting
70
70
73
75
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75
79
79
84
88
3.1.4
91
93
95
3.18
100
100
103
108
113
113
3.18.2
Wireless Standards
114
3.18.3
Wireless Security
115
CONCLUSION
117
REFRENCES
118
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1. INTRODUCTION
This project report pertains to six months industrial training that I had underwent
at JETKING, Chandigarh as part of curriculum of degree in Bachelor of technology in
Electronics and Communication engineering as required by Swami Parmanand College of
engineering and technology (affiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar) .
I learnt a lot from professional managers and skilled engineers. I had a great
learning experience as trainee in this firm. I learnt a lot about how different networks are
controlled in the industry or any department with the help of networking processes, under
MCSE and CCNA.
I have learnt about different type of servers like DHCP Server, DNS Server, NAT
Server. Also I have learnt how to control the LAN and MAN networks under MCSE
(Microsoft Certified System Engineers) and how to control MAN and WAN networks
under CCNA (CISCO Certified System Engineers).
Justification cannot be done to whatever I have learnt in these six months within a
few pages but I have still tried my best to cover as much as possible in this report. In this
report I have tried to sum up the technical knowledge I have gained in my six months of
training.
1.1
Company Profile
Jetking is an organization came into establishment in1947. Jetking is Indias
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1947
Birth
1962
1972
1986
1990
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2003
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success- full career. With its alumni placed in the best of organizations in India and some
abroad,
Jetking,s vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career
prospects of many young boys and girls.
The company has been awarded the ISO 9000:2000 certification in 2003.The
company has been awarded the Maharashtra IT Award for a key role in manpower
activities in year 2006-07,it was felicitated with Franchise Award as Best Franchisor for
the year 2007-08.Also,ranked 4th in the list of 26th hot franchises as per outlook money
magazine.
Mr. Suresh Bharwani was awarded with Pikes Peak Award by the Bob Pike
Group USA for effective implementing smart lab plus for making technical training fun,
faster and easier for non- technical person.
Across all the sectors, industries are upgrading their information technology
system. Industries ranging from plastics, chemicals, textiles and power to the automotive
and telecom sector are now IT savy. Government and public sectors are going hi-tech
with EDI and computer networks. The IT industry, software companies, data centers, ITenabled services providers are all equipped with advance IT system and networks. The
increasing number of call centers, BPOs etc., have given a further boost to the hardware
and networking industry.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on
active participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
PLACEMENT: Jetking is the first and only institute that promises the 100%
jobs guarantee to its students. The companies that have recruited jetkings students
include:
Samsung, Sun Micro system, IBM, Canon, Siement, reliance, TATA, Compaq HP
invent, IT-T solutions, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, D-Link, Novell, Dell, Wipro, LG,
ICIC Infotech and several other MNCs.
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Any student who has qualified his or her HSC/SSC examination is eligible to take
up a course at jetking. The one year program Jetking certified hardware and networking
professionals give 680 hours of in-depth knowledge to a student in Basic electronics and
computer applications. Computer hardware and peripherals, window 2003 administrator
and network administrator (soon it will be replaced with window server 2008).Apart
frame technical knowledge there are personality development sessions which groom the
students personality, their ability to perform better.
Jetking, Indias leading hardware and networking training institute has trained
over 3,00,000 students from its 125 centers spread across India. With its alumni placed in
the best of organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking vocational training and
placement promises has helped build the career prospects of many young boys and girls.
Jetking has partnered with some of the worlds most renowed names in networking
to provide you with cutting edge courses and technologies. With academic partnerships
with Microsoft, Comp TIA,LINUX, NOVELL, and person VUE .
Jetking Chandigarh is a division of Hi-Tech point. Hi-Tech point is an ISO 90012000 IT company. It was established in year 1993 and run by a company of IT
professionals. Jetking Chandigarh branch is considered to be the best centre among all
centers. It has bagged number 1 center award consecutively for last 7 years. Here training
on various fields is going on like Basic Electronic, Hardware, Networking, JCHNP
Analog and Digital electronics and Hardware, RHCE, RHCSS, MNA, MCSE (Microsoft
System Engineers), MCITP, MNA, CCNA (CISCO Certified Network Associate),
CCNP(CISCO Certified Network Professional).
Partnership with industry leaders like Microsoft and Red Hat Jetking ensure its
students authentic courseware and technology.
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2.
LITERATURE RIEVIEW
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics
and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on active
participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
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3. NETWORKING
3.1
Introduction to networking
Cable/media
Domain Model
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Workgroup
Domain
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3. This
model
recommended
recommended
10 computers.
for
4. There
is
centralized
networks.
no
4. There is centralized
administration
administrated
each
separately.
5. In this model, low
grade
OS
large
like
2000/XP
PC
and
can
be
administrated
and
managed
the
from
server.
5. in this model
professional, WIN 98
high grade OS
like
WIN
2000/2003
created in each PC
Server can be
used.
Local Users.
6. Users
accounts
are
created on the
server
side
Network (CAN),
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Advantages of LAN
a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure. b).
many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results in
fast work.
Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.
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3.1.2.3
3.1.2.4
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IPv4
IPv6
Table 2
IPv4
IPv6
- It is 32 bit long.
- IPv6
doesnt
support
broadcasting, it
performs
A to E.
NETWORK
HOST ADDRESS
ADDRESS
0 bits
31 bits
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Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16bit network ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network
ID and 8-bit of host ID.
Address Classes
Starting
Bits
Octet
Class
(first-byte)
Class A 0
1to 127
255.0.0.0
Valid Hosts
256*256*256-2=
16,777,214
Class B 10
128 to 191
255.255.0.0
Class C 110
192 to 223
255.255.255.0 256-2
Class D 1110
224 to 239
Class E 1111
240 to 255
Reserved
development
256*256-2=65,534
for
research
and
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer on
lease basis.
Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in
the network remains for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent
IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Server.
Tick on- Use the following IP addresses - now fill the IP address e.g
10.0.0.1
Ok
Close
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MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
T o identify the MAC address in window:
Press Enter
3.3
NETWORKING MEDIA
To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media.
(i) Coaxial Cable
(ii) Fiber optic cable
(iii)
(iv)Micro- wave
(iv)Satellite
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube
shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of
curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types:
(i) Base Band Cable (RG 59)
(ii) Broad Band Cable (RG 58)
We used Base Band signal cable in Networking of Computers, It is so called because
it carries single frequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 . Where as Broad
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Band Cables carries multiple frequencies. Connector used for Coaxial cable is
BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-62 coaxial cable. It has an
impedance of 93 and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater
distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation factor.
cover which holds copper in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal from
external noise.
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Category
CAT-1
Speed
56 Kbps
4 Mbps
CAT-2
CAT-3
CAT-4
CAT-5
10 Mbps
16-20 Mbps
100 Mbps
CAT-6
CAT-7
Straight cable
Crossover cable
Rolled cable
PC TO Switch
PC to Hub
Hub to Router
Switch to Router
1Gbps
1Gbps
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568A
568B
(one end)
(other end)
(one end)
Green/white
Green/white
Orange/white
Orange/white
Green
Green
Orange
Orange
Orange/white
Orange/white
Green/white
Green/white
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue/white
Orange
Orange
Green
Green
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
PC to PC
Hub to Hub
Switch to switch
Router to Router
PC to Router
Hub to Switch
(one end)
(other end)
(other end)
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Orange/white
Green/white
Orange
Green
Green/white
Orange/white
Blue
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Green
Green
Brown/white
Brown/white
Brown
Brown
568A
(one end)
568B
(other end)
(one end)
(other end)
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Green/white
Brown
Orange/white
Brown
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown/white
Orange/white
Orange
Green/white
Green
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue/white
Blue
Blue/white
Blue
Orange
Orange/white
Green
Green/white
Brown/white
Green
Brown/white
Orange
Brown
Green/white
Brown
Orange/white
NOS
1. It is a network operating system.
2. It is used for large networks.
3. In this OS, there is more security.
4. In this OS, there are servers and clients.
5. In this OS Win NT, Win 2000, Win
2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and
MAC comes.
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Window server 2003 (also referred to as WIN 2k3) is a server operating system produced
by Microsoft. Introduced in 24th April 2003 as the successor to window 2000 server, it is
considered by Microsoft to be the corner stone of its window server system line of
business server products. An update version Window Server 2003 R2 was released
manufacturing on 6th dec, 2005. its successor window 2008 was released on 4th feb, 2008.
According to Microsoft, window server 2003 is more scalable and deliver better
performance than its predecessor window 2000.
Features of Window 2003
(i) A significant improved version of Internet Information Service (IIS)
(ii) Increased default security over previous version due to the built in firewall
and having most services disabled by default.
(iii)
Improved security and command line tools which are part of Microsoft
The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used
instead .
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have the ability to share files and printers, act as application server and host
message queue, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509
certificate server, provide LDAP (Light Weight Directory Access Protocol)
services, serve streaming media, and to perform other server-oriented functions.
3.5
DNS SERVER
DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology
for managing the names of websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows
you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer and
allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet. DNS is the resolution
mechanism used by Window Server 2003 clients to find other computers and services
running on those computers for computers in a window 2003 network infrastructure to
talk to one another, one of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not
communicate globally but communicate locally, but if domain name is added along with
it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use for name reservation i.e. to
convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of DNS is to
resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only user
friendly name and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC address
DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (fully
qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name .
3.5.1
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(iii)
FQDN
(iv)Namespace
(v) DNS server
3.5.1.1 HOST NAME
Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic
Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can
use the transport services of TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is
16- byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the network.
3.5.1.2 DOMAIN NAME
Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the location
without having to remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or
gmail.com
3.5.1.3 FQD
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the
parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of
namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized the root level
namespace, top level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Left most
portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an
IP address.
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fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2
shows the tree structure or domain namespace.
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3.5.2.2
Each record stored in a zone file has a specific purpose. Some of the records set the
behavior of the name server, others have the job of resolving a host name or service into
an IP table.
(i) NS (Name Server):
These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion
of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing
iterative queries to perform name resolution.
(ii) SOA (Start of Authority):
This resource record indicates the name of origin for the zone contains the name
of the server that is the primary source for information about the zone. The information in
an SOA record affect how often transfer of the zone are done between servers
authoritative for the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as version
information and timings that affect zone renewal or expiration.
(iii)
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For example, the server hosting the site www.abc.com is probably not named www, but a
CNAME record exist resolution of www to an IP address all the same. The CNAME
record actually points not to an IP address, but to an existing A record in the zone.
3.5.2.2
3.5.2.3
Ok and finish
Tick Allow both secure and non secure updates and secure dynamic
updated
next next
new host enter host name for global level (i.e by entering www) fill IP
address of the web server , click on add button
enter another host name, a blank host with same IP i.e do not fill its host name
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resolve ok apply ok
Select allow both non secure and non secure dynamic updates
Finish
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This command flush or clear all the information in the cache that is retrieved
from DNS server.
(v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns
Display the current contents or entries in the cache.
(vi)
Exclusion IP Range
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entity that allows the client to lease from either one. With this feature, a DHCP server
can:
Support DHCP clients located on the far side of DHCP and BOOTP relay agent.
Exclusion IP range
If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the series of
192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not be
assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range.
DHCP Leased Time
DHCP lease time is validity of IP address. By default DHCP lease time is 8 days
minimum,1 day maximum 999 days, 23 hours to53 day.
With in 8 days:After 80% of day clients demand new IP some times server refuse the client request.
After 87.5% of days it will retry, and if the server did not give the new IP address then the
client will receive APIPA address (Automatic Private IP Address).
When a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a random IP
address from the private APIPA address range of 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask of
255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is not in
use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host number for
that network.
The significance of APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot find a
DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other computers
on the same subnet mask that also cannot find DHCP server. It allows communication
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when DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assign a
default gateway, and therefore it cannot communicate with any computer that lives on the
other side of a router.
IP Reservation
There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also
want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by
statically filling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help of MAC address
for a particular computer.
3.6.2
ok finish
3.6.2.1
select DHCP
should be active. For that select DHCP server and click on authorize in action menu.
Then right click on scope name and click on active.
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3.6.2.2
On Client Side
Give command
3.6.2.3
We can take backup of all the configuration in DHCP server with the help of
administrator. Backup means to export the DHCP database to another system, as it is
helpful in case due to any reason our data is corrupted or deleted, we can take our
database from the place where it is stored. Steps of taking backup :
Stop the DHCP server and disable the DHCP server services
Copy the DHCP server directory to a temporary location, say pen drive or
on a new DHCP server.
3.6.3
The DHCP relay agent is a software that listen DHCP discover packet and forward to
DHCP server. In window 2003 server system the DHCP relay agent can be enabled as a
part of Routing and Remote Access (RRAS).
Set the network, fill the IP address and select two LAN cards
Open Routing and Remote Access enable Routing and Remote Access
New interface
Ok
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add apply ok
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Workgroup
Domain
Workgroup
Domain
1. It is a peer-to-peer networking
model.
2.there is a centralized dedicated server
2. There is no client and no server.
and
each
PC
administrated separately.
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Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary.
Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides before they
can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links related
domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the domain in
which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain is called a
tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace.
All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All domains in
the forest share same schema.
3.7.1.1
Types of Domain
Domain Forest
Domain Tree
Organization unit
Domain Forest
A forest is created when window 2k3 server computer is configured as a domain
controller. A forest is a collection of multiple domain link together and relationship
between the domains.
Domain Tree
A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain
in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set
of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain
and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent
domain.
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3.7.1.2
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(iii)
Static IP address
Ok
Next
Next
Data folder, folder new tech directory service next (SYS VOL)
Next
Click on install and configure the DNS server on this computer to use this
DNS server as its preferred DNS server.
Next
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startrun
cmddcpromo /forceremoval
Ok
Administrator toolsDNS
Start runntbackupok
Select backup
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Change backup path browse keep in your hardware and then send it to the
pen drive
3.7.2
D:\adbackup
CHILD DOMAIN
A domain is created say xyz.com. this domain is known as parent domain or the
root domain. Now chd.xyz.com will be the child domain or the sub domain of xyz.com.
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parent domain. Moreover users of either domain can use clients of either domain for
logging in the domain but a user can always logon only in the domain in which his
account resides, though he physically can use client pc of parent or client domain. Users
of either domain can logon its own domain from either side but only when it use its own
domain name. users of parent domain can communicate with child domain but he has to
use its domain name for that.
3.7.2.1
First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom
user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram
Below are the steps to cerate child domain.
Now ping to the parent domain with the domain name (xyz.com)
Run dcpromo ok
next
enter user parent domain name also enter child domain name
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it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the other
hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can apply
policies or security on the child domain.
Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name.
Properties
Computer name
Change
3.8
INTERNET SHAREING
We can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help of
networking or internet sharing. There are four ways to share internet.
(i) Direct sharing
(ii) ICS Internet connection sharing
(iii)
Win Proxy
3.8.1
Direct Sharing
Internet sharing can be done between computers directly, just by taking internet
connection directly from ISP (Internet Server provider), then it is provided to ADSL
model, ADSL modem is connected to the ISP through RJ-11 connector. Then it is
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connected to the switch with RJ-45 connector. Switch, further connects computers those
have to be provided with internet connection. The scenario for direct sharing is as shown
in figure:
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requires two LAN cards, Internal (Private) and External (Public). Internal LAN card uses
Local LAN card (L2) and External LAN card (L1) is used by Internet. ICS is designed to
be as simple as possible. ICS works on following windows: XP, Vista, 2K3 Server, 2k3
Server SP1.it doesnt work on the server in which AD+SP1 is present. The scenario for
ICS is shown below:
Network- Properties
Click on sharing
Enable ICS
Ok
yes
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share a single connection to access a public network such as the internet i.e. NAT enable
multiple client computer to connect the internet through a single publicly registered IP
address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT eliminates
the need for large number of IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addresses.
. On the client side of NAT, client side is configured to obtain IP addresses automatically
and then restart the client system. Assuming NAT is used for address assignment, the
client system will receive TCP/IP information from the NAT server. The client
information includes:
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DNS server address, which would be the address of the NAT interface
on the server.
With the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server:
The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote
Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard.
next next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a
time to remove the other method
go to start setting
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3.9.1
VPN components
(i) VPN server
(ii) VPN Clients
(iii)
WAN Option
(iv)Security Options
VPN Server
VPN server, serve as the end points of a VPN connection. When configuring a
VPN server, you can allow access to just that server, or pass traffic through VPN server
so that the remote user gain access the resources of the entire network.
VPN Client
VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that
obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client software is included in all the
modern window operating systems, including Window 2003 server. Router-to router VPN
connection can be made from computers running server2003 and Windows 2000
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running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or L2TP
connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system.
WAN Options
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These
connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or frame
relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN server
must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing
into an internet server provider (ISP).
Security Options
Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important
that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure
communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and
domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID.
3.9.2
Types of VPN
(i) PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol )
(ii) L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA.
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3.9.3
startadministrative tools
Right click on computer name configure and enable Routing and Remote
access
oknext no radius
next finish
3.9.4
apply ok
3.9.5
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finish
3.10
ROUTING
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Administrator tools
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At Router R1:
interface WAN
destination 172.15.0.0
mask 255.255.0.0
GW 20.0.0.2
At Router R2:
Interface WAN
Destination 10.0.0.0
Mask 255.0.0.0
GW 20.0.0.1
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The other way to manage a router routing tables is to let the computer do it
for you. Just like DHCP allocate IP addresses, configuring the dynamic routing
protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative
overhead.
In dynamic routing, routing information is automatically entered in the
router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by
Window Server 2003 use one of two kinds of algorithms to determine the best
possible path for a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or link
state. RIP is used for small networks where as OSPF is used for large networks.
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(iii)
The biggest reason OSPF is the choice in large networks is its efficiency; instead
of changing routing table via broadcast the way RIP does, OSPF configured routers
maintain a map of the network. The mapping is called the link state database, OSPF
routers keep the link state database up to date. Once changes have been made to link state
database, an OSPF routers link state database is recalculated.
As the networks start to multiply, the size of the link state database increases, and
a corresponding hit on router performance results. To combat this, OSPF sub divide the
network into smaller sections, called areas. Areas are connected to each other through a
backbone area, with each router only responsible for the link state database for those
areas connected to the routers. Area Border Routers (ABRs) then connect one backbone
area to another.
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The biggest drawback of OSPF is its complexity; OSPF requires proper planning
and is more difficult to configure and administer.
Exchange Version
Operating System
Where SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded
externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.
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Hardware Requirements
Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz
RAM:
min. 256MB
Rec. 512MB
Other Requirements
NTFS partition
Static IP address
Active Directory
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(iii)
Sequencing
(iv)Positive Acknowledgement
(v) Response
(vi)
Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path
determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC
address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some
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Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this
layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform
modulation and demodulation as required.
3.13 ROUTERS
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LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller
WAN
Memory
Controller
RAM
BIOS
ROM
Ports
Flash
RAM
O/S
Incomplete
IOS
IOS
NVRAM
Startup Configuration
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Primary RAM
Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: (i) Running copy of IOS.
(ii) Running configuration
(iii)
Routing table
BOOT Strap
Boot strap specifies from where and which inter operating system is to be
loaded.
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Mini IOS
Cisco 2500, 1600
ROM MOW
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Interface will use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the
configuration of routers. Ports are not used to connect different networks. The primary
purpose of port is the management of router.
33333333
Router Interface
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333333
Modes of Router
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
Router>
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change
and save router configuration.
Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is enable. We have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
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than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But
here we cannot see and save the changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security.
The command to enter in this mode is configure terminal
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Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
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Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
To erase password do all steps with no command.
Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Enable Password
router>enable router#configure terminal
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router(config)#enable password
<word> router(config)#exit
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
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To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router
configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to
use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
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Encapsulation
(11)
(12)
Keep alive
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Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type.
Different banners are:
Login
Appear before login prompt
Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode
Incoming
Appear for incoming connections
Syntax:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type> <delimation char>Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router
connected to Reliance $
Router(config)#
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To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009
3.14 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is
done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for
an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting
allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id.
This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network size does not
shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within
the network.
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Advantages of subnetting
Easy to troubleshoot.
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Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifying a
sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit
network address. This binary address gives the first address in the subnet block specified
in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used for
subnet.Each class has a default subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the network
address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B consists of 16 1s in network address
field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network address
field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted-decimal
is shown in the table
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2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to
binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and
the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class
B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id.
4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that is
power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the
network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field.
5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of
additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-20=12.
which defines whole address.
6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in
decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask
Decimal
Binary
00000000
0
128
192
224
240
248
252
254
255
10000000
11000000
11100000
11110000
11111000
11111100
11111110
11111111
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Types of Subnetting
Where n are the no.s and borrowed bytes from host ID portion. Let we are given
that we have to make 4 subnets. Therefore 2^n =4 i.e n=2
Step 2:
To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.
2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID 2^62=62
Step 3:
Subnet
mask
for
n/w
192.168.10.0/26
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192
range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
is
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Valid Host
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.1
Broadcast Address
to
192.168.10.63
192.168.10.64
192.168.10.65
192.168.10.63
to
192.168.10.126
192.168.10.12
192.168.10.129
192.168.10.190
192.168.10.193
192.168.10.19
192.168.10.254
192.168.10.127
to
192.168.10.191
to
192.168.10.255
VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The
network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host
comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario
given:
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Now connect the PCs to the routers, to do this first select the console cable, click on the
PC select RS232 option, then connect it on the Router and select console cable. Now
select cross- over cable on the PC select Fast Ethernet option and on the Router select
f0/0 option now as the PCs and Routers are connected to each other assign IP addresses
to the PCs and the Routers. According to the fig set the IP addresses of the PCs double
click on the PC choose the option of desktop IP configuration. Now set the IP
address, subnet mask, and the default gateway. Like wise set the IP address of all the PCs.
Now set the IP address of the interfaces of router.
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Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is
Router#show ip interface brief
At router 2:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
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At router 3:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
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Router#disconnect
3.16 ROUTING
Routing is a process or technique to identify the path from one network to
another. Routers dont really care about hoststhey only care about networks and the
best path to each network.
To route the packet the router must know the following things:
Destination network
Static routing.
Default routing.
Dynamic routing.
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Features
There is no overhead on the router CPU.
There is no bandwidth usage between routers.
It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain
networks only.
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3.16.1.2
DEFAULT ROUTING
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router#show ip route
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3.16.1.3
DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates
routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a
routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to the neighbor
router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the routing
table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other
router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best
path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF
There are two type of routing protocols used in internetwors:
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Routing Loops
Administrative Distances
The Administrative Distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing
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Route Source
Default AD
Connected interface
Static Route
EIGRP
90
IGRP
100
OSPF
110
RIP
120
External EIGRP
170
Unknown 255
Hybrid protocol.
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same, the protocol will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to use
to that remote network.
Converged Network
Routing Loops
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Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work
by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadcast includes
the complete routing table.
Routing loops can occur because a every router isnt updated simultaneously.
Router A
Router B
Router C
Network 3
Router E
Network 4
Network 5
Router D
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information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will go to
Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop.
separate tables. One keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines the
topology of the entire internet work, and one is used as the routing tables. Link state
routers know more about the internet work than any distance-vector routing protocol.
Link state protocols send updates containing the state of their own links to all other
routers on the network
Ex: OSPF
Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state
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Hop Count
It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15
routers, if there is one more router in the network then this routing will fails.
Timers of RIP
(i) Update timers.
(ii) Hold timers.
(iii)
Invalid timers.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed.
Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received that
indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet is received
with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
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Router#show ip route
At router 2
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
At router 3
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
RIP
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90
seconds
seconds
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hops
IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings:
Update timers
These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.
Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesnt receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update period.
Hold down timers
These specify the hold down period. The default is three times the update timer
period plus 10 seconds.
Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer
is 90 seconds by default, then 7 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed
from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
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At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R2#show ip route
At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
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Support for IP, IPX, and AppleTalk via protocol-dependent modules Considered
classless (same as RIPv2 and OSP
advanced distance vector or even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports different
Network layer protocols through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each
EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information
that applies to a specific protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables,
IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.
Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must
become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship
establishment:
Hello or ACK received
AS numbers match
Identical metrics (K values)
To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue
receiving Hellos from their neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous
systems (ASes) dont automatically share routing information and they dont become
neighbors.
The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new
neighbor and forms an adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When
this happens, both neighbors advertise their entire routing tables to one another. After
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each has learned its neighbors routes, only changes to the routing table are propagated
from then on.
EIGRP maintains three tables containing information about the internetworks.
(i) Neighbor Table
Records information about routers with whom neighborship relationships
have been formed.
(ii) Topology Table
Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received
from each neighbor.
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that
use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a
combination of four:
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability
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of
areas
and
autonomous
To speed up convergence
backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if
at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are
called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple
autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an
Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
OSPF Terminology
Link
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Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses
the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no
loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP
address of all active physical interfaces.
Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing information
unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF
directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not
all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends upon both the type of network and the
configuration of the routers.
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Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-topoint connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it
can be logical.
Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All
of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.
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Benefits of OSPF
(i) Minimum routing updates.
(ii) Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii)
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At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router#show ip route
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WORKING OF SWITCH
When switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only
to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access Control
(MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a uniqe
number that is programed in to every Network Interface Card(NIC). Concider, device A
wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch
than cecks the MAC address of the destination system. It then transfer data to device B
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only instead of brodcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the system to
witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link.
SWITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method:
Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before
forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the
CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it
will be discarded.
It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for
high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is
not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by
most switches.
Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as
the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes
following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is
forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but the
shortest latency for switching
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switching is shorter than store-and- forward switching and longer than cutthrough switching.
NOTE:
Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also
use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches
use fragment-free switching by default.
Layer-2 Switching
Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC
address from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can be
considered as multi- port bridge.
Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer
header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before deciding to
either forward the frame or drop it.
Limitations of Layer 2 Switching
With bridge the connected networks are still one large broadcast domain.
Layer 2 switch cannot break the broadcast domain, this cause performance issue which
limits the size of your network. For this one reason the switch cannot completely replace
routers in the internetwork.
3.17.1.1
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devices of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that
different Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses.
Vlan provides following advantages:
Types of VLAN
Static VLAN
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Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set
up and manage.
Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of
VLAN Operation
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VLAN links
Access link
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A link from Pc to switch is called as access link or A link that is part of only one
VLAN. Therefore, a port connecting to an access link can be a member of only one
VLAN. And the mode of port is called as access mode.
Trunk link
A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100
Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries
frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member
of multiple VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN
Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to
transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches.
VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the
frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagging or
frame identification. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to
connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect
one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
With frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast
frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It
also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (since a
separate bridge table is used for each VLAN).
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A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is
removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device
attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.
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20
00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b
dynamic
fa0/7
VTP Operation
VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number.
VTP Modes
switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode
forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP
clients.
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in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The client
will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in
vtp update.
to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be
forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will
not learn any information from received vtp update.
VTP configuration
At Switch 1:
Creat vlan
Port assignment
Trunk port
At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco Switch(config)#vtp
password sun
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Vtp version
Vtp domain
Vtp mode
Vtp pruning
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically
disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1
is not prun eligible.
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Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy
interface. So that only one path will remain active in the switches. If the primary path
goes down then disabled link will become enable and data will be transferred through that
path.
Spanning Tree Protocol or STP (IEEE 802.1d) is used to solve the looping
problem.It runs on bridges and switches in a network. It implements a Spanning
Tree Algorithm (STA), which calculates a loop-free topology for the network.
STP ensures that there is only one active path between any two network segments
by blocking the redundant paths. A redundant path is used only when the
corresponding active path failed. It is not used for load-balancing.
Because STP solves the looping problem by blocking one or more links in a
network, the frames traveling between some source / destination devices may not
be able to use the shortest physical path.
Bridges exchange STP information using messages called Bridge Protocol Data
Units (BPDUs) through Layer 2 multicast.
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and routers support a range of up to 150 feet (46 m) indoors and 300 feet (92 m)
outdoors. Another rule of thumb holds that the effective range of 802.11a is
approximately one-third that of 802.11b/g.
Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal frames or siding greatly can
reduce the range of a Wi-Fi LAN by 25% or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher
signalling frequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11b and
802.11g are both susceptible to these.
3.18.2 Wireless Standards
The different wireless standards that are used for IEEE 802.11 standard are
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802.11
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data
rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.
802.11a
It was modified in year 1999. this is improved version of original standard.
Operates at the frequency of 5GHz, which is less crowded than 2.4GHz where telephones
and microwaves may cause interference. Although the speed is up to 54Mbps, the range
is only up to 75 feet or distance covered is 46m. 802.11a standard is incompatible with
both 802.11b and g because it operates at a different frequency.
802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet or a
distance of 90m.Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles,
such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
802.11g
This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbps.
It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.
802.11n
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home networks
PDAs
mobile phones
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To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) for
wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed lifetime, has
known attack vectors and is no longer recommended.
In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. If used with a
802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2
is still considered secure, as of 2009.
4. CONCLUSION
General Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of
electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
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organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
Applications
Communication Field
Industries
Medical Field
Rearch Field
Organisations
School
Colleges
REFRENCES
www.goole.com
www.jetkinginfotrain.com
www.microsoft.com
www.nythimes.com
www.digitech-engineers.com
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Faruk Husain