JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Definition of Job
A "job" is the aggregate of all potential work assignments associated with a
functional position. It may be regarded as a group of homogenous tasks related by
similarity of functions. When performed by an employee in an exchange for pay, a
job consists of duties, responsibilities, and tasks (performance elements) that are

defined and specific, and

can be accomplished, quantified, measured, and rated.

From a wider perspective, a job is synonymous with a 'role' and includes the
physical and social aspects of a work environment. Jobs may be classified within the
contexts of:

required physical effort

required physical skills
required intelligence and mental skills
level of responsibility, and (5) physical conditions of the work.

Job design should enable a worker to perform all potential work assignments
efficiently. Often, individuals identify themselves with their job or role (foreman,
supervisor, engineer, etc.) and derive motivation from its uniqueness or usefulness.
What is job analysis
A job analysis (also called human resource audit, job study, job review, job
classification, task analysis or occupational analysis) is the process used to collect
information about the duties, responsibilities, necessary skills, outcomes, and work
environment of a particular job. It is the detailed examination of the:

tasks (performance elements) that make up a job (employee role),

conditions under which they are performed, and
what the job requires in terms of aptitudes (potential for achievement),
attitudes (behavior characteristics), knowledge, skills, and the physical
condition of the employee.

Job and occupational analysis (often viewed as the same) focuses on the analysis of
a job into occupational structure, work activities and informal content.
In contrast, task analysis (being an integral part of job analysis process) more
specifically addresses the process of analyzing a particular task into the various
constituent elements, i.e. performance steps; performance step details; technical
information topics; career and occupational guidance information, standards of
performance; frequency, importance and complexity; and tools, equipment,
materials, supplies and technical references. The resulting information provides a

basis for developing knowledge and performance based learning activities of

training programmes.
Comprehensive job analysis or the process of analyzing a job or occupation into its
various components (i.e. organizational structure, work activities, and informational
content) begins with the study of the organization itself: its purpose, design and
structure, inputs and outputs, internal and external environments, and resource
constraints. It is the process of determining and recording all the pertinent
information about a specific job, including tasks involved, the knowledge and skill
set required to perform the job, the responsibilities attached to the job and the
abilities required to perform the job successfully. It differentiates one job from
another.
It is the first step in a thorough understanding of the job and forms the basis of job
description which leads to job specification.
Job analysis may include the following activities:

reviewing the job responsibilities of current employees,

doing Internet research and viewing sample job descriptions online or offline
highlighting similar jobs,

analyzing the work duties, tasks, and responsibilities that need to be

accomplished by the employee filling the position,

researching and sharing with other companies that have similar jobs, and

articulation of the most important outcomes or contributions needed from the

position.

Job analysis is information about a position to be filled that helps to identify the
major job requirements (MJR) and links them to skills, education, training, etc.,
needed to successfully perform the functions of that job. The purpose of the job
analysis is to identify the experience, education, training, and other qualifying
factors, possessed by candidates who have the potential to be the best performers
of the job to be filled. It can also be used to identify documents and other elements
vital to the candidate evaluation, referral and selection process, such as
measurement methods and interview requirements.
There are two key elements of a job analysis:
1. Identification of major job requirements (MJRs) which are the most important
duties and responsibilities of the position to be filled. They are the main
purpose or primary reasons the position exists. The primary source of MJRs is
the most current, official position description.

2. Identification of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) required to accomplish

each MJR and the quality level and amount of the KSAs needed. Most job
analyses deal with KSAs that are measurable, that can be documented, and
produce meaningful differences between candidates. Typically, possession of
KSAs is demonstrated by experience, education, or training. The goal of KSAs
is to identify those candidates who are potentially best qualified to perform
the position to be filled; they are most useful when they provide meaningful
distinctions among qualified candidates. Source documents for KSAs may be
the position description, Office of Personnel Management qualification
standards and job classification standards.

Objectives of job analysis

The objectives of job analysis include:
(a) determination of the most efficient methods of doing a job,
(b) enhancement of the employee's job satisfaction,
(c) Development of occupational training programmes
(d) improvement in training methods,
(e) development of performance measurement systems, and
(f) matching of job-specifications with the person-specifications in employee
selection.
The process results in a relevant, timely and tailored database of job-related
information that can be used in a variety of ways in performance management
systems e.g.

to develop conventional, individualized, computer based and/or critical

incident education and training programs and materials
to create and classify job titles
to write job descriptions
to prepare organization charts
to conduct time and motion studies
to determine quality assurance standards
to write both knowledge and performance related employee evaluations
measures
to prepare recruiting plans, position postings and advertisements, and
to enable performance development planning

In other words, job analysis provides inputs for:

Job descriptions
Employee selection
Training

Performance appraisals
Job classification
Job evaluation
Job design

Job or occupation analysis has the sole intent of identifying its components and
incorporating the findings into the development of related products i.e. training
programmes, training materials, job descriptions, job classifications, etc.
Job design
Job design, also referred to as work design, is the work arrangement (or
rearrangement) aimed at reducing or overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee
alienation arising from repetitive and mechanistic tasks. Through job design,
organizations try to raise productivity levels by offering non-monetary rewards such
as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal achievement in meeting the
increased challenge and responsibility of one's work. Job enlargement, job
enrichment, job rotation, and job simplification are the various techniques used in a
job design exercises. It is the process of putting together various elements to form
a job, bearing in mind organizational and individual worker requirements, as well as
considerations of health, safety, and ergonomics. The earlier management approach
viewed job design as purely mechanistic, but later human relations movements
rediscovered the importance of workers' relationship to their work and stressed the
importance of job satisfaction.
Job design involves envisioning and defining specification of work systems related to
a particular job. It is an activity to ensure that people and other resources are
effectively and efficiently utilized. The behavioral approaches to job design include
the activities of job enlargement, job rotation, and job enrichment. The aforesaid
activities are important in enhancing individual performance at the job. Job design
involves envisioning and defining specification of work system related to a
particular job. It is an activity to ensure that people and other resources are
effectively and efficiently utilized. Job design is undertaken keeping in mind job
satisfaction and performance. Job design plays an important role in enhancing
motivation level of the employees at the workplace. It addresses issues like the
methodology of doing the job, the person responsible for doing the job, and the
place of accomplishing the job. The activity of job design helps in making the
prevailing jobs and work systems more challenging and exciting for the employees.
In this way, job design helps in increasing the motivation level of the employees.
Job design establishes the role of a worker in a production system. Job design is an
outcome of the combination of job content and work methods. Job content describes
what it is that must be accomplished, while work methods specify how a worker
should perform the tasks required in the performance of the job.

Job design is the process by which job related tasks are planned and specified. The
primary aim of job design is to ensure that people and other resources are
effectively and efficiently utilized. An effective job design serves a two-fold purpose.
On one hand it keeps the employees satisfied and on the other hand it helps in
enhancing organizational productivity. It is an activity to ensure that people and
other resources are effectively and efficiently utilized. Job design is undertaken
keeping in mind job satisfaction and performance.
Design and re-design of work systems because everybody needs a change. So do
the workers in an organization. A re-design engineered in their work profile enthuses
a new spirit in the workers towards their work. Current and future work systems are
designed in line with the strategic policy of the organization.
Process of job analysis
In carrying out job analysis and design, there are three basic questions which
address the issues of organization, activity and the informal content:

What is the structure of the occupation?

What does the worker do?
What does the worker need to know?

Organizational structure
An organization consists of two or more individuals working together, as a cohesive
unit, for the accomplishment of common goals. Organizational Structure (OS)
provides a definite direction to the work-flow process within the organization. OS
establishes reporting relationships between employees of the organization and
defines the chain of command. One of the important determinants in evolving the
OS is the corporate strategy of the organization. OS is the framework that defines
reporting relationships between different positions within the organization. OS
facilitates in allocation of resources, delegation of authority, and in giving a definite
direction to the corporate strategy of the organization. The issues involved in
evolving an OS include authority, centralization or decentralization, and span of
control. OS is the mechanism that facilitates in imparting the organization a
cohesive structured unit so that it works efficiently to realize long-term
organizational goals.
Organization Design (OD) refers to the dynamics of relationships between different
personnel placed at different positions in the organization. The issues involved in
OD include degree of decentralization and span of control. An organization acquires
an OD depending on its area of work and its corporate strategy.
The first question above concerns the structure or framework of the occupation
being analyzed. If the data derived from the job analysis are used in a situation
where organizational structure is important to the product being developed, then

the structure of the occupation can serve as a basis from which the organizational
structure of the product is developed. For example, the hierarchical order of
occupational titles in a functionally related family of occupations can serve as a
basis for ordering and naming the units and courses of the training program
resulting from the job analysis.
Work activities
The second question addresses the activities of the worker in terms of both tasks
and performance steps. Once identified, the tasks, or completed units of work,
serve in various capacities ranging from the writing of learning objectives of a yetto-be-developed competency-based training program to the classification of job
titles and writing of job descriptions.
The performance steps for completing each task also will be used in the
development of a variety of related materials. Whenever procedure is an issue, the
performance steps of the tasks come into play. To use an example from the training
of employees in psychomotor skills, the sequence of performance steps guides the
instructor through a demonstration of the steps of the learning objective, to the
student's practice of the procedural steps, to a final determination of the student's
ability to perform the process on a performance test. In each of the three
performance-related learning activities, procedure is fundamental to identification
and development.
Information content
The third question involves identifying the knowledge or informational component of
the occupation. Three types of information most often referred to are technical
information, general information, and career and occupational guidance
information.
Technical information is that information the worker must know to perform a specific
task or group of tasks. Technical information gives the worker the judgment forming,
decision-making ability to perform the task(s) in a safe and correct manner. It is the
knowledge base from which the worker can make informed decisions affecting and
controlling his/her on-the-job performance.
General information, although related to the job itself or to the individual tasks that
comprise the job, does not have direct bearing on the performance of either the job
or its component tasks. General information complements the activities of the
workers but is not crucial to their outcome. For example, detailed knowledge about
the manufacture of computer chips has no direct bearing on the performance of a
computer programmer or systems analyst.
Career and occupational guidance information allows workers to make decisions
about themselves and the workplace. It includes information on such topics as the
short-, intermediate-, and long-range employment needs of the community; the
career interests and abilities of individuals; work, work roles and responsibilities; job

seeking skills; the employment outlook; and local, state, national, and global
economic trends.
Effective job description
A job description is a narrative statement defining a job, that is, what the employer
expects of the employee in terms of on-the-job performance. A job description [or
position description] is a list of responsibilities and functions required in a particular
position. A job description categorizes and defines the activities of a worker in more
general terms then those used in a job analysis. The description is intended to
provide a profile of the job rather than describe the occupation in the detail found in
most job analyses. The entries in a well-written job description are introduced by a
descriptive verb and closed by a noun defining the activity, for example, "maintains
bank records."
Complementing the job description is the job title. Job titles are general in nature, in
that they reflect all the activities contained in a job description. In one sense, a job
title is more an extension of the job description than of a completed job analysis.
The organization's job descriptions should be concise, clear, and correct. They also
should follow a consistent format. The format and style for writing job descriptions
might be different from any other type of writing that one does in the job. Writing
job descriptions is not a complex process, but it requires following a basic format
and including specific components. Creating successful job descriptions can be an
important part of your role manager.
What the terms mean
Before you begin writing job descriptions, it's helpful to understand the common
terms used in job descriptions:

Job is a basic term that describes a set of duties and responsibilities

performed by one person or multiple people.

Position is a job held by one person.

Responsibilities are major areas of accountability and are the primary

functions of a job.

Duties are functions that the jobholder performs to meet the job's
responsibilities. For example, a recruiter has the responsibility to recruit job
candidates; the recruiter performs the duty of interviewing to find qualified
job candidates.

Tasks are specific activities that jobholders perform to accomplish larger

duties and responsibilities. For example, a job holder might perform the task
of inputting general ledger entries into the accounting system as part of the
larger responsibility of maintaining the organization's financial accounting
system.

Gather information
To write an effective job description, you should first gather relevant job information.
A good starting point is existing job description and job analysis information from
within your organization. Excellent external sources include thumbnail descriptions
used in high-quality salary surveys, job postings in newspapers and periodicals, job
database Web sites and other sources like the U.S. Department of Labor's
Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Be sure to adapt existing content to the specific
functions and requirements of your organization and to the particular job that you
are describing.
Job description basics
Effectively developed, job descriptions are communication tools that are significant
in your organization's success. Poorly written job descriptions, on the other hand,
add to workplace confusion, hurt communication, and make people feel as if they
don't know what is expected from them. Job descriptions are written statements
that describe the duties, responsibilities, required qualifications, and reporting
relationships of a particular job. Job descriptions are based on objective information
obtained through job analysis, an understanding of the competencies and skills
required to accomplish needed tasks, and the needs of the organization to produce
work.
Job descriptions (JDs) are typically one to two pages in length. They include six key
elements:

Job title

Job summary

Key responsibilities

Minimum job requirements

Physical requirements

Disclaimer

General tips for writing job descriptions

Use clear and concise language.

Use examples to clarify words that have multiple meanings.

Avoid unnecessary words such as "the," "an," and "a."

Avoid employee names; use job titles instead.

Don't use proprietary names (for example, JKUAT and Nairobi City Council).

Don't refer to organization-specific terms or divisions that change frequently

or are not understood outside the organization.

Avoid gender-based language such as "he" and "she."

Don't include the reporting relationships for nonexempt jobs in which

jobholders might report to several different people.

Describe the job as it currently exists, not how it might be in the future.

Revise job descriptions after organization-wide or department

reorganizations, not before the reorganizations.

Don't write job descriptions to incorporate hidden agendas such as on-the-job

perks or bonus eligibility.

Job title
The first step in writing an effective JD is developing the title for the job. The job title
should accurately reflect the type of work performed (for example, "clerk,"
"processor," or "analyst"). It should also indicate the level of work being performed
(for example, "senior analyst", or "lead accountant").
Job titles in your organization should correspond to similar jobs in the industry. You
should also ensure that the job titles are compatible with your organization's
culture.
Tips for developing a job title

Don't exaggerate or inflate job titles. For example, use the job title "janitor"
instead of the inflated "sanitary engineer."

Avoid potentially discriminating job titles that refer to age, gender, or race.
For example, avoid using titles such as "girl Friday" and "salesman."

Avoid demeaning job titles such as "helper."

Consider whether the job title will be used in more than one department. For
example, you might need to decide whether "accounting manager" or
"manager" is a more appropriate job title.

Consider practical limitations on the job title, such as the length of a job title
field (for example, "Human Resources Information System").

Job summary

A job summary describes the primary reason for and function of the job. It also
provides an overview of the job and introduces the job responsibilities section. The
job summary should describe the job without detailed task descriptions. Its length
should range from one sentence to a paragraph, depending on the complexity of
the job.
Example of a job summary
A job summary for a Human Resources Manager might be the following: Manages
human resources functions and day-to-day human resources management activities
throughout organization, including employee recruiting, orientation, compensation,
benefits, and related programs. Manages all HR functions, staff, and HR department
budget.

Key responsibilities
The key responsibilities of a job are the essential functions that the jobholder
performs. The key responsibilities section of the JD should include an overview of
the job's essential functions that describes the basic aspects of the job and its
primary responsibilities. JDs should include only higher-level responsibilities minor
task descriptions provide too much detail for the scope and purpose of JDs.
Begin each job responsibility with a present tense action verb, and describe the
area of responsibility in action terms. Normally, there will be 7 to 10 responsibilities,
depending on the job.
Examples of key responsibilities

Develops marketing programs directed at increasing product sales and

awareness.

Writes programming code to develop various features and functionality for

commercial software products.

Designs and develops user interfaces for commercial software products.

Supervises technical support employees in providing technical support to

organization clients.

Manages development of advertising and various marketing collateral

materials.

Tips for writing key responsibilities

Use a telegraphic style (implied subject, verb, object, explanatory phrase) in

which the implied subject is the jobholder and the explanatory phrase tells
why, how, where, or how often the jobholder performs the task for
example, "Operates computer and peripheral equipment to obtain
information for requesting departments."

Exclude responsibilities that do not account for at least 5% of the work unless
they are critically important.

Arrange responsibilities in a logical order, such as the sequence in which they

are performed, their relative importance, or the percentage of time each
responsibility takes.

Incorporate relevant information such as level of independent judgment,

physical and mental effort, contacts, work complexity, equipment, and
supervisory responsibilities.

Include information regarding the frequency of the task and/or the

percentage of time spent performing the task.

Use words, sometimes called "level cutters," to differentiate levels of the

same job family. Typical level cutters relate to education and training, work
experience, ingenuity, physical and mental effort, consequences of errors,
and working conditions and potential hazards.

Identify functions that are essential

Minimum job requirements

Recruiters and human resources personnel use KSAs to guide recruiting efforts and
determine whether candidates are minimally qualified. To determine the minimum
requirements of a job, ask yourself what the job candidate needs to possess in
terms of:

Education the type and minimum level, such as high school diploma and
bachelor's degree.

Experience the type and minimum level, such as three to five years of
supervisory experience, five years of editing experience, and two years of
experience with content management systems.

Special skills such as languages spoken and computer software

proficiencies.

Certifications and licenses such as industry certifications and

practitioners' licenses.

Remember to list only the minimum knowledge, skills, and abilities required to
perform the job, not the ideal attributes you look for in a candidate.

Examples of job requirements

The job requirements for an accounting manager might include the following:
Requires BS/BA degree in accounting or business administration, plus a minimum of
four years' experience in either public accounting or professional-level corporate
accounting (alternative to BS/BA in accounting/business administration requirement
is MBA degree or CPA experience). Must have experience managing fixed assets
accounts, depreciation schedules, account reconciliation and managerial
accounting. Must be detail-oriented and have solid understanding of financial and
managerial accounting concepts
Tips for writing job requirements

Avoid arbitrary requirements that are difficult to validate.

Include only the minimally acceptable requirements. Do not inflate

requirements.

Be specific and realistic about the necessary requirements.

Do not consider the particular education, experience, or skill level of current

jobholders. Include only what the job requires.

Indicate why each requirement is necessary to perform the job. Relate the
requirement to how and why the job is done (for example, "ability to read and
comprehend instruction manuals to remedy minor equipment malfunctions").

Physical requirements
The physical requirements include the physical demands and environment of the job
and lists the basic physical conditions needed to perform the job. This section
should also list specific physical requirements such as lifting heavy objects and
standing for long periods of time.
Examples of physical requirements
The physical requirements for a freight delivery job might include the following:
Requires ability to rapidly and constantly lift large and heavy packages and boxes
and to repeatedly load and unload large boxes throughout shift. Must have ability to
safely lift minimum of 30kgs. without assistance and to push and pull up to 100kgs
with appropriate equipment. Requires significant demands on these physical
requirements throughout entire work shift and requires tasks to be performed in all
types of weather conditions.
Disclaimer

All JDs should include a disclaimer that clearly states that the JD is only a summary
of the typical functions of the job, not an exhaustive or comprehensive list of all
possible job responsibilities, tasks, and duties. Disclaimers should also state that the
responsibilities, tasks, and duties of the jobholder might differ from those outlined in
the JD and that other duties, as assigned, might be part of the job. Some
organizations, jobholders, and labor unions interpret the language of JDs literally.
Therefore, it is important to include a disclaimer.
Review and approve job descriptions
Review your JD before distributing it. If the JD was written by an external source, it is
advisable that a management-level employee or a few jobholders in the relevant
department also review the JD. JDs should be approved by human resources staff
members and line or staff management. If a review process does not exist, create
one. Periodic reviews of JDs are also necessary review every two or three years
for accuracy.
Make job descriptions work
Creating effective JDs can improve the human resources processes in your
organization and give clarity to job candidates and job holders. JDs can also be
helpful for performance reviews and compensation strategies. Focus your efforts on
developing accurate JDs that include the six key components and are clear, concise,
and consistent across your organization. By developing effective JDs, you can make
your organization's compensation strategy successful.
Job Classification
A job classification is used to group occupations by function level or ability. To
classify jobs by function means to categorize them by similarity of function or
activity. For example, titles such as marketing, accounting, production,
management, and human resources development imply that all people working in
the one of these defined areas are performing a similar type of activity. Functional
job classifications are regularly used in organizational development and in the
preparation of organization charts.
In contrast, to classify occupations by ability level involves using terms that
designate amount of on-the-job experience, skill level, and types of education and
training. Terms such as apprentice, technician, and specialist all reflect a
classification of jobs by ability level. The classification of employees by ability levels
also guides organizational management in establishing the wage and salary
schedules of employees.
Use the form shown in Appendix I to describe the duties of a certain job and how
the job relates to other positions in the company. Use this form in conjunction with
the Job Analysis form shown in Appendix II to create recruitment materials, such as
classified ads.
Motivation and job design

Motivation is the psychological feature that arouses the behavior of an individual

towards accomplishment of certain pre-defined goals. Job design involves
envisioning and defining specification of work system related to a particular job. It is
an activity to ensure that people and other resources are effectively and efficiently
utilized. Job design is undertaken keeping in mind job satisfaction and performance.
Job design plays an important role in enhancing motivation level of the employees
at the workplace.
Motivation is one of those topics about which much is preached with little result.
The reason is simple: Leaders do not motivate-not directly, anyway. They do it
indirectly. Motivation is an intrinsic response; it comes from inside and cannot be
imposed from the outside. Motivation comes from wanting to do something of one's
own free will
If you are free, you can choose to do something. Take the Greeks under Xenophon.
They chose him as their general. Why? Because they believed that he had the right
combination of skills and talents to lead them into battle and, as circumstances
would have it, out of battle, too. The same holds for the employees of, say, a certain
company, X, which had recently been salvaged from definite collapse by its CEO.
While they may have had no say in the choice of their CEO, they may have had a
choice when it came to negotiating for a pay raise. They may however have had to
accept lower wages, on account of having that CEO who motivated them, because
they perceived that it would be in the company's best interests, as well as their
own, to make a short-term sacrifice for a long-term gain.
Both the Greeks and the employees were motivated to do what they did. To turn the
situation on its head, Xenophon could have compelled the soldiers to follow him
through force-after all, that was the way things were done in the Persian army and
in the army of Alexander the Great a century later-but it is doubtful that compulsion
of this sort would have led so many men to safety; instead, one by one, they would
have drifted away to fend for themselves. Likewise, at company X, the CEO could
have insisted on getting a better wage deal, but he did not; the union members
accepted lower wages of their own accord, thereby avoiding acrimony and building
upon the loyalty their CEO had shown them earlier when he rebuilt the company
from financial ruins. The short answer is leadership. Leadership is about getting
things done the right way; to do that, you need people. To get people to follow you,
you need to have them trust you. And if you want them to trust you and do things
for you and the organization, they need to be motivated. Motivation is purely and
simply a leadership behavior. It stems from wanting to do what is right for people as
well as for the organization. If we consider leadership to be an action, motivation,
too, is an active process. And if you go deep enough, motivation itself is driven by a
series of actions grouped under three headings: energize, encourage and exhort.
Energize
Energize is what leaders do when they set the right example, communicate clearly,
and challenge appropriately.

Exemplify
Motivation starts with a good example. Leaders who hope to motivate must reflect
the vision, mission, and culture of the organization they lead. What they do says
more about who they are as leaders than what they say. The example they set will
be the one that others follow. The leader who preaches the value of teamwork and
volunteers to help out teams in need is demonstrating the right example.

Communicate
Communication is central to leadership; it includes how the leader speaks, listens,
and learns. The leader who wishes to motivate must communicate a vision and a
mission and follow up to check for understanding. People need to know what to do,
but they also need to know that their leaders are listening. Motivation can occur
only if two-way communications occur.
Challenge
People like to be challenged. Leaders who tap into this need can achieve powerful
goals because they will be linking those goals with the fulfillment of desires. The
hard part of crafting a challenge is to focus on what is attainable in ways which are
energizing and exciting and play upon people's imagination and creativity.
Encourage
Encourage is what leaders do to support the process of motivation through
empowerment, coaching, and recognition.
Empower
Leaders soon learn that their real power comes from others. It is by unleashing the
individual talents and skills of other people that they can achieve their intended
results. The release of this collective energy can occur only if the leader grants
people the responsibility and authority to act. Empowerment becomes a powerful
motivational tool because it puts people in control of their own destinies.
Coach
It is a leader's responsibility to provide people with the right support to do their job.
The bedrock of that support can be found in the relationship between manager and
employee. The best way to nurture that relationship is through frequent and regular
one-on-one coaching sessions. Coaching provides the opportunity for the leader to
get to know the employee as a person and how she can help the employee achieve
personal and organizational goals. Coaching also begins the process of creating the
next generation of leaders.
Recognize. The need for recognition is paramount. Recognition may be the single
most powerful reason that people work, aside from income. It is fundamental to our

humanity that we want people to recognize what we do and how we do it. When
people are recognized, they become motivated; they want to do the work, and they
want to do it well.
Exhort
Exhorting is how leaders create an experience based on sacrifice and inspiration
that prepares the ground upon which motivation can flourish.
Sacrifice. The truest measure of service is sacrifice, putting the needs of others
ahead of your own. When employees see their leaders put other people first and do
it by putting aside their own ambitions, they learn to trust their leaders. Sacrifice is
a form of commitment to others.
Inspire. Motivation really comes down to inspiration. Since motivation comes from
within, it is a form of self-inspiration.
The Facts on Motivation
The need for motivation is very real. Anyone who manages bright, knowledgeable,
and talented employees needs to develop a work environment that offers
challenges, grants responsibility, and offers a degree of flexibility as well as an
opportunity for growth and development and recognition. All of these factors are in
addition to pay. When these factors are not present, workers become dissatisfied,
and their interest and subsequent productivity decline. They also will look for
opportunities to leave, thereby wasting the organization's investment in their
training and development.
Has there ever been a greater need for managers to create a desirable, hospitable,
productive work environment in which employees can find challenges and be
rewarded financially, emotionally, and psychically? Motivation is not something
that's nice to do. It's a must-do, but it's a must-do that pays dividends for all who
participate.
Motivation Planner
Motivation is about getting other people to do something because they want to do
it. Use the following questions to assess your situation and how you might begin to
create conditions in which people would feel more motivated. Think about where
you work and the people who work there. As you think, consider the following:
1. Why do people come to work? For a paycheck? For recognition?
2. Do people feel motivated - that is, do they like to be at work because it is an
enriching experience? If not, what is missing?
3. Consider the motivation model-energize, encourage and exhort-then think
about the people in your organization.

Are
Are
Are
Are
Are
Are
Are
Are

the
the
the
the
the
the
the
the

leaders
leaders
leaders
leaders
leaders
leaders
leaders
leaders

setting the right example?

communicating?
challenging their people?
empowering others?
coaching?
recognizing?
sacrificing?
inspiring?

4. What could you do to improve the climate for motivation?

Application
Each of the following are specific applications of the information gained from a
completed job analysis. In some cases, most or all of the information is used in the
development of the final product, in other cases, only a portion of the job analysis
data is used.
Training Program Development
The organizational structure, work activities, and informational content identified in
a job analysis serve as the basis for developing both the structure and content of a
training program. The structure of the occupation determines the organization of
the curricular components of the training program. The content of the training
program depends on the activities and information needed to perform in the
occupation. In a competency-based training program, the titles of the tasks become
the titles of the corresponding learning objectives. The technical information topics
and performance steps of the tasks, respectively, serve as the basis for identifying
and organizing the knowledge- and performance-related learning activities of the
learning objectives.
Critical incident training is the result of applying the activities and content of a job
analysis in a specific training situation. As discussed by Davies (1981), the critical
incident method of instruction "focuses upon collecting information on key tasks,
particularly on those where problems occur" (p. 131). For these tasks, special
training can be devised using the activities and informational content first identified
in the job analysis and later, translated into learning objectives, curricula and
instructional materials.
Job Descriptions/Job Titles
Organization Charts
Organization charts visually depict the line/staff relationships and responsibilities of
departments/units and individuals working in an organization. The information
gleaned from a job description, together with that found in the accompanying job
classification, serves as the basis for determining the final configuration and content
of a completed organization chart.

Time and Motion Studies

Time and motion studies address the issues of industrial production and efficiency,
since they attempt to measure time on task, product quality, and worker safety.
These studies are conducted in the workplace under normal working conditions. A
completed job analysis provides the researcher with the necessary list of tasks and
performance steps, that is, work activities performed by employees in the
completion of their jobs. The focus of a time and motion study is to eliminate
wasted motion and determine the most efficient way of performing a particular task.
Quality Assurance Standards
Quality assurance includes all the planned and systematic activities implemented
within the quality system. A job description provides the quality assurance
professional with the list of tasks performed in a particular job and the performance
steps (procedures) required to perform each of the tasks. Also, in a comprehensive
job analysis, standards of performance for both the tasks and performance steps are
included. The two sets of criteria assist in determining the quality outcomes of both
the task (product) and procedural steps (process).
The same two sets of quality standards are also applicable in the education and
training of people for the workplace. Again, the content of the completed job
analysis would provide instructors with the standards used in preparing students for
employment
Human Resources Manager
A job summary of a HRM is to manage a human resources department, overseeing
administration of hiring, retention, termination, personnel records, legal compliance,
compensation, benefits, and long-term staffing strategies. Responsibilities include
development and administration of personnel rules and regulations, pay and job
classification structure, and programs for employee training, safety, health, and
morale.
From hiring to succession planning, Human Resources streamlines administrative
tasks and enables you to focus on strategic business initiatives.
Essential functions:
a. Sets policies for hiring and oversees adherence to EEOC and affirmative
action programs and diversity goals set by the corporation.
b. Establishes policies that seek to increase retention rates and foster employee
job satisfaction and high morale.
c. Approves terminations, and exercises care that reasons are well documented
and are not arbitrary or discriminatory.
d. Oversees maintenance of accurate and complete personnel records. Ensures
that rules concerning confidentiality and retention are followed.

e. Keeps abreast of legislation affecting human resources; trains management

and monitors company policies to ensure compliance.
f. Oversees preparation of job descriptions and compensation programs. Seeks
incentive programs that encourage excellent performance and increase
retention rates.
g. Reviews benefits and tries to maximize job satisfaction while keeping the cost
of the benefits package under control.
h. Works with top management to set long-term staffing goals and strategies.
i. Oversees training and safety programs in context of compliance with
government regulation.
j. Makes regular reports to chief operating officer.
k. Develops and administers various human resources plans and procedures for
all company personnel.
l. Plans, organizes, and controls all activities of the department.
m. Participates in developing department goals, objectives, and systems, and
recommends necessary changes.
n. Implements and annually updates compensation program; rewrites job
descriptions as necessary; conducts annual salary surveys and develops
merit pool (salary budget); analyzes compensation; monitors performance
evaluation program and revises as necessary.
o. Develops, recommends, and implements personnel policies and procedures;
prepares and maintains handbook on policies and procedures; performs
benefits administration to include claims resolution, change reporting,
approving invoices for payment, annual re-evaluation of policies for cost
effectiveness, information activities program, and cash flow for said program.
p. Develops and maintains affirmative action program; files EEO-1 annually;
maintains other records, reports, and logs to conform to EEO regulations.
q. Conducts recruitment effort for all exempt and nonexempt personnel,
students, and temporary employees; conducts new-employee orientations;
monitors career pathing program, employee relations counseling,
outplacement counseling, and exit interviewing; writes and places
advertisements.
r. Participates in administrative staff meetings and attends other meetings,
such as seminars.
s. Evaluates reports, decisions, and results of department in relation to
established goals. Recommends new approaches, policies, and procedures to
effect continual improvements in efficiency of department and services
performed.
Job evaluation
What is job evaluation?
Job evaluation can be defined as a method of determining on a systematic basis
the relative importance of a number of different jobs'. Job evaluation is a tool used
to evaluate the worth of each job in the organization and in today's labor market. A
successful job evaluation system can help to make organization's pay system
equitable, understandable, legally defensible, approachable, and externally
competitive.

It's a useful process because job titles can often be misleading - either unclear or
unspecific - and in large organisations it's impossible for those in HR to know each
job in detail. As a rough guide, job evaluation, like many pay management
techniques, tends to be desirable in organisations once the number of employees
exceeds around 50. It usually becomes essential once employee numbers increase
to more than 250. But each organisation is different and the use of job evaluation
techniques will depend on individual circumstances. A recent reward management
survey finds that just under one third of the sample use job evaluation. By sector
and size, job evaluation is far more prevalent in the public and voluntary sectors
and among larger employers.
Job evaluation is an evaluation of the role, not the person doing it. A job evaluation
scheme should be a fair system, understood by and communicated to employees. It
should be transparent, and reviewed regularly to ensure business needs continue to
be met.
When to use job evaluation
Job evaluation is often used when:

determining pay and grading structures

ensuring a fair and equal pay system

deciding on benefits provision - for example, bonuses and cars

comparing rates against the external market

undergoing organisational development in times of change

undertaking career management and succession planning

reviewing all jobs post-large-scale change, especially if roles have also

changed.

It is essential to have clear, detailed and up-to-date job descriptions on which to

base the job evaluation.
Types of job evaluation
There are two main types of job evaluation: analytical schemes, where jobs are
broken down into their core components, and non-analytical schemes, where jobs
are viewed as a whole. The use of an analytical scheme offers a better defence if a
claim is made to an employment tribunal for equal pay for work of equal value.
Analytical schemes

These offer greater objectivity in assessment as the jobs are broken down in detail,
and are the ones most often used by organisations. Examples of analytical schemes
include Points Rating and Factor Comparison.
Points Rating
This is the most commonly used method. The key elements of each job, which are
known as 'factors', are identified by the organisation and then broken down into
components. Each factor is assessed separately and points allocated according to
the level needed for the job. The more demanding the job, the higher the points
value. Factors usually assessed include:
Knowledge and skills
work experience
qualifications
external qualifications
specialist training

People management
human relations skills
ability to deal with work pressure
supervisory responsibility

Communication and
networking

Freedom to act

social skills

depth of control

presentation skills

supervision received

diplomacy

Decision-making
judgement
initiative
analytical ability

Working environment
knowledge of special working practices
breadth of management skill required

Impact and influence

efficiency
impact on customers

Financial responsibility
budgeting

responsibility

results of errors

This list is not meant to be exhaustive, but gives examples of the characteristics
that are frequently measured.

Factor Comparison
Factor Comparison is similar to Points Rating, being based on an assessment of
factors, though no points are allocated. Use of the Factor Comparison method is not
as widespread as the Points Rating systems, because the use of points enables a
large number of jobs to be ranked at one time.
Non-analytical schemes
These are less objective than analytical schemes, but are often simpler and cheaper
to introduce. Methods include job ranking, paired comparisons and job classification.
Job ranking
This is the simplest form of job evaluation. It is done by putting the jobs in an
organisation in order of their importance, or the level of difficulty involved in
performing them, or their value to the organisation. Judgements are made about the
roles based on aspects such as the jobs' scope and impact, their level of autonomy,
the complexity of their tasks and the knowledge and skills needed. Once this
analysis is done, the jobs together form a hierarchy which indicates the different
levels, or ranks, within the organisation.
Organisations often divide the ranks into grades. The number of grades chosen will
depend on the organisation's needs. This process is easily understood by employees
and is relatively cheap to undertake.
Paired comparisons
This is a statistical technique used to compare each job with others in an
organisation. Using a ranking form, points are allocated to the job:

two points if it is considered to be of higher value

one point if it is regarded as equal worth

no points if it is less important.

The scores are added up and then the final overall ranking can be given. Paired
comparisons gives greater consistency, but takes longer than job ranking as each
job is considered separately.
Job classification
This method is also known as job grading. Before classification, an agreed number
of grades are determined, usually between four and eight, based on tasks
performed, skills, competencies, experience, initiative and responsibility. Clear
distinctions are made between grades. The jobs in the organisation are then
allocated to the determined grades.

Designing job evaluation schemes

Both analytical and non-analytical schemes can be developed. Organisations can
develop a system themselves, use consultants, buy a consultancy's off-the-shelf
package, or employ the consultancy to tailor the package to suit the organisation.
The Hay Guide Chart-Profile Method is the most widely used scheme, but there are
many other schemes developed by other consultancies. What is chosen will depend
on the size of the organisation and the aim of the job evaluation exercise. It is
possible to use different schemes for different types of employee.
The following big consultancies offer off-the-shelf or tailor-made schemes:

HayGroup
Hewitt
Mercer
PricewaterhouseCoopers
SHL Group
Towers Perrin
Watson Wyatt.

Many other independent consultancies also offer job evaluation services.

The type of scheme chosen will depend on the organisation needs. But any staff
making decisions on job roles will need training in the chosen system. Involving
employees in the process can increase their commitment and further engagement
with the organisation, but they must remain impartial at all times in the process.
Implementing a scheme
When introducing job evaluation for the first time, it's important to communicate
with employees. A suggested process is:

Other factors to consider

the process is often as important as the results

large-scale evaluation can potentially involve all roles in an organisation

job evaluation should be an ongoing process

a decision should be made at the beginning on how results will be

communicated

an appeals procedure should be established before the evaluation

begins

the more complex the scheme, the more detailed the job description
needs to be

accurate records of decisions should be kept

the results should be tested to see if there are any pay anomalies.

Appendix I: Job Description

Date _______________________________
Prepared By_________________________
Title ________________________________
Department__________________________
Job Description
Job Title:
Job Summary:

Reports to:

Salary Range & Benefits:

Hours Required:
Major Duties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Minor Duties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Relationships
Number of People Supervised:
Person Assigning Work Assignments:

Job analysis information sheet

This Job Analysis Information Sheet form is used to define a job within your
company. It documents the purpose of the job, whom the supervisor will be, the job
duties, the education level required for the position, the experience required,
location of the job, environmental conditions, health and safety conditions, as well
as the machines, tools, and work aids that the incumbent will be in contact with on
a regular basis. This form lends itself to the manufacturing environment, but it can
be adapted to fit a number of types of jobs

Appendix II: Job Analysis Information Sheet

Job Title: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________
Job Code: ________________________________ Dept.:
_________________________________
Superior's Title: _________________________________________________________________
Hours worked _______ AM to ________ PM
Job Analyst's Name:
______________________________________________________________

1. What is the job's overall purpose?

______________________________________________________________________________
2. If the incumbent supervises others, list them by job title; if there is
more than one employee with the same title, put the number in parentheses
following.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Check those activities that are part of the incumbent's supervisory
duties.
Training

 Performance appraisal
Inspecting work
Budgeting
Coaching and/or counseling
Others (please specify)
__________________________________________________

4. Describe the type and extent of supervision received by the

incumbent.
______________________________________________________________________________
5. JOB DUTIES: Describe briefly WHAT the incumbent does and, if possible,
HOW he or she does it. Include duties in the following categories:
a. Daily duties (those performed on a regular basis every day or almost
every day)
_______________________________________________________________________
b. Periodic duties (those performed weekly, monthly, quarterly, or at
other regular intervals)
_______________________________________________________________________
c. Duties performed at irregular intervals
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Is the incumbent performing duties he or she considers unnecessary? If so,
describe.
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Is the incumbent performing duties not presently included in the job
description? If so, describe.
______________________________________________________________________________

8. EDUCATION: Check the box that indicates the educational requirements

for the job (not the educational background of the incumbent).
No formal education required
Eighth grade education
High school diploma (or equivalent)
2-year college degree (or equivalent)
4-year college degree (or equivalent)
Graduate work or advanced degree (specify:)
Professional license (specify:)

9. EXPERIENCE: Check the amount of experience needed to perform the job.

None
Less than 1 month
1 to 6 months
6 months to 1 year
1 to 3 years
3 to 5 years
5 to 10 years
More than 10 years

10. LOCATION: Check location of job and, if necessary or appropriate,

describe briefly.
Outdoor
Indoor

 Underground
Pit
Scaffold
Other (specify)

11. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS: Check any objectionable conditions

found on the job and note afterward how frequently each is encountered
(rarely, occasionally, constantly, etc.)
Dirt
Dust
Heat
Cold
Noise
Fumes
Odors
Wetness/humidity
Vibration
Sudden temperature changes
Darkness or poor lighting
Other (specify)
12. HEALTH AND SAFETY: Check any undesirable health and safety
conditions under which the incumbent must perform and note how often they
are encountered.
Elevated workplace
Mechanical hazards

 Explosives
Electrical hazards
Fire hazards
Radiation
Other (specify)
13. MACHINES, TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, AND WORK AIDS: Describe briefly
what machines, tools, equipment, or work aids the incumbent works with on
a regular basis:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
14. Have concrete work standards been established (errors allowed, time
taken for a particular task, etc.)? If so, what are they?
______________________________________________________________________________
15. Are there any personal attributes (special aptitudes, physical
characteristics, personality traits, etc.) required by the job?
______________________________________________________________________________
16. Are there any exceptional problems the incumbent might be expected to
encounter in performing the job under normal conditions? If so, describe.
______________________________________________________________________________
17. Describe the successful completion and/or end results of the job.
______________________________________________________________________________
18. What is the seriousness of error on this job? Who or what is affected by
errors the incumbent makes?
______________________________________________________________________________
19. To what job would a successful incumbent expect to be promoted?

[Note: This form is obviously slanted toward a manufacturing environment,

but it can be adapted quite easily to fit a number of different types of jobs.]

Job analysis questionnaires

Two sample job analysis questionnaires are shown. The first is geared to clerical and
administrative positions. The second relates to employees who will be called on to
manage people and make decisions affecting your business. Consider either a
starting point in examining the needs of your business. Either form can and should
be tailored to reflect your situation. The items listed in the paper may be right on
point, or they may suggest other activities that are more relevant to your business.
Sample Job Analysis Checklists
ROUTINE CLERICAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Activity

Frequency
D W
M

Compose standard letters in response to routine correspondence.

Schedule appointments without prior clearance, schedule
meetings and conferences, and make travel arrangements
including reservations.

Prepare meeting and conference rooms.

Maintain, process, distribute, and update records, files, and
documents.

Maintain confidential records and files, and handle confidential
correspondence and records.

Open, sort and distribute mail.

Types labels, letters, envelopes, and invoices.

Determine layout and format, and type in finished format.
Proofread and correct errors.
Set up an type financial and statistical reports.
Take dictation and transcribe.
Transcribe dictation from voice recordings.
Record, type, and distribute meeting minutes.


Answer telephones, screen and place calls, monitor and follow up
on voice mail recordings, refer callers to appropriate parties.

Prepare, process, and verify invoices, bills, checks and receipts.

Maintain and report expense account activity.

Receive and welcome visitors, and refer to appropriate parties.

Maintain and update mailing lists.

Enter data electronically and verify.

Process payroll records.

Perform calculations, post and verify figures, trace and adjust
errors.

Maintain inventory of office supplies, requisition new supplies, and
distribute supplies to authorized parties.

Schedule and monitor equipment repairs and service contracts.

Maintain locks and keys for storage cabinets and other facilities,
and distribute to authorized parties.

Orient and train new employees.

Schedule work for coworkers as requested.

Handle cash and negotiable instruments.

Maintain cash box.

Sign legal documents.

Act as resource for others as to staff and locations.

Maintain records of cash receipts and disbursements.

Review job applicants/applications and conducts screening
interviews.

Collate and bind.

Make copies.

Date and stamp documents.

Recommend improvements in operations and procedures.

Record and verify entries or accounts, journals, logs, and general
ledgers.

Balance accounts and reconcile statements.

Modify operations and/or procedures.

Maintain procedures and information manuals.
Develop operating budget for approval.
Research, tabulate, and summarize information of routine,
periodic or special reports.
Present findings in oral or written form.

Indicate the equipment that is operated as a regular part of the

responsibilities of the job:
Calculator

Camera

Computer

Dictation equipment

Cash register/petty cash

Facsimile machine

Microfilm equipment

Photocopier

Postage machine

Security equipment

Sorter

Switchboard

Word processor
Other equipment: ________________
Other Activities:

CHECKLIST OF ROUTINE MANAGERIAL/SUPERVISORY DUTIES

Analyze, on a periodic basis, workload and personnel needs of an organizational
unit.
Recommend changes in the staff level of the work unit.
Review documentation for new positions and positions that have been revised.
Obtain approval to modify positions.

Interview candidates for employment and make hiring decision or

recommendations.
Orient new subordinates concerning policy and procedures, work rules, and
performance expectation levels. Review position responsibilities.
Plan, delegate, communicate and control work assignments and special projects
concerning subordinates.
Establish and maintain specific work goals and objectives or quantitative and
qualitative work standards to be achieved by subordinates.
Train, develop, and motivate subordinates to improve current performance and to
prepare for higher- level jobs.
Determine significant changes in responsibilities and major duties of subordinates
by reviewing their job responsibilities on a regular basis.
Evaluate the performance of subordinates. Document and discuss present and past
performance with each direct report. Keep supervisor informed of results.
Review salaries of subordinates and recommend changes according to policy and
procedures.
Recommend personnel actions such as promotions, performance awards,
demotions, etc., according to budget guidance and policy.
Advise superiors and subordinates of developments that impact job duties. Ensure
proper communications.
Maintain discipline, recommend and administer corrective action according to policy
and procedures.
Communicate and administer personnel programs in accordance with design and
objectives.
Maintain proper documentation on all subordinates.
Other responsibilities: