AIRCRAFT DRAWINGS

INTRODUCTION
When an aircraft is conceived in the minds of engineers and designers, it is nothing but an idea until put on paper.
After a drawing is made others can add their expertise and ideas. These thoughts can then be translated into an
aluminum or steel part. When an aircraft is designed, detailed drawings of every single part are made on translucent vellum or Mylar. Once the drawings are made, they are sent to the reproduction department. Here, copies are
printed by a process called blueprinting, where the black lines from the translucent vellum or Mylar are printed
as blue lines on paper. Every aircraft drawing is numbered so that a careful record is maintained. This way, if any
changes are required, the information is passed on to affected personnel who incorporate the changes into the
parts as they are built.

DRAWINGS
Typically, all aircraft factories have a drawing
room manual that details all lines, symbols, and
conventions used by that company. However, in an
effort to establish an industry standard, applications for aircraft drawings have been standardized.
It is these applications and standards that are covered by this text.

working drawings, the detail drawing, the assembly

drawing, and the installation drawing. Other types
of drawings include sectional drawings, explodedview drawings, block diagrams, logic flowcharts,
electrical wiring diagrams, pictorial diagrams, and
schematic diagrams. Each type of drawing is
designed to transmit a certain type of information.

TYPES OF DRAWINGS

DETAIL DRAWINGS

As an aircraft technician there are several types of

drawings and graphic representations you must
become familiar with. Each type of drawing is
designed to transmit a certain piece of information.
The most common type of drawing you will use is
the working drawing. There are three classes of

When an aircraft is designed, a detail drawing is

made for every part. A detail drawing supplies all
the information required to construct a part, including all dimensions, materials, and type of finish.
When needed, an enlarged section or a drawing of
another view is added to make the drawing easier to
understand. [Figure 5-1]

Figure 5-1. A detail drawing includes enough information to fabricate an individual part. If necessary, another view is added to
enhance understanding.

Aircraft
Drawings

When a detail drawing is made, it is carefully and

accurately drawn to scale and dimensioned.
However, when a print is made, the paper the copy
is made on tends to shrink or stretch. Therefore, a
measurement should never be scaled from a print.
Instead, all measurements should be derived from
the dimensions given.
ASSEMBLY DRAWING
After individual parts are fabricated, they are
assembled into various subassemblies with the aid
of an assembly drawing. An assembly drawing
depicts the relationship between two or more parts.
These drawings reference individual parts by their
part number and specify the type and number of fasteners needed to join them. Because there are detail
drawings for each component, no materials are

5-3

specified and only those dimensions needed to

assemble the parts are included. [Figure 5-2]
INSTALLATION DRAWINGS
All subassemblies are brought together in an
installation drawing. This type of drawing shows
the general arrangement or position of parts with
respect to an aircraft and provides the information
needed to install them. Like the assembly drawing, the bill of material on an installation drawing
lists the fasteners needed, as well as any instructions required for the installation. Dimensions are
given only for those adjustments necessary for the
part to function. Often, portions of an aircraft that
are not involved in the installation are shown using
phantom lines. This helps you locate where a part is
installed. Parts that are used only as a reference are

Figure 5-2. An assembly drawing shows how two or more parts are assembled into a complete unit.

Aircraft
Drawings

5-4

Figure 5-3. Installation drawings show how parts are installed on an aircraft.

often identified by their part name and the word

"Ref" is noted beside it. [Figure 5-3]
SECTIONAL DRAWINGS
When it is necessary to show the internal construction or shape of a part a sectional drawing is used.
There are four types of sectional drawings, the
revolved section, the removed section, the complete
section, and the half section.

When only the shape of a part needs to be shown, it

is shown with either a revolved or removed section.
The revolved section drawing is often used to illustrate simple items with no interior parts. Basically,
a revolved section drawing shows how a part is sectioned and revolved to illustrate it from a different
view. [Figure 5-4]
Like the revolved section drawing, the removed section drawing is also used to illustrate simple

Aircraft Drawings

5-5

Figure 5-4. In a revolved section, a portion of an object is turned or revolved to show a different view. Here, the I- beam has been
broken in two places with long break lines and the cross section is shown between the breaks.

Figure 5-7. The half-sectional view allows the inside and outside of a part to be seen at the same time.

objects. However, to do this, the object is cut by a

cutting plane line and a section is removed to illustrate another angle. [Figure 5-5]

Complex assemblies like cable connectors are typically shown in complete sectional views. With
this type of view, it is easy to identify individual
parts within a complex assembly. This feature is
further enhanced through the proper use of section
lines. [Figure 5-6]
When it is helpful to see the outside of a part as well
as the inside, a half-sectional view is made. With
this type of drawing, typically the upper half of a
drawing shows the internal construction of the
assembly, while the lower half shows the entire
assembly as it appears from the outside. [Figure 5-7]
EXPLODED-VIEW DRAWING

Figure 5-5. In a removed section drawing, the object illustrated is cut and a section is removed to illustrate another
angle.

Illustrated parts drawings often make use of

exploded view drawings to show every part in an
assembly. In this type of drawing, all parts are typically in their relative positions and expanded outward. Each part is identified by both its physical
appearance and its reference number which is used
on the parts list. [Figure 5-8]
BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Figure 5-6. The use of a sectional view to illustrate a cable

connector makes it easy to identify the unit's separate parts.

With electrical systems and electronic components

becoming more complex, procedures and graphical
aids have been developed to aid you in locating
problems. One such aid is the block diagram. A
block diagram consists of individual blocks that
represent several components such as a printed circuit board or some other type of replaceable module. Since most of the maintenance needed on complex systems consists of identifying a malfunctioning subassembly and replacing it, block diagrams
greatly enhance this process. When using a block

Aircraft
Drawings

5-6

Figure 5-3. Exploded-view drawings are typically found in illustrated parts catalogs. They show a part's relative position within a
unit.

diagram you must trace the problem to the module

that receives the correct input, but does not produce
the required output. Once this is done, the module
is removed as a whole and replaced. [Figure 5-9]
LOGIC FLOWCHARTS
Logic flowcharts are another aid used in troubleshooting. A logic flowchart represents the
mechanical, electrical, or electronic action of a system without expressing construction or engineering
information. When using a logic flowchart, go to the
oblong START symbol and follow the arrows
through the logical testing sequence.

On most flow charts rectangular boxes explain a

procedure, while diamonds identify questions that
require a specific answer. In other words, after using
a rectangular box to test something, you must match
the existing condition before proceeding to the next
course of action. Each diamond has one input and at
least two outputs. In order to assure that all discrepancies are addressed, you must follow a flow
chart to the oblong END OF TEST symbol.
In addition to identifying the probable cause of a
problem, many flow charts specify a fix for each circumstance. By using this information, troubleshooting time is reduced to a minimum. [Figure 5-10]

LOGIC
CONTROL

DRIVERS
AND
DISPLAYS

MEMORY

KEEP
ALIVE
CIRCUT

POINT
VECTOR

LATCHES

SWITCH
PANEL

+28V
AIRCRAFT
POWER

VOR
VECTOR

DIGITAL
PHASE
SHIFTER

DIGITAL
TO ANALOG
CONVERTER

SUMMING
JUNCTION

RNAV
VECTOR

MEMORY
CLOCK

Figure 5-9. The module that receives the correct input but does not produce the required output is the unit to remove and replace.

Aircraft Drawings

Figure 5-10. To aid in troubleshooting, logic flowcharts give step-by-step instructions to follow.

5-7

5-8

Aircraft
Drawings

Figure 5-11. To identify and troubleshoot electrical parts and circuits an electrical wiring diagram is typically used.

ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAMS

Electrical wiring diagrams are included in most aircraft service manuals and specify things like the
size of wire and type of terminals to be used for a
particular application. Furthermore, wiring diagrams typically identify each component within a
system by its part number and its serial number,
including any changes that were made during the
production run of an aircraft. Because of this, wiring
diagrams are extremely valuable for troubleshooting. [Figure 5-11]
There are several types of electrical wiring diagrams. Some diagrams show only one circuit while
others show several circuits within a system. More
detailed diagrams show the connection of wires at
splices or the arrangement of parts.

PICTORIAL DIAGRAMS
Pilot's handbooks and some training manuals often
use pictorial diagrams of electrical and hydraulic
systems. In a pictorial diagram pictures of components are used instead of the conventional electrical
symbols found in schematic diagrams. In most
cases, pictorial diagrams help a person visualize the
operation of a specific system. [Figure 5-12]
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
A schematic diagram is used to illustrate a principle
of operation and, therefore, does not show parts as
they actually appear or function. However,
schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components with respect to each other and in the case
of a hydraulic system, the direction of fluid flow.
Because of this, schematic diagrams are best utilized for troubleshooting. [Figure 5-13]

Aircraft
Drawings

5-9

Figure 5-12. This pictorial diagram of an electrical system allows you to visualize the components involved in the system.

Figure 5-13. This schematic diagram of a constant-speed propeller illustrates all components with respect to each other to show
how a constant speed propeller operates.

5-10

Aircraft
Drawings

METHODS OF ILLUSTRATION

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

The methods of illustrating a part refer to its orientation with respect to how it is viewed on a flat
plane. The orthographic projection, auxiliary, isometric, oblique, and perspective methods of illustration are all common to the aviation maintenance
industry.

Most drawings used in the construction of a

detailed part are drawn using the orthographic projection method of illustration. In orthographic projection there are six possible views from which an
object can be drawn: the front, rear, top, bottom, left
side, and right side. Each view is drawn as if you
put an object in a transparent box and viewed it
from one of the box faces. All rays extending from
the part are parallel and perpendicular to the side
they are viewed from. [Figure 5-14]
More often than not, six views are not needed to
illustrate a part. In fact, one-view, two-view, and
three-view drawings are the most common. In a
three-view drawing the front, right side, and top
views are illustrated. When drawn, these views are
positioned on paper according to the same relationship they have if the sides of the transparent box are
opened out. [Figure 5-15]
AUXILIARY DRAWINGS

Figure 5-14. With full orthographic drawings, you see all

sides of an object.

Although an orthographic drawing can represent up

to six individual views, it is sometimes necessary to
see a view that is not at a 90 degree angle to the face
of an object. In this situation, an auxiliary drawing
is used. [Figure 5-16]

The form of pictorial presentation that is most used

for aircraft drawing and sketching is the isometric

Figure 5-15. Orthographic views are laid out on a flat drawing as they would appear if the sides of a box enclosing the
object were opened out.

Figure 5-16. In an auxiliary view, a drawing is made at some

angle other than 90 degrees from an object's face.

Aircraft Drawings

Figure 5-17. The most common type of isometric drawing is

the cube. When drawing an isometric drawing, the angles
formed by the three sides of an object are equal.

drawing. An isometric drawing is a projection of a

three-dimensional object on a flat plane. With this
type of drawing an object is rotated so three sides
are visible. In other words, to make an isometric
drawing, an object is rotated so that three views are
visible and touching the drawing plane. When
doing this, you must ensure that the edges all form
the same angle to the drawing plane. [Figure 5-17]
In an isometric drawing all distances are the same
length as the actual sides. This makes an isometric
drawing fairly easy since no changes are made to
any dimensions. Since an isometric drawing allows
you to visualize a part, most pictorial drawings are
illustrated in this way.
OBLIQUE DRAWINGS
An oblique drawing is an isometric drawing with one
object face parallel to the drawing plane. In other
words, two axes are perpendicular to each other,
with the front of the object identical to the front view
of an orthographic drawing. The depth axis of the
oblique drawing is typically any convenient angle
and most often about 30 degrees. [Figure 5-18]
There are two special types of oblique drawings.
They are the cabinet drawing, and the cavalier
drawing. A cabinet drawing gets its name from
drawings used for cabinet work. In these drawings,
the oblique side is at a 45 degree angle to the front
side and is 1/2 the scale. This allows for an accurate

5-11

Figure 5-18 An oblique drawing is similar to an isometric

drawing in that three sides of the object are visible.
However, one of the object faces is parallel to the draw ing plane.

and undistorted front view. The remainder of the

drawing is present only to illustrate depth.
Cavalier drawings use the same scale for the front
view as the oblique side lines. However, the oblique
sides are still set at a 45 degree angle to the front
view. This creates a distorted picture of an object's
true proportions. These drawings are primarily used
when detailing is required on the oblique side.
PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS
A perspective drawing is used when you need to see
an object similar to the way the human eye sees it.
The basic difference between a perspective drawing
and an oblique or isometric drawing is that on a perspective drawing the lines, or rays of an object meet
at a distant point on the horizon. This point is
referred to as the vanishing point. Perspective drawings are not generally used in aircraft drawings.
[Figure 5-19]

Figure 5-19. In perspective drawings the rays that project from the drawing intersect at a vanishing point on
the horizon.

DRAWING PRACTICES
Before you can properly interpret drawings, you
must first become familiar with the types of lines
used to illustrate various concepts. Different line
widths, arrowheads, and alternating breaks in
lines all identify specific things. Once you understand the various aspects of aircraft drawings you
will be ready to begin sketching parts and repairs
on your own.

LINES AND THEIR MEANING

In order to display information contained in a drawing, lines with different appearances are needed.
Lines can be in the form of a solid line, a dashed
line, or a combination of the two. Furthermore, several drawings use three line widths or intensities,
thin, medium, and thick. The following is a list of
line types used on aircraft drawings. [Figure 5-20]

Figure 5-20. Several different types of lines are needed to fully illustrate a part or unit.

Aircraft Drawings

Visible lines on outlines are used to illustrate a visible part. A visible line consists of a medium-weight
solid line and is the most common type of line used
on most drawings.

5-13

Hidden lines indicate invisible edges or contours.

Hidden lines consists of a dashed line of mediumweight.

Short break lines are used across small dimensions

to show that a part continues. Break lines are
medium weight lines that are often drawn freehand.
Long break lines are used across a large part and
consist of a light line with a series of irregular
breaks or zigzags. Long break lines usually extend
beyond the solid lines indicating the edges of the
part.

Center lines are made up of alternating long and

short dashes and are used to show the middle of a
symmetrical part. In the case of a hole, the exact
center is marked by the intersection of two short
dashes.

Leader lines are light lines with arrowheads that

extend from a note, number, or information box to a
part. To minimize confusion, leader lines should
never cross a dimension line, an extension line, or
another leader line.

Extension lines are light lines that extend from the

point where a measurement is made. These lines do
not actually touch the visible lines of an object, but
are approximately 1/16 inch from a part's edge.

Section lines are used to show differences in types

of materials or exposed surfaces. Although various
materials can be illustrated by different section
lines, if the materials used are listed in the bill of
materials, the symbol for cast iron is frequently used
to represent all metals. [Figure 5-21]

Dimension lines are light lines that are broken in the

center so a dimension can be inserted. Typically,
dimension lines have an arrowhead placed at each
end and touch an extension line. This shows the
exact location from which the dimension is made.
All dimensions are placed so that they read from left
to right.
The dimension of an angle is indicated by placing
the degree of the angle in its arc. Circular part
dimensions are always given in terms of the circle
diameter and are usually marked with the letter "D"
or the abbreviation "DIA." The dimension of an arc
is given in terms of its radius and is marked with the
letter R following the dimension. Parallel dimensions are placed so that the longest dimension is farthest from the outline and the shortest dimension is
closest to the object outline. On a drawing showing
several views, dimensions are placed on each view
to show all details.
Cutting-plane lines consist of medium or heavy
alternating long dashes and two short dashes with
an arrowhead at each end. A cutting-plane line is
used to indicate the plane in which a sectional view
of an object is taken. The arrowheads show the
direction in which the view is seen and have letters
to identify the section shown.
Phantom lines are light lines made of alternating
long dashes and two short dashes. These lines indicate the presence of another part and are included
for reference or to indicate a part's alternate position. For example, a movable part is illustrated by
solid lines in one position, and by phantom lines for
its alternate position.

Figure 5-21. Section lines are used to show different types

of materials and exposed surfaces.

5-74

Aircraft
Drawings

Figure 5-22. For ease of reading, single-stroke Gothic letters

are used on most aircraft drawings.

The most important consideration for an aircraft

drawing is that it accurately portrays information.
Therefore, lettering is often used to help identify
some items. For legibility and speed, all lettering is
done freehand, using single-stroke Gothic uppercase letters. [Figure 5-22]
When it comes to placing letters on a diagram it is
common practice to draw very light guidelines and
to space letters so there is approximately the same
distance between them for uniformity. Appearance
is what makes the lettering attractive and easy to
read. Words should be separated by the amount of
space required for the letter "I" with space on each
side of it. Fractions are always made with a horizontal division line and numbers should be twothirds as high as whole numbers.

DIMENSIONING

Figure 5 -23. The allowance of a part is indicated with typical dimensioning practices.

Another way to calculate the tolerance is to subtract

the allowance figures. Using the previous example
with an allowance of +.0005 and -.0005, the difference between these two figures is .0010 inches.
In aircraft drawings, any dimension given as a common fraction normally assumes a dimensional tolerance of plus or minus 1/64 inch. If a dimension is
given with one decimal, such as 2.5 inches, the tolerance is plus or minus 0.1 inch. If the dimension
appears as 2.50 inches, the tolerance is plus or
minus .04 inch. More precise measurements are
made using three decimal places, such as 2.500,
which denotes a tolerance of plus or minus 0.010
inch. If still more exact measurement is needed, the
dimensions may specify the limits as:
2.500 + .0005 - .0000

In order for a drawing to be meaningful it must

show the shape of a part as well as accurately give
all needed dimensions. Dimensions that appear on
a drawing represent the perfect size, and are called
basic, or nominal dimensions.

This dimension requires that the part be no larger

than a half-thousandth inch over the base dimension and that it be no smaller than the given
dimension.

ALLOWANCE AND TOLERANCE

PLACEMENT OF DIMENSIONS

Parts that have a maximum and minimum allowable

size are still considered acceptable if their size falls
within the range given. The difference between the
nominal dimension and the upper or lower limit is
called the allowance. It represents the tightest permissible fit for proper construction and operation of
mating parts. For example, if a dimension is
depicted as .3125 15.0005, the allowable
dimensions are between .3120 and .3130 inches.
[Figure 5-23]

Most aircraft drawings are dimensioned using a

reference edge from which all dimensions are
made. Holes are typically located with reference
to one corner of a part. This makes finding the
center of each hole easier to locate, with no
cumulative errors. Cumulative errors exist if one
hole is measured from the center of the adjacent
hole. [Figure 5-24]

Tolerance is the difference between the extreme permissible dimensions. For example, given the
dimension .281 15.0005, the extreme permissible
dimensions are .2805 and .2815. The difference
between these two extremes is .0010 inches.
Therefore, the tolerance is .0010 inches.

There are two ways of placing dimensions on a

drawing. One way is to write all dimensions perpendicular to the dimension lines. When this is
done, the numbers are parallel to the right edge of
the drawing for vertical dimension lines and at various angles across the drawing for parts that have
angled surfaces. The second and more conventional

Aircraft Drawings

5-75
method is to write all dimensions parallel to the bottom of the drawing. [Figure 5-25]

AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION
DRAWINGS
As stated earlier, every aircraft factory has its own
drawing room. Likewise, most drawing rooms have
a manual that lists the standards used by the company when making drawings. The information
given in this text is typical and, while it may differ
from some company manuals, it applies to most of
them.

Figure 5-24. Notice that the holes are drilled with reference
to the end of the part and not the center of an adjacent
hole. This helps to minimize cumulative errors.

TITLE BLOCK
A title block is generally printed in the lower righthand corner of every aircraft drawing. It contains
the information necessary to manufacture the illustrated part. If special or additional information is
needed, it is typically listed to the left of the title
block. [Figure 5-26]
TITLE BOX

The part name is put in the box labled "title". In

most cases the subject is listed first. For example, a
drawing of an autopilot servo bracket, would be
titled "Bracket, Autopilot Servo."
SIZE

Figure 5-25. All dimensions on an aircraft drawing are typically made parallel to the bottom of the drawing.

Letters are typically used to specify the size of a

drawing. An A-size drawing is 8 1/2 x 11 inches, a
B-size is 11 x 17 inches, a C-size is 17 x 22 inches,
and a D-size drawing is 22 x 34 inches. Larger drawings are made on paper 36 to 42 inches wide and are
specified as R-size drawings.

Figure 5-26. The title block of an aircraft drawing contains important information about the drawing such as the unit name, size,
drawing number, scale, and page.

5-16

Aircraft
Drawings

DRAWING NUMBER

A drawing number or part number is assigned to

each drawing. The part carries this number throughout its entire life. If an aircraft has a left-hand and a
right-hand part, they typically have the same part
number. However, the left-hand part number is followed by a -1, while the right-hand part number is
followed by a -2.
SCALE

The scale indicates the size of a drawing and is

noted with comments such as FULL, HALF, or 1
INCH = 1 FOOT. If the drawing is essentially fullscale, typically there are some details that are
drawn to another scale. The notation indicating
this is "FULL EXCEPT AS NOTED," with a note
placed next to each detail that is not drawn to fullscale. If the drawing does not include any parts
that are drawn to scale, the word "NONE" is used
in this blank.
PAGE

When drawings are assembled into a book, as with

electrical wiring diagrams, this space on the title
block is used for the page number of the book.

Figure 5-27. Most aircraft drawings have a revision block in

the upper right-hand corner. Prior to making a part you
should check the revision block to verify you have the latest revision.

part is used on and the part number of the next

assembly. Also indicated is the quantity of parts
needed for both the next assembly and the final
assembly.
REVISION BLOCK
In the upper right-hand corner of a drawing is a
block where revisions are recorded. For example, if
revision A is issued by the engineering department
the letter A is indicated in this space along with
the description of the revision, the date the revision was released, and the initials of the person
approving the revision. You should always check
to make sure you have the most current revision.
[Figure 5-27]

RESPONSIBILITY

The columns to the left of the title are available for

the initials of the people responsible for all aspects
of the part. This includes the person who designed
the part, the group that approved the design, the
person who made the drawing, the person who
checked the drawing, and the person who released
the drawing.
STANDARDS

In the column entitled "UNLESS OTHERWISE

SPECIFIED," are the standards of manufacturing tolerances used by the design company. Here, the manufacturer specifies the linear and angular dimensional tolerances along with a note specifying the
standard for surface roughness.
BILL OF MATERIAL

Just above the title block and extending upward as

needed, is a list of every material needed to manufacture the part. The quantity required, part number,
description, size, and specification number for
these materials are all indicated.
APPLICATION

The block marked "APPLICATION" indicates where

the part is used. It shows the model of aircraft the

NOTES
Notes are added to a drawing to identify a deviation
from the norm, give additional information, list
alternatives, call attention to an item, or specify
modifications to an original design. Notes are
related to the drawing or other related drawings.
Notes are typically found in a block or placed in a
location that does not interfere with the drawing.
ZONES
Aircraft drawings are usually 36 to 42 inches wide
and are several feet long. Since these drawings are
so large, it is often difficult to find detailed views
without a system of location. Therefore, a system
similar to the grid on a map is used. The grid is
made by marking the edges of the drawing every 12
inches both vertically and horizontally. The vertical
marks are identified by letters, with A being the bottom 12 inches, B the next 12 inches, and so on. The
horizontal marks are identified by numbers beginning with 1 on the extreme right side. The combination of a vertical and horizontal coordinate identifies a zone. For example, if a revision is noted as a
dimension change in zone C-7, you should know
that this change is made somewhere in the section
three feet up from the bottom and seven feet from
the right edge. [Figure 5-28]

Aircraft Drawings

5-17

frames and bulkheads are identified by fuselage station numbers.

Vertical locations are identified with water lines.
Like station numbers, water lines are measured
from a zero reference. However, in this case the zero
reference is called water line zero. For example, if
the floor of the main cabin must be installed at
water line -16, the floor is 16 inches below water
line zero.
Figure 5-28. Details on a large drawing are easy to locate
through the use of zone numbers and letters.

LOCATION IDENTIFICATION ON AIRCRAFT

The location of a part on an aircraft is typically
specified by fuselage station numbers, water lines,
and buttock lines.
Fuselage station numbers identify locations fore
and aft along the fuselage. All station numbers are
measured from a reference called station zero. This
reference, often called the datum, is typically on the
fuselage or ahead of it. For example, if the datum is
six inches ahead of the fuselage nose and the center
line of the main spar is 137 inches from the datum,
its fuselage station number is 137. All fuselage

Distances to the right or left of the fuselage centerline are measured by buttock lines and are referenced from an aircraft's longitudinal centerline. For
example, if the tip of a horizontal surface is located
at buttock line 108.88, it means that it is 108.88
inches from the fuselage centerline.
Wing stations are measured from the centerline of
the fuselage, or buttock line zero. They indicate the
distance in inches along the wing toward the wing
tip. For example, if the right edge of the aileron is at
wing station 123, the right edge of the aileron is
located 123 inches from the aircraft's longitudinal
centerline. [Figure 5-29]

Figure 5-29. Fuselage station numbers are used to locate items along the fuselage. Water lines locate positions vertically on the
fuselage. Buttock lines locate points to the right or left of the fuselage centerline. Wing stations are measurements along the span
of the wing, with wing station zero the centerline of the fuselage.

5-18

BASIC SKETCHING
As an aircraft maintenance technician you are not
required to have the skills of a professional draftsman. However, you must be able to graphically
express yourself well enough to describe a repair
and make a simple sketch of a part. When making a
sketch, a simple one will do as long as it contains
the information needed to make the part or repair.

Aircraft Dra wings

Angles are easily estimated on square-ruled paper

by making triangles. For example, a 45 degree angle
is formed by a triangle having two sides of equal
length. [Figure 5-30]
A circle is easily sketched by marking a center point
and then making four marks on the horizontal and
vertical lines equal distances from the center.

The most common means of illustrating something

is with a sketch. Most sketches made for aircraft
maintenance are either orthographic or isometric.
When sketching an orthographic three-view drawing, look at the part and make a sketch showing the
shape of the object from the front, side, and top.
Once this is done, place extension lines and dimensions where needed.
The competency level required to make a sketch is
easy to attain if you follow four basic steps.
1. Determine what views are necessary to portray
the object then block in the views using light
construction lines.
2. Complete the details, and darken the object out
line.
3. Sketch extension and dimension lines, and add
detail.
4. Complete the drawing by adding dimensions,
notes, a title, and a date.
By their very nature, sketches are made without the
use of drafting instruments. For this reason, sketching on graph paper typically makes the layout
process easier. Another way to simplify the sketching process is to break an object down into individual shapes.
REPAIR SKETCHES
When a major repair is made to a certificated aircraft, an FAA Form 337 must be completed that
describes the repair with enough detail for the FAA
to approve it. Part of this description includes drawing a sketch that shows the location of the repair,
the materials used, and enough detail so that the
repair could be duplicated if necessary.
BASIC SHAPES
Almost all objects are comprised of one or a combination of six basic shapes. These include the triangle, circle, cube, cylinder, cone, and sphere. If you
master these shapes you should be able to acceptably sketch most parts.

Figure 5-30. A 45 degree angle is formed by a triangle having two sides of equal length. A 30 degree angle and a 60
degree angle are formed when the base of a triangle is five
units long and the height is three units high. A 15 degree
angle is approximated by making the base one and a half
units and the height five units.

Aircraft Drawings

5-19

Between each of these marks, make four more marks

that are the same distance from the center. Now,
lightly sketch a curved line through all eight points.
A cube is drawn by first laying out a vertical center
line. This is followed by drawing the edges of the
two top sides so they extend out at equal angles and
distances from the top of the vertical line. Complete
the top of the cube with lines parallel to the edges
just drawn. Next, form the outer edges by drawing
vertical lines that are parallel with the center line,
and draw in the bottom edges parallel to the top
edges. To make a cube look more like a solid object,
shade the side so it appears as though light were
striking it. [Figure 5-31]

Figure 5-32. A cylinder, cone, and sphere all take a threedimensional look when shading is applied correctly.

APPLIED GEOMETRY

In addition to knowing how to sketch individual

shapes, it is also helpful if you know how to apply
simple geometry in the drawing process. For example, to find the center of a line, use a compass that
is open to a distance longer than halfway across the
line and draw two arcs that intersect the line at a 90
degree angle. Next, connect the intersection of the
two arcs with a straight line. This line, known as the
perpendicular bisector, divides the first line into
two equal parts. [Figure 5-33]
Figure 5-31. The steps for drawing a cube are simple when
broken down into a step-by-step process.

To draw a cylinder begin by sketching the top of a

cube and then draw an ellipse that touches the center of each side. Next, draw parallel sides that go
straight down. Finish the cylinder by drawing half
an ellipse to form the cylinder bottom. Finally,
shade the sides of the cylinder with a series of arcs
so it looks as though it were three-dimensional
rather than flat.
A cone is made in much the same way as the cylinder with the sides tapering up to a point. Again,
shading gives it the appearance of being threedimensional.
A sphere is simply a circle with shading in the
lower quarter. [Figure 5-32]
Figure 5-33. By drawing arcs ArA2 and BrB2 and connecting
their intersections, the center of line A-B is located.

5-20

Aircraft
Drawings

Figure 5-35. Drawing a line through a point that is perpendicular to a baseline requires you to draw 2 sets of arcs,

mark is one-fifth the distance between A and B.

[Figure 5-36]
Figure 5-34. To find the center of a circle, draw two chord
lines, and their corresponding perpendicular bisectors.

To find the center of a circle begin by drawing two

chord lines across the circle. Next, draw perpendicular bisectors for each of the chord lines. If necessary, extend each of the perpendicular bisectors
until they intersect. The point at which the perpendicular bisectors cross is the center of the circle.
[Figure 5-34]
Another thing geometry allows you to do is draw a
line perpendicular to another line through a specific
point. To do this, refer to figure 5-35. Begin by opening a compass to a distance that is greater than the
space from line A-B to point C. Using C as the center, draw arcs 1 and 2 on line A-B. Using the same
compass setting, put the point of the compass where
line 1 intersects line A-B and make an arc l a-lb on the
opposite side of point C. Now, draw a second arc
using the same setting on the compass and the intersection of line A-B and arc 2. The line that joins the
intersection of these arcs with point C is perpendicular to line A-B and passes through point C. [Figure
5-35]
Often, you are given a line of odd length that needs
to be divided into an equal number of parts. For
example, if you have a line of odd length, such as
that in figure 5-36, you can divide it into five equal
parts by drawing a second line that is five inches or
greater in length, and diagonal from and touching
the end of the first line. Now, draw a line from the
five-inch mark on line A-C to point B on line A-B.
Lines are then drawn parallel to this line through
each of the one-inch marks on line A-C. Where these
lines cross line A-B, they form division marks. Each

In addition to allowing you to divide lines, geometry is used to divide or bisect angles. To do this,
refer to figure 5-37. Begin by using A as the center
and draw a set of arcs at a convenient compass distance. Make arc 1 in line A-C and arc 2 on line A-B.
Now using the same setting on the compass and
point 1 as the center, make an arc that is between
line A-C and A-B. Continue by drawing another arc
with point 2 as the center that crosses the first arc.
Finally, draw a line from the intersection of the two
arcs to point A. This line bisects angle A-B-C.
[Figure 5-37]

Figure 5-36. Dividing a line into an equal number of parts

requires a line of even length that is drawn diagonally from
the original line.

Figure 5-37. To draw line A-D, draw arcs 1 and 2, then arc
1a-b and 2a-b. The line drawn from the intersection of arcs
3 and 4 to point A is the bisecting line.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Graphs and charts are pictorial representations of
data. They enable you to quickly visualize certain
relationships, complete complex calculations, and
predict trends. Furthermore, charts allow you to see
the rate and magnitude of changes.
Information is presented graphically in many different forms. Graphs are often found in the form of bargraphs, pictographs, broken-line graphs, continuous-curve graphs, and the circular graph or pie
chart. [Figure 5-38]

NOMOGRAMS
The need to show how two or more variables affect
a value is common in the maintenance industry.
Nomograms are a special type of graph that enable
you to solve complex problems involving more than
one variable.
Most nomogram charts contain a great deal of information and require the use of scales on three sides
of the chart, as well as diagonal lines. In fact, some
charts contain so much information that it is very

Figure 5-38. Bar graphs, pictographs, broken-line graphs, continuous curved-line graphs, and pie charts are all ways of graphically
representing numerous calculations.

5-22

Aircraft
Drawings

Figure 5-39. To begin, locate the column on the left side of the chart representing a 28 volt system (item 1). Move down in this
column until you find the horizontal line representing a wire length of 25 feet (item 2). Follow this line to the right until it inter sects the diagonal line for 125 amps (item 3). Because the wire is in a bundle and carries a continuous current, you must be at or
above curve 1 on the chart (item 4). Follow along the diagonal line representing 125 amps until it intersects curve 1 (item 5). From
this point, drop down vertically to the bottom of the chart. The line falls between wire sizes 1 and 1/0 (item 6). Whenever the chart
indicates a wire size between two sizes, you must select the larger wire. In this case, a 1/0, or single aught wire is required.

important for you to carefully read the instructions

before using the chart. On the other hand, some
charts are simple to use.
ELECTRIC WIRE CHART
An example of a nomogram chart that is used extensively in the maintenance industry is the electric
wire chart. This chart is made up of vertical lines
that represent the American Wire Gauge (AWG)
wire sizes. Horizontal lines represent the length of
wire in feet that produces an allowable voltage drop

for each electrical system listed. Drawn diagonally

across the chart is a series of parallel lines representing current flow. A common use for this chart is
to find the wire size required to carry a given
amount of current without exceeding the allowable
voltage drop.
For example, determine the minimum size wire of a
single cable in a bundle carrying 125 amps 25 feet in
a 28-volt system. [Figure 5-39]
Notice that the three curves extend diagonally
across the chart from the lower left corner to the

Aircraft Drawings

right side of the chart. These curves represent the

ability of a wire to carry the current without overheating. Curve one represents the continuous rating
of a wire when routed in bundles or conduit. If the
intersection of the current and wire length lines are
above this curve, the wire can carry the current
without generating excessive heat.
If the intersection of the current and wire length lines
falls between curve one and two, the wire can only be
used to carry current continuously in free air. If the
intersection falls between curves two and three, the
wire can only be used to carry current intermittently.

5-23
BRAKE-IH1ORSEPOWER CHARTS

Another common type of graph you will encounter

as a technician is the performance chart. One common performance chart is the brake-horsepower
chart. These charts represent many hours of calculation by engineers but are presented so that you can
quickly determine if the performance being
observed is acceptable. For this sample chart,
assume you have an engine that has a 2,000 cubicinch displacement and develops 1,500 brake-horsepower at 2,400 rpm. [Figure 5-40]

Figure 5-40. To calculate the brake mean effective pressure, BMEP, begin by locating 1,500 brake-horsepower on the top of the
chart. From this value, drop down vertically until you reach the line representing 2,000 cubic inches of displacement. From this
intersection, extend a line horizontally to the right until you intercept the line representing 2,400 rpm. Now, drop down vertically
to read the brake mean effective pressure on the bottom line of the chart. The brake mean effective pressure is approximately 248.

Aircraft
Drawings

5-24

FUEL CONSUMPTION CHARTS

The fuel consumption chart is another type of performance chart that you must be familiar with. For
this sample chart, assume that you are trying to
determine how much fuel an engine consumes
when it is operating at a cruise of 2,400 rpm.
[Figure 5-41]

Figure 5-41. To determine fuel consumption for an engine

operating at 2,400 rpm, you must first determine the specific fuel consumption. To do this, locate 2,400 rpm on the
bottom of the chart and follow the line up until it intersects
the propeller load specific fuel consumption curve. From
this intersection, extend a line to the right side of the chart
and read a specific fuel consumption of .47 LB/BHP/HR.
Now, go back to the bottom of the chart and locate 2,400
rpm again. From this point move up to the propeller load
horsepower curve. From this intersection, extend a line to
the left side of the chart and read the brake horsepower of
127 hp. To determine the fuel burn, multiply the specific fuel
consumption by the brake horsepower. The engine burns
59.69 pounds per hour (.47 x 127 = 59.69).

ENG

|NE

This chart represents the relationship between

engine horsepower and altitude. For this sample
chart, assume you are doing an engine run-up at an
altitude of 7,000 feet. [Figure 5-42]
There are many other ways of presenting information with graphs. Pie or circular charts can show the
percentage of an item to the whole. Graphs show the
relationship of two or more variables.

Figure 5-42. To determine the percent of sea level horsepower developed at an altitude of 7,000 feet, begin by finding the point on the horizontal axis that represents the
desired altitude. From this point, move upward until you
intersect the horsepower curve. Then move horizontally
left to the chart's vertical axis and read the percent of sealevel horsepower available.